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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3
+       "Gordon, Lord George" to "Grasses"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 11, 2011 [EBook #37984]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE: "... musical composer of the 16th
+      century, was born about 1510." 'musical' amended from 'muscial'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO: "Finding it convenient to
+      retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own
+      cost ..." 'it' amended from 'in'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRAMMAR: "...Fritz Mauthner, Beiträge zu einer Kritik der
+      Sprache vol. iii. (1902) ..." 'zu' amended from 'zur'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGÉNOR ALFRED: "So far, then, as this
+      declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsibility
+      must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues ..."
+      'responsibility' amended from 'responsiblity'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRAND ISLAND: "The most important industry of the county is
+      the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle." 'meat' amended
+      from 'neat'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRANTH: "There are thirty-one such measures in the Adi
+      Granth, and the hymns are arranged according to the measures to
+      which they are composed." 'measures' amended from 'neasures'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XII, SLICE III
+
+      Gordon, Lord George to Grasses
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GORDON, LORD GEORGE                GOZZOLI, BENOZZO
+  GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON            GRAAFF REINET
+  GORDON, LEON                       GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH
+  GORDON, PATRICK                    GRABE, JOHN ERNEST
+  GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE    GRACCHUS
+  GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES      GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT
+  GORE, CHARLES                      GRACE
+  GORE                               GRACES, THE
+  GOREE                              GRACIÁN Y MORALES, BALTASAR
+  GORGE                              GRACKLE
+  GÖRGEI, ARTHUR                     GRADISCA
+  GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO             GRADO
+  GORGET                             GRADUAL
+  GORGIAS                            GRADUATE
+  GORGON, GORGONS                    GRADUATION
+  GORGONZOLA                         GRADUS
+  GORI                               GRAETZ, HEINRICH
+  GORILLA                            GRAEVIUS, JOHANN GEORG
+  GORINCHEM                          GRAF, ARTURO
+  GORING, GEORGE GORING              GRAF, KARL HEINRICH
+  GORKI, MAXIM                       GRÄFE, ALBRECHT VON
+  GÖRLITZ                            GRAFE, HEINRICH
+  GÖRRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON          GRÄFE, KARL FERDINAND VON
+  GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH             GRAFFITO
+  GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON              GRAFLY, CHARLES
+  GORTON, SAMUEL                     GRÄFRATH
+  GORTON                             GRAFT
+  GORTYNA                            GRAFTON, DUKES OF
+  GÖRTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON          GRAFTON, RICHARD
+  GÖRZ                               GRAFTON (New South Wales)
+  GÖRZ AND GRADISCA                  GRAFTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)
+  GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN    GRAFTON (West Virginia, U.S.A.)
+  GOS-HAWK                           GRAHAM, SIR GERALD
+  GOSHEN (Egypt)                     GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE
+  GOSHEN (Indiana, U.S.A.)           GRAHAM, SYLVESTER
+  GOSLAR                             GRAHAM, THOMAS
+  GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC               GRAHAME, JAMES
+  GOSLIN                             GRAHAM'S DYKE
+  GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW               GRAHAM'S TOWN
+  GOSPATRIC                          GRAIL, THE HOLY
+  GOSPEL                             GRAIN
+  GOSPORT                            GRAINS OF PARADISE
+  GOSS, SIR JOHN                     GRAIN TRADE
+  GOSSAMER                           GRAM
+  GOSSE, EDMUND                      GRAMMAR
+  GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY                GRAMMICHELE
+  GOSSEC, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH            GRAMMONT
+  GOSSIP                             GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGÉNOR ALFRED
+  GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA      GRAMONT, PHILIBERT
+  GOSSON, STEPHEN                    GRAMOPHONE
+  GOT, FRANÇOIS JULES EDMOND         GRAMPIANS, THE
+  GÖTA                               GRAMPOUND
+  GOTARZES                           GRAMPUS
+  GOTHA                              GRANADA, LUIS DE
+  GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF                GRANADA (Nicaragua)
+  GOTHENBURG                         GRANADA (province of Spain)
+  GOTHIC                             GRANADA (town of Spain)
+  GÖTHITE                            GRANADILLA
+  GOTHS                              GRANARIES
+  GOTLAND                            GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS
+  GOTO ISLANDS                       GRAN CHACO
+  GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM          GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE
+  GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG           GRAND CANARY
+  GÖTTINGEN                          GRAND CANYON
+  GÖTTLING, CARL WILHELM             GRAND-DUKE
+  GOTTSCHALK                         GRANDEE
+  GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON             GRAND FORKS (Canada)
+  GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH        GRAND FORKS (North Dakota, U.S.A.)
+  GÖTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS              GRAND HAVEN
+  GOUACHE                            GRANDIER, URBAN
+  GOUDA                              GRAND ISLAND
+  GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE                   GRANDMONTINES
+  GOUFFIER                           GRAND RAPIDS
+  GOUGE, MARTIN                      GRAND RAPIDS
+  GOUGE                              GRANDSON
+  GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH                  GRANET, FRANÇOIS MARIUS
+  GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW            GRANGE
+  GOUGH, RICHARD                     GRANGEMOUTH
+  GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE              GRANGER, JAMES
+  GOUJON, JEAN                       GRANITE
+  GOUJON, JEAN MARIE ALEXANDRE       GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA
+  GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK           GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
+  GOULBURN, HENRY                    GRANT, ANNE
+  GOULBURN                           GRANT, CHARLES
+  GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON            GRANT, SIR FRANCIS
+  GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP            GRANT, GEORGE MONRO
+  GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS      GRANT, JAMES
+  GOULD, JAY                         GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS
+  GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS           GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE
+  GOURD                              GRANT, SIR PATRICK
+  GOURGAUD, GASPAR                   GRANT, ROBERT
+  GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH       GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON
+  GOURMET                            GRANT
+  GOUROCK                            GRANTH
+  GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD            GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON
+  GOUT                               GRANTHAM
+  GOUTHIÈRE, PIERRE                  GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON
+  GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT         GRANTOWN
+  GOVAN                              GRANULITE
+  GOVERNMENT                         GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT
+  GOVERNOR                           GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE LEVESON-GOWER
+  GOW, NIEL                          GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET
+  GOWER, JOHN                        GRANVILLE (Australia)
+  GOWER                              GRANVILLE (France)
+  GOWN                               GRANVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+  GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN               GRAPE
+  GOWRIE                             GRAPHICAL METHODS
+  GOYA                               GRAPHITE
+  GOYANNA                            GRAPTOLITES
+  GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO        GRASLITZ
+  GOYÁZ                              GRASMERE
+  GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN         GRASS AND GRASSLAND
+  GOZLAN, LÉON                       GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL
+  GOZO                               GRASSE
+  GOZZI, CARLO                       GRASSES
+  GOZZI, GASPARO
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), third and youngest son of Cosmo George,
+duke of Gordon, was born in London on the 26th of December 1751. After
+completing his education at Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to
+the rank of lieutenant in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of
+the admiralty, would not promise him the command of a ship, and he
+resigned his commission shortly before the beginning of the American
+War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought for him by
+General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-shire, in order to
+bribe him not to contest the county. He was considered flighty, and was
+not looked upon as being of any importance. In 1779 he organized, and
+made himself head of the Protestant associations, formed to secure the
+repeal of the Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 he
+headed the mob which marched in procession from St George's Fields to
+the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster petition
+against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a terrific riot
+ensued, which continued several days, during which the city was
+virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they dispersed after
+threatening to make a forcible entry into the House of Commons, but
+reassembled soon afterwards and destroyed several Roman Catholic
+chapels, pillaged the private dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set
+fire to Newgate and broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank
+of England and several other public buildings, and continued the work of
+violence and conflagration until the interference of the military, by
+whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded before the riots
+were quelled. For his share in instigating the riots Lord Gordon was
+apprehended on a charge of high treason; but, mainly through the skilful
+and eloquent defence of Erskine, he was acquitted on the ground that he
+had no treasonable intentions. His life was henceforth full of
+crack-brained schemes, political and financial. In 1786 he was
+excommunicated by the archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear
+witness in an ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of
+libelling the queen of France, the French ambassador and the
+administration of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to
+withdraw from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland;
+but on account of representations from the court of Versailles he was
+commanded to quit that country, and, returning to England, was
+apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced to five years'
+imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his ease, giving dinners and
+dances. As he could not obtain securities for his good behaviour on the
+termination of his term of imprisonment, he was not allowed to leave
+Newgate, and there he died of delirious fever on the 1st of November
+1793. Some time before his apprehension he had become a convert to
+Judaism, and had undergone the initiatory rite.
+
+  A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in _The
+  Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his
+  Political Conduct_, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The best
+  accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the _Annual
+  Registers_ from 1780 to the year of his death.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788-1864), Scottish painter, was the eldest
+son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the family of Watson of
+Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He was born in Edinburgh in 1788,
+and was educated specially with a view to his joining the Royal
+Engineers. He entered as a student in the government school of design,
+under the management of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for
+art quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow him
+to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself a skilful
+draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, afterwards president of the
+Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait painter, second only to Sir
+Henry Raeburn, who also was a friend of the family. In the year 1808
+John sent to the exhibition of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject
+from the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_, and continued for some years to
+exhibit fancy subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they
+were altogether without the force and character which stamped his
+portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of Sir Henry
+Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice. He assumed in
+1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest of his famous sitters was
+Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first portrait in 1820. Then came J. G.
+Lockhart in 1821; Professor Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir
+Archibald Alison, 1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey,
+and Sir David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may be
+mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers' Hall, Edinburgh;
+Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings, Linlithgow; Lord
+President Hope, in the Parliament House; and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike
+his later works, are generally rich in colour. The full length of Dr
+Brunton (1844), and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both
+on the staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his
+style, which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both of
+colour and treatment.
+
+During the last twenty years of his life he painted many distinguished
+Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him. And it is significant
+that David Cox, the landscape painter, on being presented with his
+portrait, subscribed for by many friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to
+have it executed by Watson Gordon, although he neither knew the painter
+personally nor had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits
+painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style, are
+De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London; General Sir Thomas
+Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society; the prince of Wales, Lord
+Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford
+and Sir John Shaw Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These
+latter pictures are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or
+no positive colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling
+extremely masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very
+successful in rendering acute observant character. A good example of his
+last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely handled, yet highly
+finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw Lefevre.
+
+John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the Royal Scottish
+Academy, and was elected its president in 1850; he was at the same time
+appointed limner for Scotland to the queen, and received the honour of
+knighthood. Since 1841 he had been an associate of the Royal Academy,
+and in 1851 he was elected a royal academician. He died on the 1st of
+June 1864.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, LEON, originally JUDAH LOEB BEN ASHER (1831-1892),
+Russian-Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at Wilna in 1831 and
+died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took a leading part in the modern
+revival of the Hebrew language and culture. His satires did much to
+rouse the Russian Jews to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon
+was the apostle of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is
+classical and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, _Kol Shire
+Yehudah_ (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in _Kol Kithbe Yehuda_
+(Odessa, 1889).
+
+  For his works see _Jewish Quarterly Review_, xviii. 437 seq.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, PATRICK (1635-1699), Russian general, was descended from a
+Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who possessed the small estate of
+Auchleuchries, and were connected with the house of Haddo. He was born
+in 1635, and after completing his education at the parish schools of
+Cruden and Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at
+Braunsberg, Prussia; but, as "his humour could not endure such a still
+and strict way of living," he soon resolved to return home. He changed
+his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after journeying on foot in
+several parts of Germany, ultimately, in 1655, enlisted at Hamburg in
+the Swedish service. In the course of the next five years he served
+alternately with the Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by
+either. In 1661, after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he
+took service in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was
+sent on a special mission to England. After his return he distinguished
+himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in southern Russia,
+and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was made major-general, in
+1679 was appointed to the chief command at Kiev, and in 1683 was made
+lieutenant-general. He visited England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689
+took part as quartermaster-general in expeditions against the Crim
+Tatars in the Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite
+of the denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he was
+exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow in 1689, Gordon
+with the troops he commanded virtually decided events in favour of the
+tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa Sophia. He was therefore during
+the remainder of his life in high favour with the tsar, who confided to
+him the command of his capital during his absence from Russia, employed
+him in organizing his army according to the European system, and
+latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died on the 29th
+of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him frequently during his
+illness, was with him when he died, and with his own hands closed his
+eyes.
+
+  General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in
+  English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian
+  foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr Maurice
+  Possalt (_Tagebuch des Generals Patrick Gordon_) was published, the
+  first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in 1851,
+  and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and _Passages from the Diary
+  of General Patrick Gordon of Auchleuchries_ (1635-1699), was printed,
+  under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the Spalding Club,
+  Aberdeen, 1859.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE (1820-1866), Scottish traveller and
+sportsman, known as the "lion hunter," was born on the 15th of March
+1820. He was the second son of Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd
+baronet of Altyre and Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he
+was distinguished by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and
+at eighteen joined the East India Co.'s service as a cornet in the
+Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him, after two
+years' experience he retired from the service and returned to Scotland.
+During his stay in the East he had laid the foundation of his collection
+of hunting trophies and specimens of natural history. In 1843 he joined
+the Cape Mounted Rifles, but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out
+at the end of the year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers
+set out for the interior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the
+Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In 1848 he returned
+to England. The story of his remarkable exploits is vividly told in his
+book, _Five Years of a Hunter's Life in the Far Interior of South
+Africa_ (London, 1850, 3rd ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first
+with incredulity by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who
+furnished Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: "I have
+no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming's book conveys a truthful idea
+of South African hunting" (_Missionary Travels_, chap. vii.). His
+collection of hunting trophies was exhibited in London in 1851 at the
+Great Exhibition, and was illustrated by a lecture delivered by
+Gordon-Cumming. The collection, known as "The South Africa Museum," was
+afterwards exhibited in various parts of the country. In 1858
+Gordon-Cumming went to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal,
+where the exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died
+there on the 24th of March 1866.
+
+  An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title of
+  _The Lion Hunter of South Africa_, and in this form was frequently
+  reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (1799-1861), English novelist and
+dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-merchant, was born in
+1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire. In 1823 she was married to
+Captain Charles Gore; and, in the next year, she published her first
+work, _Theresa Marchmont, or the Maid of Honour_. Then followed, among
+others, the _Lettre de Cachet_ (1827), _The Reign of Terror_ (1827),
+_Hungarian Tales_ (1829), _Manners of the Day_ (1830), _Mothers and
+Daughters_ (1831), and _The Fair of May Fair_ (1832), _Mrs Armytage_
+(1836). Every succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen: The
+_Cabinet Minister_ and _The Courtier of the Days of Charles II._, in
+1839; _Preferment_ in 1840. In 1841 _Cecil, or the Adventures of a
+Coxcomb_, attracted considerable attention. _Greville, or a Season in
+Paris_ appeared in the same year; then _Ormington, or Cecil a Peer,
+Fascination, The Ambassador's Wife_; and in 1843 _The Banker's Wife_.
+Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing fertility of invention, till
+her death on the 29th of January 1861. She also wrote some dramas of
+which the most successful was the _School for Coquettes_, produced at
+the Haymarket (1831). She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to
+music Burns's "And ye shall walk in silk attire," one of the most
+popular songs of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved
+by the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best novels
+are _Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb_, and _The Banker's Wife_.
+_Cecil_ gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable life, and
+is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the knowledge of London clubs
+displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to William Beckford, the author of
+_Vathek_. _The Banker's Wife_ is distinguished by some clever studies of
+character, especially in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating
+money-maker, and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton.
+
+Mrs Gore's novels had an immense temporary popularity; they were
+parodied by Thackeray in _Punch_, in his "Lords and Liveries by the
+author of _Dukes and Déjeuners_"; but, tedious as they are to
+present-day readers, they presented on the whole faithful pictures of
+the contemporary life and pursuits of the English upper classes.
+
+
+
+
+GORE, CHARLES (1853-   ), English divine, was born in 1853, the 3rd son
+of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother of the 4th earl of Arran.
+His mother was a daughter of the 4th earl of Bessborough. He was
+educated at Harrow and at Balliol College, Oxford, and was elected
+fellow of Trinity College in 1875. From 1880 to 1883 he was
+vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon, and, when in
+1884 Pusey House was founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey's library
+and a centre for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed
+principal, a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey
+House Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the
+younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this influence
+that the "Oxford Movement" underwent a change which to the survivors of
+the old school of Tractarians seemed to involve a break with its basic
+principles. "Puseyism" had been in the highest degree conservative,
+basing itself on authority and tradition, and repudiating any compromise
+with the modern critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from
+the same basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical
+experience in dealing with the "doubts and difficulties" of the younger
+generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable, and set
+himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority in religion
+with that of scientific authority by attempting to define the boundaries
+of their respective spheres of influence. To him the divine authority of
+the Catholic Church was an axiom, and in 1889 he published two works,
+the larger of which, _The Church and the Ministry_, is a learned
+vindication of the principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate
+against the Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second,
+_Roman Catholic Claims_, is a defence, couched in a more popular form,
+of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the attacks of the
+Romanists.
+
+So far his published views had been in complete consonance with those of
+the older Tractarians. But in 1890 a great stir was created by the
+publication, under his editorship, of _Lux Mundi_, a series of essays by
+different writers, being an attempt "to succour a distressed faith by
+endeavouring to bring the Christian Creed into its right relation to the
+modern growth of knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to
+modern problems of politics and ethics." Mr Gore himself contributed an
+essay on "The Holy Spirit and Inspiration." The book, which ran through
+twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a somewhat mixed
+reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and Tractarian alike, were
+alarmed by views on the incarnate nature of Christ that seemed to them
+to impugn his Divinity, and by concessions to the Higher Criticism in
+the matter of the inspiration of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them
+to convert the "impregnable rock," as Gladstone had called it, into a
+foundation of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly
+impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an artificial line
+beyond which criticism was not to advance. None the less the book
+produced a profound effect, and that far beyond the borders of the
+English Church, and it is largely due to its influence, and to that of
+the school it represents, that the High Church movement developed
+thenceforth on "Modernist" rather than Tractarian lines.
+
+In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures before the
+university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation. In these lectures
+he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of which in _Lux Mundi_ had
+caused so much heart-searching. This is an attempt to explain how it
+came that Christ, though incarnate God, could be in error, e.g. in his
+citations from the Old Testament. The orthodox explanation was based on
+the principle of accommodation (q.v.). This, however, ignored the
+difficulty that if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to
+human limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other
+men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations. This
+difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the [Greek:
+kenôsis]. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into the
+canon theologians had, from various points of view, attempted to explain
+what St Paul meant when he wrote of Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that "he
+emptied himself and took upon him the form of a servant" ([Greek:
+heauton ekenôsen morphên doulou labôn]). According to Mr Gore this means
+that Christ, on his incarnation, became subject to all human
+limitations, and had, so far as his life on earth was concerned,
+stripped himself of all the attributes of the Godhead, including the
+Divine omniscience, the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under
+the human.[1]
+
+_Lux Mundi_ and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of some tension
+which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned his principalship and
+became vicar of Radley, a small parish near Oxford. In 1894 he became
+canon of Westminster. Here he gained commanding influence as a preacher
+and in 1898 was appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he
+succeeded J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was
+installed bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been
+mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views on the
+divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the Christian Church,
+Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly relations with the ministers
+of other denominations, and advocated co-operation with them in all
+matters when agreement was possible. In social questions he became one
+of the leaders of the considerable group of High Churchmen known,
+somewhat loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against
+the sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Macedonia, and
+was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908. In 1892 he founded
+the clerical fraternity known as the Community of the Resurrection. Its
+members are priests, who are bound by the obligation of celibacy, live
+under a common rule and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral,
+evangelistic, literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the
+Resurrection at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the
+community; in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was
+established there, and in the same year a branch house, for missionary
+work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa.
+
+  Dr Gore's works include _The Incarnation_ (Bampton Lectures, 1891),
+  _The Creed of the Christian_ (1895), _The Body of Christ_ (1901), _The
+  New Theology and the Old Religion_ (1908), and expositions of _The
+  Sermon on the Mount_ (1896), _Ephesians_ (1898), and _Romans_ (1899),
+  while in 1910 he published _Orders and Unity_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his _Lehre von der
+    heiligen Liebe_ (1844), _Lehre_ ii. pp. 21 et seq.: "the Son of God
+    veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as
+    child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the
+    world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows it
+    to shine forth in all its glory." See Loofs, Art. "Kenosis" in
+    Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 1901), x. 247.
+
+
+
+
+GORE. (1) (O. Eng. _gor_, dung or filth), a word formerly used in the
+sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has thickened after being
+shed. (2) (O. Eng. _gára_, probably connected with _gare_, an old word
+for "spear"), something of triangular shape, resembling therefore a
+spear-head. The word is used for a tapering strip of land, in the
+"common or open field" system of agriculture, where from the shape of
+the land the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in
+straight divisions. Similarly "gore" is used in the United States,
+especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out in
+surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked. The triangular
+sections of material used in forming the covering of a balloon or an
+umbrella are also called "gores," and in dressmaking the term is used
+for a triangular piece of material inserted in a dress to adjust the
+difference in widths. To gore, i.e. to stab or pierce with any sharp
+instrument, but more particularly used of piercing with the horns of a
+bull, is probably directly connected with _gare_, a spear.
+
+
+
+
+GOREE, an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part of the
+French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the large natural
+harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde. The island, some 900 yds.
+long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant from the nearest point of the
+mainland, is mostly barren rock. The greater part of its surface is
+occupied by a town, formerly a thriving commercial entrepôt and a strong
+military post. Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar
+(q.v.), c. 1860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its
+inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1905 to about 1500. Its
+healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium. The streets
+are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-red stone, are
+flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the governor's residence, the
+hospital and barracks, testify to the former importance of the town.
+Within the castle is an artesian well, the only water-supply, save that
+collected in rain tanks, on the island. Goree was first occupied by the
+Dutch, who took possession of it early in the 17th century and called it
+Goeree or Goedereede, in memory of the island on their own coast now
+united with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, i.e. a belly, in
+allusion to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken in the
+following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally expelled in 1677 by
+the French under Admiral d'Estrées. Goree subsequently fell again into
+the hands of the English, but was definitely occupied by France in 1817
+(see SENEGAL: _History_).
+
+
+
+
+GORGE, strictly the French word for the throat considered externally.
+Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk's crop, and thus, with the
+sense of something greedy or ravenous, to food given to a hawk and to
+the contents of a hawk's crop or stomach. It is from this sense that the
+expression of a person's "gorge rising at" anything in the sense of
+loathing or disgust is derived. "Gorge," from analogy with "throat," is
+used with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley
+between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or bastion;
+and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman Doric column, between
+the echinus and the astragal. From "gorge" also comes a diminutive
+"gorget," a portion of a woman's costume in the middle ages, being a
+close form of wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and
+also that part of the body armour covering the neck and collarbone (see
+GORGET). The word "gorgeous," of splendid or magnificent appearance,
+comes from the O. Fr. _gorgias_, with the same meaning, and has very
+doubtfully been connected with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a
+supposed elaborate kind.
+
+
+
+
+GÖRGEI, ARTHUR (1818-   ), Hungarian soldier, was born at Toporcz, in
+Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January 1818. He came of a Saxon noble
+family who were converts to Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the
+Bodyguard of Hungarian Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military
+service with a course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death
+of his father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the study
+of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the family estates in
+Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary War of 1848, Görgei
+offered his sword to the Hungarian government. Entering the Honvéd army
+with the rank of captain, he was employed in the purchase of arms, and
+soon became major and commandant of the national guards north of the
+Theiss. Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from
+crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the wealthy
+Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his hands, and Görgei
+caused him to be arraigned before a court-martial on a charge of treason
+and immediately hanged. After various successes over the Croatian
+forces, of which the most remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000
+prisoners fell into his hands, Görgei was appointed commander of the
+army of the Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgrätz
+across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the
+remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated upon
+Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue interference with
+his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a proclamation throwing the
+blame for the recent want of success upon the government, thus virtually
+revolting against their authority. Görgei retired to the Hungarian
+Erzgebirge and conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the
+supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski, but the
+latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna, at which action
+Görgei's corps arrived too late to take an effective part, and some time
+after this the command was again conferred upon Görgei. The campaign in
+the spring of 1849 was brilliantly conducted by him, and in a series of
+engagements, he defeated Windischgrätz. In April he won the victories of
+Gödöllö Izaszeg and Nagy Sarló, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle
+at Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking the
+offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps have dictated
+terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was, he contented himself
+with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital, in which he desired to
+re-establish the diet, and after effecting this capture he remained
+inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile, at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth
+had formally proposed the dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and
+Hungary had been proclaimed a republic. Görgei had refused the
+field-marshal's bâton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in
+sympathy with the new régime. However, he accepted the portfolio of
+minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in the field.
+The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and made common cause
+with the Austrians; the allies were advancing into Hungary on all sides,
+and Görgei was defeated by Haynau at Pered (20th-21st of June). Kossuth,
+perceiving the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being
+unwilling himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and
+was succeeded by Görgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard against
+the various columns of the enemy. Görgei, convinced that he could not
+break through the enemy's lines, surrendered, with his army of 20,000
+infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the Russian general Rüdiger at Vilagos.
+Görgei was not court-marshaled, as were his generals, but kept in
+confinement at Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical
+work, until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary. The
+surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared while his
+generals and many of his officers and men were hanged or shot, led,
+perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason by public opinion of
+his countrymen. After his release he played no further part in public
+life. Even in 1885 an attempt which was made by a large number of his
+old comrades to rehabilitate him was not favourably received in Hungary.
+After some years' work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrád,
+where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also HUNGARY: _History_.)
+
+General Görgei wrote a justification of his operations (_Mein Leben und
+Wirken in Ungarn_ 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an anonymous paper under
+the title _Was verdanken wir der Revolution?_ (1875), and a reply to
+Kossuth's charges (signed "Joh. Demár") in _Budapesti Szemle_, 1881,
+25-26. Amongst those who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Görgei
+(_1848 és 1849 böl_, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (_Ein
+offenes Wort in der Sache des Honvéd-Generals Arthur Görgei_,
+Klausenburg, 1867).
+
+  See also A. G. Horn, _Görgei, Oberkommandant d. ung. Armee_ (Leipzig,
+  1850); Kinety, _Görgei's Life and Work in Hungary_ (London, 1853);
+  Szinyei, in _Magyár Irók_ (iii. 1378), Hentaller, _Görgei as a
+  Statesman_ (Hungarian); Elemár, _Görgei in 1848-1849_ (Hungarian,
+  Budapest, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647), English colonial pioneer in
+America and the founder of Maine, was born in Somersetshire, England,
+probably in 1566. From youth both a soldier and a sailor, he was a
+prisoner in Spain at the age of twenty-one, having been captured by a
+ship of the Spanish Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of
+troops fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing
+himself at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596 he was
+commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort at Plymouth and
+captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accompanied Essex on the
+expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted him in the attempt to
+suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland, and in 1600 was implicated in
+Essex's own attempt at rebellion in London. In 1603, on the accession of
+James I., he was suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored
+in the same year and continued to serve as "governor of the forts and
+island of Plymouth" until 1629, when, his garrison having been without
+pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin, and all his
+applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned. About 1605 he
+began to be greatly interested in the New World; in 1606 he became a
+member of the Plymouth Company, and he laboured zealously for the
+founding of the Popham colony at the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the
+Kennebec) river in 1607. For several years following the failure of that
+enterprise in 1608 he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading
+and exploring, with colonization as the chief end in view. He was
+largely instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the
+Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps the most
+influential member of that body. He was the recipient, either solely or
+jointly, of several grants of territory from it, for one of which he
+received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine (see MAINE). In 1635 he
+sought to be appointed governor-general of all New England, but the
+English Civil War--in which he espoused the royal cause--prevented him
+from ever actually holding that office. A short time before his death at
+Long Ashton in 1647 he wrote his _Briefe Narration of the Originall
+Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of
+America_. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the feudal
+type of colony.
+
+  See J. P. Baxter (ed.), _Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of
+  Maine_ (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications),
+  the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other volumes
+  contain a reprint of the _Briefe Narration_, Gorges's letters, and
+  other documentary material.
+
+
+
+
+GORGET (O. Fr. _gorgete_, dim. of _gorge_, throat), the name applied
+after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour. It was
+generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and attached
+either to the body armour or to the armet. It was worn in the 16th and
+17th centuries with the half-armour, with the plain cuirass, and even
+occasionally without any body armour at all. During these times it
+gradually became a distinctive badge for officers, and as such it
+survived in several armies--in the form of a small metal plate affixed
+to the front of the collar of the uniform coat--until after the
+Napoleonic wars. In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort
+is the distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer's
+gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or tabs
+worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches of the
+midshipmen in the Royal Navy.
+
+
+
+
+GORGIAS (c. 483-375 B.C.), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was a native
+of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his fellow-citizens at the
+head of an embassy to ask Athenian protection against the aggression of
+the Syracusans. He subsequently settled in Athens, and supported himself
+by the practice of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa
+in Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that he
+transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the diffusion of the
+Attic dialect as the language of literary prose. He was the author of a
+lost work _On Nature or the Non-existent_ ([Greek: Peri tou mê ontos ê
+peri physeôs], fragments edited by M. C. Valeton, 1876), the substance
+of which may be gathered from the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also
+from the treatise (ascribed to Theophrastus) _De Melisso, Xenophane,
+Gorgia_. Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue
+_Gorgias_. The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (_The Encomium of
+Helen_ and _The Defence of Palamedes_, edited with Antiphon by F. Blass
+in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down under his name, is
+disputed.
+
+  For his philosophical opinions see SOPHISTS and SCEPTICISM. See also
+  Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, Eng. trans. vol. i. bk. iii. chap. vii.;
+  Jebb's _Attic Orators_, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, _Die
+  attische Beredsamkeit_, i. (1887); and article RHETORIC.
+
+
+
+
+GORGON, GORGONS (Gr. [Greek: Gorgô], [Greek: Gorgones], the "terrible,"
+or, according to some, the "loud-roaring"), a figure or figures in Greek
+mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose head is represented in
+the _Iliad_ (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of the aegis of Zeus. In the
+_Odyssey_ (xi. 633) she is a monster of the under-world. Hesiod
+increases the number of Gorgons to three--Stheno (the mighty), Euryale
+(the far-springer) and Medusa (the queen), and makes them the daughters
+of the sea-god Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side
+of the western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod,
+_Theog._ 274; Herodotus ii. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic tradition,
+reproduced in Euripides (_Ion_ 1002), regarded the Gorgon as a monster,
+produced by Gaea to aid her sons the giants against the gods and slain
+by Athena (the passage is a _locus classicus_ on the aegis of Athena).
+
+The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having the form of
+young women; their hair consists of snakes; they are round-faced,
+flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large projecting teeth.
+Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen claws and the tusks of boars.
+Medusa was the only one of the three who was mortal; hence Perseus was
+able to kill her by cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted
+from her neck sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The
+head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked upon it,
+was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield; according to another
+account, Perseus buried it in the market-place of Argos. The hideously
+grotesque original type of the Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was
+called, was placed on the walls of cities, and on shields and
+breastplates to terrify an enemy (cf. the hideous faces on Chinese
+soldiers' shields), and used generally as an amulet, a protection
+against the evil eye. Heracles is said to have obtained a lock of
+Medusa's hair (which possessed the same powers as the head) from Athena
+and given it to Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for
+the town of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to
+Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a storm,
+which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (_Golden Bough_, i. 378) gives
+examples of the superstition that cut hair caused storms. According to
+the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful maiden, whose hair had been
+changed into snakes by Athena, the head was represented in works of art
+with a wonderfully handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death.
+The Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this conception.
+Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by later ancient writers.
+According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55) they were female warriors living
+near Lake Tritonis in Libya, whose queen was Medusa; according to
+Alexander of Myndus, quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible
+wild animals whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
+vi. 36 [31]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were covered
+with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky hair and girdle.
+Modern authorities have explained them as the personification of the
+waves of the sea or of the barren, unproductive coast of Libya; or as
+the awful darkness of the storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is
+scattered by the sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of
+anthropologists that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is
+derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults.
+
+  See Jane E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_
+  (1903); W. H. Roscher, _Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes_ (1879); J. Six,
+  _De Gorgone_ (1885), on the types of the Gorgon's head; articles by
+  Roscher and Furtwängler in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, by G.
+  Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, and by
+  R. Gädechens in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopädie_; N. G.
+  Polites ([Greek: Ho peri tôn Gorgonôn mythos para tô Hellênikô laô],
+  1878) gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various
+  superstitions connected with them, from the modern Greek point of
+  view, which regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea.
+
+
+
+
+GORGONZOLA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from
+which it is 11 m. E.N.E. by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the
+centre of the district in which is produced the well-known Gorgonzola
+cheese.
+
+
+
+
+GORI, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Tiflis and
+49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river Kura; altitude,
+2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding country is very
+picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and a school for Russian
+and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated for its silk and cotton
+stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed the best in Georgia, and the
+wine is also esteemed. The climate is excellent, delightfully cool in
+summer, owing to the refreshing breezes from the mountains, though these
+are, however, at times disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123)
+by the Georgian king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who
+fled their country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the
+fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-1658, but
+destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century. There is a church
+constructed in the 17th century by Capuchin missionaries from Rome. Five
+miles east of Gori is the remarkable rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe,
+which was a fortress in the time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and
+an inhabited city in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III.
+(980-1014).
+
+
+
+
+GORILLA (or PONGO), the largest of the man-like apes, and a native of
+West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence it extends eastwards
+across the continent to German East Africa. Many naturalists regard the
+gorilla as best included in the same genus as the chimpanzee, in which
+case it should be known as _Anthropopithecus gorilla_, but by others it
+is regarded as the representative of a genus by itself, when its title
+will be _Gorilla savagei_, or _G. gorilla_. That there are local forms
+of gorilla is quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to
+rank as distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long
+supposed that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of
+Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the opinion of
+some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable that the creatures
+in question were really baboons. The first real account of the gorilla
+appears to be the one given by an English sailor, Andrew Battel, who
+spent some time in the wilds of West Africa during and about the year
+1590; his account being presented in Purchas's _Pilgrimage_, published
+in the year 1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with
+both the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms engeco
+and the latter pongo--names which ought apparently to be adopted for
+these two species in place of those now in use. Between Battel's time
+and 1846 nothing appears to have been heard of the gorilla or pongo, but
+in that year a missionary at the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull
+of the huge ape; and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with
+two others, came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name
+_Gorilla savagei_ was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas
+Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information with regard
+to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed the name
+_Troglodytes gorilla_ in 1847. The first complete skeleton of a gorilla
+sent to Europe was received at the museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin appears to have reached
+the British Museum in 1858. Paul B. du Chaillu's account (1861) of his
+journeys in the Gabun region popularized the knowledge of the existence
+of the gorilla. Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and
+attain a height of from 5½ ft. to 6½ ft., or perhaps even more. Some of
+the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere gorilla-like
+chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article PRIMATES. Among them
+are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of a deep groove
+alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb, and the great
+length of the arm, which reaches half-way down the shin-bone (tibia) in
+the erect posture. In old males the eyes are overhung by a beetling
+penthouse of bone, the hinder half of the middle line of the skull bears
+a wall-like bony ridge for the attachment of the powerful jaw-muscles,
+and the tusks, or canines, are of monstrous size, recalling those of a
+carnivorous animal. The general colour is blackish, with a more or less
+marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders, and
+sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._, 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths of the
+forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood of human
+settlements when they are attracted by some special fruit or succulent
+plant; the favourite being the fruit of the "mejom," a tall cane-like
+plant (perhaps a kind of _Amomum_) which grows abundantly on deserted
+clearings. At one isolated village the natives, who were unarmed,
+reported that they not unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which
+broke down the stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to
+tear out and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another
+village Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the
+fresh tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded fruit
+rinds of the "mejoms," as well as the broken stalks of the latter, which
+had been used for beds. On another occasion he came across the bed of an
+old gorilla which had been used only the night before, as was proved by
+a negro woman, who on the previous evening had heard the animal breaking
+and treading down the stalks to form its couch. According to native
+report, the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient
+thickness to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting
+posture, with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first
+case Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence of
+three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account does not
+by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfels, in which it is
+stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a sitting posture at
+the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being made of a bed), the female
+and young ones pass the night in a nest in the tree several yards above
+the ground, made by bending the boughs together and covering them with
+twigs and moss. Mr Bates's account, as being based on actual inspection
+of the beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and
+snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at the
+slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard making his
+bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas killed by natives
+are believed by Mr Bates to have been encountered suddenly in the
+daytime on the ground or in low trees in the outlying clearings. Many
+natives, even if armed, refuse, however, to molest an adult male
+gorilla, on account of its ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr
+Winwood Reade, refused to credit du Chaillu's account of his having
+killed gorillas, and stated that the only instance he knew of one of
+these animals being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr
+Walter Rothschild's museum at Tring) shot by the German trader Paschen
+in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account was published in
+1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that two European traders,
+apparently in the "'eighties" of the 19th century, were in the habit of
+surrounding and capturing these animals as occasion offered.[1] Fully
+adult gorillas have never been seen alive in captivity--and perhaps
+never will be, as the creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So
+long ago as the year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only
+by its skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal,
+a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some months in
+Wombwell's travelling menagerie, where it was treated as a pet. On its
+death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton, of Walton Hall, by whom
+the skin was mounted in a grotesque manner, and the skeleton given to
+the Leeds museum. Apparently, however, it was not till several years
+later that the skin was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a
+gorilla; the animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a
+chimpanzee. A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society in
+October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals. At the
+time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old, and stood
+2½ ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather older, was acquired
+in March 1896, having been brought to Liverpool from the French Congo.
+It is described as having been thoroughly healthy at the date of its
+arrival, and of an amiable and tractable disposition. Neither survived
+long. Two others were received in the Zoological Society's menagerie in
+1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the following
+year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein's gorilla,
+exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name of pongo, and
+afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for eighteen months.
+"Pussi," the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological Gardens, holds a record
+for longevity, with over seven years of menagerie life. Writing in 1903
+Mr W. T. Hornaday stated that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny
+infant, had ever landed in the United States; and it lived only five
+days after arrival.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer
+    shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of
+    the Congo.
+
+
+
+
+GORINCHEM, or GORCUM, a fortified town of Holland in the province of
+south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede at the confluence of the
+Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht. It is connected by the Zederik and
+Merwede canals with Amsterdam, and steamers ply hence in every
+direction. Pop. (1900) 11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting
+old houses, and overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the
+17th century. The principal buildings are the old church of St Vincent,
+containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the town hall, a prison,
+custom-house, barracks and a military hospital. The charitable and
+benevolent institutions are numerous, and there are also a library and
+several learned associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and
+besides working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in
+grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery being
+noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town on the left bank
+of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old buildings, which are
+decorated with mosaics.
+
+
+
+
+GORING, GEORGE GORING, LORD (1608-1657), English Royalist soldier, son
+of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born on the 14th of July 1608. He
+soon became famous at court for his prodigality and dissolute manners.
+His father-in-law, Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post
+in the Dutch army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed by
+a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England early in
+1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He served in the Scottish
+war, and already had a considerable reputation when he was concerned in
+the "Army Plot." Officers of the army stationed at York proposed to
+petition the king and parliament for the maintenance of the royal
+authority. A second party was in favour of more violent measures, and
+Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, proposed to
+march the army on London and overawe the parliament during Strafford's
+trial. This proposition being rejected by his fellow officers, he
+betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy Blount, earl of Newport, who passed
+on the information indirectly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was
+thereupon called on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended
+him for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his comrades
+induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary leaders, who sent
+him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless he declared for the
+king in August. He surrendered Portsmouth to the parliament in September
+1642 and went to Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to
+England in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of
+Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds in March
+1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield on the capture of
+the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected an exchange. At Marston
+Moor he commanded the Royalist left, and charged with great success,
+but, allowing his troopers to disperse in search of plunder, was routed
+by Cromwell at the close of the battle. In November 1644, on his
+father's elevation to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The
+parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the creation of
+the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as Lord Goring and the
+son as General Goring. In August he had been dispatched by Prince
+Rupert, who recognized his ability, to join Charles in the south, and in
+spite of his dissolute and insubordinate character he was appointed to
+supersede Henry, Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse
+(see GREAT REBELLION). He secured some successes in the west, and in
+January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied Farnham; but want
+of money compelled him to retreat to Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The
+excesses committed by his troops seriously injured the Royalist cause,
+and his exactions made his name hated throughout the west. He had
+himself prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next month
+he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, to send
+reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of Taunton, he
+obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in the month he was
+summoned with his troops to the relief of the king at Oxford. Lord
+Goring had long been intriguing for an independent command, and he now
+secured from the king what was practically supreme authority in the
+west. It was alleged by the earl of Newport that he was willing to
+transfer his allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely
+that he meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and
+occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still engaged in
+desultory operations against Taunton when the main campaign of 1645
+opened. For the part taken by Goring's army in the operations of the
+Naseby campaign see GREAT REBELLION. After the decisive defeat of the
+king, the army of Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a
+disastrous fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further
+serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his time in
+frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained leave to quit his
+disorganized forces and retire to France on the ground of health. His
+father's services secured him the command of some English regiments in
+the Spanish service. He died at Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon
+gives him a very unpleasing character, declaring that "Goring ... would,
+without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of treachery
+to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and in truth wanted
+nothing but industry (for he had wit, and courage, and understanding and
+ambition, uncontrolled by any fear of God or man) to have been as
+eminent and successful in the highest attempt of wickedness as any man
+in the age he lived in or before. Of all his qualifications
+dissimulation was his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that
+men were not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being
+deceived but twice by him."
+
+  See the life by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of National Biography_;
+  Dugdale's _Baronage_, where there are some doubtful stories of his
+  life in Spain; the _Clarendon State Papers_; Clarendon's _History of
+  the Great Rebellion_; and S. R. Gardiner's _History of the Great Civil
+  War_.
+
+
+
+
+GORKI, MAXIM (1868-   ), the pen-name of the Russian novelist Alexei
+Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-Novgorod on the 26th of
+March 1868. His father was a dyer, but he lost both his parents in
+childhood, and in his ninth year was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We
+find him afterwards in a variety of callings, but devouring books of all
+sorts greedily, whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the
+boot-shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook on board
+a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth year he tried to
+enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake himself again to his
+drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked about _kvas_, and helped the
+barefooted tramps and labourers at the docks. From these he drew some of
+his most striking pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life
+generally with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery
+he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a barrister
+at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of his fortunes, as he
+found a sympathetic master who helped him. He also became acquainted
+with the novelist Korolenko, who assisted him in his literary efforts.
+His first story was _Makar Chudra_, which was published in the journal
+_Kavkaz_. He contributed to many periodicals and finally attracted
+attention by his tale called _Chelkash_, which appeared in _Russkoe
+Bogatsvo_ ("Russian wealth"). This was followed by a series of tales in
+which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the _bosniaki_, or
+tramps. He has sometimes described other classes of society, tradesmen
+and the educated classes, but not with equal success. There are some
+vigorous pictures, however, of the trading class in his _Foma Gordeyev_.
+But his favourite type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society,
+and him he describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies
+with him. We get such a type completely in _Konovalov_. Gorki is always
+preaching that we must have ideals--something better than everyday life,
+and this view is brought out in his play _At the Lowest Depths_, which
+had great success at Moscow, but was coldly received at St Petersburg.
+
+  For a good criticism of Gorki see _Ideas and Realities in Russian
+  Literature_, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been
+  translated into English.
+
+
+
+
+GÖRLITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the
+left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden on the railway to
+Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin, Zittau and Halle. Pop.
+(1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The Neisse at this point is crossed by a
+railway bridge 1650 ft. long and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Görlitz
+is one of the handsomest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000
+acres, which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest
+towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and fine gardens,
+and although its old walls and towers have now been demolished, many of
+its ancient buildings remain to form a picturesque contrast with the
+signs of modern industry. From the hill called Landskrone, about 1500
+ft. high, an extensive prospect is obtained of the surrounding country.
+The principal buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St
+Paul, dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous
+organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about the end of
+the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and choir in pierced
+work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868, with handsome choir stalls
+and a carved altar dating from 1383; and the Roman Catholic church,
+founded in 1853, in the Roman style of architecture, with beautiful
+glass windows and oil-paintings. The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a
+very valuable library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps.
+There is also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other
+buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used as a
+guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in the Gothic style
+erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the Kaiser Friedrich museum, the
+house of the estates of the province (Ständehaus), two theatres and the
+barracks. Near the town is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is
+a model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century.
+In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to Alexander
+von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob Böhme (1575-1624); a
+monument has been erected in the town in commemoration of the war of
+1870-71, and also one to the emperor William I. and a statue of Prince
+Frederick Charles. In connexion with the natural history society there
+is a valuable museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large
+library and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of
+_virtu_. Görlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing
+commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground for
+the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides cloth, which forms
+its staple article of commerce, it has manufactories of various linen
+and woollen wares, machines, railway wagons, glass, sago, tobacco,
+leather, chemicals and tiles.
+
+Görlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at the
+beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was then known
+as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruction by fire in 1131
+it received the name of Zgorzelice. About the end of the 12th century it
+was strongly fortified, and for a short time it was the capital of a
+duchy of Görlitz. It was several times besieged and taken during the
+Thirty Years' War, and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years'
+War. In the battle which took place near it between the Austrians and
+Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, the
+general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the town, with the
+greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the possession of Prussia.
+
+  See Neumann, _Geschichte von Görlitz_ (1850).
+
+
+
+
+GÖRRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German writer, was born on the
+25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His father was a man of moderate
+means, who sent his son to a Latin college under the direction of the
+Roman Catholic clergy. The sympathies of the young Görres were from the
+first strongly with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and
+irreligion of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his
+hatred of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted on
+the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to one
+another. He then commenced a republican journal called _Das rote Blatt_,
+and afterwards _Rübezahl_, in which he strongly condemned the
+administration of the Rhenish provinces by France.
+
+After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope that the
+Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent republic. In
+1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of which Görres was a member, to
+Paris to put their case before the directory. The embassy reached Paris
+on the 20th of November 1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed
+the supreme direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was
+received by him; but the only answer they obtained was "that they might
+rely on perfect justice, and that the French government would never lose
+sight of their wants." Görres on his return published a tract called
+_Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris_, in which he reviewed the history
+of the French Revolution. During the thirteen years of Napoleon's
+dominion Görres lived a retired life, devoting himself chiefly to art or
+science. In 1801 he married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years
+teacher at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to
+Heidelberg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member of
+the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with K. Brentano and
+L. von Arnim the famous _Zeitung für Einsiedler_ (subsequently re-named
+_Tröst-Einsamkeit_), and in 1807 he published _Die teutschen
+Volksbücher_. He returned to Coblenz in 1808, and again found occupation
+as a teacher in a secondary school, supported by civic funds. He now
+studied Persian, and in two years published a _Mythengeschichte der
+asiatischen Welt_, which was followed ten years later by _Das
+Heldenbuch von Iran_, a translation of part of the _Shahnama_, the epic
+of Firdousi. In 1813 he actively took up the cause of national
+independence, and in the following year founded _Der rheinische Merkur_.
+The intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its
+hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it almost
+instantly a position and influence unique in the history of German
+newspapers. Napoleon himself called it _la cinquième puissance_. The
+ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with a representative
+government, but under an emperor after the fashion of other days,--for
+Görres now abandoned his early advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon
+was at Elba, Görres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the
+people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many
+Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor. He
+inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815), declaring
+that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded back from France.
+
+Stein was glad enough to use the _Merkur_ at the time of the meeting of
+the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expression to his hopes.
+But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Görres to remember that he was not
+to arouse hostility against France, but only against Bonaparte. There
+was also in the _Merkur_ an antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression
+of the desire that an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title,
+and also a tendency to pronounced liberalism--all of which made it most
+distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick William III.
+Görres disregarded warnings sent to him by the censorship and continued
+the paper in all its fierceness. Accordingly it was suppressed early in
+1816, at the instance of the Prussian government; and soon after Görres
+was dismissed from his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his
+writings were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent
+political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed Kotzebue's
+assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad were framed, and
+these were the subject of Görres's celebrated pamphlet _Teutschland und
+die Revolution_ (1820). In this work he reviewed the circumstances which
+had led to the murder of Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible
+horror at the deed itself, he urged that it was impossible and
+undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by
+reactionary measures. The success of the work was very marked, despite
+its ponderous style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and
+orders were issued for the arrest of Görres and the seizure of his
+papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzerland. Two
+more political tracts, _Europa und die Revolution_ (1821) and _In Sachen
+der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit_ (1822), also deserve
+mention.
+
+In Görres's pamphlet _Die heilige Allianz und die Völker auf dem
+Kongress zu Verona_ he asserted that the princes had met together to
+crush the liberties of the people, and that the people must look
+elsewhere for help. The "elsewhere" was to Rome; and from this time
+Görres became a vehement Ultramontane writer. He was summoned to Munich
+by King Ludwig of Bavaria as Professor of History in the university, and
+there his writing enjoyed very great popularity. His _Christliche
+Mystik_ (1836-1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together
+with an exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated
+ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion was the deposition
+and imprisonment by the Prussian government of the archbishop Clement
+Wenceslaus, in consequence of the refusal of that prelate to sanction in
+certain instances the marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics.
+Görres in his _Athanasius_ (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the
+church, although the liberals of later date who have claimed Görres as
+one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute
+supremacy of Rome. _Athanasius_ went through several editions, and
+originated a long and bitter controversy. In the _Historisch-politische
+Blätter_, a Munich journal, Görres and his son Guido (1805-1852)
+continually upheld the claims of the church. Görres received from the
+king the order of merit for his services. He died on the 29th of January
+1848.
+
+  Görres's _Gesammelte Schriften_ (only his political writings) appeared
+  in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of _Gesammelte
+  Briefe_ were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland, _Joseph
+  von Görres_ (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, _Görres und seine
+  Zeitgenossen_ (1877), and by the same author, _Görres_, in the series
+  _Geisteshelden_ (1896). A _Görres-Gesellschaft_ was founded in 1876.
+
+
+
+
+GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1752-1793), French publicist and politician, was
+born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th of March 1752, the son of a
+shoemaker. He established himself as a private tutor in Paris, and
+presently set up a school for the army at Versailles, which was attended
+by commoners as well as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short
+time in the Bicêtre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his
+pupils, his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These
+circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical sentiment. At
+the opening of the states-general he began to publish the _Courrier de
+Versailles à Paris et de Paris à Versailles_, in which appeared on the
+4th of October 1789 the account of the banquet of the royal bodyguard.
+Gorsas is said to have himself read it in public at the Palais Royal,
+and to have headed one of the columns that marched on Versailles. He
+then changed the name of his paper to the _Courrier des
+quatre-vingt-trois départements_, continuing his incendiary propaganda,
+which had no small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June
+and August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in his paper
+that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national conspiracy and that
+the people exercised a just vengeance on the guilty. On the 10th of
+September 1792 he was elected to the Convention for the department of
+Seine-et-Oise, and on the 10th of January 1793 was elected one of its
+secretaries. He sat at first with the Mountain, but having been long
+associated with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists
+became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI. he
+dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the Mountain,
+and he voted for the king's detention during the war and subsequent
+banishment. A violent attack on Marat in the _Courrier_ led to an armed
+raid on his printing establishment on the 9th of March 1793. The place
+was sacked, but Gorsas escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts
+being reported to the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas,
+and a resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding
+representatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd of June
+he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under arrest with other
+members of his party. He escaped to Normandy to join Buzot, and after
+the defeat of the Girondists at Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in
+Brittany. He was imprudent enough to return to Paris in the autumn,
+where he was arrested on the 6th of October and guillotined the next
+day.
+
+  See the _Moniteur_, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793);
+  M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de l'hist. de Paris_, 10,291 seq. (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835-   ). English statesman, was born at Preston
+in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes
+on succeeding to the family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler
+from St John's College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a
+fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his father's
+illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where he married in
+1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at that time set up a king of
+their own in the Waikato district and Gorst, who had made friends with
+the chief Tamihana (William Thomson), acted as an intermediary between
+the Maoris and the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of
+schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil commissioner in
+Upper Waikato. Tamihana's influence secured his safety in the Maori
+outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a volume of recollections, under
+the title of _New Zealand Revisited: Recollections of the Days of my
+Youth_. He then returned to England and was called to the bar at the
+Inner Temple in 1865, becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for
+Hastings in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered
+parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed to secure
+re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the Conservative defeat of
+that year he was entrusted by Disraeli with the reorganization of the
+party machinery, and in five years of hard work he paved the way for the
+Conservative success at the general election of 1874. At a bye-election
+in 1875 he re-entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he
+continued to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff,
+Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the "Fourth Party," and
+he became solicitor-general in the administration of 1885-1886 and was
+knighted. On the formation of the second Salisbury administration (1886)
+he became under-secretary for India and in 1891 financial secretary to
+the Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member for
+Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of committees in the House
+of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the formation of the third
+Salisbury administration in 1895 he became vice-president of the
+committee of the council on education (until 1902). Sir John Gorst
+adhered to the principles of Tory democracy which he had advocated in
+the days of the fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active
+interest in the housing of the poor, the education and care of their
+children, and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in
+the press. But he was always exceedingly "independent" in his political
+action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain's proposals for tariff reform, and
+lost his seat at Cambridge at the general election of 1906 to a tariff
+reformer. He then withdrew from the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose
+League, of which he had been one of the founders, on the ground that it
+no longer represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he
+contested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.
+
+His elder son, SIR J. ELDON GORST (b. 1861), was financial adviser to
+the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when he became assistant
+under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1907 he succeeded Lord
+Cromer as British agent and consul-general in Egypt.
+
+  An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph Churchill
+  will be found in the _Fourth Party_ (1906), by his younger son, Harold
+  E. Gorst.
+
+
+
+
+GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and founder of the
+American sect of Gortonites, was born about 1600 at Gorton, Lancashire.
+He was first apprenticed to a clothier in London, but, fearing
+persecution for his religious convictions, he sailed for Boston,
+Massachusetts, in 1636. Constantly involved in religious disputes, he
+fled in turn to Plymouth, and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport),
+where he was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates.
+In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at Shawomet--now
+Warwick--where he was joined by a number of his followers; but he
+quarrelled with the Indians and the authorities at Boston sent soldiers
+to arrest Gorton and six of his companions. He served a term of
+imprisonment for heresy at Charlestown, after which he was ejected from
+the colony. In England in 1646 he published the curious tract
+"Simplicities Defence against Seven Headed Policy" (reprinted in 1835),
+giving an account of his grievances against the Massachusetts
+government. In 1648 he returned to New England with a letter of
+protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining his former companions
+at Shawomet, which he named Warwick, in honour of the earl, he remained
+there till his death at the end of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the
+founder of a small sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the
+end of the 18th century. They had a great contempt for the regular
+clergy and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true
+believers partook of the perfection of God.
+
+  Among his quaint writings are: _An Incorruptible Key composed of the
+  CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures_ (1647),
+  and _Saltmarsh returned from the Dead_, with its sequel, _An Antidote
+  against the Common Plague of the World_ (1657). See L. G. Jones,
+  _Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties_ (Providence,
+  1896).
+
+
+
+
+GORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb of Manchester. Pop.
+(1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufacturing district, having cotton
+mills and iron, engineering and chemical works.
+
+
+
+
+GORTYNA, or GORTYN, an important ancient city on the southern side of
+the island of Crete. It stood on the banks of the small river Lethaeus
+(Mitropolipotamo), about three hours distant from the sea, with which it
+communicated by means of its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had
+temples of Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the
+famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars; and not
+far from this was another spring, overhung by an evergreen plane tree
+which in popular belief marked the scene of the amours of Zeus and
+Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus, the largest and most powerful city
+of Crete. The two cities combined to subdue the rest of the island; but
+when they had gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and
+the history of both towns is from this time little more than a record of
+their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history of Greece.
+Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis of the island. Extensive
+ruins may still be seen at the modern village of Hagii Deka, and here
+was discovered the great inscription containing chapters of its ancient
+laws. Though partly ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very
+interesting monument of early Christian architecture, dating from about
+the 4th century.
+
+  See also CRETE, and for a full account of the laws see GREEK LAW.
+
+
+
+
+GÖRTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, BARON VON SCHLITZ (1668-1719), Holstein
+statesman, was educated at Jena. He entered the Holstein-Gottorp
+service, and after the death of the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles
+XII.'s sister, became very influential during the minority of her son
+Duke Charles Frederick. His earlier policy aimed at strengthening
+Holstein-Gottorp at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during
+Charles XII.'s stay at Altranstädt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the
+king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, when the
+Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the Elbe, Görtz rendered him
+as much assistance as was compatible with not openly breaking with
+Denmark, even going so far as to surrender the fortress of Tönning to
+the Swedes. Görtz next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against
+Sweden by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose of
+isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies against
+her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained relations
+between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, however, on the
+refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his German domains by ceding
+Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous plan of procuring the Swedish
+crown for Duke Charles Frederick also came to nought. Görtz first
+suggested the marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna
+Anne of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with that
+object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at Stralsund, Görtz
+was the first to visit him, and emerged from his presence chief minister
+or "grand-vizier" as the Swedes preferred to call the bold and crafty
+satrap, whose absolute devotion to the Swedish king took no account of
+the intense wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Görtz, himself a man of
+uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the heroic element
+in Charles's nature and was determined, if possible, to save him from
+his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary influence to the fact that
+he was the only one of Charles's advisers who believed, or pretended to
+believe, that Sweden was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a
+sufficient reserve of power to give support to an energetic
+diplomacy--Charles's own opinion, in fact. Görtz's position, however,
+was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein minister at
+Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden except a Swedish
+subject--finance minister, plenipotentiary to foreign powers, factotum,
+and responsible to the king alone, though he had not a line of
+instructions. But he was just the man for a hero in extremities, and his
+whole course of procedure was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief
+financial expedient was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by
+issuing copper tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of
+his that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market too
+enormous an amount of this copper money for Görtz to deal with. By the
+end of 1718 it seemed as if Görtz's system could not go on much longer,
+and the hatred of the Swedes towards him was so intense and universal
+that they blamed him for Charles XII.'s tyranny as well as for his own.
+Görtz hoped, however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden's
+numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means of fresh
+combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great power. It must be
+admitted that, in pursuance of his "system," Görtz displayed a genius
+for diplomacy which would have done honour to a Metternich or a
+Talleyrand. He desired peace with Russia first of all, and at the
+congress of Åland even obtained relatively favourable terms, only to
+have them rejected by his obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously,
+Görtz was negotiating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in
+England; but all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of
+cards on the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish
+nation instantly fell upon Görtz. After a trial before a special
+commission which was a parody of justice--the accused was not permitted
+to have any legal assistance or the use of writing materials--he was
+condemned to decapitation and promptly executed. Perhaps Görtz deserved
+his fate for "unnecessarily making himself the tool of an unheard-of
+despotism," but his death was certainly a judicial murder, and some
+historians even regard him as a political martyr.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _Charles XII._ (London, 1895), and _Scandinavia_,
+  chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, _Freherre Georg Heinrich
+  von Görtz_ (Stockholm, 1868).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GÖRZ (Ital. _Gorizia_; Slovene, _Gorica_), the capital of the Austrian
+crownland of Görz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop
+(1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians, the remainder mostly Slovenes and
+Germans. It is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in
+a fertile valley, 35 m. N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an
+archbishop and possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th
+century and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the
+17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates the town,
+is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the counts of Görz, now
+partly used as barracks. Owing to the mildness of its climate Görz has
+become a favourite winter-resort, and has received the name of the Nice
+of Austria. Its mean annual temperature is 55° F.; while the mean winter
+temperature is 38.7° F. It is adorned with several pretty gardens with a
+luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N. of the town is
+situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza, in whose chapel lie
+the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836), the last Bourbon king, of
+the duke of Angoulême (d. 1844), his son, and of the duke of Chambord
+(d. 1883). Seven miles to the north of Görz is the Monte Santo (2275
+ft.), a much-frequented place on which stands a pilgrimage church. The
+industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar refining, brewing, the
+manufacture of leather and the making of rosoglio. There is also a
+considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables, early fruit and wine.
+Görz is mentioned for the first time at the beginning of the 11th
+century, and received its charter as a town in 1307. During the middle
+ages the greater part of its population was German.
+
+
+
+
+GÖRZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by
+Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory and the Adriatic, W. by
+Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line,
+though extending for 25 m., does not present any harbour of importance.
+It is fringed by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most
+part of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries
+Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only one
+accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides, except
+towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian lowland, it is
+surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths of its area is occupied
+by mountains and hills. From the Julian Alps, which traverse the
+province in the north, the country descends in successive terraces
+towards the sea, and may roughly be divided into the upper highlands,
+the lower highlands, the hilly district and the lowlands. The principal
+peaks in the Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart
+(8784 ft.), the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386
+ft.), and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or Terglou
+(9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil Pass (3811 ft.),
+through which passes the principal road from Carinthia to the Coastland.
+The southern part of the province belongs to the Karst region, and here
+are situated the famous cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where
+the river Reka begins its subterranean course. The principal river of
+the province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues a
+strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches the
+Adriatic. At Görz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea, and it is
+navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the name of the
+Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, the Wippach and the Torre
+with its tributary the Judrio, which forms for a short distance the
+boundary between Austria and Italy. Of special interest not only in
+itself but for the frequent allusions to it in classical literature is
+the Timavus or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short
+course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears,
+according to the well-known description of Virgil (_Aen._ i. 244) to
+have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths and with much
+noise and commotion, but at present it usually issues from only three
+mouths and flows quiet and still. It is strange enough, however, to see
+the river coming out full formed from the rock, and capable at its very
+source of bearing vessels on its bosom. According to a probable
+hypothesis it is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which
+is lost near Sankt Kanzian.
+
+Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupation of
+the population, and the vine is here planted not only in regular
+vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through the ordinary fields
+and carried up the hills in terraces locally called _ronchi_. The
+rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the lowlands, constitutes
+another great source of revenue, and furnishes the material for the only
+extensive industry of the country. The manufacture of silk is carried on
+at Görz, and in and around the village of Haidenschaft. Görz and
+Gradisca had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to 203
+inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about two-thirds
+were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only about 2200 Germans.
+Almost the whole of the population (99.6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic
+Church. The local diet, of which the archbishop of Görz is a member
+_ex-officio_, is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5
+deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the
+province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous municipality,
+Görz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places are Cormons
+(5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699), Gradisca (3843) and
+Aquileia (2319).
+
+Görz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the 10th
+century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor Otto III. on
+John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the 11th century it became the seat of
+the Eppenstein family, who frequently bore the title of counts of
+Gorizia; and in the beginning of the 12th century the countship passed
+from them to the Lurngau family which continued to exist till the year
+1500, and acquired possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria.
+On the death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to
+the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united with it in
+1754. The province was occupied by the French in 1809, but reverted
+again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district of the administrative
+province of Trieste until 1861, when it became a separate crownland
+under its actual name.
+
+
+
+
+GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN, 1st VISCOUNT (1831-1907), British
+statesman, son of William Henry Göschen, a London merchant of German
+extraction, was born in London on the 10th of August 1831. He was
+educated at Rugby under Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he
+took a first-class in classics. He entered his father's firm of Frühling
+& Göschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became a
+director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life took place
+in 1863, when he was returned without opposition as member for the city
+of London in the Liberal interest, and this was followed by his
+re-election, at the head of the poll, in the general election of 1865.
+In November of the same year he was appointed vice-president of the
+Board of Trade and paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When
+Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr Goschen joined
+the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board, and continued to hold
+that office until March 1871, when he succeeded Mr Childers as first
+lord of the admiralty. In 1874 he was elected lord rector of the
+university of Aberdeen. Being sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the
+British holders of Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the
+conversion of the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the
+Khedive.
+
+In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question prevented him from
+voting uniformly with his party, and he informed his constituents in the
+city that he would not stand again at the forthcoming general election.
+In 1880 he was elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that
+constituency until the general election of 1885, when he was returned
+for the Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension of
+the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone's government in 1880;
+declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted that of special
+ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in settling the Montenegrin
+and Greek frontier questions in 1880 and 1881. He was made an
+ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882, and when Sir Henry Brand was raised
+to the peerage in 1884, the speakership of the House of Commons was
+offered to him, but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 he
+frequently found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as
+regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign policy;
+and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home Rule for Ireland, Mr
+Goschen followed Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and
+became one of the most active of the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and
+eloquent opposition to Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him
+into greater public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his
+seat for Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the
+resignation of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen,
+though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury's invitation to join
+his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer. Being defeated at
+Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven votes, he was elected for St
+George's, Hanover Square, on the 9th of February. His chancellorship of
+the exchequer during the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable
+by his successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National
+Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new 2¾% Consols
+became known as "Goschens," his name will long be connected. Aberdeen
+University again conferred upon him the honour of the lord rectorship in
+1888, and he received a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh
+in 1890. In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again
+took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House of
+Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating power. From
+1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the admiralty, and in that
+office he earned the highest reputation for his business-like grasp of
+detail and his statesmanlike outlook on the naval policy of the country.
+He retired in 1900, and was raised to the peerage by the title of
+Viscount Goschen of Hawkhurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics
+he continued to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr
+Chamberlain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen was
+one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist side. He
+died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in the title by his
+son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Conservative M.P. for East
+Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and married a daughter of the 1st earl of
+Cranbrook.
+
+In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest interest,
+his best known, but by no means his only, contribution to popular
+culture being his participation in the University Extension Movement;
+and his first efforts in parliament were devoted to advocating the
+abolition of religious tests and the admission of Dissenters to the
+universities. His published works indicate how ably he combined the wise
+study of economics with a practical instinct for business-like progress,
+without neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to
+his well-known work on _The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges_, he
+published several financial and political pamphlets and addresses on
+educational and social subjects, among them being that on _Cultivation
+of the Imagination_, Liverpool, 1877, and that on _Intellectual
+Interest_, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote _The Life and Times of Georg
+Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of Leipzig_ (1903). (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GOS-HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the _Astur palumbarius_ of ornithologists,
+and the largest of the short-winged hawks used in falconry. Its English
+name, however, has possibly been transferred to this species from one of
+the long-winged hawks or true falcons, since there is no tradition of
+the gos-hawk, now so called, having ever been used in Europe to take
+geese or other large and powerful birds. The genus _Astur_ may be
+readily distinguished from _Falco_ by the smooth edges of its beak, its
+short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail), and its
+long legs and toes--though these last are stout and comparatively
+shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (_Accipiter_). In plumage the gos-hawk
+has a general resemblance to the peregrine falcon, and it undergoes a
+corresponding change as it advances from youth to maturity--the young
+being longitudinally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely
+barred. The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange,
+while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ greatly in
+size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk, nowadays very rare in
+Britain, was once common in England, and even towards the end of the
+18th century Thornton obtained a nestling in Scotland, while Irish
+gos-hawks were of old highly celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird,
+its disappearance may be safely connected with the disappearance of the
+ancient forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry
+and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity. In many
+parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It ranges eastward to
+China and is much valued in India. In North America it is represented by
+a very nearly allied species, _A. atricapillus_, chiefly distinguished
+by the closer barring of the breast. Three or four examples
+corresponding with this form have been obtained in Britain. A good many
+other species of _Astur_ (some of them passing into _Accipiter_) are
+found in various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be
+mentioned is the _A. novae-hollandiae_ of Australia, which is remarkable
+for its dimorphism--one form possessing the normal dark-coloured plumage
+of the genus and the other being perfectly white, with crimson irides.
+Some writers hold these two forms to be distinct species and call the
+dark-coloured one _A. cinereus_ or _A. raii_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between Jacob's
+immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation is a difficult
+problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic, or at least non-Egyptian
+origin, as in Palestine we meet with a district (Josh. x. 41) and a city
+(_ib._ xv. 51) of the same name. The Septuagint reads [Greek: Gesem
+Arabias] in Gen. xlv. 10, and xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply [Greek: Gesem].
+In xlvi. 28 "Goshen ... the land of Goshen" are translated respectively
+"Heroopolis ... the land of Rameses." This represents a late Jewish
+identification. Ptolemy defines "Arabia" as an Egyptian nome on the
+eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa, corresponding to the
+Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem. It is doubtful whether Phacussa be
+situated at the mounds of Fakus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh,
+which suits Strabo's description of its locality rather better. The
+extent of Goshen, according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10),
+included Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It is
+indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of good pasture,
+on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible vegetables and in
+fish (Numbers xi. 5).     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S. of Chicago, at an altitude of
+about 800 ft. Pop. (1890) 6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910)
+8514. Goshen is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
+and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected by
+electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city has a Carnegie
+library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under Mennonite control),
+chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart, Ind., in 1895, and removed
+to Goshen and opened under its present name in 1903. The college
+includes a collegiate department, an academy, a Bible school, a normal
+school, a summer school and correspondence courses, and schools of
+business, of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students, 73
+of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in a good farming region
+and is an important lumber market. There is a good water-power. Among
+the city's manufactures are wagons and carriages, furniture,
+wooden-ware, veneering, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber
+goods, flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The
+municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting system.
+Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered as a city in
+1868.
+
+
+
+
+GOSLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the Oker, at the north
+foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim and 31 m. S.W. from
+Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817. It is surrounded by walls and is
+of antique appearance. Among the noteworthy buildings are the "Zwinger,"
+a tower with walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque
+style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and
+containing the town archives and a library in which are some of Luther's
+manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing many interesting
+antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the hall of the tailors' gild and
+now an inn) with the statues of eight of the German emperors; and the
+Kaiserhaus, the oldest secular building in Germany, built by the emperor
+Henry III. before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This
+was restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government, and
+was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German history. Other
+buildings of interest are:--the small chapel which is all that remains
+since 1820 of the old and famous cathedral of St Simon and St Jude
+founded by Henry III. about 1040, containing among other relics of the
+cathedral an old altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which
+formerly stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church of the
+former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk, of the 12th
+century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings of considerable
+merit; and the house of the bakers' gild now an hotel, the birthplace of
+Marshal Saxe. There are four Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, several schools, a natural science museum,
+containing a collection of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of
+antiquities and a number of small foundations. The town has equestrian
+statues of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William I.
+The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the sulphur,
+copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood. The town has also
+been long noted for its beer, and possesses some small manufactures and
+a considerable trade in fruit.
+
+Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler about 920,
+and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral treasures in the
+neighbourhood were discovered it increased rapidly in prosperity. It was
+often the meeting-place of German diets, twenty-three of which are said
+to have been held here, and was frequently the residence of the
+emperors. About 1350 it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of
+the 14th century the famous _Goslar statutes_, a code of laws, which was
+adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was unsuccessfully
+besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years' War, but was taken by the
+Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by fire. Further conflagrations in
+1728 and 1780 gave a severe blow to its prosperity. It was a free town
+till 1802, when it came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was
+joined to Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with
+Hanover, re-united to Prussia.
+
+  See T. Erdmann, _Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung in
+  Geschichte, Sage und Bild_ (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, _Geschichte der
+  vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar_ (1842-1843); A.
+  Wolfstieg, _Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar_ (Berlin, 1885); T.
+  Asche, _Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar_ (1892); Neuburg, _Goslars Bergbau
+  bis 1552_ (Hanover, 1892); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar_,
+  edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the _Goslarische Statuten_
+  see the edition published by Göschen (Berlin, 1840).
+
+
+
+
+GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop, better known under
+his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius Goslicius, was born about
+1533. After having studied at Cracow and Padua, he entered the church,
+and was successively appointed bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen.
+Goslicki was an active man of business, was held in high estimation by
+his contemporaries and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It
+was chiefly through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to
+the pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establishing
+their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate of religious
+toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October 1607.
+
+  His principal work is _De Optimo senatore_, &c. (Venice, 1568). There
+  are two English translations published respectively under the titles
+  _A commonwealth of good counsaile_, &c. (1607), and _The Accomplished
+  Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth_ (1733).
+
+
+
+
+GOSLIN, or GAUZLINUS (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender of the
+city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some authorities, the
+son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according to others the natural son
+of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he became a monk, and entered a monastery
+at Reims, later he became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates
+of his time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the
+Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken prisoners (858),
+and he was released only after paying a heavy ransom (_Prudentii
+Trecensis episcopi Annales_, ann. 858). From 855 to 867 he held
+intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly, the office of chancellor
+to Charles the Bald and his successors. In 883 or 884 he was elected
+bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the dangers to which the city was to be
+exposed from the attacks of the Northmen, he planned and directed the
+strengthening of the defences, though he also relied for security on the
+merits of the relics of St Germain and St Geneviève. When the attack
+finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him and to
+Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain l'Auxerrois. The city
+was attacked on the 26th of November, and the struggle for the
+possession of the bridge (now the Pont-au-Change) lasted for two days;
+but Goslin repaired the destruction of the wooden tower overnight, and
+the Normans were obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by
+storm. The siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor
+Charles the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries
+of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or killed by
+a pestilence which raged in the city.
+
+  See Amaury Duval, _L'Évêque Gozlin ou le siège de Paris par les
+  Normands, chronique du IX^e siècle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed.
+  _ib._ 1835).
+
+
+
+
+GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator. Nothing is known of
+his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602, in command of the
+"Concord," chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh and others, he crossed the
+Atlantic; coasted from what is now Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing
+at and naming Cape Cod and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving
+the name Martha's Vineyard to the island now called No Man's Land; and
+returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other
+commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's Bay. In
+London he actively promoted the colonization of the regions he had
+visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir Ferdinando Gorges and other
+influential persons, contributed toward securing the grants of the
+charters to the London and Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he
+was associated with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels
+by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia. As a
+member of the council he took an active share in the affairs of the
+colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to introduce order,
+industry and system among the motley array of adventurers and idle
+"gentlemen" of which the little band was composed. He died from swamp
+fever on the 22nd of August 1607.
+
+  See _The Works of John Smith_ (Arber's Edition, London, 1884); and J.
+  M. Brereton, _Brief and True Relation of the North Part of Virginia_
+  (reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of Gosnold's
+  voyage of 1602.
+
+
+
+
+GOSPATRIC (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to a family which
+had connexions with the royal houses both of Wessex and Scotland. Before
+the Conquest he accompanied Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and
+at that time was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the
+earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but, repenting of
+his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the court of Scotland
+(1068). He joined the Danish army of invasion in the next year; but was
+afterwards able, from his possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms
+with the conqueror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace
+concluded in that year with Scotland left him at William's mercy. He
+lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm seems to
+have provided for him.
+
+  See E. A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877), and the
+  _English Hist. Review_, vol. xix. (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GOSPEL (O. Eng. _godspel_, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. _bona
+annuntiatio_, or _evangelium_, Gr. [Greek: euangelion]; cf. Goth. _iu
+spillon_, "to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek,
+from _iu_, that which is good, and _spellon_ to announce), primarily the
+"glad tidings" announced to the world by Jesus Christ. The word thus
+came to be applied to the whole body of doctrine taught by Christ and
+his disciples, and so to the Christian revelation generally (see
+CHRISTIANITY); by analogy the term "gospel" is also used in other
+connexions as equivalent to "authoritative teaching." In a narrower
+sense each of the records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved
+in the writings of the four "evangelists" is described as a Gospel. The
+many more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted by
+the Christian Church as canonical are known as "apocryphal gospels" (see
+APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). The present article is concerned solely with
+general considerations affecting the four canonical Gospels; see for
+details of each, the articles under MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE and JOHN.
+
+_The Four Gospels._--The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the Gospel that
+He was the Christ. Those to whom this message was first delivered in
+Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and heard Jesus, or had heard much
+about Him. They did not require to be told who He was. But more and more
+as the work of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this
+knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered some
+account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those who had followed
+Him during His life on earth, and all who joined themselves to them,
+must have felt the need of dwelling on His precepts, so that these must
+have been often repeated, and also in all probability from an early time
+grouped together according to their subjects, and so taught. For some
+time, probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life
+of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would be in
+accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers of the Gospel.
+Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expectation of the speedy return
+of Christ that they did not feel called to make provision for the
+instruction of subsequent generations. The Epistles of the New Testament
+contain no indications of the existence of any written record of the
+life and teaching of Christ. Tradition indicates A.D. 60-70 as the
+period when written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to
+be made (see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). This may be
+accepted as highly probable. We cannot but suppose that at a time when
+the number of the original band of disciples of Jesus who survived must
+have been becoming noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in
+life, the importance of writing down that which had been orally
+delivered concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also
+gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing was
+undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence of this
+feeling, and that various records had already in consequence been made.
+
+But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which we actually
+have them, belong to the number of those earliest records? Or, if not,
+what are the relations in which they severally stand to them? These are
+questions which in modern criticism have been greatly debated. With a
+view to obtaining answers to them, it is necessary to consider the
+reception of the Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and
+compare the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied in
+these two ways must be given in the present article, so far as it is
+common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them, and in the
+articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial to each.
+
+1. _The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church._--The question of
+the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which they were regarded
+during the period extending from the latter years of the 1st century to
+the beginning of the last quarter of the 2nd is a difficult one. There
+is a lack of explicit references to the Gospels;[1] and many of the
+quotations which may be taken from them are not exact. At the same time
+these facts can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various
+circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that the habits
+of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered orally should
+have continued to exert influence even after the tradition had been
+committed to writing. Although documents might be known and used, they
+would not be regarded as the authorities for that which was
+independently remembered, and would not, therefore, necessarily be
+mentioned. Consequently, it is not strange that citations of sayings of
+Christ--and these are the only express citations in writings of the
+Subapostolic Age--should be made without the source whence they were
+derived being named, and (with a single exception) without any clear
+indication that the source was a document. The exception is in the
+little treatise commonly called the Epistle of Barnabas, probably
+composed about A.D. 130, where (c. iv. 14) the words "many are called
+but few chosen" are introduced by the formula "as it is written."
+
+For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources used we have
+to rely upon the amount of correspondence with our Gospels in the
+quotations made, and in respect to other parallelisms of statement and
+of expression, in these early Christian writers. The correspondence is
+in the main full and true as regards spirit and substance, but it is
+rarely complete in form. The existence of some differences of language
+may, however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various forms
+of the same saying occurring in different documents, or remembered from
+oral tradition and through catechetical instruction, would sometimes be
+purposely combined. Or, again, the memory might be confused by this
+variety, and the verification of quotations, especially of brief ones,
+was difficult, not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of
+books, but also because ancient books were not provided with ready means
+of reference to particular passages. On the whole there is clearly a
+presumption that where we have striking expressions which are known to
+us besides only in one of our Gospel-records, that particular record has
+been the source of it. And where there are several such coincidences the
+ground for the supposition that the writing in question has been used
+may become very strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less
+clear in the several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the
+first two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our
+first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.
+
+After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect, documents
+were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history; but there is
+still some uncertainty as to the documents upon which reliance was
+placed, and the precise estimation in which they were severally held.
+This is in part at least due to the circumstance that nearly all the
+writings which have remained of the Christian literature belonging to
+the period _circa_ A.D. 130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and
+that for the most part they give only summaries of the teaching of
+Christ and of the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be
+understood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others than
+Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most important of the
+writings now in question are two by Justin Martyr (_circa_ A.D.
+145-160), viz. his _Apology_ and his _Dialogue with Trypho_. In the
+former of these works he shows plainly his intention of adapting his
+language and reasoning to Gentile, and in the latter to Jewish, readers.
+In both his name for the Gospel-records is "Memoirs of the Apostles."
+After a great deal of controversy there has come to be very wide
+agreement that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs.
+In the case of the second and third there are indications, though slight
+ones, that he held the view of their composition and authorship which
+was common from the last quarter of the century onwards (see MARK,
+GOSPEL OF, and LUKE, GOSPEL OF), but he has made the largest use of our
+first Gospel. It is also generally allowed that he was acquainted with
+the fourth Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain
+reserve. Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show that
+he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a good deal of
+difference of opinion still as to whether Justin reckoned other sources
+for the Gospel-history besides our Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs.
+In this connexion, however, as well as on other grounds, it is a
+significant fact that within twenty years or so after the death of
+Justin, which probably occurred _circa_ A.D. 160, Tatian, who had been a
+hearer of Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history
+which received the name _Diatessaron_ ("through four"), in the main a
+compilation from our four Gospels.[2]
+
+Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had attained a
+position of unique authority throughout the greater part of the Church,
+not different from that which they have held since, as is evident from
+the treatise of Irenaeus _Against Heresies_ (c. A.D. 180; see esp. iii.
+i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other evidence only a few years later. The
+struggle against Gnosticism, which had been going on during the middle
+part of the century, had compelled the Church both to define her creed
+and to draw a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those
+writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others. The
+effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally entertained
+of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time in the formal
+statements now made it is plainly implied that the belief expressed is
+no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to suppose that agreement on
+this subject between different portions of the Church could have
+manifested itself at this time in the spontaneous manner that it does,
+except as the consequence of traditional feelings and convictions, which
+went back to the early part of the century, and which could hardly have
+arisen without good foundation, with respect to the special value of
+these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although all that
+came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship cannot be
+considered proved.
+
+2. _The Internal Criticism of the Gospels._--In the middle of the 19th
+century an able school of critics, known as the Tübingen school, sought
+to show from indications in the several Gospels that they were composed
+well on in the 2nd century in the interests of various strongly marked
+parties into which the Church was supposed to have been divided by
+differences in regard to the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity.
+These theories are now discredited. It may on the contrary be
+confidently asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the
+local colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they
+show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the circumstances
+of the 2nd century; and that the character even of the Fourth Gospel is
+not such as to justify its being placed, at furthest, much after the
+beginning of that century.
+
+We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid results
+have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in consequence of the
+large amount of similarity between them in contents, arrangement, and
+even in words and the forms of sentences and paragraphs, been called
+Synoptic Gospels. It has long been seen that, to account for this
+similarity, relations of interdependence between them, or of common
+derivation, must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of
+these relations is known as the _Synoptic Problem_. Reference has
+already been made to the fact that during the greater part of the
+Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now some have held
+that the form of this oral teaching was to a great extent a fixed one,
+and that it was the common source of our first three Gospels. This oral
+theory was for a long time the favourite one in England; it was never
+widely held in Germany, and in recent years the majority of English
+students of the Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not
+satisfactorily explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too
+close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus accounted
+for, but even many of the differences between parallel contexts are
+rather such as would arise through the revision of a document than
+through the freedom of oral delivery.
+
+It is now and has for many years been widely held that a document which
+is most nearly represented by the Gospel of Mark, or which (as some
+would say) was virtually identical with it, has been used in the
+composition of our first and third Gospels. This source has supplied the
+Synoptic Outline, and in the main also the narratives common to all
+three. Questions connected with the history of this document are treated
+in the article on MARK, GOSPEL OF.
+
+There is also a considerable amount of matter common to Matthew and
+Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced into the Synoptic Outline
+very differently in those two Gospels, which clearly suggests that it
+existed in a separate form, and was independently combined by the first
+and third evangelists with their other document. This common matter has
+also a character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse.
+The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several passages
+so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces at least to have
+been derived immediately or ultimately from the same Greek document. In
+other cases there is more divergence, but in some of them this is
+accounted for by the consideration that in Matthew passages from the
+source now in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other
+chief common source before mentioned. There are, however, instances in
+which no such explanation will serve, and it is possible that our first
+and third evangelists may have used two documents which were not in all
+respects identical, but which corresponded very closely on the whole.
+The ultimate source of the subject matter in question, or of the most
+distinctive and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic
+one, and in some parts different translations may have been used.
+
+This second source used in the composition of Matthew and Luke has
+frequently been called "The Logia" in order to signify that it was a
+collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus. This name has been
+suggested by Schleiermacher's interpretation of Papias' fragment on
+Matthew (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). But some have maintained that the
+source in question also contained a good many narratives, and in order
+to avoid any premature assumption as to its contents and character
+several recent critics have named it "Q." It may, however, fairly be
+called "the Logian document," as a convenient way of indicating the
+character of the greater part of the matter which our first and third
+evangelists have taken from it, and this designation is used in the
+articles on the Gospels of Luke and Matthew. The reconstruction of this
+document has been attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its
+contents can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.
+
+3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing of the results
+of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels. Their effect is to
+lead us, especially when engaged in historical inquiries, to look beyond
+our Gospels to their sources, instead of treating the testimony of the
+Gospels severally as independent and ultimate. Nevertheless it will
+still appear that each Gospel has its distinct value, both historically
+and in regard to the moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the
+fruits of much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely
+employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each, will still
+prove serviceable.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--1. German Books: _Introductions to the New
+  Testament_--H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans.,
+  1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Jülicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng.
+  trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, _Urchristliche Literaturgeschichte_, vol.
+  i. (1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels,
+  especially the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, _Die synoptischen
+  Evangelien_ (1863); Weizsäcker, _Untersuchungen über die evangelische
+  Geschichte_ (1864); B. Weiss, _Das Marcus-Evangelium und seine
+  synoptischen Parallelen_ (1872); _Das Matthäus-Evangelium und seine
+  Lucas-Parallelen_ (1876); H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886); A.
+  Resch, _Agrapha_ (1889); &c.; P. Wernle, _Die synoptische Frage_
+  (1899); W. Soltau, _Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr
+  Quellenwert_ (1901); H. J. Holtzmann, _Hand-Commentar zum N.T._, vol.
+  i. (1889); J. Wellhausen, _Das Evangelium Marci_, _Das Evangelium
+  Matthäi_, _Das Evangelium Lucas_ (1904), _Einleitung in die drei
+  ersten Evangelien_ (1905); A. Harnack, _Sprüche und Reden Jesu, die
+  zweite Quelle des Matthäus und Lukas_ (1907).
+
+  2. French Books: A. Loisy, _Les Évangiles synoptiques_ (1907-1908).
+
+  3. English Books: G. Salmon, _Introduction to the New Testament_ (1st
+  ed., 1885; 9th ed., 1904); W. Sanday, _Inspiration_ (Lect. vi., 3rd
+  ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, _An Introduction to the Study of the
+  Gospels_ (1st ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, _The Composition
+  of the Four Gospels_ (1890); J. E. Carpenter, _The First Three
+  Gospels, their Origin and Relations_ (1890); A. J. Jolley, _The
+  Synoptic Problem_ (1893); J. C. Hawkins, _Horae synopticae_ (1899); W.
+  Alexander, _Leading Ideas of the Gospels_ (new ed., 1892); E. A.
+  Abbott, _Clue_ (1900); J. A. Robinson, _The Study of the Gospels_
+  (1902); F. C. Burkitt, _The Gospel History and its Transmission_
+  (1906); G. Salmon, _The Human Element in the Gospels_ (1907); V. H.
+  Stanton, _The Gospels as Historical Documents_: Pt. I., _The Early Use
+  of the Gospels_ (1903); Pt. II., _The Synoptic Gospels_ (1908).
+
+  4. Synopses.--W. G. Rushbrooke, _Synopticon, An Exposition of the
+  Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1880); A. Wright, _The
+  Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek_ (2nd ed., 1903).
+
+  See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article BIBLE, section
+  _New Testament_.     (V. H. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the only two that can be held to be such in the first half of
+    the 2nd century, and the doubts whether they refer to our present
+    Gospels, see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF.
+
+  [2] The character of Tatian's _Diatessaron_ has been much disputed in
+    the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the
+    subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account of
+    these may be seen most conveniently in _The Diatessaron of Tatian_,
+    by S. Hemphill; see under TATIAN.)
+
+
+
+
+GOSPORT, a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division of Hampshire,
+England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth harbour, 81 m. S.W. from
+London by the London & Southwestern railway. Pop. of urban district of
+Gosport and Alverstoke (1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge
+connect it with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of
+fortifications, consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000
+yds. to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with
+occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Portsmouth
+harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and market hall, and
+the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of William III. To the
+south at Haslar there is a magnificent naval hospital, capable of
+containing 2000 patients, and adjoining it a gunboat slipway and large
+barracks. To the north is the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with
+brewery, cooperage, powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and
+storehouses for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy.
+
+Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was originally included
+in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the bishop and monks of Winchester
+under whom villeins farmed the land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up
+Alverstoke with Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to
+hold them until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical
+commissioners. After the confiscation of the bishop's lands in 1641,
+however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to George
+Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration. In the 16th
+century Gosport was "a little village of fishermen." It was called a
+borough in 1461, when there are also traces of burgage tenure. From 1462
+one bailiff was elected annually in the borough court, and government by
+a bailiff continued until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth
+borough under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was
+annulled in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election
+of bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is known,
+although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common property in the
+shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of Gosport increased during
+the 16th and 17th centuries owing to its position at the mouth of
+Portsmouth harbour, and its convenience as a victualling station. For
+this reason also the town was particularly prosperous during the
+American and Peninsular Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there
+for the defence of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a
+garrison town under a lord-lieutenant.
+
+
+
+
+GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800-1880), English composer, was born at Fareham,
+Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He was elected a chorister of
+the Chapel Royal in 1811, and in 1816, on the breaking of his voice,
+became a pupil of Attwood. A few early compositions, some for the
+theatre, exist, and some glees were published before 1825. He was
+appointed organist of St Luke's, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became
+organist of St Paul's in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until
+1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the London
+musical world of the time was an influential one, and he did much by his
+teaching and criticism to encourage the study and appreciation of good
+music. In 1876 he was given the degree of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though
+his few orchestral works have very small importance, his church music
+includes some fine compositions, such as the anthems "O taste and see,"
+"O Saviour of the world" and others. He was the last of the great
+English school of church composers who devoted themselves almost
+exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee his is an
+honoured name, if only on account of his finest work in that form, the
+five-part glee, Ossian's "Hymn to the sun." He died at Brixton, London,
+on the 10th of May 1880.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSAMER, a fine, thread like and filmy substance spun by small spiders,
+which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse bushes, and floating in
+the air in clear weather; especially in the autumn. By transference
+anything light, unsubstantial or flimsy is known as "gossamer." A thin
+gauzy material used for trimming and millinery, resembling the "chiffon"
+of to-day, was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian
+period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very light
+weight.
+
+The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms in English,
+and is apparently taken from _gose_, goose and _somere_, summer. The
+Germans have _Mädchensommer_, maidens' summer, and _Altweibersommer_,
+old women's summer, as well as _Sommerfäden_, summer-threads, as
+equivalent to the English gossamer, the connexion apparently being that
+gossamer is seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St
+Martin's summer) when geese are also in season. Another suggestion is
+that the word is a corruption of _gaze à Marie_ (gauze of Mary) through
+the legend that gossamer was originally the threads which fell away from
+the Virgin's shroud on her assumption.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSE, EDMUND (1849-   ), English poet and critic, was born in London on
+the 21st of September 1849, son of the zoologist P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he
+became an assistant in the department of printed books in the British
+Museum, where he remained until he became in 1875 translator to the
+Board of Trade. In 1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of
+Lords. In 1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much
+grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide and
+appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable work in
+bringing foreign literature home to English readers. _Northern Studies_
+(1879), a collection of essays on the literature of Holland and
+Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged visit to those countries,
+and was followed by later work in the same direction. He translated
+Ibsen's _Hedda Gabler_ (1891), and, with W. Archer, _The Master-Builder_
+(1893), and in 1907 he wrote a life of Ibsen for the "Literary Lives"
+series. He also edited the English translation of the works of Björnson.
+His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901, when he
+was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf of the first class.
+Mr Gosse's published volumes of verse include _On Viol and Flute_
+(1873), _King Erik_ (1876), _New Poems_ (1879), _Firdausi in Exile_
+(1885), _In Russet and Silver_ (1894), _Collected Poems_ (1896).
+_Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island_ (1901), an "ironic phantasy,"
+the scene of which is laid in the 20th century, though the personages
+are Greek gods, is written in prose, with some blank verse. His
+_Seventeenth Century Studies_ (1883), _Life of William Congreve_ (1888),
+_The Jacobean Poets_ (1894), _Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of
+St Paul's_ (1899), _Jeremy Taylor_ (1904, "English Men of Letters"), and
+_Life of Sir Thomas Browne_ (1905) form a very considerable body of
+critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He also wrote a life
+of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols., 1884); _A History of
+Eighteenth Century Literature_ (1889); a _History of Modern English
+Literature_ (1897), and vols. iii. and iv. of an _Illustrated Record of
+English Literature_ (1903-1904) undertaken in connexion with Dr Richard
+Garnett. Mr Gosse was always a sympathetic student of the younger school
+of French and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being
+collected as _French Profiles_ (1905). _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896)
+contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences of
+Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann's series of "Literature
+of the World" and the same publisher's "International Library." To the
+9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ he contributed numerous
+articles, and his services as chief literary adviser in the preparation
+of the 10th and 11th editions incidentally testify to the high position
+held by him in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was
+entertained in Paris by the leading _littérateurs_ as a representative
+of English literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously
+_Father and Son_, an intimate study of his own early family life. He
+married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and two
+daughters.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-1888), English naturalist, was born at
+Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father, Thomas Gosse (1765-1844)
+being a miniature painter. In his youth the family settled at Poole,
+where Gosse's turn for natural history was noticed and encouraged by his
+aunt, Mrs Bell, the mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1792-1880). He
+had, however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827, he
+found himself clerk in a whaler's office at Carbonear, in Newfoundland,
+where he beguiled the tedium of his life by observations, chiefly with
+the microscope. After a brief and unsuccessful interlude of farming in
+Canada, during which he wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of
+Newfoundland, he travelled in the United States, was received and
+noticed by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time in
+Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His _Canadian Naturalist_
+(1840), written on the voyage home, was followed in 1843 by his
+_Introduction to Zoology_. His first widely popular book was _The Ocean_
+(1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile been teaching in London, was
+sent by the British Museum to collect specimens of natural history in
+Jamaica. He spent nearly two years on that island, and after his return
+published his _Birds of Jamaica_ (1847) and his _Naturalist's Sojourn in
+Jamaica_ (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological works
+for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to impair his
+health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was attracted by the forms of
+marine life so abundant on that shore, and in 1853 published _A
+Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire Coast_, accompanied by a
+description of the marine aquarium invented by him, by means of which he
+succeeded in preserving zoophytes and other marine animals of the
+humbler grades alive and in good condition away from the sea. This
+arrangement was more fully set forth and illustrated in his _Aquarium_
+(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by _A Manual of Marine Zoology_, in two
+volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings after the author's
+drawings. A volume on the marine fauna of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In
+June of the same year he was elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most
+careful observer, but who lacked the philosophical spirit, was now
+tempted to essay work of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two
+books, _Life_ and _Omphalos_, embodying his speculations on the
+appearance of life on the earth, which he considered to have been
+instantaneous, at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met with
+no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the field of
+observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate. Taking up his
+residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he produced from 1858 to
+1860 his standard work on sea-anemones, the _Actinologia Britannica_.
+_The Romance of Natural History_ and other popular works followed. In
+1865 he abandoned authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the
+cultivation of orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his
+attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by Dr C. T.
+Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the 23rd of August 1888.
+
+  _His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse._
+
+
+
+
+GOSSEC, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1734-1829), French musical composer, son of a
+small farmer, was born at the village of Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut,
+and showing early a taste for music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He
+went to Paris in 1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor of
+a private band kept by La Popelinière, a wealthy amateur, and gradually
+determined to do something to revive the study of instrumental music in
+France. He had his own first symphony performed in 1754, and as
+conductor to the Prince de Condé's orchestra he produced several operas
+and other compositions of his own. He imposed his influence upon French
+music with remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770,
+organized the École de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band of the
+Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed (with Méhul and
+Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de Musique when this
+institution was created in 1795. He was an original member of the
+Institute and a chevalier of the legion of honour. Outside France he was
+but little known, and his own numerous compositions, sacred and secular,
+were thrown into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has
+a place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully
+stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at Passy on the
+16th of February 1829.
+
+  See the _Lives_ by P. Hédouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878).
+
+
+
+
+GOSSIP (from the O.E. _godsibb_, i.e. God, and _sib_, akin, standing in
+relation to), originally a god-parent, i.e. one who by taking a
+sponsor's vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship to the
+child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light personal or social
+conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of idle tale-bearing.
+"Gossip" was early used with the sense of a friend or acquaintance,
+either of the parent of the child baptized or of the other god-parents,
+and thus came to be used, with little reference to the position of
+sponsor, for women friends of the mother present at a birth; the
+transition of meaning to an idle chatterer or talker for talking's sake
+is easy. The application to the idle talk of such persons does not
+appear to be an early one.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773-1858), German divine and
+philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg on the 14th of December
+1773, and educated at the university of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos
+and others he came under the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted
+by Johann Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After
+taking priest's orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811)
+and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought about his
+dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman Catholic for the
+Protestant communion. As minister of the Bethlehem church in Berlin
+(1829-1846) he was conspicuous not only for practical and effective
+preaching, but for the founding of schools, asylums and missionary
+agencies. He died on the 20th of March 1858.
+
+  _Lives_ by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton (Berlin,
+  1878).
+
+
+
+
+GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624), English satirist, was baptized at St
+George's, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554. He entered Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving the university in 1576 he
+went to London. In 1598 Francis Meres in his _Palladis Tamia_ mentions
+him with Sidney, Spenser, Abraham Fraunce and others among the "best for
+pastorall," but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been
+an actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks of
+_Catilines Conspiracies_ as a "Pig of mine own Sowe." To this play and
+some others, on account of their moral intention, he extends indulgence
+in the general condemnation of stage plays contained in his _Schoole of
+Abuse, containing a pleasant invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers,
+Jesters and such like Caterpillars of the Commonwealth_ (1579). The
+euphuistic style of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of
+learning were in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply
+insincerity. Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the
+disorder which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was
+introducing into the social life of London. It was not only by
+extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized. Spenser, in
+his _Teares of the Muses_ (1591), laments the same evils, although only
+in general terms. The tract was dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney, who
+seems not unnaturally to have resented being connected with a pamphlet
+which opened with a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser,
+writing to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the
+author "was for hys labor scorned." He dedicated, however, a second
+tract, _The Ephemerides of Phialo ... and A Short Apologie of the
+Schoole of Abuse_, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579. Gosson's abuse of poets
+seems to have had a large share in inducing Sidney to write his
+_Apologie for Poetrie_, which probably dates from 1581. After the
+publication of the _Schoole of Abuse_ Gosson retired into the country,
+where he acted as tutor to the sons of a gentleman (_Plays Confuted_.
+"To the Reader," 1582). Anthony à Wood places this earlier and assigns
+the termination of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the
+stage, which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The
+publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most formidable of
+which was Thomas Lodge's _Defence of Playes_ (1580). The players
+themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson's own plays. Gosson replied to
+his various opponents in 1582 by his _Playes Confuted in Five Actions_,
+dedicated to Sir Francis Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was
+made lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was presented
+by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex, which he
+exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph's, Bishopsgate. He died on the 13th of
+February 1624. _Pleasant Quippes for Upstart New-fangled Gentlewomen_
+(1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also ascribed to Gosson.
+
+  The _Schoole of Abuse and Apologie_ were edited (1868) by Prof. E.
+  Arber in his _English Reprints_. Two poems of Gosson's are included.
+
+
+
+
+GOT, FRANÇOIS JULES EDMOND (1822-1901), French actor, was born at
+Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered the Conservatoire in
+1841, winning the second prize for comedy that year and the first in
+1842. After a year of military service he made his début at the Comédie
+Française on the 17th of July 1844, as Alexis in _Les Héritiers_ and
+Mascarelles in _Les Précieuses ridicules_. He was immediately admitted
+_pensionnaire_, and became _sociétaire_ in 1850. By special permission
+of the emperor in 1866 he played at the Odéon in Emile Augier's
+_Contagion_. His golden jubilee at the Théâtre Français was celebrated
+in 1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got was a fine
+representative of the grand style of French acting, and was much admired
+in England as well as in Paris. He wrote the libretto of the opera
+_François Villon_ (1857) and also of _L'Esclave_ (1874). In 1881 he was
+decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honour.
+
+
+
+
+GÖTA, a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener. The name,
+however, is more familiar in its application to the canal which affords
+communication between Gothenburg and Stockholm. The river flows out of
+the southern extremity of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat,
+which it enters by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the
+eastern forming the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the
+port of Gothenburg. The Göta river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable
+for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls of
+Trollhättan (q.v.). Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg and Hunneberg
+(royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached at Venersborg. Several
+important ports lie on the north, east and south shores (see VENER).
+From Sjötorp, midway on the eastern shore, the western Göta canal leads
+S.E. to Karlsborg. Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it
+from the Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and
+lower it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and
+Botten to Lake Vetter (q.v.; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to
+Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point, and a
+descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren, after which the
+canal, carried still at a considerable elevation, overlooks a rich and
+beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake Roxen with its ruined castle of
+Stjernarp is next traversed. At Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake
+Glan to the north, giving access to the important manufacturing centre
+of Norrköping. Passing Lake Asplången, the canal follows a cut through
+steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town of
+Söderköping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem. Vessels plying to
+Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-fringe (_skärgård_), and
+then follow the Södertelge canal into Lake Mälar. The whole distance
+from Gothenburg to Stockholm is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about
+2½ days. The length of artificial work on the Göta canal proper is 54
+m., and there are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse
+weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any interest
+save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea of a canal dates from
+1516, but the construction was organized by Baron von Platten and
+engineered by Thomas Telford in 1810-1832. The falls of Trollhättan had
+already been locked successfully in 1800.
+
+
+
+
+GOTARZES, or GOTERZES, king of Parthia (c. A.D. 42-51). In an
+inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun[1] he is called [Greek:
+Gôtarzês Geopothros], i.e. "son of Gew," and seems to be designated as
+"satrap of satrap." This inscription therefore probably dates from the
+reign of Artabanus II. (A.D. 10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have
+belonged. From a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription
+[Greek: Basileôs basileôn Arsanoz uos kekaloumenos Artabavou Gôtepzês]
+(Wroth, _Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia_, p. 165; _Numism_. _Chron._,
+1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are wrong), which
+must be translated "king of kings Arsakes, named son of Artabanos,
+Gotarzes," it appears that he was adopted by Artabanus. When the
+troublesome reign of Artabanus II. ended in A.D. 39 or 40, he was
+succeeded by Vardanes, probably his son; but against him in 41 rose
+Gotarzes (the dates are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself
+detested by his cruelty--among many other murders he even slew his
+brother Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. _Ann._ xi. 8)--and Vardanes
+regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and gathered an
+army from the Dahan nomads. The war between the two kings was at last
+ended by a treaty, as both were afraid of the conspiracies of their
+nobles. Gotarzes returned to Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was
+assassinated in 45, Gotarzes was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac.
+_Ann._ xi. 9 ff.; Joseph. _Antiq._ xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called
+Kotardes). He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, "king of
+kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (_Epiphanes_),
+the friend of the Greeks (_Philhellen_)," without mentioning his proper
+name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury induced the
+hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius and fetch from Rome an
+Arsacid prince Meherdates (i.e. Mithradates), who lived there as
+hostage. He crossed the Euphrates in 49, but was beaten and taken
+prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut off his ears (Tac. _Ann._ xii. 10 ff.).
+Soon after Gotarzes died, according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus
+says that he was murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51.
+
+  An earlier "Arsakes with the name Gotarzes," mentioned on some
+  astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in _Zeitschr. für
+  Assyriologie_, vi. 216; Mahler in _Wiener Zeitschr. für Kunde des
+  Morgenlands_, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in
+  Babylonia about 87 B.C.     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Rawlinson, _Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc._ ix. 114; Flandin and Coste,
+    _La Perse ancienne_, i. tab. 19; Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci
+    inscr._ 431.
+
+
+
+
+GOTHA, a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the residence of the
+dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant situation on the Leine canal,
+6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on
+the railway to Bebra-Cassel. Pop. (1905) 36,906. It consists of an old
+inner town and encircling suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of
+Friedenstein, lying on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1100 ft. With
+the exception of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are
+handsome and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades between
+the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town's attractiveness. To
+the south of the castle there is an extensive and finely adorned park.
+To the north-west of the town the Galberg--on which there is a public
+pleasure garden--and to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of
+over 1300 ft. and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein,
+begun by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and
+completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of
+Grimmenstein. It is a huge square building flanked with two wings,
+having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains the
+ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000 volumes,
+among which are several rare editions and about 6900 manuscripts. The
+picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings, the natural history museum,
+the Chinese museum, and the cabinet of art, which includes a collection
+of Egyptian, Etruscan, Roman and German antiquities, are now included in
+the new museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the
+south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are the church
+of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty tower, founded in the
+12th century, twice burnt down, and rebuilt in its present form in 1652;
+the church of the Augustinian convent, with an altar-piece by the
+painter Simon Jacobs; the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life
+insurance bank; the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a
+winter garden and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal
+legislature; the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the 11th
+century; the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a
+girls' school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace, now used
+as public offices. The educational establishments include a gymnasium
+(founded in 1524, one of the most famous in Germany), two training
+schools for teachers, conservatoires of music and several scientific
+institutions. Gotha is remarkable for its insurance societies and for
+the support it has given to cremation. The crematorium was long regarded
+as a model for such establishments.
+
+Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia, its
+manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great reputation,
+porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical and surgical
+instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps and toys. There are also
+a number of nurseries and market gardens. The book trade is represented
+by about a dozen firms, including that of the great geographical house
+of Justus Perthes, founded in 1785.
+
+Gotha (in old chronicles called _Gotegewe_ and later _Gotaha_) existed
+as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord Gothard abbot
+of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was known as a town as early as
+1200, about which time it came into the possession of the landgraves of
+Thuringia. On the extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession
+of the electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of
+dukes. After the battle of Mühlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein
+was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In 1567 the
+town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the elector Augustus of
+Saxony. After the death of John Frederick's sons, it came into the
+possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the founder of the line of the
+dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction of this family it was united in
+1825 along with the dukedom to Coburg.
+
+  See _Gotha und seine Umgebung_ (Gotha, 1851); Kühne, _Beiträge zur
+  Geschichte der Entwicklung der socialen Zustände der Stadt und des
+  Herzogtums Gotha_ (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, _Les Villes de la Thuringe_
+  (Paris, 1869), and Beck, _Geschichte der Stadt Gotha_ (Gotha, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF, the early name given to the people of the village
+of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed simplicity. But if
+tradition is to be believed the Gothamites were not so very simple. The
+story is that King John intended to live in the neighbourhood, but that
+the villagers, foreseeing ruin as the cost of supporting the court,
+feigned imbecility when the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the
+latter went they saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on
+this report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the
+"wise men" boasted, "we ween there are more fools pass through Gotham
+than remain in it." The "foles of Gotham" are mentioned as early as the
+15th century in the _Towneley Mysteries_; and a collection of their
+"jests" was published in the 16th century under the title _Merrie Tales
+of the Mad Men of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke
+Doctour_. The "A.B." was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde
+(1490?-1549), famous among other things for his wit, but he probably had
+nothing to do with the compilation. As typical of the Gothamite folly is
+usually quoted the story of the villagers joining hands round a
+thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it would sing all the year. The
+localizing of fools is common to most countries, and there are many
+other reputed "imbecile" centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there
+are the people of Coggeshall, Essex, the "carles of Austwick,"
+Yorkshire, "the gowks of Gordon," Berwickshire, and for many centuries
+the charge of folly has been made against "silly" Suffolk and Norfolk
+(_Descriptio Norfolciensium_ about 12th century, printed in Wright's
+_Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems_). In Germany there are the
+_Schildburgers_, in Holland the people of Kampen. Among the ancient
+Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools; among the Thracians, Abdera; among
+the ancient Jews, Nazareth.
+
+  See W. A. Clouston, _Book of Noodles_ (London, 1888); R. H.
+  Cunningham, _Amusing Prose Chap-books_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+GOTHENBURG (Swed. _Göteborg_), a city and seaport of Sweden, on the
+river Göta, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat, 285 m. S.W. of
+Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Göta canal-route. Pop. (1900) 130,619.
+It is the chief town of the district (_län_) of Göteborg och Bohus, and
+the seat of a bishop. It lies on the east or left bank of the river,
+which is here lined with quays on both sides, those on the west
+belonging to the large island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the
+Göta. On this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen
+and Lundby.
+
+The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with extensive
+and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain enclosed by low
+hills. The inner city, including the business quarter, is contained
+almost entirely between the river and the Rosenlunds canal, continued in
+the Vallgraf, the moat of the old fortifications; and is crossed by the
+Storahamn, Östrahamn and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by
+the handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Södra Hamngatan. The first of
+these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn, where the sea-going
+passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg.
+The museum, in the old East India Company's house, has fine collections
+in natural history, entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and
+ethnography, a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and
+industrial art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and contains
+the town-hail (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are statues by B. E.
+Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin, and of Oscar I. by J. P.
+Molin. Among several churches in this quarter of the city is the
+cathedral (_Gustavii Domkyrka_), a cruciform church founded in 1633 and
+rebuilt after fires in 1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house
+and residence of the governor of the _län_. On the north side, closely
+adjacent, are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Göta canal steamers lie,
+and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs Bangård.
+Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky eminence, Lilla
+Otterhälleberg. The inner city is girdled on the south and east by the
+Kungspark, which contains Molin's famous group of statuary, the
+Belt-bucklers (_Bältespännare_), and by the beautiful gardens of the
+Horticultural Society (_Trädgårdsforeningen_). These grounds are
+traversed by the broad Nya Allé, a favourite promenade, and beyond them
+lies the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street,
+Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the last are the
+university and the New theatre. At the west end of Vasa Street is the
+city library, the most important in the country except the royal library
+at Stockholm and the university libraries at Upsala and Lund. The
+suburbs are extensive. To the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget,
+with numerous factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park,
+planted with oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding
+views of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the
+workmen's quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen. All are
+connected with the city by electric tramways. Six railways leave the
+city from four stations. The principal lines, from the Statens and
+Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhättan, and into Norway
+(Christiania); N.E. between Lakes Vener and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun
+and the north; E. to Borås and beyond, and S. by the coast to
+Helsingborg, &c. From the Vestgöta station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E.
+to Skara and the southern shores of Vener, and from Sarö station near
+Slottskog Park a line serves Sarö, a seaside watering-place on an island
+20 m. S. of Gothenburg.
+
+The city has numerous important educational establishments. The
+university (_Högskola_) was a private foundation (1891), but is governed
+by a board, the members of which are nominated by the state, the town
+council, Royal Society of Science and Literature, directors of the
+museum, and the staffs of the various local colleges. There are several
+boys' schools, a college for girls, a scientific college, a commercial
+college (1826), a school of navigation, and Chalmers' Polytechnical
+College, founded by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg
+of English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this
+institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital. A people's
+library was founded by members of the family of Dickson, several of whom
+have taken a prominent part in philanthropical works in the city. The
+connexion of the family with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert
+Dickson, a native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which
+he was joined in 1807 by his brother James.
+
+In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg ranks as
+second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually the principal
+centre of export trade and port of register; and as a manufacturing town
+it is slightly inferior to Malmö. Its principal industrial
+establishments are mechanical works (both in the city and at Lundby),
+saw-mills, dealing with the timber which is brought down the Göta,
+flour-mills, margarine factories, breweries and distilleries, tobacco
+works, cotton mills, dyeing and bleaching works (at Levanten in the
+vicinity), furniture factories, paper and leather works, and
+shipbuilding yards. The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247
+of 120,488 tons. There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels
+drawing 20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels.
+Gothenburg is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants for
+America.
+
+The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and returns nine
+members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).
+
+Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was from the first
+designed to be fortified, a town of the same name founded on Hisingen in
+1603 having been destroyed by the Danes during the Calmar war. From
+1621, when it was first chartered, it steadily increased, though it
+suffered greatly in the Danish wars of the last half of the 17th and the
+beginning of the 18th centuries, and from several extensive
+conflagrations (the last in 1813), which have destroyed important
+records of its history. The great development of its herring fishery in
+the latter part of the 18th century gave a new impulse to the city's
+trade, which was kept up by the influence of the "Continental System,"
+under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial merchandise of
+England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to decline, but after its
+closer connexion with the interior of the country by the Göta canal
+(opened 1832) and Western railway it rapidly advanced both in population
+and trade. Since the demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has
+been defended only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of
+the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden's greatest
+sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786-1854) and Johann Peter Molin
+(1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothenburg was for a time the
+residence of the Bourbon family. The name of this city is associated
+with the municipal licensing system known as the Gothenburg System (see
+LIQUOR LAWS).
+
+  See W. Berg, _Samlingar till Göteborgs historia_ (Gothenburg, 1893);
+  Lagerberg, _Göteborg i äldre och nyare tid_ (Gothenburg, 1902);
+  Fröding, _Det forna Göteborg_ (Stockholm, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GOTHIC, the term generally applied to medieval architecture, and more
+especially to that in which the pointed arch appears. The style was at
+one time supposed to have originated with the warlike people known as
+the Goths, some of whom (the East Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the
+eastern portion of Europe, and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in
+the Asturias of Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description
+have ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent
+construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading; since,
+however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult to change
+it. The term when first employed was one of reproach, as Evelyn (1702)
+when speaking of the faultless building (i.e. classic) says, "they were
+demolished by the Goths or Vandals, who introduced their own licentious
+style now called modern or Gothic." The employment of the pointed arch
+in Syria, Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the
+Mahommedans for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries before
+it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable to adhere to
+the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed Architecture. (See
+ARCHITECTURE)
+
+
+
+
+GÖTHITE, or GOETHITE, a mineral composed of an iron hydrate, Fe2O3·H2O,
+crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with diaspore
+and manganite (q.v.). It was first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was
+named after the poet Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly
+in habit; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid (M
+in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic masses with a radiated fibrous
+structure also occur. The colour varies from yellowish or reddish to
+blackish-brown, and by transmitted light it is often blood-red; the
+streak is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific gravity, 4.3. The best
+crystals are the brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal
+pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel iron mines at Lostwithiel,
+and the Botallack mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety occurring as
+thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known as Rubinglimmer or
+pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. [Greek: pyrros], flame-coloured, and [Greek:
+sidêros], iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the same locality is
+called lepidocrocite (from [Greek: lepis], scale, and [Greek: krokis],
+fibre). Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram in
+Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals arranged
+in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow colour.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Göthite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite and hematite,
+and when found in sufficient quantity is mined with these as an ore of
+iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure in other minerals. Acicular
+crystals, resembling rutile in appearance, sometimes penetrate crystals
+of pale-coloured amethyst, for instance, at Wolf's Island in Lake Onega
+in Russia: this form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and
+the crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the name
+of "Cupid's darts" (_flèches d'amour_). The metallic glitter of
+avanturine or sun-stone (q.v.) is due to the enclosed scales of göthite
+and certain other minerals.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GOTHS
+
+  Early history.
+
+(_Gotones_, later _Gothis_), a Teutonic people who in the 1st century of
+the Christian era appear to have inhabited the middle part of the basin
+of the Vistula. They were probably the easternmost of the Teutonic
+peoples. According to their own traditions as recorded by Jordanes, they
+had come originally from the island Scandza, i.e. Skåne or Sweden, under
+the leadership of a king named Berig, and landed first in a region
+called Gothiscandza. Thence they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi
+(the Holmryge of Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood
+of Rügenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them and the
+neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer they migrated into
+Scythia and settled in a district which they called Oium. The rest of
+their early history, as it is given by Jordanes following Cassiodorus,
+is due to an erroneous identification of the Goths with the Getae, and
+ancient Thracian people.
+
+The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden has been much
+discussed by modern authors. The legend was not peculiar to the Goths,
+similar traditions being current among the Langobardi, the Burgundians,
+and apparently several other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with
+truth that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from the
+Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of these
+traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly, however, many
+of the royal families may have contained an element of Scandinavian
+blood, a hypothesis which would well accord with the social conditions
+of the migration period, as illustrated, e.g., in _Völsunga Saga_ and in
+_Hervarar Saga ok Heiðreks Konungs_. In the case of the Goths a
+connexion with Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from
+archaeological evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the
+coasts about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however, there
+was any migration at all, one would rather have expected it to have
+taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin of the Goths can
+hardly be separated from that of the Vandals, whom according to
+Procopius they resembled in language and in all other respects. Moreover
+the Gepidae, another Teutonic people, who are said to have formerly
+inhabited the delta of the Vistula, also appear to have been closely
+connected with the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the
+migration from Scandza.
+
+Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement of the early
+traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the Goths go back to the
+first years of the Christian era, at which time they seem to have been
+subject to the Marcomannic king Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman
+history, however, until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which
+time they appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla.
+During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced
+considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the lower
+Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor Gordianus is called
+"victor Gothorum" by Capitolinus, though we have no record of the ground
+for the claim, and further conflicts are recorded with his successors,
+one of whom, Decius, was slain by the Goths in Moesia. According to
+Jordanes the kings of the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha
+and afterwards Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the
+Anglo-Saxon poem _Widsith_. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay tribute
+to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of the Black Sea,
+and during the next twenty years they frequently ravaged the maritime
+regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian is said to have won a victory
+over them, but the province of Dacia had to be given up. In the time of
+Constantine the Great Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the
+Goths, A.D. 321. Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with
+their king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear of
+subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi, Austrogothi
+(Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not clear whether these
+were all distinct.
+
+Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories far to the
+south and east, it must not be assumed that they had evacuated their old
+lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records several traditions of their
+conflicts with other Teutonic tribes, in particular a victory won by
+Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of the Gepidae, and another by Geberic
+over Visimar, king of the Vandals, about the end of Constantine's reign,
+in consequence of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to
+settle in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of the
+Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, Iörmunrekr), whose deeds are
+recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations. According to
+Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii, the Venedi, and a number
+of other tribes who seem to have been settled in the southern part of
+Russia. From Anglo-Saxon sources it seems probable that his supremacy
+reached westwards as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and
+is said to have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla)
+in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed. Still more
+famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who according to Northern
+tradition was his wife and was cruelly put to death on a false charge of
+unfaithfulness. An attempt to avenge her death was made by her brothers
+Ammius (Hamðir) and Sarus (Sörli) by whom Hermanaric was severely
+wounded. To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits are
+recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom we may mention
+Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others, who in _Widsith_ are
+represented as defending their country against the Huns in the forest of
+the Vistula. Hermanaric committed suicide in his distress at an invasion
+of the Huns about A.D. 370, and the portion of the nation called
+Ostrogoths then came under Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained
+permission to cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the
+nation became Christian about this time (see BELOW). The exactions of
+the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which ended in the
+total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople in the year 378.
+     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+  Later history.
+
+From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths parts asunder, to
+be joined together again only incidentally and for a season. The great
+mass of the East Goths stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the
+overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present play any important
+part in the affairs of the Empire. The great mass of the West Goths
+crossed the Danube into the Roman provinces, and there played a most
+important part in various characters of alliance and enmity. The great
+migration was in 376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful
+settlers under their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have
+tried to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance
+of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the great
+mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern were meanwhile
+thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths suffered from the Roman
+officials, which led first to disputes and then to open war. In 378 the
+Goths won the great battle of Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the
+Great, the successor of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the
+mass of the Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as _foederati_.
+Many of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox
+Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen party among
+the Goths than to the larger part of them who had embraced Arian
+Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Constantinople in 381; he was
+received with high honours, and had a solemn funeral when he died. His
+saying is worth recording, as an example of the effect which Roman
+civilization had on the Teutonic mind. "The emperor," he said, "was a
+god upon earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his own
+head."
+
+The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between the West Goths
+and the Empire. Dissensions arose between them and the ministers of
+Arcadius; the Goths threw off their allegiance, and chose Alaric as
+their king. This was a restoration alike of national unity and of
+national independence. The royal title had not been borne by their
+leaders in the Roman service. Alaric's position is quite different from
+that of several Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple
+rebels. He was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or
+Bold-men, a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His
+whole career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands,
+first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths are under
+him an independent people under a national king; their independence is
+in no way interfered with if the Gothic king, in a moment of peace,
+accepts the office and titles of a Roman general. But under Alaric the
+Goths make no lasting settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and
+warfare between the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up
+this whole time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths,
+provinces are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root
+anywhere; no Western land as yet becomes _Gothia_. Alaric's designs of
+settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the
+Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of his
+career his eyes seem fixed on Africa.
+
+Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the second Gothic
+invasion of that country. In this campaign the religious position of the
+Goths is strongly marked. The Arian appeared as an enemy alike to the
+pagan majority and the Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by
+monks, and his chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples
+(_vide_ G. F. Hertzberg, _Geschichte Griechenlands_, iii. 391). His
+Italian campaigns fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he
+was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho's death.
+In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409, 410). The second
+time it suited a momentary policy to set up a puppet emperor of his own,
+and even to accept a military commission from him. The third time he
+sacked the city, the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken
+by an army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military
+details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history of the
+Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric's reign marks in the history
+of that nation. It stands between two periods of settlement within the
+Empire and of service under the Empire. Under Alaric there is no
+settlement, and service is quite secondary and precarious; after his
+death in 410 the two begin again in new shapes.
+
+Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian invasion of
+Italy, which, according to one view, again brings the East and West
+Goths together. The great mass of the East Goths, as has been already
+said, became one of the many nations which were under vassalage to the
+Huns; but their relation was one merely of vassalage. They remained a
+distinct people under kings of their own, kings of the house of the
+Amali and of the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48). They had to follow
+the lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars of
+their own; and it has been held that among these separate East Gothic
+enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in 405 by Radagaisus
+(whom R. Pallmann[1] writes Ratiger, and takes him for the chief of the
+heathen part of the East Goths). One chronicler, Prosper, makes this
+invasion preceded by another in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus
+appear as partners. The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence
+of Goths in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that
+his invasion was a national Gothic enterprise.
+
+Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric, another era
+opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the end lead to the
+establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy in the West. The position of
+Ataulphus is well marked by the speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He
+had at one time dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning
+_Romania_ into _Gothia_, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus;
+but he had learned that the world could be governed only by the laws of
+Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms for the support of the
+Roman power. And in the confused and contradictory accounts of his
+actions (for the story in Jordanes cannot be reconciled with the
+accounts in Olympiodorus and the chroniclers), we can see something of
+this principle at work throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by
+barbarian invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was to
+win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shiftings of
+allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up the position
+of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia, the daughter of
+the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of the union between Goth
+and Roman, and, had their son Theodosius lived, a dynasty might have
+arisen uniting both claims. But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at
+Barcelona in 415, by his murder at the hands of another faction of the
+Goths. The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a more
+settled state of things was established. The Empire received again, as
+the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis in Spain, and
+Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul. The "second Aquitaine," with
+the sea-coast from the mouth of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire,
+became the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths
+was now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not yet
+begin.
+
+The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows a shifting
+state of relations between the Roman and Gothic powers; but, after
+defeats and successes both ways, the older relation of alliance against
+common enemies was again established. At last Goth and Roman had to join
+together against the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the
+Hun. But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of their
+subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for Attila against
+Christendom at Châlons, just as the Servians came to fight for Bajazet
+against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric fell in the battle (451).
+After this momentary meeting, the history of the East and West Goths
+again separates for a while. The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at
+the expense of the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi.
+Under Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely a
+Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all Gaul south of
+the Loire and west of the Rhône, with all Spain, except the north-west
+corner, which was still held by the Suevi. Provence alone remained to
+the Empire. The West Gothic kings largely adopted Roman manners and
+culture; but, as they still kept to their original Arian creed, their
+rule never became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They
+stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggressive
+Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion of the Frank
+Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long after, the seat of an
+heretical power, against which the forces of northern Gaul marched as on
+a crusade. In 507 the West Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the
+Frankish arms at Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as
+a great power north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a
+fragment of Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing
+to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest man
+in Gothic history.
+
+When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of Attila, the East
+Goths recovered their full independence. They now entered into relations
+with the Empire, and were settled on lands in Pannonia. During the
+greater part of the latter half of the 5th century, the East Goths play
+in south-eastern Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played
+in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every
+conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern Roman
+power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them, they pass from
+the East to the West. They are still ruled by kings of the house of the
+Amali, and from that house there now steps forward a great figure,
+famous alike in history and in romance, in the person of Theodoric, son
+of Theodemir. Born about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople
+as a hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of his
+life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars within the
+Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another Theodoric, son of
+Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older but lesser Theodoric seems to
+have been the chief, not the king, of that branch of the East Goths
+which had settled within the Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the
+Great, as he is sometimes distinguished, is sometimes the friend,
+sometimes the enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed
+with various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but in
+all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It was in both
+characters together that he set out in 488, by commission from the
+emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer. By 493 Ravenna was taken;
+Odoacer was killed by Theodoric's own hand; and the East Gothic power
+was fully established over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the
+north of Italy. In this war the history of the East and West Goths
+begins again to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that
+Theodoric was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches of the
+nation were soon brought much more closely together, when, through the
+overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse, the power of Theodoric
+was practically extended over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the
+whole of Spain. A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II.,
+and, as that prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic
+king stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and preserved
+for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish dominion. Toulouse
+passed away to the Frank; but the Goth kept Narbonne and its district,
+the land of Septimania--the land which, as the last part of Gaul held by
+the Goths, kept the name of _Gothia_ for many ages. While Theodoric
+lived, the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own
+dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protectorate over the
+Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have practically exercised it,
+except in the case of the Franks.
+
+The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent and far more
+splendid than it could have been in the time of Ermanaric. But it was
+now of a wholly different character. The dominion of Theodoric was not a
+barbarian but a civilized power. His twofold position ran through
+everything. He was at once national king of the Goths, and successor,
+though without any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West.
+The two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived side
+by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its own law,
+by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, the common
+sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric's rule is drawn for us in
+the state papers drawn up in his name and in the names of his successors
+by his Roman minister Cassiodorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on
+the ground in northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than
+garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed protector of the
+peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of government, while the
+Roman consul had the honour. All the forms of the Roman administration
+went on, and the Roman polity and Roman culture had great influence on
+the Goths themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations
+in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic freedom was
+necessarily lost. Such a system as that which Theodoric established
+needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It broke in pieces after his death.
+
+On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths were again
+separated. The few instances in which they are found acting together
+after this time are as scattered and incidental as they were before.
+Amalaric succeeded to the West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania.
+Provence was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king
+Athalaric, the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha.
+The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy now showed itself. The
+long wars of Justinian's reign (535-555) recovered Italy for the Empire,
+and the Gothic name died out on Italian soil. The chance of forming a
+national state in Italy by the union of Roman and Teutonic elements,
+such as those which arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under
+Lombard rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed
+before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war of course
+made the distinction stronger; under the kings who were chosen for the
+purposes of the war national Gothic feeling had revived. The Goths were
+now again, if not a wandering people, yet an armed host, no longer the
+protectors but the enemies of the Roman people of Italy. The East
+Gothic dominion and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation
+had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his expedition
+that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders, m the eastern
+provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation passed away almost without
+a trace, while the next Teutonic conquerors stamped their name on the
+two ends of the land, one of which keeps it to this day.
+
+The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came much nearer to
+establishing itself as a national power in the lands which it took in.
+But the difference of race and faith between the Arian Goths and the
+Catholic Romans of Gaul and Spain influenced the history of the West
+Gothic kingdom for a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic
+subjects, and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks were
+Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became Catholics much
+earlier than the Goths. The African conquests of Belisarius gave the
+Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian Vandals, another Catholic neighbour
+in the form of the restored Roman power. The Catholics everywhere
+preferred either Roman, Suevian or Frankish rule to that of the
+heretical Goths; even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem
+for a while to have received a Frankish governor. In some other mountain
+districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained their independence, and
+in 534 a large part of the south of Spain, including the great cities of
+Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New Carthage, was, with the good will of its
+Roman inhabitants, reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the
+coast as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire was
+carrying on in Italy against the East Goths was at the same moment
+carried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in Italy the whole land
+was for a while won back, and the Gothic power passed away for ever. In
+Spain the Gothic power outlived the Roman power, but it outlived it only
+by itself becoming in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the
+Gothic power as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He
+reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which had been
+parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion to his own; he
+overcame some of the independent districts, and won back part of the
+recovered Roman province in southern Spain. He further established the
+power of the crown over the Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow
+into territorial lords. The next reign, that of his son Recared
+(586-601), was marked by a change which took away the great hindrance
+which had thus far stood in the way of any national union between Goths
+and Romans. The king and the greater part of the Gothic people embraced
+the Catholic faith. A vast degree of influence now fell into the hands
+of the Catholic bishops; the two nations began to unite; the Goths were
+gradually romanized and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In
+short, the Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to be
+formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the Roman mass.
+The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic kingdom. "Gothic," not
+"Roman" or "Spanish," is its formal title; only a single late instance
+of the use of the formula "regnum Hispaniae" is known. In the first half
+of the 7th century that name became for the first time geographically
+applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern Spain.
+The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle with the Avars and
+Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings were Catholic, the great
+objection to their rule on the part of the Roman inhabitants was taken
+away. The Gothic nobility still remained a distinct class, and held,
+along with the Catholic prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union
+with the Catholic Church was accompanied by the introduction of the
+ecclesiastical ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to
+elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended again to
+favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow up in Spain before
+the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West Gothic crown therefore remained
+elective till the end. The modern Spanish nation is the growth of the
+long struggle with the Mussulmans; but it has a direct connexion with
+the West Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether
+a different place in Spanish memory from that which they hold in Italian
+memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary invader and ruler; the
+Teutonic element in Italy comes from other sources. In Spain the Goth
+supplies an important element in the modern nation. And that element has
+been neither forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of
+northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name of
+Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim. The name of
+the people who played so great a part in all southern Europe, and who
+actually ruled over so large a part of it has now wholly passed away;
+but it is in Spain that its historical impress is to be looked for.
+
+Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible of
+Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments (see GOTHIC
+LANGUAGE below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin we have the edict of
+Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F. Bluhme in the _Monumenta
+Germaniae historica_; and the books of _Variae_ of Cassiodorus may pass
+as a collection of the state papers of Theodoric and his immediate
+successors. Among the West Goths written laws had already been put forth
+by Euric. The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a _Breviarium_ of Roman
+law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West Gothic laws
+dates from the later days of the monarchy, being put forth by King
+Recceswinth about 654. This code gave occasion to some well-known
+comments by Montesquieu and Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny
+(_Geschichte des römischen Rechts_, ii. 65) and various other writers.
+They are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae, leges_, tome i. (1902). Of
+special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already so often
+quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, a
+special source of the history of the West Gothic kings down to Svinthala
+(621-631). But all the Latin and Greek writers contemporary with the
+days of Gothic predominance make their constant contributions. Not for
+special facts, but for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive
+than Salvian of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work _De
+Gubernatione Dei_ is full of passages contrasting the vices of the
+Romans with the virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In
+all such pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways,
+but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues which the
+Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are their chastity, their
+piety according to their own creed, their tolerance towards the
+Catholics under their rule, and their general good treatment of their
+Roman subjects. He even ventures to hope that such good people may be
+saved, notwithstanding their heresy. All this must have had some
+groundwork of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful if
+the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from the
+doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian.     (E. A. F.)
+
+  There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the
+  principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_
+  (Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, _Geschichte der Westgoten_
+  (Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, _Die Könige der Germanen_ (1861-1899); E.
+  von Wietersheim, _Geschichte der Völkerwanderung_ (1880-1881); R.
+  Pallmann, _Die Geschichte der Völkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864); B.
+  Rappaport, _Die Einfälle der Goten in das römische Reich_ (Leipzig,
+  1899), and K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme_ (Munich,
+  1837). Other works which may be consulted are: E. Gibbon, _Decline and
+  Fall of the Roman Empire_, edited by J. B. Bury (1896-1900); H. H.
+  Milman, _History of Latin Christianity_ (1867); J. B. Bury, _History
+  of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889); P. Villari, _Le Invasioni
+  barbariche in Italia_ (Milan, 1901); and F. Martroye, _L'Occident à
+  l'époque byzantine: Goths et Vandales_ (Paris, 1903). There is a
+  popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the "Story of the
+  Nations" series (London, 1888). For the laws see the _Leges_ in Band
+  I. of the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges_ (1902). A.
+  Helfferich, _Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts_ (Berlin,
+  1858); F. Bluhme, _Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts_ (1872); F.
+  Dahn, _Lex Visigothorum_. _Westgotische Studien_ (Würzburg, 1874); C.
+  Rinaudo, _Leggi dei Visigote, studio_ (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer,
+  "Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung" in the _Neues Archiv der
+  Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde_. See also the
+  article on THEODORIC.
+
+_Gothic Language._--Our knowledge of the Gothic language is derived
+almost entirely from the fragments of a translation of the Bible which
+is believed to have been made by the Arian bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d.
+383) for the Goths who dwelt on the lower Danube. The MSS. which have
+come down to us and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in
+Italy (489-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete,
+together with more or less considerable fragments of the four Gospels
+and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains of the Old
+Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and Nehemiah. There is also
+an incomplete commentary (_skeireins_) on St John's Gospel, a fragment
+of a calendar, and two charters (from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now
+lost) which contain some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written
+in a special character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila.
+It is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which indeed most
+of the letters are obviously derived, and several orthographical
+peculiarities, e.g. the use of _ai_ for _e_ and _ei_ for _i_ reflect the
+Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters, however, have been
+taken over from the Runic and Latin alphabets. Apart from the texts
+mentioned above, the only remains of the Gothic language are the proper
+names and occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings,
+together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a Salzburg
+MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions on a torque and a
+spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia) and Kovel (Volhynia)
+respectively. The language itself, as might be expected from the date of
+Wulfila's translation, is of a much more archaic type than that of any
+other Teutonic writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest
+Northern inscriptions. This may be seen, e.g. in the better preservation
+of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual and
+the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite erroneous,
+however, to regard the Gothic fragments as representing a type of
+language common to all Teutonic nations in the 4th century. Indeed the
+distinctive characteristics of the language are very marked, and there
+is good reason for believing that it differed considerably from the
+various northern and western languages, whereas the differences among
+the latter at this time were probably comparatively slight (see TEUTONIC
+LANGUAGES). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that the language
+of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius (_Vand._ i. 2) states
+distinctly that the Gothic language was spoken not only by the
+Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the Vandals and the Gepidae; and in
+the former case there is sufficient evidence, chiefly from proper names,
+to prove that his statement is not far from the truth. With regard to
+the Gepidae we have less information; but since the Goths, according to
+Jordanes (cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of
+their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages were at
+least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (_Vand._ i. 3; _Goth._ i. 1,
+iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as Gothic nations. The fact
+that the two former were sprung from the north-east of Germany renders
+it probable that they had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though
+non-Teutonic in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the
+migration period. Some modern writers have included in the same class
+the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently come from the basin of
+the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal on the whole hardly justifies
+the supposition that their language retained a close affinity with
+Gothic.
+
+In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language--using the term in its
+widest sense--must have spread over the greater part of Europe together
+with the north coast of Africa. It disappeared, however, with surprising
+rapidity. There is no evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after
+the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is
+doubtful whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic
+conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat longer in view
+of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned above. Possibly the
+information there given was derived from southern Hungary or
+Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae were to be found shortly
+before the Magyar invasion (889). According to Walafridus Strabo (_de
+Reb. Eccles._ cap. 7) also Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th
+century) in some churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth
+the language seems to have survived only among the Goths (_Goti
+Tetraxitae_) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time by Ogier
+Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constantinople about the
+middle of the 16th century. He collected a number of words and phrases
+in use among them which show clearly that their language, though not
+unaffected by Iranian influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic.
+
+  See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, _Ulfilas_ (Altenburg and
+  Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, _Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel_
+  (Halle, 1875). For other works on the Gothic language see J. Wright,
+  _A Primer of the Gothic Language_ (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To the
+  references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck,
+  _Etymologisches Wörterbuch d. got. Sprache_ (Amsterdam, 2nd ed. 1901);
+  F. Kluge, "Geschichte d. got. Sprache" in H. Paul's _Grundriss d.
+  germ. Philologie_ (2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg,
+  _Gotisches Elementarbuch_ (Heidelberg, 1897); Th. von Grienberger,
+  _Beiträge zur Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur_, xxi. 185
+  ff.; L. F. A. Wimmer, _Die Runenschrift_ (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff.; G.
+  Stephens, _Handbook to the Runic Monuments_ (London, 1884), p. 203; F.
+  Wrede, _Über die Sprache der Wandalen_ (Strassburg, 1886). For further
+  references see K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen_, p. 432 f. (where earlier
+  references to the Crimean Goths are also given); F. Kluge, _op. cit._,
+  p. 515 ff.; and O. Bremer, _ib._ vol. iii., p. 822.     (H. M. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Geschichte der Völkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864).
+
+
+
+
+GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden, lying between
+57° and 58° N., and having a length from S.S.W. to N.N.E. of 75 m., a
+breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area of 1142 sq. m. The nearest
+point on the mainland is 50 m. from the westernmost point of the island.
+With the island Fårö, off the northern extremity, the Karlsöe, off the
+west coast, and Götska Sandö, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the
+administrative district (_län_) of Gotland. The island is a level
+plateau of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average
+height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering,
+free-standing columns of limestone (_raukar_). A few low isolated hills
+rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although in parts
+dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors have been
+largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive sand-dunes in the
+north. As usual in a limestone formation, some of the streams have their
+courses partly below the surface, and caverns are not infrequent. Less
+than half the total area is under forest, the extent of which was
+formerly much greater. Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially
+the first, which is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The
+sugar-beet is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works
+on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government sheep
+farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging principally to an
+old native breed, yellow and horned. Some lime-burning, cement-making
+and sea-fishing are carried on. The capital of the island is Visby, on
+the west coast. There are over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby
+N.E. to Tingstäde and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to
+Klintehamn, a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn
+on the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic
+attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly
+every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no villages
+remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one of the richest
+commercial centres of the Baltic from the 11th to the 14th century, and
+its prosperity was shared by the whole island. It retains ten churches
+besides the cathedral. The massive towers of the village churches are
+often detached, and doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches
+of Roma, Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Lärbo may be
+specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at Dalhem near
+Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect distinguished from that of
+any part of the Swedish mainland. Pop. of _län_ (1900) 52,781.
+
+Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was christianized
+by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from his exile at Kiev. He
+dedicated the first church in the island to St Peter at Visby. At that
+time Visby had long been one of the most important trading towns in the
+Baltic, and the chief distributing centre of the oriental commerce which
+came to Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the
+Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century, it became
+the chief depôt for the produce of the eastern Baltic countries,
+including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony (11th century or
+earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although Visby was an independent member
+of the Hanseatic League, the influence of Lübeck was paramount in the
+city, and half its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed,
+Björkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German (Hanseatic)
+foundation, dating principally from the middle of the 12th century.
+However that may be, the importance of Visby in the sea trade of the
+North is conclusively attested by the famous code of maritime law which
+bears its name. This _Waterrecht dat de Kooplüde en de Schippers gemakt
+hebben to Visby_ ("sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made at
+Visby") was a compilation based upon the Lübeck code, the Oléron code
+and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed in Low German in 1505, but
+in all probability had its origin about 1240, or not much later (see SEA
+LAWS). By the middle of the the city was so great that, according to an
+old ballad, "the Gotlanders weighed out gold with stone weights and
+played with the choicest jewels. The swine ate out of silver troughs,
+and the women spun with distaffs of gold." This fabled wealth was too
+strong a temptation for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In
+1361 he invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the city
+walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the islanders who
+fell) and plundered the city. From this blow it never recovered, its
+decay being, however, materially helped by the fact that for the greater
+part of the next 150 years it was the stronghold of successive
+freebooters or sea-rovers--first, of the Hanseatic privateers called
+Vitalienbrödre or Viktualienbrüder, who made it their stronghold during
+the last eight years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights,
+whose Grand Master drove out the "Victuals Brothers," and kept the
+island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too Erik XIII.
+(the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark by his own subjects,
+established himself in 1437, and for a dozen years waged piracy upon
+Danes and Swedes alike. After him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish
+lords, who down to the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates'
+stronghold of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Sören Norrby, the last
+supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master's cause was lost,
+waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships and others from the
+same convenient base. But this led to an expedition by the men of
+Lübeck, who partly destroyed Visby in 1525. By the peace of Stettin
+(1570) Gotland was confirmed to the Danish crown, to which it had been
+given by Queen Margaret. But at the peace of Brömsebro in 1645 it was at
+length restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for
+the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the Danes,
+and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.
+
+The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a spirit of
+independence, and their relations with Sweden were curious. The island
+at one period paid an annual tribute of 60 marks of silver to Sweden,
+but it was clearly recognized that it was paid by the desire of the
+Gotlanders, and not enforced by Sweden. The pope recognized their
+independence, and it was by their own free will that they came under the
+spiritual charge of the bishop of Linköping. Their local government was
+republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the written
+_Gotland Law_, which dates not later than the middle of the 13th
+century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the measures adopted by
+this body, and there was no Swedish judge or other official in the
+island. Visby had a system of government and rights independent of, and
+in some measure opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems
+clear that there were at one time two separate corporations, for the
+native Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that these
+were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native Gotlanders were
+not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole--even intermarriage was
+illegal--but Germans, on account of their commercial pre-eminence in the
+island, were excepted.
+
+  See C. H. Bergman, _Gotland's geografi och historia_ (Stockholm, 1898)
+  and _Gotländska skildringar och minnen_ (Visby, 1902); A. T. Snöbohm,
+  _Gotlands land och folk_ (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler, _Bidrag till
+  en Gotländsk bibliografi_ (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hildebrand, _Visby
+  och dess Minnesmärken_ (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.); A. Björkander, _Till
+  Visby Stads Aeldsta Historia_ (1898), where most of the literature
+  dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of the author's
+  arguments require criticism. For local government and rights see K.
+  Hegel, _Städter und Gilden im Mittelalter_ (book iii. ch. iii.,
+  Leipzig, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+GOTO ISLANDS [GOTO RETTO, GOTTO], a group of islands belonging to Japan,
+lying west of Kiushiu, in 33° N., 129° E. The southern of the two
+principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures 17 m. by 13½; the northern,
+Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by 7½. These islands lie almost in the
+direct route of steamers plying between Nagasaki and Shanghai, and are
+distant some 50 m. from Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped hills command the old
+castle-town of Fukae. The islands are highly cultivated; deer and other
+game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain streams. A majority
+of the inhabitants are Christians.
+
+
+
+
+GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1746-1797), German poet and dramatist, was
+born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha. After the completion of his
+university career at Göttingen, he was appointed second director of the
+Archive of his native town, and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat
+of the imperial law courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
+legation. In 1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen,
+and here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous _Göttinger
+Musenalmanach_. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where he belonged
+to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years later he took up his
+permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on the 18th of March 1797.
+Gotter was the chief representative of French taste in the German
+literary life of his time. His own poetry is elegant and polished, and
+in great measure free from the trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of
+the earlier generation of imitators of French literature; but he was
+lacking in the imaginative depth that characterizes the German poetic
+temperament. His plays, of which _Merope_ (1774), an adaptation in
+admirable blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and
+_Medea_ (1775), a _melodrame_, are best known, were mostly based on
+French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting the
+formlessness and irregularity of the _Sturm und Drang_ drama.
+
+  Gutter's collected _Gedichte_ appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; a
+  third volume (1802) contains his _Literarischer Nachlass_. See B.
+  Litzmann, _Schröder und Gotter_ (1887), and R. Schlösser, _F. W.
+  Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German poets of the middle
+ages. The dates of his birth and death are alike unknown, but he was the
+contemporary of Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von
+der Vogelweide, and his epic _Tristan_ was written about the year 1210.
+In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as he is entitled
+_Meister_, never _Herr_, by his contemporaries; his poem--the only work
+that can with any certainty be attributed to him--bears witness to a
+learned education. The story of _Tristan_ had been evolved from its
+shadowy Celtic origins by the French _trouvères_ of the early 12th
+century, and had already found its way into Germany before the close of
+that century, in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It
+was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version is based
+not on that of Chrétien de Troyes, but on that of a _trouvère_ Thomas,
+who seems to have been more popular with contemporaries. A comparison of
+the German epic with the French original is, however, impossible, as
+Chrétien's _Tristan_ is entirely lost, and of Thomas's only a few
+fragments have come down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage
+which Tristan, a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal
+(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king's bride.
+On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by mistake a love potion,
+which binds them irrevocably to each other. The epic resolves itself
+into a series of love intrigues in which the two lovers ingeniously
+outwit the trusting king. They are ultimately discovered, and Tristan
+flees to Normandy where he marries another Isolde--"Isolde with the
+white hands"--without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland.
+At this point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close of
+the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time, Ulrich von
+Türheim and Heinrich von Freiberg--the latter much the superior--who
+have supplied the conclusion. After further love adventures Tristan is
+fatally wounded by a poisoned spear in Normandy; the "blond Isolde," as
+the only person who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall.
+The ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, a
+black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him, announcing that
+the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, she finds her lover dead.
+Marke at last learns the truth concerning the love potion, and has the
+two lovers buried side by side in Kurnewal.
+
+It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence of his
+French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely the narrative
+of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, introduced into the story
+an astounding fineness of psychological motive, which, to judge from a
+general comparison of the Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather
+than French; he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has,
+above all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval
+literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing and
+seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never for a moment
+disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the tragedy is unrolled with
+an earnestness that admits of no touch of humour, and also, it may be
+added, with a freedom from moralizing which was easier to attain in the
+13th than in later centuries. The mastery of style is no less
+conspicuous. Gottfried had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von
+Aue, but he was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and
+rhythms than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, and
+indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent that proved
+fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression is concerned,
+Gottfried's _Tristan_ is the masterpiece of the German court epic.
+
+  Gottfried's _Tristan_ has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman
+  (Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed.,
+  Leipzig,1890-1891); by W. Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K.
+  Marold (1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H.
+  Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best of
+  all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated
+  English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The
+  continuation of Ulrich von Türheim will be found in Massman's edition;
+  that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited by R.
+  Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, "Gottfrieds von
+  Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle" in the _Zeit. für deut. Alt._
+  xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff.; W. Golther, _Die Sage von Tristan und
+  Isolde_ (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, _L'Originalité de Gottfried de
+  Strasbourg dans son poème de Tristan et Isolde_ (Lille, 1905). K.
+  Immermann (q.v.) has written an epic of _Tristan und Isolde_ (1840),
+  R. Wagner (q.v.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, _Tristan
+  und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit_ (Leipzig, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+GÖTTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg (1200 ft.), in the
+broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S. from Hanover, on the
+railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057, (1905) 34,030. It is traversed by
+the Leine canal, which separates the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from
+Masch, and is surrounded by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees
+and form an agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the
+town are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions
+are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant churches
+of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a high tower (290
+ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th century and restored in
+1880, and the numerous university buildings, Göttingen possesses few
+structures of any public importance. There are several thriving
+industries, including, besides the various branches of the publishing
+trade, the manufacture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and
+other scientific instruments.
+
+The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by George II. in
+1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading position, and in
+1823 its students numbered 1547. Political disturbances, in which both
+professors and students were implicated, lowered the attendance to 860
+in 1834. The expulsion in 1837 of the famous seven professors--_Die
+Göttinger Sieben_--viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht
+(1800-1876); the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860);
+the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); the historian,
+Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the physicist, Wilhelm Eduard
+Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl
+Grimm (1785-1863), and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),--for protesting
+against the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the liberal
+constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of the university.
+The events of 1848, on the other hand, told somewhat in its favour; and,
+since the annexation of Hanover in 1866, it has been carefully fostered
+by the Prussian government. In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and
+its students 1529. The main university building lies on the
+Wilhelmsplatz, and, adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols,
+and 5300 MSS., the richest collection of modern literature in Germany.
+There is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological,
+ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable being
+Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the anatomical institute.
+There are also a celebrated observatory, long under the direction of
+Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), a botanical garden, an agricultural
+institute and various hospitals, all connected with the university. Of
+the scientific societies the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences
+(_Königliche Sozietät der Wissenschaften_) founded by Albrecht von
+Haller, which is divided into three classes, the physical, the
+mathematical and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80
+members and publishes the well-known _Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen_.
+There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. Gauss and W.
+E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Bürger.
+
+The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs in
+documents of about 950 A.D. The place received municipal rights from the
+German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from 1286 to 1463 it was the seat
+of the princely house of Brunswick-Göttingen. During the 14th century it
+held a high place among the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it
+joined the Reformation movement, and in the following century it
+suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly in
+1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the Saxons in 1632.
+After a century of decay, it was anew brought into importance by the
+establishment of its university; and a marked increase in its industrial
+and commercial prosperity has again taken place in recent years. Towards
+the end of the 18th century Göttingen was the centre of a society of
+young poets of the _Sturm und Drang_ period of German literature, known
+as the _Göttingen Dichterbund_ or _Hainbund_ (see GERMANY:
+_Literature_).
+
+  See Freusdorff, _Göttingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Göttingen,
+  1887); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Göttingen_, edited by G. Schmidt,
+  A. Hasselblatt and G. Kästner; Unger, _Göttingen und die Georgia
+  Augusta_ (1861); and _Göttinger Professoren_ (Gotha, 1872); and O.
+  Mejer, _Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Göttingen_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+GÖTTLING, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical scholar, was born
+at Jena on the 19th of January 1793. He studied at the universities of
+Jena and Berlin, took part in the war against France in 1814, and
+finally settled down in 1822 as professor at the university of his
+native town, where he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of
+January 1869. In his early years Göttling devoted himself to German
+literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: _Über das
+Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede_ (1814) and _Nibelungen und Gibelinen_
+(1817). The greater part of his life, however, was devoted to the study
+of classical literature, especially the elucidation of Greek authors.
+The contents of his _Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem klassischen
+Altertum_ (1851-1863) and _Opuscula Academica_ (published in 1869 after
+his death) sufficiently indicate the varied nature of his studies. He
+edited the [Greek: Technê] (grammatical manual) of Theodosius of
+Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's _Politics_ (1824), and _Economics_ (1830)
+and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made
+of his _Allgemeine Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache_ (1835),
+enlarged from a smaller work, which was translated into English (1831)
+as the _Elements of Greek Accentuation_; and of his _Correspondence with
+Goethe_ (published 1880).
+
+  See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. Lothholz
+  (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the _Opuscula Academica_),
+  and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, ix.
+
+
+
+
+GOTTSCHALK [GODESCALUS, GOTTESCALE], (c. 808-867?), German theologian,
+was born near Mainz, and was devoted (_oblatus_) from infancy by his
+parents,--his father was a Saxon, Count Bern,--to the monastic life. He
+was trained at the monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus
+Maurus, and became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrières.
+In June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been
+unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his liberty,
+withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and then to the
+monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. There he studied St
+Augustine, with the result that he became an enthusiastic believer in
+the doctrine of absolute predestination, in one point going beyond his
+master--Gottschalk believing in a predestination to condemnation as well
+as in a predestination to salvation, while Augustine had contented
+himself with the doctrine of preterition as complementary to the
+doctrine of election. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained
+priest, without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, _chorepiscopus_
+of Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy,
+preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered into
+relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard, count of Friuli.
+Driven from Italy through the influence of Hrabanus Maurus, now
+archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two violent letters to Notting and
+Eberhard, he travelled through Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but
+continued preaching and writing. In October 848 he presented to the
+synod at Mainz a profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas
+expressed by Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted,
+however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never again
+enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over to Hincmar,
+archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his monastery at Orbais. The
+next year at a provincial council at Quierzy, presided over by Charles
+the Bald, he attempted to justify his ideas, but was again condemned as
+a heretic and disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the
+priesthood, whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut
+up in the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to induce
+him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend his doctrine,
+writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians of France and
+Germany. A great controversy resulted. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes,
+Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of Corbie, Loup of Ferrières and Florus of
+Lyons wrote in his favour. Hincmar wrote _De praedestinatione_ and _De
+una non trina deitate_ against his views, but gained little aid from
+Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. The
+question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of Valence (855)
+and of Savonnières (859). Finally the pope Nicolas I. took up the case,
+and summoned Hincmar to the council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could
+not or would not appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend
+himself before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when Hincmar
+learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him the sacraments or
+burial in consecrated ground unless he would recant. This Gottschalk
+refused to do. He died on the 30th of October between 866 and 870.
+
+Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a violent
+temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in his ideas as in
+his conduct. He was less an innovator than a reactionary. Of his many
+works we have only the two professions of faith (cf. Migne, _Patrologia
+Latina_, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), and some poems, edited by L. Traube in
+_Monumenta Germaniae historica: Poëtae Latini aevi Carolini_ (t. iii.
+707-738). Some fragments of his theological treatises have been
+preserved in the writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of
+Ferrières.
+
+  From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, much
+  has been written on him. Mention may be made of two recent studies, F.
+  Picavet, "Les Discussions sur la liberté au temps de Gottschalk, de
+  Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in _Comptes rendus de l'acad.
+  des sciences morales et politiques_ (Paris, 1896); and A. Freystedt,
+  "Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und Lehre," in _Zeitschrift für
+  Kirchengeschichte_ (1897), vol. xviii.
+
+
+
+
+GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of letters, was born at
+Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the son of a Prussian artillery
+officer. He received his early education at the gymnasia in Mainz and
+Coburg, and subsequently at Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he
+entered the university of Königsberg as a student of law, but, in
+consequence of his pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The
+academic authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant
+towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he
+eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During this
+period of unrest he issued _Lieder der Gegenwart_ (1842) and
+_Zensurflüchtlinge_ (1843)--the poetical fruits of his political
+enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree of
+_doctor juris_ in Königsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the _venia
+legendi_. His political views again stood in the way, and forsaking the
+legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely to literature. He
+met with immediate success, and beginning as dramaturge in Königsberg
+with _Der Blinde von Alcala_ (1846) and _Lord Byron in Italien_ (1847)
+proceeded to Hamburg where he occupied a similar position. In 1852 he
+married Marie, baroness von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years
+lived in Silesia. In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen
+newspaper, but in 1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in
+1877, by the king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix
+"von," having been previously made a _Geheimer Hofrat_ by the grand duke
+of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the _Brockhaus'sche Blätter
+für litterarische Unterhaltung_ and the monthly periodical _Unsere
+Zeit_. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.
+
+Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of poetry,
+novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes of lyric poetry
+are _Sebastopol_ (1856), _Janus_ (1873), _Bunte Blüten_ (1891). Among
+his epics, _Carlo Zeno_ (1854), _Maja_ (1864), dealing with an episode
+in the Indian Mutiny, and _Merlins Wanderungen_ (1887). The comedy _Pitt
+und Fox_ (1854), first produced on the stage in Breslau, was never
+surpassed by the other lighter pieces of the author, among which may be
+mentioned _Die Welt des Schwindels_ and _Der Spion von Rheinsberg_. The
+tragedies, _Mazeppa_, _Catharine Howard_, _Amy Robsart_ and _Der Götze
+von Venedig_, were very successful; and the historical novels, _Im Banne
+des schwarzen Adlers_ (1875; 4th ed., 1884), _Die Erbschaft des Blutes_
+(1881), _Die Tochter Rübezahls_ (1889), and _Verkümmerte Existenzen_
+(1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a critic and historian
+of literature Gottschall has also done excellent work. His _Die deutsche
+Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and
+_Poetik_ (1858; 6th ed., 1903) command the respect of all students of
+literature.
+
+  Gottschall's collected _Dramatische Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. in
+  1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many
+  volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography,
+  _Aus meiner Jugend_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German author and critic, was
+born on the 2nd of February 1700, at Judithenkirch near Königsberg, the
+son of a Lutheran clergyman. He studied philosophy and history at the
+university of his native town, but immediately on taking the degree of
+_Magister_ in 1723, fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the
+Prussian military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B.
+Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of "Philander von der Linde,"
+was a well-known poet and also president of the _Deutschübende poetische
+Gesellschaft_ in Leipzig. Of this society Gottsched was elected "Senior"
+in 1726, and in the next year reorganized it under the title of the
+_Deutsche Gesellschaft_. In 1730 he was appointed extraordinary
+professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and
+metaphysics in the university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of
+December 1766.
+
+Gottsched's chief work was his _Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst für
+die Deutschen_ (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the
+art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His _Ausführliche
+Redekunst_ (1728) and his _Grundlegung einer_ _deutschen Sprachkunst_
+(1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the
+purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which _Der
+sterbende Cato_ (1732), an adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French
+play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. In his _Deutsche
+Schaubühne_ (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations
+from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical
+repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, _Nötiger Vorrat zur
+Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst_ (1757-1765), is still
+valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary
+criticism. As a critic, Gottsched insisted on German literature being
+subordinated to the laws of French classicism; he enunciated rules by
+which the playwright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery
+from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded a healthy
+corrective to the extravagance and want of taste which were rampant in
+the German literature of the time, Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he
+came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.) and
+Johann Jakob Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison
+and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic imagination
+should not be hampered by artificial rules; they pointed to the great
+English poets, and especially to Milton. Gottsched, although not blind
+to the beauties of the English writers, clung the more tenaciously to
+his principle that poetry must be the product of rules, and, in the
+fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zürich, he
+was inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and before his
+death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly.
+
+His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, née Kulmus (1713-1762), in some
+respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an author of some
+reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, of which _Das Testament_
+is the best, and translated the _Spectator_ (9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope's
+_Rape of the Lock_ (1744) and other English and French works. After her
+death her husband edited her _Sämtliche kleinere Gedichte_ with a memoir
+(1763).
+
+  See T. W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.
+  Crüger, Gottsched, _Bodmer, und Breitinger_ (with selections from
+  their writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, _Die Poetik Gottscheds
+  und der Schweizer_ (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, _Gottscheds Stellung
+  im deutschen Bildungsleben_ (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek,
+  _Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1897). On
+  Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, _Frau Gottsched und die bürgerliche
+  Komödie_ (Berlin, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+GÖTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was born at Worms on the
+9th of July 1721. He studied theology at Halle (1739-1742), where he
+became intimate with the poets Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz,
+acted for some years as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various
+other ecclesiastical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of
+November 1781. The writings of Götz consist of a number of short lyrics
+and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of Anacreon.
+His original compositions are light, lively and sparkling, and are
+animated rather by French wit than by German depth of sentiment. The
+best known of his poems is _Die Mädcheninsel_, an elegy which met with
+the warm approval of Frederick the Great.
+
+  Götz's _Vermischte Gedichte_ were published with biography by K. W.
+  Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of his poems,
+  dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by C. Schüddekopf in
+  the _Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1893).
+  See also _Briefe von und an J. N. Götz_, edited by C. Schüddekopf
+  (1893).
+
+
+
+
+GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. _guazzo_ (probably in
+origin connected with "wash"), meaning literally a "ford," but used also
+for a method of painting in opaque water-colour. The colours are mixed
+with or painted in a vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true
+water-colours the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface
+of the paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through a
+translucent wash in "gouache," these are obtained by white or other
+light colour. "Gouache" is frequently used in miniature painting.
+
+
+
+
+GOUDA (or TER GOUWE), a town of Holland, in the province of South
+Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence with the Ysel,
+and a junction station 12½ m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1900)
+22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven (5½m. N.) on the old Rhine
+and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on the Ysel; and there is a regular
+steamboat service in various directions, Amsterdam being reached by the
+canalized Gouwe; Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out
+in a fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by
+numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine trees have
+replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt is the largest
+market-square in Holland. Among the numerous churches belonging to
+various denominations, the first place must be given to the Groote Kerk
+of St John. It was founded in 1485, but rebuilt after a fire in 1552,
+and is remarkable for its dimensions (345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad),
+for a large and celebrated organ, and a splendid series of over forty
+stained-glass windows presented by cities and princes and executed by
+various well-known artists, including the brothers Dirk (d. c. 1577) and
+Wouter (d. c. 1590) Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see
+_Explanation of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c._, Gouda, 1876,
+reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy buildings are
+the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt in 1690, and the
+weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem (1608-1669) and adorned
+with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers (d. c. 1690). The museum of
+antiquities (1874) contains an exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and
+some pictures and portraits by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel
+(a native of Gouda, 1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other
+buildings are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for
+women and a music hall.
+
+In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly derived from
+brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date the making of clay
+tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, although this industry has
+somewhat declined, the churchwarden pipes of Gouda are still well known
+and largely manufactured. In winter-time it is considered a feat to
+skate hither from Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return
+with it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the Ysel
+furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries; there are
+also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a yarn factory, an
+oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit and shipping trade is
+considerable, and as one of the principal markets of South Holland, the
+round, white Gouda cheeses are known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N.
+by W. of Gouda on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the
+little old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous
+theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater contains
+a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating the capture of the town
+by the Spaniards in 1575 and the subsequent sack and massacre.
+
+
+
+
+GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, musical composer of the 16th century, was born about
+1510. The French and the Belgians claim him as their countryman. In all
+probability he was born at Besançon, for in his edition of the songs of
+Arcadelt, as well as in the mass of 1554, he calls himself "natif de
+Besançon" and "Claudius Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances
+the theory of Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his
+early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent Latin in
+which some of his letters were written proves that, in addition to his
+musical knowledge, he also acquired a good classical training. It is
+supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 at the head of a music-school, and
+that besides many other celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his
+pupils. About the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for
+Paris, where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in 1555,
+a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more important is another
+collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the celebrated French version
+of the Psalms by Marot and Beza published in 1565. It is written in four
+parts, the melody being assigned to the tenor. The invention of the
+melodies was long ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely
+been proved to have originated in popular tunes found in the
+collections of this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the
+French Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German Lutherans, a
+German imitation of the French versions of the Psalms in the same metres
+having been published at an early date. Although the French version of
+the Psalms was at first used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there
+is little doubt that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel
+Brenet's Biographie (_Annales franc-cuntoises_, Besançon, 1898, P.
+Jacquin) it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565,
+Goudimel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather to the
+daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years later he fell a
+victim to religious fanaticism during the St Bartholomew massacres at
+Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of August 1572, his death, it is stated,
+being due to "les ennemis de la gloire de Dieu et quelques méchants
+envieux de l'honneur qu'il avait acquis." Masses and motets belonging to
+his Roman period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives
+of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus the work
+entitled _Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo musico auctore,
+nunc primum in lucem editae_, contains one mass by the learned editor
+himself, the other two being by Claudius Sermisy and Jean Maillard
+respectively. Another collection, _La Fleur des chansons des deux plus
+excellens musiciens de nostre temps_, consists of part songs by Goudimel
+and Orlando di Lasso. Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's
+_Domine quid multiplicati sunt_.
+
+
+
+
+GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned the estate of
+Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. _Guillaume Gouffier_,
+chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate enemy of Jacques Coeur,
+obtaining his condemnation and afterwards receiving his property (1491).
+He had a great number of children, several of whom played a part in
+history. Artus, seigneur de Boisy (c. 1475-1520) was entrusted with the
+education of the young count of Angoulême (Francis I.), and on the
+accession of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand master
+of the royal household, playing an important part in the government; to
+him was given the task of negotiating the treaty of Noyon in 1516; and
+shortly before his death the king raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy
+to the rank of a duchy, that of Roannais, in his favour. ADRIEN GOUFFIER
+(d. 1523) was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France.
+GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral. of France (see
+BONNIVET). CLAUDE GOUFFIER, son of Artus, was created comte de
+Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy (1564).
+
+There were many branches of this family, the chief of them being the
+dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of Crèvecoeur and of
+Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux, and of Espagny. The name
+of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th century by a branch of the house of
+Choiseul.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360-1444), surnamed DE CHARPAIGNE, French chancellor,
+was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon of Bourges, in 1402 he became
+treasurer to John, duke of Berri, and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was
+arrested by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean
+de Montaigu (1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then
+banished. Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he
+became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a member
+of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415, he was transferred
+from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-Ferrand. In May 1418, when
+the Burgundians re-entered Paris, he only escaped death at their hands
+by taking refuge in the Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall
+into the hands of his enemy, the duke de la Trémoille, who imprisoned
+him in the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was
+appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422. He
+endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party to the
+selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but had to resign
+his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres; first from March
+25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La Trémoille had supplanted
+Richmond. After the fall of La Trémoille in 1433 he returned to court,
+and exercised a powerful influence over affairs of state almost till his
+death, which took place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-Dôme) on the
+25th or 26th of November 1444.
+
+  See Hiver's account in the _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires du
+  Centre_, p. 267 (1869); and the _Nouvelle Biographie générale_, vol.
+  xxi.
+
+
+
+
+GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. _gouge_, derived from the Late Lat. _gubia_
+or _gulbia_, in Ducange _gulbium_, an implement _ad hortum excolendum_,
+and also _instrumentum ferreum in usu fabrorum_; according to the _New
+English Dictionary_ the word is probably of Celtic origin, _gylf_, a
+beak, appearing in Welsh, and _gilb_, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool
+of the chisel type with a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or
+channel in wood, stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in
+surgery for operations involving the excision of portions of bone.
+"Gouge" is also used as the name of a bookbinder's tool, for impressing
+a curved line on the leather, and for the line so impressed. In mining,
+a "gouge" is the layer of soft rock or earth sometimes found in each
+side of a vein of coal or ore, which the miner can scoop out with his
+pick, and thus attack the vein more easily from the side. The verb "to
+gouge" is used in the sense of scooping or forcing out.
+
+
+
+
+GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH, VISCOUNT (1779-1869), British field-marshal, a
+descendant of Francis Gough who was made bishop of Limerick in 1626, was
+born at Woodstown, Limerick, on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained
+a commission in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th
+Highlanders at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape
+Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1796. His next service was
+in the West Indies, where, with the 87th (Royal Irish Fusiliers), he
+shared in the attack on Porto Rico, the capture of Surinam, and the
+brigand war in St Lucia. In 1809 he was called to take part in the
+Peninsular War, and, joining the army under Wellington, commanded his
+regiment as major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was
+taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded, and had his
+horse shot under him. For his conduct on this occasion he was afterwards
+promoted lieutenant-colonel, his commission, on the recommendation of
+Wellington, being antedated from the day of the duke's despatch. He was
+thus the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services
+performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next engaged at
+the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured a French eagle. At
+the defence of Tarifa the post of danger was assigned to him, and he
+compelled the enemy to raise the siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again
+distinguished himself, his regiment captured the baton of Marshal
+Jourdan. He was again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after
+created a knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the
+war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from active
+service. He next took command of a regiment stationed in the south of
+Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties of a magistrate during a
+period of agitation. Gough was promoted major-general in 1830. Seven
+years later he was sent to India to take command of the Mysore division
+of the army. But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties
+which led to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic
+general on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed
+commander-in-chief of the British forces in China. This post he held
+during all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements and
+numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he at length
+enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottinger, to dictate peace
+on his own terms. After the conclusion of the treaty of Nanking in August
+1842 the British forces were withdrawn; and before the close of the year
+Gough, who had been made a G.C.B, in the previous year for his services
+in the capture of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843
+he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India, and
+in December he took the command in person against the Mahrattas, and
+defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more than fifty guns. In 1845
+occurred the rupture with the Sikhs, who crossed the Sutlej in large
+numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough conducted the operations against them, being
+well supported by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to
+serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of Mudki and
+Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of Sobraon, and shortly
+afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh
+Gough were rewarded by his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom
+as Baron Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and again
+Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle of Chillianwalla
+being equivocal, he was superseded by the home authorities in favour of
+Sir Charles Napier; before the news of the supersession arrived Lord
+Gough had finally crushed the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February
+1849). His tactics during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered
+controversy (see SIKH WARS). Lord Gough now returned to England, was
+raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the thanks of
+both Houses of Parliament. A pension of £2000 per annum was granted to
+him by parliament, and an equal pension by the East India Company. He did
+not again see active service. In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the
+Royal Horse Guards, and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to
+invest Marshal Pélissier and other officers with the insignia of the
+Bath. Honours were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was
+made a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who did
+not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor, was named a
+G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field-marshal. He was twice
+married, and left children by both his wives. He died on the 2nd of March
+1869.
+
+  See R. S. Rait, _Lord Gough_ (1903); and Sir W. Lee Warner, _Lord
+  Dalhousie_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886), American temperance orator, was
+born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on the 22nd of August 1817. He was
+educated by his mother, a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was
+sent to the United States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years
+with family friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a
+book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in 1833 his
+mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell in with dissolute
+companions, and became a confirmed drunkard. He lost his position, and
+for several years supported himself as a ballad singer and story-teller
+in the cheap theatres and concert-halls of New York and other eastern
+cities. Even this means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in
+Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance
+pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined to
+devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform. Gifted with
+remarkable powers of pathos and of description, he was successful from
+the start, and was soon known and sought after throughout the entire
+country, his appeals, which were directly personal and emotional, being
+attended with extraordinary responses. He continued his work until the
+end of his life, made several tours of England, where his American
+success was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy
+on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he passed away
+two days later, on the 18th of February 1886. He published an
+_Autobiography_ (1846); _Orations_ (1854); _Temperance Addresses_
+(1870); _Temperance Lectures_ (1879); and _Sunlight and Shadow, or
+Gleanings from My Life Work_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+GOUGH, RICHARD (1735-1809), English antiquary, was born in London on the
+21st of October 1735. His father was a wealthy M.P. and director of the
+East India Company. Gough was a precocious child, and at twelve had
+translated from the French a history of the Bible, which his mother
+printed for private circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbé
+Fleury's work on the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an
+elaborate work entitled _Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized_. In
+1752 he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began his
+work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving Cambridge in
+1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions in various parts of
+Great Britain. In 1773 he began an edition in English of Camden's
+_Britannia_, which appeared in 1789. Meantime he published, in 1786,
+the first volume of his splendid work, the _Sepulchral Monuments of
+Great Britain, applied to illustrate the history of families, manners,
+habits, and arts at the different periods from the Norman Conquest to
+the Seventeenth Century_. This volume, which contained the first four
+centuries, was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th
+century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared in 1799.
+Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in
+1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director. He was elected F.R.S.
+in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th of February 1809. His books and
+manuscripts relating to Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his
+collections in the department of British topography, and a large number
+of his drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were
+bequeathed to the university of Oxford.
+
+  Among the minor works of Gough are _An Account of the Bedford Missal_
+  (in MS.); _A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of Denmark_
+  (1777); _History of Pleshy in Essex_ (1803); _An Account of the Coins
+  of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria_ (1804); and "History of the Society
+  of Antiquaries of London," prefixed to their _Archaeologia_.
+
+
+
+
+GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE (1697-1767), French abbé and littérateur, was born
+in Paris on the 19th of October 1697. He studied at the College of the
+Jesuits, and at the Collège Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong
+Jansenist. In 1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered
+the order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon of St
+Jacques l'Hôpital. On account of his extreme Jansenist opinions he
+suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits, and several of his
+works were suppressed at their instigation. In his latter years his
+health began to fail, and he lost his eyesight. Poverty compelled him to
+sell his library, a sacrifice which hastened his death, which took place
+at Paris on the 1st of February 1767.
+
+  He is the author of _Supplément au dictionnaire de Moréri_ (1735), and
+  a _Nouveau Supplément_ to a subsequent edition of the work; he
+  collaborated in _Bibliothèque française, ou histoire littéraire de la
+  France_ (18 vols., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the _Vies des saints_ (7
+  vols., 1730); he also wrote _Mémoires historiques et littéraires sur
+  le collège royal de France_ (1758); _Histoire des Inquisitions_
+  (Paris, 1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet's _Dictionnaire_,
+  of which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbé Fabre in
+  his continuation of Fleury's _Histoire ecclésiastique_.
+
+  See _Mémoires hist. et litt. de l'abbé Goujet_ (1767).
+
+
+
+
+GOUJON, JEAN (c. 1520-c. 1566), French sculptor of the 16th century.
+Although some evidence has been offered in favour of the date 1520
+(_Archives de l'art français_, iii. 350), the time and place of his
+birth are still uncertain. The first mention of his name occurs in the
+accounts of the church of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in
+the following year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town,
+where he added to the tomb of Cardinal d'Amboise a statue of his nephew
+Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved portions of the tomb of
+Louis de Brezé, executed some time after 1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon
+was employed by Pierre Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre,
+on the restorations of St-Germain l'Auxerrois; the building
+accounts--some of which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de
+Laborde on a piece of parchment binding--specify as his work, not only
+the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de Piété, now
+lost. In 1547 appeared Martin's French translation of Vitruvius, the
+illustrations of which were due, the translator tells us in his
+"Dedication to the King," to Goujon, "naguères architecte de Monseigneur
+le Connétable, et maintenant un des vôtres." We learn from this
+statement not only that Goujon had been taken into the royal service on
+the accession of Henry II., but also that he had been previously
+employed under Bullant on the château of Écouen. Between 1547 and 1549
+he was employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot for
+the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the 16th of June
+1549. Lescot's edifice was reconstructed at the end of the 18th century
+by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine des Innocents, this being a
+considerable variation of the original design. At the Louvre, Goujon,
+under the direction of Lescot, executed the carvings of the south-west
+angle of the court, the reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the
+Tribune des Cariatides, for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of
+September 1550. Between 1548 and 1554 rose the château d'Anet, in the
+embellishment of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme in
+the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building accounts of
+Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a vast number of other works
+of equal importance, destroyed or lost in the great Revolution. In 1555
+his name appears again in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so
+every succeeding year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the
+course of this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal
+employment all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies. Goujon
+has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently possible that
+he was one of the victims of this attack. We should therefore probably
+ascribe the work attributed to him in the Hôtel Carnavalet (_in situ_),
+together with much else executed in various parts of Paris--but now
+dispersed or destroyed--to a period intervening between the date of his
+dismissal from the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken
+place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The researches of M.
+Tomaso Sandonnini (see _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, 2^e période, vol.
+xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition, long entertained, that
+Goujon died during the St Bartholomew massacre in 1572.
+
+_List of authentic works of Jean Goujon_: Two marble columns supporting
+the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on right and left of porch
+on entering; left-hand gate of the church of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for
+decoration of screen of St Germain l'Auxerrois (now in Louvre);
+"Victory" over chimney-piece of Salle des Gardes at Écouen; altar at
+Chantilly; illustrations for Jean Martin's translation of Vitruvius;
+bas-reliefs and sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents;
+bas-reliefs adorning entrance of Hôtel Carnavalet, also series of
+satyrs' heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana
+from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at Anet;
+portico of Anet (now in courtyard of École des Beaux Arts); bust of
+Diane de Poiçtiers (now at Versailles); Tribune of Caryatides in the
+Louvre; decoration of "Escalier Henri II.," Louvre; oeils de boeuf and
+decoration of Henri II. façade, Louvre; groups for pediments of façade
+now placed over entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre.
+
+  See A. A. Pottier, _Oeuvres de Goujon_ (1844); Reginald Lister, _Jean
+  Goujon_ (London, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE (1766-1795), French publicist and
+statesman, was born at Bourg on the 13th of April 1766, the son of a
+postmaster. The boy went early to sea, and saw fighting when he was
+twelve years old; in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good
+his lack of education. As procureur-général-syndic of the department of
+Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1792, he had to supply the inhabitants with
+food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and tact. In the
+Convention, which he entered on the death of Hérault de Séchelles, he
+took his seat on the benches of the Mountain. He conducted a mission to
+the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and
+was a consistent advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless, he
+was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which he denounced
+in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain after his recall to Paris,
+following on the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was
+one of those who protested against the readmission of Louvet and other
+survivors of the Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and,
+when the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May 20,
+1795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance with their
+desires, he proposed the immediate establishment of a special commission
+which should assure the execution of the proposed changes and assume the
+functions of the various committees. The failure of the insurrection
+involved the fall of those deputies who had supported the demands of the
+populace. Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi,
+Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under arrest by their
+colleagues, and on their way to the château of Taureau in Brittany had
+a narrow escape from a mob at Avranches. They were brought back to Paris
+for trial before a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though
+no proof of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be
+found--they were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte,
+strangers to one another--they were condemned. In accordance with a
+pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the staircase leading from
+the court-room with a knife which Goujon had successfully concealed.
+Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy succeeded, but the other three merely
+inflicted wounds which did not prevent their being taken immediately to
+the guillotine. With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a
+party.
+
+  See J. Claretie, _Les Derniers Montagnards, histoire de l'insurrection
+  de Prairial an III d'après les documents_ (1867); _Défense du
+  représentant du peuple Goujon_ (Paris, no date), with the letters and
+  a hymn written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents
+  see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425).
+
+
+
+
+GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK (1818-1897), English churchman, son of Mr
+Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of Leicester, and nephew of the Right
+Hon. Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of
+Sir Robert Peel and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the
+11th of February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College,
+Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in 1841 and
+1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively. For some years he held
+the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce,
+bishop of the diocese. In 1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby,
+but in 1857 he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel,
+Marylebone. In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 1859
+vicar of St John's, Paddington. In 1866 he was made dean of Norwich, and
+in that office exercised a long and marked influence on church life. A
+strong Conservative and a churchman of traditional orthodoxy, he was a
+keen antagonist of "higher criticism" and of all forms of rationalism.
+His _Thoughts on Personal Religion_ (1862) and _The Pursuit of Holiness_
+were well received; and he wrote the _Life_ (1892) of his friend Dean
+Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in agreement. He
+resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of
+May 1897.
+
+  See _Life_ by B. Compton (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GOULBURN, HENRY (1784-1856), English statesman, was born in London on
+the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge.
+In 1808 he became member of parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was
+appointed under-secretary for home affairs and two and a half years
+later he was made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still
+retaining office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in
+1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April 1827.
+Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman, his period of office
+was on the whole a successful one, and in 1823 he managed to pass the
+Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In January 1828 he was made chancellor of
+the exchequer under the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked
+Roman Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the
+domain of finance Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce the rate
+of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow any one to sell
+beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete change of policy
+with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving office with Wellington in
+November 1830, Goulburn was home secretary under Sir Robert Peel for
+four months in 1835, and when this statesman returned to office in
+September 1841 he became chancellor of the exchequer for the second
+time. Although Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn
+was responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the
+national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended in the
+repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office in June
+1846. After representing Horsham in the House of Commons for over four
+years Goulburn was successively member for St Germans, for West Looe,
+and for the city of Armagh. In May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge
+University, and he retained this seat until his death on the 12th of
+January 1856 at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel's
+firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son, Henry
+(1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler at Cambridge in
+1835.
+
+  See S. Walpole, _History of England_ (1878-1886).
+
+
+
+
+GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales, Australia, 134 m.
+S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1901) 10,618. It
+lies in a productive agricultural district, at an altitude of 2129 ft.,
+and is a place of great importance, being the chief depot of the inland
+trade of the southern part of the state. There are Anglican and Roman
+Catholic cathedrals. Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer,
+and tanning are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and
+Goulburn became a city in 1864.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American conchologist, was born at
+New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 23rd of April 1805, graduated at
+Harvard College in 1825, and took his degree of doctor of medicine in
+1830. Thrown from boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry,
+perseverance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue his
+studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself to the
+practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional rank and
+social position. He became president of the Massachusetts Medical
+Society, and was employed in editing the vital statistics of the state.
+As a conchologist his reputation is world-wide, and he was one of the
+pioneers of the science in America. His writings fill many pages of the
+publications of the Boston Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p.
+197 for a list) and other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the
+_Principles of Zoology_ (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the _Terrestrial and
+Air-breathing Mollusks_ (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he
+translated Lamarck's _Genera of Shells_. The two most important
+monuments to his scientific work, however, are _Mollusca and Shells_
+(vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition (1838-1842)
+under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by the government, and
+the _Report on the Invertebrata_ published by order of the legislature
+of Massachusetts in 1841. A second edition of the latter work was
+authorized in 1865, and published in 1870 after the author's death,
+which took place at Boston on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a
+corresponding member of all the prominent American scientific societies,
+and of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896), American astronomer, a son of
+Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859), principal of the Boston Latin
+school, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September
+1824. Having graduated at Harvard College in 1844, he studied
+mathematics and astronomy under C. F. Gauss at Göttingen, and returned
+to America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the longitude
+department of the United States coast survey; he developed and organized
+the service, was one of the first to determine longitudes by telegraphic
+means, and employed the Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish
+longitude-relations between Europe and America. The _Astronomical
+Journal_ was founded by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in
+1861, was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as director
+of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York; and published in 1859 a
+discussion of the places and proper motions of circumpolar stars to be
+used as standards by the United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862
+actuary to the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an
+important volume of _Military and Anthropological Statistics_. He fitted
+up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.; but undertook in
+1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, to organize a national
+observatory at Cordoba; began to observe there with four assistants in
+1870, and completed in 1874 his _Uranometria Argentina_ (published 1879)
+for which he received in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical
+Society. This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884),
+and a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations of
+32,448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's photographs of
+the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a pioneer in the use of the
+camera as an instrument of precision; and he secured at Cordoba 1400
+negatives of southern star-clusters, the reduction of which occupied the
+closing years of his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge,
+where he died on the 26th of November 1896.
+
+  See _Astronomical Journal_, No. 389; _Observatory_, xx. 70 (same
+  notice abridged); _Science_ (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler);
+  _Astrophysical Journal_, v. 50; _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_,
+  lvii. 218.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844-   ), English caricaturist and
+politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd of December 1844. Although
+in early youth he showed great love of drawing, he began life in a bank
+and then joined the London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched
+the members and illustrated important events in the financial world;
+many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography and published for
+private circulation. In 1879 he began the regular illustration of the
+Christmas numbers of _Truth_, and in 1887 he became a contributor to the
+_Pall Mall Gazette_, transferring his allegiance to the _Westminster
+Gazette_ on its foundation and subsequently acting as assistant editor.
+Among his independent publications are _Who killed Cock Robin?_ (1897),
+_Tales told in the Zoo_ (1900), two volumes of _Froissart's Modern
+Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould_ (1902 and 1903), and
+_Picture Politics_--a periodical reprint of his _Westminster Gazette_
+cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of political warfare in
+the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently grafting his ideas on to
+subjects taken freely from _Uncle Remus_, _Alice in Wonderland_, and the
+works of Dickens and Shakespeare, Sir F. C. Gould used these literary
+vehicles with extraordinary dexterity and point, but with a satire that
+was not unkind and with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and
+cynicism were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, JAY (1836-1892), American financier, was born in Roxbury,
+Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836. He was brought up on
+his father's farm, studied at Hobart Academy, and though he left school
+in his sixteenth year, devoted himself assiduously thereafter to private
+study, chiefly of mathematics and surveying, at the same time keeping
+books for a blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his
+father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a surveyor in
+preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware counties in New York, of
+Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, and of Oakland county in Michigan, and
+of a projected railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An
+ardent anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote _A History of
+Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing a Sketch of
+the Early Settlements in the County, and A History of the Late Anti-Rent
+Difficulties in Delaware_ (Roxbury, 1856). He then engaged in the lumber
+and tanning business in western New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg,
+Pennsylvania. In 1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her
+father, Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer &
+Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very bad
+condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he bought and
+reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway, from which he ultimately
+realized a large profit. In 1859 he removed to New York City, where he
+became a broker in railway stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president
+of the Erie railway, of which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr.
+(q.v.), had gained control in July of that year. The management of the
+road under his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of
+fraudulent stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English
+bondholders, and Gould was forced out of the company in March 1872 and
+compelled to restore securities valued at about $7,500,000. It was
+during his control of the Erie that he and Fisk entered into a league
+with the Tweed Ring, they admitted Tweed to the directorate of the Erie,
+and Tweed in turn arranged favourable legislation for them at Albany.
+With Tweed, Gould was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould
+was the chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000
+bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring attempt
+to "corner" the market, his hope being that, with the advance in price
+of gold, wheat would advance to such a price that western farmers would
+sell, and there would be a consequent great movement of breadstuffs from
+West to East, which would result in increased freight business for the
+Erie road. His speculations in gold, during which he attempted through
+President Grant's brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the
+president and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the
+panic of "Black Friday," on the 24th of September 1869, when the price
+of gold fell from 162 to 135.
+
+Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in 1883 he
+withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the stock of the
+Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolidations,
+reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines, the "Gould
+System" of railways in the south-western states. In 1880 he was in
+virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about one-ninth of the
+railway mileage of the United States at that time. Besides, he obtained
+a controlling interest in the Western Union Telegraph Company, and after
+1881 in the elevated railways in New York City, and was intimately
+connected with many of the largest railway financial operations in the
+United States for the twenty years following 1868. He died of
+consumption and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his
+fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of this he left
+to his own family.
+
+His eldest son, GEORGE JAY GOULD (b. 1864), was prominent also as an
+owner and manager of railways, and became president of the Little Rock &
+Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern
+railway (1893), the International & Great Northern railway (1893), the
+Missouri Pacific railway (1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and
+the Manhattan Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and
+director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was under his
+control that the Wabash system became transcontinental and secured an
+Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was he who brought about a friendly
+alliance between the Gould and the Rockefeller interests.
+
+The eldest daughter, HELEN MILLER GOULD (b. 1868), became widely known
+as a philanthropist, and particularly for her generous gifts to American
+army hospitals in the war with Spain in 1898 and for her many
+contributions to New York University, to which she gave $250,000 for a
+library in 1895 and $100,000 for a Hall of Fame in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS (1818-1893), French composer, was born in Paris
+on the 17th of June 1818, the son of F. L. Gounod, a talented painter.
+He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halévy
+and Lesueur, and won the "Grand Prix de Rome" in 1839. While residing in
+the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study of sacred
+music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach. In 1843 he went to
+Vienna, where a "requiem" of his composition was performed. On his
+return to Paris he tried in vain to find a publisher for some songs he
+had written in Rome. Having become organist to the chapel of the
+"Missions Étrangères," he turned his thoughts and mind to religious
+music. At that time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy
+orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane matters when,
+through the intervention of Madame Viardot, the celebrated singer, he
+received a commission to compose an opera on a text by Émile Augier for
+the Académie Nationale de Musique. _Sapho_, the work in question, was
+produced in 1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least
+sufficed to bring the composer's name to the fore. Some critics appeared
+to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the style of
+dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer, who was also a musical
+critic, attributed to Gounod the wish to revive the system of musical
+declamation invented by Gluck. The fact was that _Sapho_ differed in
+some respects from the operatic works of the period, and was to a
+certain extent in advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris
+Opéra in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the
+original score, not altogether to its advantage, and _Sapho_ once more
+failed to attract the public. Gounod's second dramatic attempt was again
+in connexion with a classical subject, and consisted in some choruses
+written for _Ulysse_, a tragedy by Ponsard, played at the Théâtre
+Français in 1852, when the orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The
+composer's next opera, _La Nonne sanglante_, given at the Paris Opéra in
+1854, was a failure.
+
+Goethe's _Faust_ had for years exercised a strong fascination over
+Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic account. The
+performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on the same subject delayed
+the production of his opera for a time. In the meanwhile he wrote in a
+few months the music for an operatic version of Molière's comedy, _Le
+Médecin malgré lui_, which was produced at the Théâtre Lyrique in 1858.
+Berlioz well described this charming little work when he wrote of it,
+"Everything is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this 'opéra comique'; there
+is nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." The first performance of
+_Faust_ took place at the Théâtre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1859.
+Goethe's masterpiece had already been utilized for operatic purposes by
+various composers, the most celebrated of whom was Spohr. The subject
+had also inspired Schumann, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a
+few, and the enormous success of Gounod's opera did not deter Boito from
+writing his _Mefistofele_. _Faust_ is without doubt the most popular
+French opera of the second half of the 19th century. Its success has
+been universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in the
+land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type of modern
+French opera. At the time of its production in Paris it was scarcely
+appreciated according to its merits. Its style was too novel, and its
+luscious harmonies did not altogether suit the palates of those
+dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini as the incarnation of music.
+Times have indeed changed, and French composers have followed the road
+opened by Gounod, and have further developed the form of the lyrical
+drama, adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their
+national temperament. Although in its original version _Faust_ contained
+spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces according to custom,
+yet it differed greatly from the operas of the past. Gounod had not
+studied the works of German masters such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in
+vain, and although his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be
+denied that much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic
+sentimentality which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music
+such as his had previously been produced by any French composer. Auber
+was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions with absolute
+_insouciance_, teeming with melodious ideas, but lacking depth. Berlioz,
+a musical Titan, wrestled against fate with a superhuman energy, and,
+Jove-like, subjugated his hearers with his thunderbolts. It was,
+however, reserved for Gounod to introduce _la note tendre_, to sing the
+tender passion in accents soft and languorous. The musical language
+employed in _Faust_ was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be
+adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms thereby
+becoming hackneyed. Gounod's opera was given in London in 1863, when its
+success, at first doubtful, became enormous, and it was heard
+concurrently at Covent Garden and Her Majesty's theatres. Since then it
+has never lost its popularity.
+
+Although the success of _Faust_ in Paris was at first not so great as
+might have been expected, yet it gradually increased and set the seal on
+Gounod's fame. The fortunate composer now experienced no difficulty in
+finding an outlet for his works, and the succeeding decade is a
+specially important one in his career. The opera from his pen which came
+after Faust was _Philémon et Baucis_, a setting of the mythological tale
+in which the composer followed the traditions of the Opéra Comique,
+employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the individuality of his
+own style. This work was produced at the Théâtre Lyrique in 1860. It has
+repeatedly been heard in London. _La Reine de Saba_, a four-act opera,
+produced at the Grand Opéra on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether
+a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet with
+success, although the score contains some of Gounod's choicest
+inspirations, notably the well-known air, "Lend me your aid." _La Reine
+de Saba_ was adapted for the English stage under the name of _Irene_.
+The non-success of this work proved a great disappointment to Gounod,
+who, however, set to work again, and this time with better results,
+_Mireille_, the fruit of his labours, being given for the first time at
+the Théâtre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1864. Founded upon the _Mireio_
+of the Provençal poet Mistral, _Mireille_ contains much charming and
+characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against its
+success, and although several revivals have taken place and various
+modifications and alterations have been made in the score, yet
+_Mireille_ has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain portions of
+this opera have, however, been popularized in the concert-room. _La
+Colombe_, a little opera in two acts without pretension, deserves
+mention here. It was originally heard at Baden in 1860, and subsequently
+at the Opéra Comique. A suavely melodious _entr'acte_ from this little
+work has survived and been repeatedly performed.
+
+Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his _Faust_, Gounod now
+sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and turned his attention to
+_Romeo and Juliet_. Here, indeed, was a subject particularly well
+calculated to appeal to a composer who had so eminently qualified
+himself to be considered the musician of the tender passion. The
+operatic version of the Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the
+Théâtre Lyrique on the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as
+being the composer's second best opera. Some people have even placed it
+on the same level as _Faust_, but this verdict has not found general
+acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed his opinion of
+the relative value of the two operas enigmatically by saying, "_Faust_
+is the oldest, but I was younger; _Roméo_ is the youngest, but I was
+older." The luscious strains wedded to the love scenes, if at times
+somewhat cloying, are generally in accord with the situations, often
+irresistibly fascinating, while always absolutely individual. The
+success of _Roméo_ in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually
+this work was transferred to the Grand Opéra, after having for some time
+formed part of the répertoire of the Opéra Comique. In London it was not
+until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de Reszke that this opera
+obtained any real hold upon the English public.
+
+After having so successfully sought for inspiration from Molière, Goethe
+and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another famous dramatist, and
+selected Pierre Corneille's _Polyeucte_ as the subject of his next
+opera. Some years were, however, to elapse before this work was given to
+the public. The Franco-German War had broken out, and Gounod was
+compelled to take refuge in London, where he composed the "biblical
+elegy" _Gallia_ for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During
+his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a number of
+songs to English words, many of which have attained an enduring
+popularity, such as "Maid of Athens," "There is a green hill far away,"
+"Oh that we two were maying," "The fountain mingles with the river." His
+sojourn in London was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in
+lawsuits with publishers. On Gounod's return to Paris he hurriedly set
+to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny's _Cinq-Mars_, which was
+given at the Opéra Comique on the 5th of April 1877 (and in London in
+1900), without obtaining much success. _Polyeucte_, his much-cherished
+work, appeared at the Grand Opéra the following year on the 7th of
+October, and did not meet with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more
+fortunate with _Le Tribut de Zamora_, his last opera, which, given on
+the same stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his
+later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt to keep up
+with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned methods.
+
+The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to assert itself
+in another field--that of sacred music. His friend Camille Saint-Saëns,
+in a volume entitled _Portraits et Souvenirs_, writes:
+
+  Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to
+  accumulate masses and motetts; but it was at the commencement of his
+  career, in the _Messe de Sainte Cécile_, and at the end, in the
+  oratorios _The Redemption and Mors et vita_, that he rose highest.
+
+Saint-Saëns, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three
+above-mentioned works will survive all the master's operas. Among the
+many masses composed by Gounod at the outset of his career, the best is
+the _Messe de Sainte Cécile_, written in 1855. He also wrote the _Messe
+du Sacré Coeur_ (1876) and the _Messe à la mémoire de Jeanne d'Arc_
+(1887). This last work offers certain peculiarities, being written for
+solos, chorus, organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In
+style it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. _The Redemption_, which
+seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain, was
+produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was styled a sacred
+trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria. The score is prefixed by a
+commentary written by the composer, in which the scope of the oratorio
+is explained. It cannot be said that Gounod has altogether risen to the
+magnitude of his task. The music of _The Redemption_ bears the
+unmistakable imprint of the composer's hand, and contains many beautiful
+thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from monotony.
+_Mors et vita_, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope Leo XIII., was also
+produced for the first time in Birmingham at the Festival of 1885. This
+work is divided into three parts, "Mors," "Judicium," "Vita." The first
+consists of a Requiem, the second depicts the Judgment, the third
+Eternal Life. Although quite equal, if not superior to _The Redemption_,
+_Mors et vita_ has not obtained similar success.
+
+Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it would occupy
+too much space to attempt even an incomplete catalogue of his
+compositions. Besides the works already mentioned may be named two
+symphonies which were played during the 'fifties, but have long since
+fallen into neglect. Symphonic music was not Gounod's forte, and the
+French master evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further
+attempts in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas _Les
+Deux Reines_ and _Jeanne d'Arc_ must not be forgotten. He also attempted
+to set Molière's comedy, _Georges Dandin_, to music, keeping to the
+original prose. This work has never been brought out. Gounod composed a
+large number of songs, many of which are very beautiful. One of the
+vocal pieces that have contributed most to his popularity is the
+celebrated _Meditation on the First Prelude of Bach_, more widely known
+as the _Ave Maria_. The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach
+was original, and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment
+was successful.
+
+Gounod died at St Cloud on the 18th of October 1893. His influence on
+French music was immense, though during the last years of the 19th
+century it was rather counterbalanced by that of Wagner. Whatever may be
+the verdict of posterity, it is unlikely that the quality of
+individuality will be denied to Gounod. To be the composer of _Faust_ is
+alone a sufficient title to lasting fame.     (A. He.)
+
+
+
+
+GOURD, a name given to various plants of the order _Cucurbitaceae_,
+especially those belonging to the genus _Cucurbita_, monoecious trailing
+herbs of annual duration, with long succulent stems furnished with
+tendrils, and large, rough, palmately-lobed leaves; the flowers are
+generally large and of a bright yellow or orange colour, the barren ones
+with the stamens united; the fertile are followed by the large succulent
+fruit that gives the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties
+of _Cucurbita_ are under cultivation in tropical and temperate climates,
+especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely difficult to refer them
+to definite specific groups, on account of the facility with which they
+hybridize; while it is very doubtful whether any of the original forms
+now exist in the wild state. Charles Naudin, who made a careful and
+interesting series of observations upon this genus, came to the
+conclusion that all varieties known in European gardens might be
+referred to six original species; probably three, or at most four, have
+furnished the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the
+specific names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most
+important of the gourds, from an economic point of view, is perhaps _C.
+maxima_, the _Potiron Jaune_ of the French, the red and yellow gourd of
+British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which is remarkable
+for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat rough rind varies from
+white to bright yellow, while in some kinds it remains green; the fleshy
+interior is of a deep yellow or orange tint. This valuable gourd is
+grown extensively in southern Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia Minor
+it yields, at some periods of the year, an important article of diet to
+the people; immense quantities are sold in the markets of
+Constantinople, where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a
+white rind are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow
+kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of 240 lb. It grows well
+in Central Europe and the United States, while in the south of England
+it will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection in hot summers. The
+yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous varieties yields a
+considerable amount of nutriment, and is the more valuable as the fruit
+can be kept, even in warm climates, for a long time. In France and in
+the East it is much used in soups and ragouts, while simply boiled it
+forms a substitute for other table vegetables; the taste has been
+compared to that of a young carrot. In some countries the larger kinds
+are employed as cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large
+quantity of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of
+the poppy and olive. The "mammoth" gourds of English and American
+gardeners (known in America as squashes) belong to this species. The
+pumpkin (summer squash of America) is _Cucurbita Pepo_. Some of the
+varieties of _C. maxima_ and Pepo contain a considerable quantity of
+sugar, amounting in the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5%, and in the hot plains
+of Hungary efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial
+source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds may be
+given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green vegetable when
+boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety (_ovifera_) of _C. Pepo_. Many
+smaller gourds are cultivated in India and other hot climates, and some
+have been introduced into English gardens, rather for the beauty of
+their fruit and foliage than for their esculent qualities. Among these
+is _C. Pepo_ var. _aurantia_, the orange gourd, bearing a spheroidal
+fruit, like a large orange in form and colour; in Britain it is
+generally too bitter to be palatable, though applied to culinary
+purposes in Turkey and the Levant. _C. Pepo_ var. _pyriformis_ and var.
+_verrucosa_, the warted gourds, are likewise occasionally eaten,
+especially in the immature state; and _C. moschata_ (musk melon) is very
+extensively cultivated throughout India by the natives, the yellow flesh
+being cooked and eaten.
+
+[Illustration: Photographed from specimens in the British Museum.
+
+Group of Gourds.
+
+  1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd, _Lagenaria vulgaris_.
+    6. Giant gourd, _Cucurbita maxima_.]
+
+The bottle-gourds are placed in a separate genus, _Lagenaria_, chiefly
+differing from _Cucurbita_ in the anthers being free instead of
+adherent. The bottle-gourd properly so-called, _L. vulgaris_, is a
+climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and beautiful white
+flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1-5) first begins to grow in the
+form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens towards the
+extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask with a narrow neck and
+large rounded bulb; it sometimes attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe,
+the pulp is removed from the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving
+water standing in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle:
+or the lower part is cut off and cleared out, forming a basin-like
+vessel applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash
+(_Crescentia_) of the West Indies: the smaller varieties, divided
+lengthwise, form spoons. The ripe fruit is apt to be bitter and
+cathartic, but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When
+about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and minced
+meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &c., and then boiled, forming a
+favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated snake-gourds of
+India and China (_Trichosanthes_) are used in curries and stews.
+
+All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic principle
+_colocynthin_, and in many varieties of _Cucurbita_ and the allied
+genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to render them
+unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of several species therefore
+possess some anthelmintic properties; those of the common pumpkin are
+frequently administered in America as a vermifuge.
+
+The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history, and the
+esculent species have become so modified by culture that the original
+plants from which they have descended can no longer be traced. The
+abundance of varieties in India would seem to indicate that part of Asia
+as the birthplace of the present edible forms; but some appear to have
+been cultivated in all the hotter regions of that continent, and in
+North Africa, from the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar
+with at least certain kinds of _Cucurbita_, and with the bottle-gourd.
+_Cucurbita Pepo_, the source of many of the American forms, is probably
+a native of that continent.
+
+  Most of the annual gourds may be grown successfully in Britain. They
+  are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted out in rich
+  soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm. The more
+  ornamental kinds may be trained over trellis-work, a favourite mode of
+  displaying them in the East; but the situation must be sheltered and
+  sunny. Even _Lagenaria_ will sometimes produce fine fruit when so
+  treated in the southern counties.
+
+  For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr J. W.
+  Odell, "Gourds and Cucurbits," in _Journ. Royal Hort. Soc._ xxix. 450
+  (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GOURGAUD, GASPAR, BARON (1783-1852), French soldier, was born at
+Versailles on the 14th of September 1783; his father was a musician of
+the royal chapel. At school he showed talent in mathematical studies and
+accordingly entered the artillery. In 1802 he became junior lieutenant,
+and thereafter served with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being
+wounded at Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808,
+but returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly all
+the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809. In 1811 he was chosen to
+inspect and report on the fortifications of Danzig. Thereafter he became
+one of the ordnance officers attached to the emperor, whom he followed
+closely through the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to
+enter the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder which
+might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon. For his services
+in this campaign he received the title of baron, and became first
+ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813 in Saxony he further evinced
+his courage and prowess, especially at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in
+the first battle of 1814, near to Brienne, that he rendered the most
+signal service by killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who
+were riding furiously towards Napoleon's tent. Wounded at the battle of
+Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to share in several of the
+conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at Laon and
+Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of Louis XVIII. in the
+summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause of Napoleon during the Hundred
+Days (1815), was named general and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and
+fought at Waterloo.
+
+After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) Gourgaud
+retired with him and a few other companions to Rochefort. It was to him
+that Napoleon entrusted the letter of appeal to the prince regent for an
+asylum in England. Gourgaud set off in H.M.S. "Slaney," but was not
+allowed to land in England. He determined to share Napoleon's exile and
+sailed with him on H.M.S. "Northumberland" to St Helena. The ship's
+secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining account of some of
+Gourgaud's gasconnades at table. His extreme sensitiveness and vanity
+soon brought him into collision with Las Cases and Montholon at
+Longwood. The former he styles in his journal a "Jesuit" and a scribbler
+who went thither in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior
+in rank, the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel,
+for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring of the life
+at Longwood and the many slights which he suffered from Napoleon, he
+desired to depart, but before he could sail he spent two months with
+Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account of him throws much light on his
+character, as also on the "policy" adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In
+England he was gained over by members of the Opposition and thereafter
+made common cause with O'Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe,
+for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jackson. He
+soon published his _Campagne de 1815_, in the preparation of which he
+had had some help from Napoleon; but Gourgaud's _Journal de Ste-Hélène_
+was not destined to be published till the year 1899. Entering the arena
+of letters, he wrote, or collaborated in, two well-known critiques. The
+first was a censure of Count P. de Ségur's work on the campaign of 1812,
+with the result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him.
+He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott's _Life of Napoleon_. He
+returned to active service in the army in 1830; and in 1840 proceeded
+with others to St Helena to bring back the remains of Napoleon to
+France. He became a deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1849; he died
+in 1852.
+
+  Gourgaud's works are _La Campagne de 1815_ (London and Paris, 1818);
+  _Napoléon et la Grande Armée en Russie; examen critique de l'ouvrage
+  de M. le comte P. de Ségur_ (Paris, 1824); _Réfutation de la vie de
+  Napoléon par Sir Walter Scott_ (Paris, 1827). He collaborated with
+  Montholon in the work entitled _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de
+  France sous Napoléon_ (Paris, 1822-1823), and with Belliard and others
+  in the work entitled _Bourrienne et ses erreurs_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1830); but his most important work is the _Journal inédit de
+  Ste-Hélène_ (2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naïf and
+  life-like record of the life at Longwood. See, too, _Notes and
+  Reminiscences of a Staff Officer_, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904),
+  and the bibliography to the article LOWE, SIR HUDSON.     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH, COUNT (1828-1901), Russian general, was
+born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the 15th of November 1828. He was
+educated in the imperial corps of pages, entered the hussars of the
+imperial bodyguard as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857,
+adjutant to the emperor in 1860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th
+Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the emperor's
+suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the grenadier regiment, and in
+1873 the 1st brigade, 2nd division, of the cavalry of the guard.
+Although he took part in the Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his
+claim to distinction is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877.
+He led the van of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July,
+crossed the Balkans by the Hain Bogaz pass, debouching near Hainkioi,
+and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani, Maglish
+and Kazanlyk; on the 18th of July he attacked Shipka, which was
+evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus within sixteen days of
+crossing the Danube Gourko had secured three Balkan passes and created a
+panic at Constantinople. He then made a series of successful
+reconnaissances of the Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places,
+occupied Stara Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni
+Zagra), checked the advance of Suleiman's army, and returned again over
+the Balkans. In October he was appointed commander of the allied
+cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication to Orkhanie with
+a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik, Telische and Vratza, and, in
+the middle of November, Orkhanie itself. Plevna was isolated, and after
+its fall in December Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the
+Balkans to the fertile valley beyond, totally defeated Suleiman, and
+occupied Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the end
+of January 1878 stopping further operations (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS).
+Gourko was made a count, and decorated with the 2nd class of St George
+and other orders. In 1879-1880 he was governor of St Petersburg, and
+from 1883 to 1894 governor-general of Poland. He died on the 29th of
+January 1901.
+
+
+
+
+GOURMET, a French term for one who takes a refined and critical, or even
+merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking and the delights of the
+table. The word has not the disparaging sense attached to the Fr.
+_gourmand_, to whom the practical pleasure of good eating is the chief
+end. The O. Fr. _groumet_ or _gromet_ meant a servant, or shop-boy,
+especially one employed in a wine-seller's shop, hence an expert taster
+of wines, from which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of
+gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the English
+"groom" (q.v.). The origin of _gourmand_ is unknown. In English, in the
+form "grummet," the word was early applied to a cabin or ship's boy.
+Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged to carry one "grummet"; thus in a
+charter of 1229 (quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) it is laid down
+_servitia inde debita Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi.
+homines, cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet_.
+
+
+
+
+GOUROCK, a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on
+the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 3¼ m. W. by N. of Greenock by
+the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 5261. It is partly situated on a
+fine bay affording good anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to
+by the numerous yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway
+from Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel 1-1/3 m.
+long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel to
+the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland coast and
+the Crinan Canal. The eminence called Barrhill (480 ft. high) divides
+the town into two parts, the eastern known as Kempoch, the western as
+Ashton. Near Kempoch point is a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high,
+called "Granny Kempoch," which the superstitious of other days regarded
+as possessing influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in
+1662, of certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as
+witches. Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls,
+recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that Gourock
+was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were cured. There is
+tramway communication with Greenock and Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there
+stands on the shore the familiar beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a
+burgh of barony in 1694.
+
+
+
+
+GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD (1625-1703), French adventurer, was born at La
+Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen he entered the house of La
+Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in 1646 became secretary to François de
+la Rochefoucauld, author of the _Maximes_. Resourceful and quick-witted,
+he rendered services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues
+with the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations he
+made the acquaintance of Condé, whom he wished to help to escape from
+the château of Vincennes; of Mazarin, for whom he negotiated the
+reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas Fouquet. After the
+Fronde he engaged in financial affairs, thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he
+farmed the _taille_ in Guienne. He bought depreciated _rentes_ and had
+them raised to their nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts
+from the financiers for his protection, being Fouquet's confidant in
+many operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he
+accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his
+unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king. He was
+involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was condemned to
+death for peculation and embezzlement of public funds; but escaping, was
+executed in effigy. He sent a valet one night to take the effigy down
+from the gallows in the court of the Palais de Justice, and then fled
+the country. He remained five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from
+the amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers. Having
+returned secretly to France, he entered the service of Condé, who,
+unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever manager to put his
+affairs in order. In this way he was able to reappear at court, to
+assist at the campaigns of the war with Holland, and to offer himself
+for all the delicate negotiations for his master or the king. He
+received diplomatic missions in Germany, in Holland, and especially in
+Spain, though it was only in 1694, that he was freed from the
+condemnation pronounced against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696
+he fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his
+secretary, in four months and a half, his _Mémoires_, an important
+source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors,
+introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals of a
+financier of the age of Fouquet, and throw light on certain points of
+the diplomatic history. They were first published in 1724.
+
+  There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and appendix,
+  by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, 2 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+GOUT, the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a constitutional
+disorder which manifests itself by inflammation of the joints, with
+sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and also by morbid changes in
+various important organs. The term gout, which was first used about the
+end of the 13th century, is derived through the Fr. _goutte_ from the
+Lat. _gutta_, a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of
+the dropping of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The
+disease was known and described by the ancient Greek physicians under
+various terms, which, however, appear to have been applied by them alike
+to rheumatism and gout. The general term _arthritis_ ([Greek: arthron],
+a joint) was employed when many joints were the seat of inflammation;
+while in those instances where the disease was limited to one part the
+terms used bore reference to such locality; hence _podagra_ ([Greek:
+podagra], from [Greek: pous], the foot, and [Greek: hagra], a seizure),
+_chiragra_ ([Greek: cheir], the hand), _gonagra_ ([Greek: gonu], the
+knee), &c.
+
+Hippocrates in his _Aphorisms_ speaks of gout as occurring most commonly
+in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact that women are less liable
+to it than men. He also gives directions as to treatment. Celsus gives a
+similar account of the disease. Galen regarded gout as an unnatural
+accumulation of humours in a part, and the chalk-stones as the
+concretions of these, and he attributed the disease to over-indulgence
+and luxury. Gout is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, and
+Seneca, in his 95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the
+Roman ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and
+debauchery. Lucian, in his _Tragopodagra_, gives an amusing account of
+the remedies employed for the cure of gout.
+
+In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the attention of
+physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount of suffering
+which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English physician of the 17th
+century, wrote an important treatise on the subject, and his description
+of the gouty paroxysm, all the more vivid from his having himself been
+afflicted with the disease for thirty-four years, is still quoted by
+writers as the most graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology
+of gout. Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting
+itself in various ways, divided the disease into _regular gout_, which
+affects the joints only, and _irregular gout_, where the gouty
+disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety he
+subdivided into _atonic gout_, where the most prominent symptoms are
+throughout referable to the stomach and alimentary canal; _retrocedent
+gout_, where the inflammatory attack suddenly disappears from an
+affected joint and serious disturbance takes place in some internal
+organ, generally the stomach or heart; and _misplaced gout_, where from
+the first the disease does not appear externally, but reveals itself by
+an inflammatory attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most
+eminent authorities on gout, adopted a division somewhat similar to,
+though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, _regular gout_, which
+affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic, and _irregular
+gout_, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing the functions of
+various organs.
+
+It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without any previous
+warning; but, while this is true in many instances, the reverse is
+probably as frequently the case, and the premonitory symptoms,
+especially in those who have previously suffered from the disease, may
+be sufficiently precise to indicate the impending seizure. Among the
+more common of these may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive
+organs, with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after
+eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver. A
+remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes observed. This
+symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves, who connected it with irritation
+in the urinary organs, which also is present as one of the premonitory
+indications of the gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance
+also present themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme
+irritability of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that
+of numbness and coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may persist for
+many days and then undergo amelioration immediately before the impending
+paroxysm. On the night of the attack the patient retires to rest
+apparently well, but about two or three o'clock in the morning awakes
+with a painful feeling in the foot, most commonly in the ball of the
+great toe, but it may be in the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With
+the pain there often occurs a distinct shivering followed by
+feverishness. The pain soon becomes of the most agonizing character: in
+the words of Sydenham, "now it is a violent stretching and tearing of
+the ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and
+tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part affected that
+it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor the jar of a person
+walking in the room."
+
+When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen and of a
+deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glistening, and the
+surrounding veins are more or less distended. After a few hours there is
+a remission of the pain, slight perspiration takes place, and the
+patient may fall asleep. The pain may continue moderate during the day
+but returns as night advances, and the patient goes through a similar
+experience of suffering to that of the previous night, followed with a
+like abatement towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with
+greater or less severity during the continuance of the attack, which
+generally lasts for a week or ten days. As the symptoms decline the
+swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate, but the skin over
+it pits on pressure for a time, and with this there is often associated
+slight desquamation of the cuticle. During the attacks there is much
+constitutional disturbance. The patient is restless and extremely
+irritable, and suffers from cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia,
+thirst and constipation. The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a
+copious deposit, consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of
+the symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect the
+other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack is over the
+patient feels quite well and fancies himself better than he had been for
+a long time before; hence the once popular notion that a fit of the gout
+was capable of removing all other ailments. Any such idea, however, is
+sadly belied in the experience of most sufferers from this disease. It
+is rare that the first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to
+occur within a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded
+off. The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold on
+the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences the same
+joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflammation suffer again,
+but in course of time others become implicated, until in advanced cases
+scarcely any articulation escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic.
+It is to be noticed that when gout assumes this form the frequently
+recurring attacks are usually attended with less pain than the earlier
+ones, but their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the
+disturbance of various important organs, especially the stomach, liver,
+kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take place in the
+joints from the formation of the so-called chalk-stones or tophi. These
+deposits, which are highly characteristic of gout, appear at first to
+take place in the form of a semifluid material, consisting for the most
+part of urate of soda, which gradually becomes more dense, and
+ultimately quite hard. When any quantity of this is deposited in the
+structures of a joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as
+deposits appear to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion
+with every attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parts is
+apt to be the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course, on the
+amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem to be in no necessary
+relation to the severity of the attack, being in some cases even of
+chronic gout so slight as to be barely appreciable externally, but on
+the other hand occasionally causing great enlargement of the joints, and
+fixing them in a flexed or extended position which renders them entirely
+useless. Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme case
+of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French carrots with
+their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the stalks. Any of the
+joints may be thus affected, but most commonly those of the hands and
+feet. The deposits take place in other structures besides those of
+joints, such as along the course of tendons, underneath the skin and
+periosteum, in the sclerotic coat of the eye, and especially on the
+cartilages of the external ear. When largely deposited in joints an
+abscess sometimes forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is
+exposed. Sir Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient
+when playing at cards was accustomed to chalk the score of the game upon
+the table with his gouty knuckles.
+
+The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is less easy than that
+form above described, where the disease gives abundant external evidence
+of its presence; but that other parts than joints suffer from gouty
+attacks is beyond question. The diagnosis may often be made in cases
+where in an attack of ordinary gout the disease suddenly leaves the
+affected joints and some new series of symptoms arises. It has been
+often observed when cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the
+pain and inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and
+alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs
+supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed by Cullen
+retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more especially if the
+disease again returns to the joints. Further, the gouty nature of some
+long-continued internal or cutaneous disorder may be rendered apparent
+by its disappearance on the outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints.
+Gout, when of long standing, is often found associated with degenerative
+changes in the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the
+kidneys, which are apt to assume the contracted granular condition
+characteristic of one of the forms of Bright's disease. A variety of
+urinary calculus--the uric acid--formed by concretions of this substance
+in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence in connexion with gout;
+hence the well-known association of this disease and gravel.
+
+The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on METABOLIC DISEASES.
+Many points, however, still remain unexplained. As remarked by
+Trousseau, "the production in excess of uric acid and urates is a
+pathological phenomenon inherent like all others in the disease; and
+like all the others it is dominated by a specific cause, which we know
+only by its effects, and which we term the gouty diathesis." This
+subject of diathesis (habit, or organic predisposition of individuals),
+which is regarded as an essential element in the pathology of gout,
+naturally suggests the question as to whether, besides being inherited,
+such a peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a
+consideration of the causes which are recognized as influential in
+favouring the occurrence of this disease.
+
+It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary, fully
+more than half the number of cases being, according to Sir C. Scudamore
+and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is no less certain that there
+are habits and modes of life the observance of which may induce the
+disease even where no hereditary tendencies can be traced, and the
+avoidance of which may, on the other hand, go far towards weakening or
+neutralizing the influence of inherited liability. Gout is said to
+affect the sedentary more readily than the active. If, however,
+inadequate exercise be combined with a luxurious manner of living, with
+habitual over-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially
+in alcoholic beverages, then undoubtedly the chief factors in the
+production of the disease are present.
+
+Much has been written upon the relative influence of various forms of
+alcoholic drinks in promoting the development of gout. It is generally
+stated that fermented are more injurious than distilled liquors, and
+that, in particular, the stronger wines, such as port, sherry and
+madeira, are much more potent in their gout-producing action than the
+lighter class of wines, such as hock, moselle, &c., while malt liquors
+are fully as hurtful as strong wines. It seems quite as probable,
+however, that over-indulgence in any form of alcohol, when associated
+with the other conditions already adverted to, will have very much the
+same effect in developing gout. The comparative absence of gout in
+countries where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland,
+is cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging that
+disease; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there is on the
+whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other pleasures of the
+table, which in no degree less than alcohol are chargeable with inducing
+the gouty habit. Gout is not a common disease among the poor and
+labouring classes, and when it does occur may often be connected even in
+them with errors in living. It is not very rare to meet gout in butlers,
+coachmen, &c., who are apt to live luxuriously while leading
+comparatively easy lives.
+
+Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who observe
+the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses are in the
+direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual. Many of the
+great names in history in all times have had their existence embittered
+by this malady, and have died from its effects. The influence of
+hereditary tendency may often be traced in such instances, and is
+doubtless called into activity by the depressing consequences of
+over-work. It may, notwithstanding, be affirmed as generally true that
+those who lead regular lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food
+and alcoholic drinks, or still better abstain from the latter
+altogether, are less likely to be the victims of gout even where an
+undoubted inherited tendency exists.
+
+Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years of life, the
+greatest number of cases in one decennial period being between the ages
+of thirty and forty, next between twenty and thirty, and thirdly between
+forty and fifty. It may occasionally affect very young persons; such
+cases are generally regarded as hereditary, but, so far as diet is
+concerned, it has to be remembered that their home life has probably
+been a predisposing cause. After middle life gout rarely appears for the
+first time. Women are much less the subjects of gout than men,
+apparently from their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of
+course, that of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and
+doubtless also from the differing circumstances of their physical
+constitution. It most frequently appears in females after the cessation
+of the menses. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning, such
+as plumbers, painters, &c., are apt to suffer from gout; and it would
+seem that impregnation of the system with this metal markedly interferes
+with the uric acid excreting function of the kidneys.
+
+Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to the disease.
+Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue, and irritation or
+injuries of particular joints will often precipitate the gouty paroxysm.
+
+With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety of opinion
+has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the numerous quaint
+nostrums detailed by Lucian to the "expectant" or do-nothing system
+recommended by Sydenham. But gout, although, as has been shown, a malady
+of a most severe and intractable character, may nevertheless be
+successfully dealt with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures.
+The general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated. During
+the acute attack the affected part should be kept at perfect rest, and
+have applied to it warm opiate fomentations or poultices, or, what
+answers quite as well, be enveloped in cotton wool covered in with oil
+silk. The diet of the patient should be light, without animal food or
+stimulants. The administration of some simple laxative will be of
+service, as well as the free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the
+bicarbonate or acetate of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for
+the relief of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful
+action on the disease. This drug (_Colchicum autumnale_), which is
+believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients, has proved of
+such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as observed by Dr Garrod,
+"we may safely assert that colchicum possesses as specific a control
+over the gouty inflammation as cinchona barks or their alkaloids over
+intermittent fever." It is usually administered in the form of the wine
+in doses of 10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the
+acetous extract (gr. ½-gr. i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the
+pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is unnecessary to
+have recourse to opiates; but its action requires to be carefully
+watched by the physician from its well-known nauseating and depressing
+consequences, which, should they appear, render the suspension of the
+drug necessary. Otherwise the remedy may be continued in gradually
+diminishing doses for some days after the disappearance of the gouty
+inflammation. Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular
+form by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment above
+mentioned, the use of frictions and mustard applications to the joints
+is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance there. When gout
+has become chronic, colchicum, although of less service than in acute
+gout, is yet valuable, particularly when the inflammatory attacks recur.
+More benefit, however, appears to be derived from potassium iodide,
+guaiacum, the alkalis potash and lithia, and from the administration of
+aspirin and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective
+local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha bandage.
+Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from its solvent action
+upon the urates. It is usually administered in the form of the carbonate
+(gr. v., freely diluted).
+
+The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals of the gouty
+attacks are of the highest importance. These bear reference for the most
+part to the habits and mode of life of the patient. Restriction must be
+laid upon the amount and quality of the food, and equally, or still
+more, upon the alcoholic stimulants. "The instances," says Sir Thomas
+Watson, "are not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves,
+who, being warned by one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward
+resolutely abstained from rich living and from wine and strong drinks of
+all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence and self-denial
+by complete immunity from any return of the disease, or upon whom, at
+any rate, its future assaults have been few and feeble." The same
+eminent authority adds: "I am sure it is worth any _young_ man's while,
+who has had the gout, to become a teetotaller." By those more advanced
+in life who, from long continued habit, are unable entirely to
+relinquish the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must
+be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form of walking or
+riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives, is of great
+advantage, and all over-work, either physical or mental, should be
+avoided. _Fatiguez la bête, et reposez la tête_ is the maxim of an
+experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d'Estrées of Contrexéville).
+Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such directions, even by
+those who feel their importance, is too often rendered difficult or
+impossible by circumstances of occupation and otherwise, and at most
+only an approximation can be made. Certain mineral waters and baths
+(such as those of Vichy, Royat, Contrexéville, &c.) are of undoubted
+value in cases of gout and arthritis. The particular place must in each
+case be determined by the physician, and special caution must be
+observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons whose gout is
+complicated by organic disease of any kind.
+
+  Dr Alexander Haig's "uric acid free diet" has found many adherents.
+  His view as regards the pathology is that in gouty persons the blood
+  is less alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to hold in
+  solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints.
+  Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs), and
+  by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing
+  substances, he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and
+  containing 24 oz. of breadstuffs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings)
+  together with 24 oz. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans,
+  lentils, mushrooms and asparagus); 8 oz. of the breadstuffs may be
+  replaced by 21 oz. of milk or 2 oz. of cheese, butter and oil being
+  taken as required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet.
+
+  Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently been put forward
+  by Professor A. Robin of the Hôpital Beaujon, who says serious
+  mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats and
+  take light food, fish, eggs, &c. The common object in view is the
+  diminished output of uric acid. This output is chiefly obtained from
+  food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, i.e. young white
+  meats, eggs, &c. Consequently the gouty subject ought to restrict
+  himself to the consumption of red meat, beef and mutton, and leave out
+  of his dietary all white meat and internal organs. He should take
+  little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats. Vegetarian
+  diet he regards as a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they tend to
+  weaken the patient. To prevent the formation of uric acid Robin
+  prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine.
+
+
+
+
+GOUTHIÈRE, PIERRE (1740-1806), French metal worker, was born at Troyes
+and went to Paris at an early age as the pupil of Martin Cour. During
+his brilliant career he executed a vast quantity of metal work of the
+utmost variety, the best of which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals
+in that great art period. It was long believed that he received many
+commissions for furniture from the court of Louis XVI., and especially
+from Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for the
+queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthière can, however, well bear this
+loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics ultimately be
+justified who believe that many of the furniture mounts attributed to
+him were from the hand of Thomire. But if he did not work for the court
+he unquestionably produced many of the most splendid belongings of the
+duc d'Aumont, the duchesse de Mazarin and Mme du Barry. Indeed the
+custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about the
+financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more than any other
+man for the fame of her château of Louveciennes. When the collection of
+the duc d'Aumont was sold by auction in Paris in 1782 so many objects
+mounted by Gouthière were bought for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette
+that it is not difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that they
+were actually made for the court. The duc's sale catalogue is, however,
+in existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices realized.
+The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthière. The precious lacquer
+cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra, the tables and cabinets in
+marquetry, the columns and vases in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles,
+the porcelains of China and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by
+him. More than fifty of these pieces bore Gouthière's signature. The duc
+d'Aumont's cabinet represented the high-water mark of the chaser's art,
+and the great prices which were paid for Gouthière's work at this sale
+are the most conclusive criterion of the value set upon his achievement
+in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette paid 12,000 livres for a red
+jasper bowl or _brûle-parfums_ mounted by him, which was then already
+famous. Curiously enough it commanded only one-tenth of that price at
+the Fournier sale in 1831; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford
+bought it at the prince de Beauvais's sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It
+is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and most
+representative gathering of Gouthière's undoubted work. The mounts of
+gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show satyrs' heads, from which
+hang festoons of vine leaves, while within the feet a serpent is coiled
+to spring. A smaller cup is one of the treasures of the Louvre. There
+too is a bronze clock, signed by "Gouthière, _cizileur et doreur du Roy
+à Paris_," dated 1771, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing the
+Rhône and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the
+city of Avignon. Not all of Gouthière's work is of the highest quality,
+and much of what he executed was from the designs of others. At his best
+his delicacy, refinement and finish are exceedingly delightful--in his
+great moments he ranks with the highest alike as artist and as
+craftsman. The tone of soft dead gold which is found on some of his
+mounts he is believed to have invented, but indeed the gilding of all
+his superlative work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone
+is admirably seen in the bronzes and candelabra which he executed for
+the chimney-piece of Marie Antoinette's boudoir at Fontainebleau. He
+continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame du Barry until the
+Revolution, and then the guillotine came for her and absolute ruin for
+him. When her property was seized she owed him 756,000 livres, of which
+he never received a sol, despite repeated applications to the
+administrators. "_Réduit à solliciter une place à l'hospice, il mourut
+dans la misère._" So it was stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons
+against du Barry's heirs.
+
+
+
+
+GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT, MARQUIS DE (1764-1830), French marshal, was
+born at Toul on the 13th of April 1764. At the age of eighteen he went
+to Rome with the view of prosecuting the study of painting, but although
+he continued his artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he
+never definitely adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was
+chosen a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of
+General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course of two
+years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he commanded the
+centre division of Moreau's army in the campaign of the Rhine, and by
+coolness and sagacity greatly aided him in the celebrated retreat from
+Bavaria to the Rhine. In 1798 he succeeded Masséna in the command of the
+army of Italy. In the following year he commanded the left wing of
+Jourdan's army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Masséna, he
+joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished himself in
+face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat of Novi. When
+Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command of the army of the Rhine,
+Gouvion St-Cyr was named his principal lieutenant, and on the 9th of May
+gained a victory over General Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on
+good terms with his commander and retired to France after the first
+operations of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command the
+army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named grand officer
+of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace was shortly afterwards
+concluded with Portugal, he succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at
+Madrid. In 1803 he was appointed to the command of an army corps in
+Italy, in 1805 he served with distinction under Masséna, and in 1806 was
+engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in the Prussian
+and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which year he was made a
+count, he commanded an army corps in Catalonia; but, not wishing to
+comply with certain orders he received from Paris (for which see Oman,
+_Peninsular War_, vol. iii.), he resigned his command and remained in
+disgrace till 1811. He was still a general of division, having been
+excluded from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing
+to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the Empire. On
+the opening of the Russian campaign he received command of an army
+corps, and on the 18th of August 1812 obtained a victory over the
+Russians at Polotsk, in recognition of which he was created a marshal of
+France. He received a severe wound in one of the actions during the
+general retreat. St-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden
+(August 26-27, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the
+Allies after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on the 11th of
+November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On the restoration
+of the Bourbons he was created a peer of France, and in July 1815 was
+appointed war minister, but resigned his office in the November
+following. In June 1817 he was appointed minister of marine, and in
+September following again resumed the duties of war minister, which he
+continued to discharge till November 1819. During this time he effected
+many reforms, particularly in respect of measures tending to make the
+army a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himself also to
+safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire, organized the
+general staff and revised the code of military law and the pension
+regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817. He died at Hyères (Var) on
+the 17th of March 1830. Gouvion St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained
+better opportunities of acquiring distinction had he shown himself more
+blindly devoted to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the
+high compliment of referring to his "military genius," and entrusted him
+with independent commands in secondary theatres of war. It is doubtful,
+however, if he possessed energy commensurate with his skill, and in
+Napoleon's modern conception of war, as three parts moral to one
+technical, there was more need for the services of a bold leader of
+troops whose "doctrine"--to use the modern phrase--predisposed him to
+self-sacrificing and vigorous action, than for a _savant_ in the art of
+war of the type of St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot,
+did justice to his "commanding talents," but remarked the indolence
+which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind that had
+passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without attaining the
+simplicity of genius.
+
+  He was the author of the following works, all of the highest value:
+  _Journal des opérations de l'armée de Catalogne en 1808 et 1809_
+  (Paris, 1821); _Mémoires sur les campagnes des armées de Rhin et de
+  Rhin-et-Moselle de 1794 à 1797_ (Paris, 1829); and _Mémoires pour
+  servir à l'histoire militaire sous le Directoire, le Consulat, et
+  l'Empire_ (1831).
+
+  See Gay de Vernon's _Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+GOVAN, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It lies on
+the south bank of the Clyde in actual contact with Glasgow, and in a
+parish of the same name which includes a large part of the city on both
+sides of the river. Pop. (1891) 61,589; (1901) 76,532. Govan remained
+little more than a village till 1860, when the growth of shipbuilding
+and allied trades gave its development an enormous impetus. Among its
+public buildings are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital,
+Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder Park (40
+acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue of John Elder
+(1824-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband of the donor. A statue
+of Sir William Pearce (1833-1888), another well-known Govan shipbuilder,
+once M.P. for the burgh, stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board
+opened in 1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow
+gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow corporation;
+but it has an electric light installation of its own, and performs all
+other municipal functions quite independently of the city, annexation to
+which it has always strenuously resisted. Prince's Dock lies within its
+bounds and the shipbuilding yards have turned out many famous ironclads
+and liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match-making,
+silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube-making, weaving, and
+the manufacture of locomotives and electrical apparatus. The town forms
+the greater part of the Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one
+member to parliament.
+
+
+
+
+GOVERNMENT (O. Fr. _governement_, mod. _gouvernement_, O. Fr.
+_governer_, mod. _gouverner_, from Lat. _gubernare_, to steer a ship,
+guide, rule; cf. Gr. [Greek: kubernan]), in its widest sense, the ruling
+power in a political society. In every society of men there is a
+determinate body (whether consisting of one individual or a few or many
+individuals) whose commands the rest of the community are bound to obey.
+This sovereign body is what in more popular phrase is termed the
+government of the country, and the varieties which may exist in its
+constitution are known as forms of government. For the opposite theory
+of a community with "no government," see ANARCHISM.
+
+How did government come into existence? Various answers to this question
+have at times been given, which may be distinguished broadly into three
+classes. The first class would comprehend the legendary accounts which
+nations have given in primitive times of their own forms of government.
+These are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The
+government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon, Moses, Numa
+and Alfred in like manner shaped the government of their respective
+nations. There was no curiosity about the institutions of other
+nations--about the origin of governments in general; and each nation was
+perfectly ready to accept the traditional [Greek: nomothetai] of any
+other.
+
+The second may be called the logical or metaphysical account of the
+origin of government. It contained no overt reference to any particular
+form of government, whatever its covert references may have been. It
+answered the question, how government in general came into existence;
+and it answered it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The
+phenomenon to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted
+government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing without them.
+The characteristic feature of this kind of speculation is that it
+reflects how contemporary men would behave if all government were
+removed, and infers that men must have behaved so before government came
+into existence. Society without government resolves itself into a number
+of individuals each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days
+before government, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to see how
+this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views of the nature
+of the supposed original state. With Hobbes, it is a state of war, and
+government is the result of an agreement among men to keep the peace.
+With Locke, it is a state of liberty and equality,--it is not a state of
+war; it is governed by its own law,--the law of nature, which is the
+same thing as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an
+end by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their natural
+liberty and submit themselves to one supreme government. In the words of
+Locke, "Men being by nature all free, equal and independent, no one can
+be put out of this estate and subjected to the political power of
+another without his own consent. The only way whereby any one divests
+himself of his natural liberty, and puts on the _bonds of civil
+society_, is by agreeing with other men to join and unite into a
+community" (_On Civil Government_, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his
+theory as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his
+demonstration of the baselessness of Sir R. Filmer's speculations with
+the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the foundation of
+his own. But in general the various forms of the hypothesis eliminate
+the question of time altogether. The original contract from which
+government sprang is likewise the subsisting contract on which civil
+society continues to be based. The historical weakness of the theory was
+probably always recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively
+demonstrated by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on the
+principles of government.
+
+The "social compact" (see ROUSSEAU) is the most famous of the
+metaphysical explanations of government. It has had the largest history,
+the widest influence and the most complete development. To the same
+class belong the various forms of the theory that governments exist by
+divine appointment. Of all that has been written about the divine right
+of kings, a great deal must be set down to the mere flatteries of
+courtiers and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men
+are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been appointed
+by God. Like the social compact, the theory of divine appointment
+avoided the question of historical fact.
+
+The application of the historical method to the phenomena of society has
+changed the aspect of the question and robbed it of its political
+interest. The student of the history of society has no formula to
+express the law by which government is born. All that he can do is to
+trace governmental forms through various stages of social development.
+The more complex and the larger the society, the more distinct is the
+separation between the governing part and the rest, and the more
+elaborate is the subdivision of functions in the government. The
+primitive type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general. At the same
+time, his way of life differs little from that of his followers and
+subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing
+greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times. Increase
+of bulk brings with it a more complex social organization. War tends to
+develop the strength of the governmental organization; peace relaxes it.
+All societies of men exhibit the germs of government; but there would
+appear to be races of men so low that they cannot be said to live
+together in society at all. Modern investigations have illustrated very
+fully the importance of the family (q.v.) in primitive societies, and
+the belief in a common descent has much to do with the social cohesion
+of a tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a
+household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot affirm
+that political government has its origin in family government, or that
+there may not have been states of society in which government of some
+sort existed while the family did not.
+
+
+I. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
+
+_Three Standard Forms._--Political writers from the time of Aristotle
+have been singularly unanimous in their classification of the forms of
+government. There are three ways in which states may be governed. They
+may be governed by one man, or by a number of men, small in proportion
+to the whole number of men in the state, or by a number large in
+proportion to the whole number of men in the state. The government may
+be a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms are used by
+John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very nearly the same
+sense. The determining quality in governments in both writers, and it
+may safely be said in all intermediate writers, is the numerical
+relation between the constituent members of the government and the
+population of the state. There were, of course, enormous differences
+between the state-systems present to the mind of the Greek philosopher
+and the English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent
+states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern Europe. The unit
+of government in the one case was a city, in the other a nation. This
+difference is of itself enough to invalidate all generalization founded
+on the common terminology. But on one point there is a complete parallel
+between the politics of Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek
+cities were to the rest of the world very much what European nations and
+European colonies are to the rest of the world now. They were the only
+communities in which the governed visibly took some share in the work of
+government. Outside the European system, as outside the Greek system, we
+have only the stereotyped uniformity of despotism, whether savage or
+civilized. The question of forms of government, therefore, belongs
+characteristically to the European races. The virtues and defects of
+monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and defects
+manifested by the historical governments of Europe. The generality of
+the language used by political writers must not blind us to the fact
+that they are thinking only of a comparatively small portion of mankind.
+
+_Greek Politics._--Aristotle divides governments according to two
+principles. In all states the governing power seeks either its own
+advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and the government is bad
+or good accordingly. In all states the governing power is one man, or a
+few men or many men. Hence six varieties of government, three of which
+are bad and three good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved
+form, thus:--
+
+  The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the depraved form
+  (Tyranny).
+
+  The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to the depraved
+  form (Oligarchy).
+
+  The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds to the depraved
+  form (Democracy).
+
+The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act unjustly where
+their own interests are concerned. The worst of the depraved forms is
+tyranny, the next oligarchy and the least bad democracy.[1] Each of the
+three leading types exhibits a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we
+have the heroic, the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the
+Lacedemonian (hereditary generalship, [Greek: stratêgia]), and absolute
+monarchy. So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding
+varieties. The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly
+agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for political
+affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy is that in which
+a considerable number of small proprietors have the power; here, too,
+the laws prevail. The worst democracy consists of a larger citizen class
+having leisure for politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small
+number of very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is
+reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which as much as
+possible is left to the laws, and as little as possible to the will of
+the governor.
+
+The _Politics_ of Aristotle, from which these principles are taken,
+presents a striking picture of the variety and activity of political
+life in the free communities of Greece. The king and council of heroic
+times had disappeared, and self-government in some form or other was the
+general rule. It is to be noticed, however, that the governments of
+Greece were essentially unstable. The political philosophers could lay
+down the law of development by which one form of government gives birth
+to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to the
+consideration of the causes of revolutions. The dread of tyranny was
+kept alive by the facility with which an over-powerful and unscrupulous
+citizen could seize the whole machinery of government. Communities
+oscillated between some form of oligarchy and some form of democracy.
+The security of each was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of
+the opposing factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that
+exuberant variety of form and expression which characterizes all the
+intellectual products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent
+progress. Then there was no approximation to a national government, even
+of the federal type. The varying confederacies and hegemonies are the
+nearest approach to anything of the kind. What kind of national
+government would ultimately have arisen if Greece had not been crushed
+it is needless to conjecture; the true interest of Greek politics lies
+in the fact that the free citizens were, in the strictest sense of the
+word, self-governed. Each citizen took his turn at the common business
+of the state. He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time
+in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship in Athens
+was a liberal education, such as it never can be made under any
+representative system.
+
+_The Government of Rome._--During the whole period of freedom the
+government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal self-government.
+Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his own person in the comitia
+of the centuries or the tribes. The administrative powers of government
+were, however, in the hands of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from
+the holders of high public office. The senate represented capacity and
+experience rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument the
+city government of Rome could never have made the conquest of the world.
+The gradual extension of the citizenship to other Italians changed the
+character of Roman government. The distant citizens could not come to
+the voting booths; the device of representation was not discovered; and
+the comitia fell into the power of the town voters. In the last stage of
+the Roman republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of
+a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect of leaving
+to the people of London or Paris the supreme control of the British
+empire or of France,--irresistible temptation, inevitable corruption.
+The rabble of the capital learn to live on the rest of the empire.[2]
+The favour of the effeminate masters of the world is purchased by _panem
+et circenses_. That capable officers and victorious armies should long
+be content to serve such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of
+generals placed itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of
+them made himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus and Tiberius, the
+Roman people became habituated to a new form of government, which is
+best described by the name of Caesarism. The outward forms of republican
+government remained, but one man united in his own person all the
+leading offices, and used them to give a seemingly legal title to what
+was essentially military despotism. There is no more interesting
+constitutional study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the
+growth of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect of
+Tiberius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as the English
+constitution of the present day. The master of the world posed as the
+humble servant of a menial senate. Deprecating the outward symbols of
+sovereignty, he was satisfied with the modest powers of a consul or a
+tribunus plebis. The reign of Tiberius, little capable as he was by
+personal character of captivating the favour of the multitude, did more
+for imperialism than was done by his more famous predecessors.
+Henceforward free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the
+military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the character
+imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an elective not an
+hereditary king. The real foundation of his power was the army, and the
+army in course of time openly assumed the right of nominating the
+sovereign. The characteristic weakness of the Roman empire was the
+uncertainty of the succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the
+lifetime of the emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were
+elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force of arms
+could decide the question between them.
+
+_Modern Governments._--_Feudalism._--The Roman empire bequeathed to
+modern Europe the theory of universal dominion. The nationalities which
+grew up after its fall arranged themselves on the basis of territorial
+sovereignty. Leaving out of account the free municipalities of the
+middle ages, the problem of government had now to be solved, not for
+small urban communities, but for large territorial nations. The medieval
+form of government was feudal. One common type pervaded all the
+relations of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation
+between lord and vassal (see FEUDALISM). The bond between them was the
+tenure of land. In England there had been, before the Norman Conquest,
+an approximation to a feudal system. In the earlier English
+constitution, the most striking features were the power of the witan,
+and the common property of the nation in a large portion of the soil.
+The steady development of the power of the king kept pace with the
+aggregation of the English tribes under one king. The conception that
+the land belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception
+that everything belonged primarily to the king.[3] The Norman Conquest
+imposed on England the already highly developed feudalism of France, and
+out of this feudalism the free governments of modern Europe have grown.
+One or two of the leading steps in this process may be indicated here.
+The first, and perhaps the most important, was the device of
+representation. For an account of its origin, and for instances of its
+use in England before its application to politics, we must be content to
+refer to Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. The problem of
+combining a large area of sovereignty with some degree of
+self-government, which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths, was
+henceforward solved. From that time some form of representation has been
+deemed essential to every constitution professing, however remotely, to
+be free.
+
+The connexion between representation and the feudal system of estates
+must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the king a limited right
+to military service and to certain aids, both of which were utterly
+inadequate to meet the expenses of the government, especially in time of
+war. The king therefore had to get contributions from his people, and he
+consulted them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply
+the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed out
+that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king and the
+order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of inchoate estates or
+sub-estates of the realm. The right of representation was thus in its
+origin a right to consent to taxation. The pure theory of feudalism had
+from the beginning been broken by William the Conqueror causing all
+free-holders to take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The
+institution of parliaments, and the association of the king's smaller
+tenants _in capite_ with other commoners, still further removed the
+government from the purely feudal type in which the mesne lord stands
+between the inferior vassal and the king.
+
+_Parliamentary Government._--_The English System._--The right of the
+commons to share the power of the king and lords in legislation, the
+exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes, the disappearance of the
+clergy as a separate order, were all important steps in the movement
+towards popular government. The extinction of the old feudal nobility in
+the dynastic wars of the 15th century simplified the question by leaving
+the crown face to face with parliament. The immediate result was no
+doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably never stood
+higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth; but even
+these powerful monarchs were studious in their regard for parliamentary
+conventionalities. After a long period of speculative controversy and
+civil war, the settlement of 1688 established limited monarchy as the
+government of England. Since that time the external form of government
+has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes, the
+constitution of William III. might be taken for the same system as that
+which still exists. The silent changes have, however, been enormous. The
+most striking of these, and that which has produced the most salient
+features of the English system, is the growth of cabinet government.
+Intimately connected with this is the rise of the two great historical
+parties of English politics. The normal state of government in England
+is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for the
+time, the stronger of the two. Before the Revolution the king's
+ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even after the
+Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating, and each
+individual minister was bound to the others only by the tie of common
+service to the king. Under the Hanoverian sovereigns the ministry became
+consolidated, the position of the cabinet became definite, and its
+dependence on parliament, and more particularly on the House of Commons,
+was established. Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the
+other, and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done in
+the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics has divided
+parliament into the representatives of two parties, and the party in
+opposition has been steadied by the consciousness that it, too, has
+constitutional functions of high importance, because at any moment it
+may be called to provide a ministry. Criticism is sobered by being made
+responsible. Along with this movement went the withdrawal of the
+personal action of the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to
+veto a bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne. No
+ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834. Whatever the
+power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably limited to his
+personal influence over his ministers. And it must be remembered that
+since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers have become, in practice,
+responsible ultimately, not to parliament, but to the House of Commons.
+Apart, therefore, from democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we
+find that the House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the
+centre of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been
+enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions of the
+government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional writers, such as
+Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a wonderful compound of the
+three standard forms,--monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. Each has its
+place, and each acts as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the
+question "Whether the British government inclines more to absolute
+monarchy or to a republic," decides in favour of the former alternative.
+"The tide has run long and with some rapidity to the side of popular
+government, and is just beginning to turn toward monarchy." And he gives
+it as his own opinion that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death,
+the true euthanasia of the British constitution. These views of the
+English government in the 18th century may be contrasted with Bagehot's
+sketch of the modern government as a working instrument.[4]
+
+_Leading Features of Parliamentary Government._--The parliamentary
+government developed by England out of feudal materials has been
+deliberately accepted as the type of constitutional government all over
+the world. Its leading features are popular representation more or less
+extensive, a bicameral legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated
+ministry. In connexion with all of these, numberless questions of the
+highest practical importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which
+would surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to a
+few very general considerations.
+
+_The Two Chambers._--First, as to the double chamber. This, which is
+perhaps more accidental than any other portion of the British system,
+has been the most widely imitated. In most European countries, in the
+British colonies, in the United States Congress, and in the separate
+states of the Union,[5] there are two houses of legislature. This result
+has been brought about partly by natural imitation of the accepted type
+of free government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber
+will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the elements
+of the British original cannot be reproduced to order under different
+conditions. There have, indeed, been a few attempts to imitate the
+special character of hereditary nobility attaching to the British House
+of Lords. In some countries, where the feudal tradition is still strong
+(e.g. Prussia, Austria, Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper
+chambers has survived as truly representative of actual social and
+economic relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain
+(e.g. in France after the Revolution) the attempt to establish an
+hereditary peerage on the British model has always failed. For the
+peculiar solidarity between the British nobility and the general mass of
+the people, the outcome of special conditions and tendencies, is a
+result beyond the power of constitution-makers to attain. The British
+system too, after its own way, has for a long period worked without any
+serious collision between the Houses,--the standing and obvious danger
+of the bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess
+the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not--in fact they
+often do not--possess the confidence of the House of Lords. It is only
+in legislation that the Lower House really shares its powers with the
+Upper; and (apart from any such change in the constitution as was
+suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman) the constitution
+possesses, in the unlimited power of nominating peers, a well-understood
+last resource should the House of Lords persist in refusing important
+measures demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United
+Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies with the
+people (the electorate), and the House of Lords recognizes the principle
+that it must accept a measure when the popular will has been clearly
+expressed. In all but measures of first-class importance, however, the
+House of Lords is a real second chamber, and in these there is little
+danger of a collision between the Houses. There is the widest possible
+difference between the British and any other second chamber. In the
+United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal
+representation of states) is the more important of the two Houses, and
+the only one whose control of the executive can be compared to that
+exercised by the British House of Commons.
+
+The real strength of popular government in England lies in the ultimate
+supremacy of the House of Commons. That supremacy had been acquired,
+perhaps to its full extent, before the extension of the suffrage made
+the constituencies democratic. Foreign imitators, it may be observed,
+have been more ready to accept a wide basis of representation than to
+confer real power on the representative body. In all the monarchical
+countries of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be,
+the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won. Where
+the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no reason for
+guarding it against abuse. The independence of the executive in the
+United States brings that country, from one point of view, more near to
+the state system of the continent of Europe than to that of the United
+Kingdom. The people make a more complete surrender of power to the
+government (State or Federal) than is done in England.
+
+_Cabinet Government._--The peculiar functions of the English cabinet are
+not easily matched in any foreign system. They are a mystery even to
+most educated Englishmen. The cabinet (q.v.) is much more than a body
+consisting of chiefs of departments. It is the inner council of the
+empire, the arbiter of national policy, foreign or domestic, the
+sovereign in commission. The whole power of the House of Commons is
+concentrated in its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in
+the legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not fixed
+even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its proceedings. The
+relations of an individual minister to the cabinet, and of the cabinet
+to its head and creator, the premier, are things known only to the
+initiated. With the doubtful exception of France, no other system of
+government presents us with anything like its equivalent. In the United
+States, as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers
+surrounding the chief of the state.
+
+_Change of Power in the English System._--One of the most difficult
+problems of government is how to provide for the devolution of political
+power, and perhaps no other question is so generally and justly applied
+as the test of a working constitution. If the transmission works
+smoothly, the constitution, whatever may be its other defects, may at
+least be pronounced stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the
+contrivances which this problem has suggested to political societies.
+Here, as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale.
+When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law of succession
+fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled to succeed,
+assassination becomes almost a necessary measure of precaution. The
+prince whom chance or intrigue has promoted to the throne of a father or
+an uncle must make himself safe from his relatives and competitors.
+Hence the scenes which shock the European conscience when "Amurath an
+Amurath succeeds." The strong monarchical governments of Europe have
+been saved from this evil by an indisputable law of succession, which
+marks out from his infancy the next successor to the throne. The king
+names his ministers, and the law names the king. In popular or
+constitutional governments far more elaborate precautions are required.
+It is one of the real merits of the English constitution that it has
+solved this problem--in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion--but
+with perfect success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and
+down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended all
+the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the real
+change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The constitutional
+practice of the 19th century settled, beyond the reach of controversy,
+the occasions on which a ministry is bound to retire. It must resign or
+dissolve when it is defeated[6] in the House of Commons, and if after a
+dissolution it is beaten again, it must resign without alternative. It
+may resign if it thinks its majority in the House of Commons not
+sufficiently large. The dormant functions of the crown now come into
+existence. It receives back political power from the old ministry in
+order to transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to be formed,
+and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established
+practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recommending the
+king to consult him; and that successor must be the recognized leader of
+his successful rivals. All this is a matter of custom, not of law; and
+it is doubtful if any two authorities could agree in describing the
+custom in language of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any
+one he pleases, and charge him with the formation of a government; but
+the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to the
+recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an individual.
+It is certain that the intervention of the crown facilitates the
+transfer of power from one party to another, by giving it the appearance
+of a mere change of servants. The real disturbance is that caused by the
+appeal to the electors. A general election is always a struggle between
+the great political parties for the possession of the powers of
+government. It may be noted that modern practice goes far to establish
+the rule that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once
+without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons.
+
+The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the will of the House
+of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House of Commons itself is
+dependent on the will of the ministry. In the last result both depend on
+the will of the constituencies, as expressed at the general election.
+There is no fixity in either direction in the tenure of a ministry. It
+may be challenged at any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and
+beaten. And that there should be a ministry and a House of Commons in
+harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is rendered
+all but impossible by the law and the practice as to the duration of
+parliaments.
+
+_Change of Power in the United States._--The United States offers a very
+different solution of the problem. The American president is at once
+king and prime minister; and there is no titular superior to act as a
+conduit-pipe between him and his successor. His crown is rigidly fixed;
+he can be removed only by the difficult method of impeachment. No
+hostile vote on matters of legislation can affect his position. But the
+end of his term is known from the first day of his government; and
+almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country are
+shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a change of
+government in America means a considerable change in the administrative
+staff (see CIVIL SERVICE). The commotion caused by a presidential
+election in the United States is thus infinitely greater and more
+prolonged than that caused by a general election in England. A change of
+power in England affects comparatively few personal interests, and
+absorbs the attention of the country for a comparatively short space of
+time. In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared
+for, and when it comes it involves the personal fortunes of large
+numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more democratic
+than the American, in the sense that the popular will can more speedily
+be brought to bear upon the government.
+
+_Change of Power in France._--The established practice of England and
+America may be compared with the constitutionalism of France. Here the
+problem presents different conditions. The head of the state is neither
+a premier of the English, nor a president of the American type. He is
+served by a prime minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry,
+hold office on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds
+office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like the
+others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet to cabinet is
+concerned, he discharges the functions of an English king. But the
+transmission of power between himself and his successor is protected by
+no constitutional devices whatever, and experience would seem to show
+that no such devices are really necessary. Other European countries
+professing constitutional government appear to follow the English
+practice. The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly
+fair to compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that,
+while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same persons
+are generally re-elected.
+
+_The Relation between Government and Laws._--It might be supposed that,
+if any general proposition could be established about government, it
+would be one establishing some constant relation between the form of a
+government and the character of the laws which it enforces. The
+technical language of the English school of jurists is certainly of a
+kind to encourage such a supposition. The entire body of law in force in
+a country at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of
+the governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit of
+this jurisprudence than the following:--"The real legislator is not he
+by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose will it continues to
+be law." The whole of the vast repertory of rules which make up the law
+of England--the rules of practice in the courts, the local customs of a
+county or a manor, the principles formulated by the sagacity of
+generations of judges, equally with the statutes for the year, are
+conceived of by the school of Austin as created by the will of the
+sovereign and the two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would
+now satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place to
+examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition, but the
+statement we have made carries on its face a demonstration of its own
+falsity in fact. There is probably no government in the world of which
+it could be said that it might change at will the substantive laws of
+the country and still remain a government. However well it may suit the
+purposes of analytical jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by
+sovereign to subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition,
+and that the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society,
+anything but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of a
+particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliberate will
+of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has illustrated this
+point by the case of the great tax-gathering empires of the east, in
+which the absolute master of millions of men never dreams of making
+anything in the nature of a law at all. This view is no doubt as strange
+to the English statesman as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous
+work of government in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For
+a large portion of the year the attention of the whole people is bent on
+the operations of a body of men who are constantly engaged in making new
+laws. It is natural, therefore, to think of law as a factitious thing,
+made and unmade by the people who happen for the time being to
+constitute parliament. It is forgotten how small a proportion the laws
+actually devised by parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the
+land. No European country has undergone so many changes in the form of
+government as France. It is surprising how little effect these political
+revolutions have had on the body of French law. The change from empire
+to republic is not marked by greater legislative effects than the change
+from a Conservative to a Liberal ministry in England would be.
+
+These reflections should make us cautious in accepting any general
+proposition about forms of government and the spirit of their laws. We
+must remember, also, that the classification of governments according to
+the numerical proportion between governors and governed supplies but a
+small basis for generalization. What parallel can be drawn between a
+small town, in which half the population are slaves, and every freeman
+has a direct voice in the government, and a great modern state, in which
+there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign
+powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates and
+representatives? Propositions as vague as those of Montesquieu may
+indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility. But to take any
+leading head of positive law, and to say that monarchies treat it in one
+way, aristocracies and democracies in another, is a different matter.
+
+
+II. SPHERE OF GOVERNMENT
+
+The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government in a
+civilized community shapes itself into the threefold functions of
+legislation, judicature and administration. The two first are perfectly
+well-defined, and the last includes all the kinds of state action not
+included in the other two. It is with reference to legislation and
+administration that the line of permissible state-action requires to be
+drawn. There is no doubt about the province of the judicature, and that
+function of government may therefore be dismissed with a very few
+observations.
+
+The complete separation of the three functions marks a high point of
+social organization. In simple societies the same officers discharge all
+the duties which we divide between the legislator, the administrator and
+the judge. The acts themselves are not consciously recognized as being
+of different kinds. The evolution of all the parts of a highly complex
+government from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the
+history of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modern
+government, however little they may resemble each other now, can be
+followed back without a break to their common origin. Parliament, the
+cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law, all carry us back to the
+same _nidus_ in the council of the feudal king.
+
+_Judicature._--The business of judicature, requiring as it does the
+possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge, is
+generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a separate and
+independent class of functionaries. In England the appellate
+jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains in theory the
+connexion between the supreme legislative and the supreme judicial
+functions. In some states of the American Union certain judicial
+functions of the upper house were for a time maintained after the
+example of the English constitution as it existed when the states were
+founded. In England there is also still a considerable amount of
+judicial work in which the people takes its share. The inferior
+magistracies, except in populous places, are in the hands of private
+persons. And by the jury system the ascertainment of fact has been
+committed in very large measure to persons selected indiscriminately
+from the mass of the people, subject to a small property qualification.
+But the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons whom
+the law has jealously fenced off from external interference and control.
+The independence of the bench distinguishes the English system from
+every other. It was established in principle as a barrier against
+monarchical power, and hence has become one of the traditional ensigns
+of popular government. In many of the American states the spirit of
+democracy has demanded the subjection of the judiciary to popular
+control. The judges are elected directly by the people, and hold office
+for a short term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the
+responsible executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses.
+At the same time the constitution of the United States has assigned to
+the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique position. The supreme
+court is the guardian of the constitution (as are the state courts of
+the constitution of the states: see UNITED STATES). It has to judge
+whether a measure passed by the legislative powers is not void by reason
+of being unconstitutional, and it may therefore have to veto the
+deliberate resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It
+is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been
+completely justified by its success.
+
+_Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration._--The
+question of the limits of state action does not arise with reference to
+the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a duty which the sovereign
+power must of absolute necessity take upon itself. But to what conduct
+of the citizens the laws shall extend is the most perplexing of all
+political questions. The correlative question with regard to the
+executive would be what works of public convenience should the state
+undertake through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere of
+government may be stated in these two questions: What should the state
+do for its citizens? and How far should the state interfere with the
+action of its citizens? These questions are the direct outcome of modern
+popular government; they are equally unknown to the small democracies of
+ancient times and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly
+ancient political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions,
+has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of government.
+The conception that the power of the state can be and ought to be
+limited belongs to the times of "government by discussion," to use
+Bagehot's expression,--to the time when the sovereign number is divided
+by class interests, and when the action of the majority has to be
+carried out in the face of strong minorities, capable of making
+themselves heard. Aristotle does indeed dwell on one aspect of the
+question. He would limit the action of the government in the sense of
+leaving as little as possible to the personal will of the governors,
+whether one or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that
+the sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by general
+principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign to ancient
+philosophy. The state is conceived as acting like a just man, and
+justice in the state is the same thing as justice in the individual. The
+Greek institutions which the philosophers are unanimous in commending
+are precisely those which the most state-ridden nations of modern times
+would agree in repudiating. The exhaustive discussion of all political
+measures, which for over two centuries has been a fixed habit of English
+public life, has of itself established the principle that there are
+assignable limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever
+have been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or less
+vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from the
+interference of the law. Phrases like "the liberty of the subject," the
+"sanctity of private property," "an Englishman's house is his castle,"
+"the rights of conscience," are the commonplaces of political
+discussion, and tell the state, "Thus far shalt thou go and no further."
+
+The two contrasting policies are those of _laissez-faire_ (let alone)
+and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism, the one a policy
+of non-interference with the free play of social forces, the other of
+their regulation for the benefit of the community. The _laissez-faire_
+theory was prominently upheld by John Stuart Mill, whose essay on
+_Liberty_, together with the concluding chapters of his treatise on
+_Political Economy_, gives a tolerably complete view of the principles
+of government. There is a general presumption against the interference
+of government, which is only to be overcome by very strong evidence of
+necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective than
+voluntary action. The necessary duties of government are so burdensome,
+that to increase them destroys its efficiency. Its powers are already so
+great that individual freedom is constantly in danger. As a general
+rule, nothing which can be done by the voluntary agency of individuals
+should be left to the state. Each man is the best judge of his own
+interests. But, on the other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to
+be useful or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary agency,
+or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot be considered
+capable of judging of the quality supplied, then Mill would allow the
+state to interpose. Thus the education of children, and even of adults,
+would fairly come within the province of the state. Mill even goes so
+far as to admit that, where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the
+establishment of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to
+labourers as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account
+of the refusal of individuals to co-operate, government may justifiably
+compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire to see some
+control exercised by the government over the operations of those
+voluntary associations which, consisting of large numbers of
+shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the hands of one or a
+few persons. In short, Mill's general rule against state action admits
+of many important exceptions, founded on no principle less vague than
+that of public expediency. The essay on _Liberty_ is mainly concerned
+with freedom of individual character, and its arguments apply to control
+exercised, not only by the state, but by society in the form of public
+opinion. The leading principle is that of Humboldt, "the absolute and
+essential importance of human development in its richest diversity."
+Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion and morals from the
+action, direct and indirect, of the state. Mill, as we have seen,
+conceives education to be within the province of the state, but he would
+confine its action to compelling parents to educate their children.
+
+The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however, is Herbert
+Spencer. In his _Social Statics_, published in 1850, he holds it to be
+the essential duty of government to _protect_--to maintain men's rights
+to life, to personal liberty and to property; and the theory that the
+government ought to undertake other offices besides that of protector he
+regards as an untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest
+exercise of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others.
+This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the duty and
+the only duty of the state to enforce. If the state goes beyond this
+duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an aggressor. Thus all state
+regulations of commerce, all religious establishments, all government
+relief of the poor, all state systems of education and of sanitary
+superintendence, even the state currency and the post-office, stand
+condemned, not only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as
+involving violations of man's natural liberty.
+
+The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of political
+practice than of political theory. In some cases state interference has
+been abolished or greatly limited. These cases are mainly two--in
+matters of opinion (especially religious opinion), and in matters of
+contract.
+
+  The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a
+  formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles as
+  ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; ESTABLISHMENT; MARRIAGE; OATH; ROMAN CATHOLIC
+  CHURCH, &c., and COMPANY; CONTRACT; PARTNERSHIP, &c. In other cases
+  the state has interfered for the protection and assistance of definite
+  classes of persons. For example, the education and protection of
+  children (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; EDUCATION; TECHNICAL
+  EDUCATION); the regulation of factory labour and dangerous employment
+  (see LABOUR LEGISLATION); improved conditions of health (see
+  ADULTERATION; HOUSING; PUBLIC HEALTH, LAW OF, &c.); coercion for moral
+  purposes (see BET AND BETTING; CRIMINAL LAW; GAMING AND WAGERING;
+  LIQUOR LAWS; LOTTERIES, &c.). Under numerous other headings in this
+  work the evolution of existing forms of government is discussed; see
+  also the bibliographical note to the article CONSTITUTION AND
+  CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that
+    any one of the depraved forms is better than any other.
+
+  [2] None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or
+    permanent conquests; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to
+    another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source
+    of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (_Essays_, part i. 3,
+    _That Politics may be reduced to a Science_), "free governments are
+    the most ruinous and oppressive for their provinces."
+
+  [3] Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to
+    have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the
+    peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only
+    on this view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to
+    land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was no
+    doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every
+    ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right
+    held of the crown by a vassal.
+
+  [4] See Bagehot's _English Constitution_; or, for a more recent
+    analysis, Sidney Low's _Governance of England_.
+
+  [5] For an account of the double chamber system in the state
+    legislatures see UNITED STATES: _Constitution and Government_, and
+    also S. G. Fisher, _The Evolution of the Constitution_ (Philadelphia,
+    1897).
+
+  [6] A government "defeat" may, of course, not really represent a
+    hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government
+    has obtained a reversal of the vote and has _not_ resigned.
+
+
+
+
+GOVERNOR (from the Fr. _gouverneur_, from _gouverner_, O. Fr.
+_governer_, Lat. _gubernare_, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in
+general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically, an
+official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c. In British
+colonies or dependencies the representative of the crown is termed a
+governor. Colonial governors are classed as governors-general, governors
+and lieutenant-governors, according to the status of the colony or group
+of colonies over which they preside. Their powers vary according to the
+position which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority of
+the crown. In the United States (q.v.) the official at the head of every
+state government is called a governor.
+
+
+
+
+GOW, NIEL (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parentage, famous as
+a violinist and player of reels, but more so for the part he played in
+preserving the old melodies of Scotland. His compositions, and those of
+his four sons, Nathaniel, the most famous (1763-1831), William
+(1751-1791), Andrew (1760-1803), and John (1764-1826), formed the "Gow
+Collection," comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a
+valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most important of
+Niel's sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as the author of the
+well-known "Caller Herrin," taken from the fishwives' cry, a tune to
+which words were afterwards written by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel's son,
+NIEL GOW junior (1795-1823), was the author of the famous songs "Flora
+Macdonald's Lament" and "Cam' ye by Athol."
+
+
+
+
+GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced age in 1408, so
+that he may be presumed to have been born about 1330. He belonged to a
+good Kentish family, but the suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the
+poet is to be identified with a John Gower who was at one time possessed
+of the manor of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no
+evidence that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was
+undoubtedly possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner
+of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk. In a
+document of 1382 he is called an "Esquier de Kent," and he was certainly
+not in holy orders. That he was acquainted with Chaucer we know, first
+because Chaucer in leaving England for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and
+another to represent him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer
+addressed his _Troilus and Criseide_ to Gower and Strode (whom he
+addresses as "moral Gower" and "philosophical Strode") for criticism and
+correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition of
+Gower's _Confessio amantis_, "And gret wel Chaucer whan ye mete," &c.
+There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion, based partly on the
+subsequent omission of these lines and partly on the humorous reference
+of Chaucer to Gower's _Confessio amantis_ in the introduction to the
+_Man of Law's Tale_, that the friendship was broken by a quarrel. From
+his Latin poem _Vox clamantis_ we know that he was deeply and painfully
+interested in the peasants' rising of 1381; and by the alterations which
+the author made in successive revisions of this work we can trace a
+gradually increasing sense of disappointment in the youthful king, whom
+he at first acquits of all responsibility for the state of the kingdom
+on account of his tender age. That he became personally known to the
+king we learn from his own statement in the first edition of the
+_Confessio amantis_, where he says that he met the king upon the river,
+was invited to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which
+followed received the suggestion which led him to write his principal
+English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the later
+revisions of the _Confessio amantis_, that he was a great admirer of the
+king's brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., whom
+he came eventually to regard as a possible saviour of society from the
+misgovernment of Richard II. We have a record that in 1393 he received a
+collar from his favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that
+the effigy upon Gower's tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the swan
+badge which was used by Henry.
+
+The first edition of the _Confessio amantis_ is dated 1390, and this
+contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication to the then
+earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry became the sole object of
+the dedication, is of the year 1393. Gower's political opinions are
+still more strongly expressed in the _Cronica tripartita_.
+
+In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the special licence
+granted by the bishop of Winchester for the celebration of this marriage
+in John Gower's private oratory we gather that he was then living in
+lodgings assigned to him within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps
+also that he was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is
+probable that this was not his first marriage, for there are indications
+in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when that was
+written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408, and his death took
+place very soon after this. He had been blind for some years before his
+death. A magnificent tomb with a recumbent effigy was erected over his
+grave in the chapel of St John the Baptist within the church of the
+priory, now St Saviour's, Southwark, and this is still to be seen,
+though not quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on
+the tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a
+considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely to the
+rebuilding of the church.
+
+The effigy on Gower's tomb rests its head upon a pile of three folio
+volumes entitled _Speculum meditantis_, _Vox clamantis_ and _Confessio
+amantis_. These are his three principal works. The first of these was
+long supposed to have perished, but a copy of it was discovered in the
+year 1895 under the title _Mirour de l'omme_. It is a French poem of
+about 30,000 lines in twelve-line stanzas, and under the form of an
+allegory of the human soul describes the seven deadly sins and their
+opposing virtues, and then the various estates of man and the vices
+incident to each, concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin
+Mary, and with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God
+and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part, but shows
+considerable command over the language and a great facility in metrical
+expression.
+
+Gower's next work was the _Vox clamantis_ in Latin elegiac verse, in
+which the author takes occasion from the peasants' insurrection of 1381
+to deal again with the faults of the various classes of society. In the
+earlier portion the insurrection itself is described in a rather vivid
+manner, though under the form of an allegory: the remainder contains
+much the same material as we have already seen in that part of the
+French poem where the classes of society are described. Gower's Latin
+verse is very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book
+he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam, Peter de Riga
+and others.
+
+Gower's chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests upon his
+English work, the _Confessio amantis_, in which he displays in his
+native language a real gift as a story-teller. He is himself the lover
+of his poem, in spite of his advancing years, and he makes his
+confession to Genius, the priest of Venus, under the usual headings
+supplied by the seven deadly sins. These with their several branches are
+successively described, and the nature of them illustrated by tales,
+which are directed to the illustration both of the general nature of the
+sin, and of the particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he
+receives at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of
+Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious, and
+there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application of moral
+ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress. The tales are
+drawn from very various sources and are often extremely well told. The
+metre is the short couplet, and it is extremely smooth and regular. The
+great fault of the _Confessio amantis_ is the extent of its digressions,
+especially in the fifth and seventh books.
+
+Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades on the virtue
+of the married state (_Traitié pour essampler les amantz mariés_), and
+after the accession of Henry IV. he produced the _Cronica tripartita_, a
+partisan account in Latin leonine hexameters of the events of the last
+twelve years of the reign of Richard II. About the same time he
+addressed an English poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (_In Praise
+of Peace_), and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades
+(_Cinkante Balades_), which deal with the conventional topics of love,
+but are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several
+occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his life.
+
+On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had considerable literary
+powers; and though not a man of genius, and by no means to be compared
+with Chaucer, yet he did good service in helping to establish the
+standard literary language, which at the end of the 14th century took
+the place of the Middle English dialects. The _Confessio amantis_ was
+long regarded as a classic of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were
+often mentioned side by side as the fathers of English poetry.
+
+  A complete edition of Gower's works in four volumes, edited by G. C.
+  Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume containing the
+  French works, the second and third the English, and the fourth the
+  Latin, with a biography. Before this the _Confessio amantis_ had been
+  published in the following editions: Caxton (1483); Berthelette (1532
+  and 1554); Chalmers, _British Poets_ (1810); Reinhold Pauli (1857); H.
+  Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series of French ballades and the
+  _Praise of Peace_ were printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1818, and the
+  _Vox clamantis_ and _Cronica tripartita_ were edited by H. O. Coxe for
+  the Roxburghe Club in 1850. The _Cronica tripartita_, the _Praise of
+  Peace_ and some of the minor Latin poems were printed in Wright's
+  _Political Poems_ (Rolls series, 14). The _Praise of Peace_ appeared
+  in the early folio editions of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr
+  Skeat in his _Chaucerian and other Pieces_. Reference may be made to
+  Todd's _Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer_;
+  the article (by Sir H. Nicolas) in the _Retrospective Review_ for
+  1828; _Observations on the Language of Chaucer and Gower_, by F. J.
+  Child; H. Morley's English Writers, iv.; Ten Brink's _History of Early
+  English Literature_, ii.; and Courthope's _History of English Poetry_,
+  i.     (G. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GOWER, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan, lying
+between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between Breconshire and the sea,
+its length from the Breconshire border to Worm's Head being 28 m., and
+its breadth about 8 m. It corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower
+(in Welsh _Gwyr_) which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other
+commotes stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the
+principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the country to
+the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by its continued
+inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural deaneries, West and
+East Gower, being in the archdeaconry of Carmarthen. What is meant by
+Gower in modern popular usage, however, is only the peninsular part or
+"English Gower" (that is the Welsh _Bro-wyr_, as distinct from _Gwyr_
+proper), roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying
+mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor.
+
+The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their immense
+deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are far scantier,
+those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave being the most
+important. In the Roman period the river Tawe, or the great morass
+between it and the Neath, probably formed the boundary between the
+Silures and the Goidelic population to the west. The latter, reinforced
+perhaps from Ireland, continued to be the dominant race in Gower till
+their conquest or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of
+Cunedda who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries
+later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of their
+more or less temporary occupation in such place-names as Burry Holms,
+Worms Head and Swansea, and probably also in some cliff earthworks.
+About the year 1100 the conquest of Gower was undertaken by Henry de
+Newburgh, first earl of Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de
+Londres and others. His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the
+marches and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled
+for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving the
+Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically undisturbed.
+These invaders were probably reinforced a little later by a small
+detachment of the larger colony of Flemings which settled in south
+Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which in some cases developed into
+castles, were built for the protection of the various manors into which
+the district was parcelled out, the castles of Swansea and Loughor being
+ascribed to the earl of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de
+Londres. These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during
+the 12th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in 1113, by his
+son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting in concert with
+Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last Prince Llewelyn in 1257.
+With the Norman conquest the feudal system was introduced, and the
+manors were held _in capite_ of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard
+of the castle of Swansea, the _caput baroniae_.
+
+About 1189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family to the crown and
+was granted in 1203 by King John to William de Braose, in whose family
+it remained for over 120 years except for three short intervals when it
+was held for a second time by King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the
+Great (1216-1223), and the Despensers (c. 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh
+and English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of their
+treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from King John,
+who also visited the town of Swansea in 1210 and in 1215 granted its
+merchants liberal privileges. In 1283 a number of de Braose's
+tenants--unquestionably Welshmen--left Gower for the royal lordship of
+Carmarthen, declaring that they would live under the king rather than
+under a lord marcher. In the following year the king visited de Braose
+at Oystermouth Castle, which seems to have been made the lord's chief
+residence, after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later on
+the king's officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen
+repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavouring to
+reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with semi-regal
+jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of the new county. De
+Braose resisted the claim and organized the English part of his lordship
+on the lines of a county palatine, with its own _comitatus_ and chancery
+held in Swansea Castle, the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by
+himself. The inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown
+against their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king,
+who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into their alleged
+grievances, but in the following year the de Braose of the time,
+probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both to the burgesses of
+Swansea and to the English and Welsh inhabitants of his "county" of
+English Gower. He was the last lord seignior to live within the
+seigniory, which passed from him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray.
+Other troubles befell the de Braose barons and their successors in
+title, for their right to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps,
+representatives of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation
+carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps being
+actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was given in their
+favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted to the Mowbrays and
+was held by them until the 4th duke of Norfolk exchanged it in 1489,
+for lands in England, with William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The
+latter's granddaughter brought it to her husband Charles Somerset, who
+in 1506 was granted her father's subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow,
+Raglan and Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present
+lord, the duke of Beaufort.
+
+Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by its inclusion
+in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then reorganized; its chancery,
+which from about the beginning of the 14th century had been located at
+Oystermouth Castle, came to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535
+and 1542 purported to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords
+marchers as conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded
+as private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance, the
+seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till 1858, when
+it was abolished by act of parliament, the appointment of coroner for
+Gower is still vested in him, all writs are executed by the lord's
+officers instead of by the officers of the sheriff for the county, and
+the lord's rights to the foreshore, treasure trove, felon's goods and
+wrecks are undiminished.
+
+The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south and
+south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this part that
+was declared by Professor Freeman to be "more Teutonic than Kent
+itself." The seaside fringe lying between this area and the town of
+Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west of the peninsula, also became
+anglicized at a comparatively early date, though the place-names and the
+names of the inhabitants are still mainly Welsh. The present line of
+demarcation between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea in a
+W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It has remained
+practically the same for several centuries, and is likely to continue
+so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern outcrop of the coal
+measures, the industrial population to the north being Welsh-speaking,
+the agriculturists to the south being English. In 1901 the Gower rural
+district (which includes the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of
+Llanrhidian, with about three-sevenths of the total population) had
+64.5% of the population above three years of age that spoke English
+only, 5.2% that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as
+compared with 17% speaking English only, 17.7% speaking Welsh only and
+the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7% speaking
+English only, 55.2% speaking Welsh only and the rest bilinguals in the
+Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts constituting Welsh
+Gower.
+
+More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed common
+land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is apparently capable of
+cultivation. Besides the demesne manors of the lord seignior, six in
+number, there are some twelve mesne manors and fees belonging to the
+Penrice estate, and nearly twenty more belonging to various other
+owners. The tenure is customary freehold, though in some cases described
+as copyhold, and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is
+by borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller in
+size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales, and
+agriculture is still in a backward state.
+
+In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of Goire as the
+island home of the dead, a view which probably sprang up among the Celts
+of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula would appear as an island. It is also
+surmised by Sir John Rhys that Malory's Brandegore (i.e. Brân of Gower)
+represents the Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, _Arthurian Legend_,
+160, 329 et seq.). On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula,
+is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur's Stone. The
+unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty by Sir
+Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower was a favourite
+burial-place in early British times.
+
+  See Rev. J. D. Davies, _A History of West Gower_ (4 vols., 1877-1894);
+  Col. W. Ll-Morgan, _An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower_ (1899); an
+  article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled "Anglia
+  Trans-Walliana" in the _Saturday Review_ for May 20, 1876; "The
+  Signory of Gower" by G. T. Clark in _Archaeologia Cambrensis_ for
+  1893-1894; _The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey_, ed. by Baker and
+  Grant-Francis (1861-1870).     (D. Ll. T.)
+
+
+
+
+GOWN, properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly worn by
+either sex but now generally for that worn by women. While "dress" is
+the usual English word, except in such combinations as "tea-gown,"
+"dressing-gown" and the like, where the original loose flowing nature of
+the "gown" is referred to, "gown" is the common American word. "Gown"
+comes from the O. Fr. _goune_ or _gonne_. The word appears in various
+Romanic languages, cf. Ital. _gonna_. The medieval Lat. _gunna_ is used
+of a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually adopted,
+but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from the English. Outside
+the ordinary use of the word, "gown" is the name for the distinctive
+robes worn by holders of particular offices or by members of particular
+professions or of universities, &c. (see ROBES).
+
+
+
+
+GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN, 3RD EARL OF (c. 1577-1600), Scottish conspirator,
+was the second son of William, 4th Lord Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie
+(cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea, daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord
+Methven. The Ruthven family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had
+owned extensive estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven
+peerage dated from the year 1488. The 1st earl of Gowrie (? 1541-1584),
+and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 1520-1566), had both been
+concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and both took an active part
+on the side of the Kirk in the constant intrigues and factions among the
+Scottish nobility of the period. The former had been the custodian of
+Mary, queen of Scots, during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where,
+according to the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions; he
+had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the "raid of Ruthven"
+when King James VI. was treacherously seized while a guest at the castle
+of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under restraint for several months while
+the earl remained at the head of the government. Though pardoned for
+this conspiracy he continued to plot against the king in conjunction
+with the earls of Mar and Angus; and he was executed for high treason on
+the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession on
+which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise of pardon
+from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of Gowrie, only
+survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates, which had been
+forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586.
+
+When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom while still a
+child, he inherited along with his vast estates family traditions of
+treason and intrigue. There was also a popular belief, though without
+foundation, that there was Tudor blood in his veins; and Burnet
+afterwards asserted that Gowrie stood next in succession to the crown of
+England after King James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him,
+the young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming preachers,
+who procured his election in 1592 as provost of Perth, a post that was
+almost hereditary in the Ruthven family. He received an excellent
+education at the grammar school of Perth and the university of
+Edinburgh, where he was in the summer of 1593, about the time when his
+mother, and his sister the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing
+himself sword in hand into the king's bedchamber in Holyrood Palace. A
+few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in offering to
+serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile to the Scottish king;
+and it is probable that he had also relations with the rebellious
+Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already deeply engaged in treasonable
+conspiracy when, in August 1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor,
+William Rhynd, to study at the university of Padua. On his way home in
+1599 he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer Theodore
+Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the English ambassador, who
+reported him to Cecil as devoted to Elizabeth's service, and a nobleman
+"of whom there may be exceeding use made." In Paris he may also at this
+time have had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London
+he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her ministers.
+
+
+  The Gowrie conspiracy.
+
+These circumstances owe their importance to the light they throw on the
+obscurity of the celebrated "Gowrie conspiracy," which resulted in the
+slaughter of the earl and his brother by attendants of King James at
+Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks after Gowrie's return to Scotland in
+May 1600. This event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history. The
+mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in any of the
+alternative hypotheses suggested to account for the unquestionable facts
+of the occurrence; the discrepancies in the evidence produced at the
+time; the apparent lack of forethought or plan on the part of the chief
+actors, whichever hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless
+folly of their actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive,
+whoever the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery
+that have been suggested are three in number: first, that Gowrie and his
+brother had concocted a plot to murder, or more probably to kidnap King
+James, and that they lured him to Gowrie House for this purpose;
+secondly, that James paid a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the
+intention, which he carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and
+thirdly, that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl
+following high words between the king and the earl, or his brother. To
+understand the relative probabilities of these hypotheses regard must be
+had to the condition of Scotland in the year 1600 (see SCOTLAND:
+_History_). Here it can only be recalled that plots to capture the
+person of the sovereign for the purpose of coercing his actions were of
+frequent occurrence, more than one of which had been successful, and in
+several of which the Ruthven family had themselves taken an active part;
+that the relations between England and Scotland were at this time more
+than usually strained, and that the young earl of Gowrie was reckoned in
+London among the adherents of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at
+variance with James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of
+their cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him to
+Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be James's rival
+for the succession to the English crown. Moreover, as regards the
+question of motive it is to be observed, on the one hand, that the
+Ruthvens believed Gowrie's father to have been treacherously done to
+death, and his widow insulted by the king's favourite minister; while,
+on the other, James was indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of
+Gowrie's estate, and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his
+brother, Alexander Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although
+the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance connected
+with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined by historians of
+the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted that the mystery has been
+entirely dispelled; but, while it is improbable that complete certainty
+will ever be arrived at as to whether the guilt lay with James or with
+the Ruthven brothers, the most modern research in the light of materials
+inaccessible or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly
+to the conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and his
+brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution, it follows
+that King James was innocent of the blood of the Ruthvens; and it raises
+the presumption that his own account of the occurrence was, in spite of
+the glaring improbabilities which it involved, substantially true.
+
+
+  The slaughter of the Ruthvens.
+
+The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in outline, as
+follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose early to hunt in the
+neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about 14 m. from Perth. Just as he was
+setting forth in company with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir
+Thomas Erskine and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known
+as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of Gowrie, who
+had ridden from Perth that morning to inform the king that he had met on
+the previous day a man in possession of a pitcher full of foreign gold
+coins, whom he had secretly locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven
+urged the king to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to
+take possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave credit
+to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins was one of the
+numerous Catholic agents at that time moving about Scotland in disguise.
+Without giving a positive reply to Alexander Ruthven, James started to
+hunt; but later in the morning he called Ruthven to him and said he
+would ride to Perth when the hunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a
+servant, Henderson, by whom he had been accompanied from Perth in the
+early morning, to tell Gowrie that the king was coming to Gowrie House.
+This messenger gave the information to Gowrie about ten o'clock in the
+morning. Meanwhile Alexander Ruthven was urging the king to lose no
+time, requesting him to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and
+to bring to Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a
+train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about one
+o'clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for a mile or so to
+announce the king's approach. But notwithstanding Henderson's warning
+some three hours earlier, Gowrie had made no preparations for the king's
+entertainment, thus giving the impression of having been taken by
+surprise. After a meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour,
+James, forbidding his retainers to follow him, went with Alexander
+Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers and two
+doors, both of which Ruthven locked behind them, into a turret-room at
+the angle of the house, with windows looking on the courtyard and the
+street. Here James expected to find the mysterious prisoner with the
+foreign gold. He found instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was
+none other than Gowrie's servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven
+immediately put on his hat, and drawing Henderson's dagger, presented it
+to the king's breast with threats of instant death if James opened a
+window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven to the execution of
+his father, the 1st earl of Gowrie, drew from James a reproof of
+Ruthven's ingratitude for various benefits conferred on his family.
+Ruthven then uncovered his head, declaring that James's life should be
+safe if he remained quiet; then, committing the king to the custody of
+Henderson, he left the turret--ostensibly to consult Gowrie--and locked
+the door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned
+Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the purpose for
+which he had been placed in the turret; he also at James's request
+opened one of the windows, and was about to open the other when Ruthven
+returned. Whether or not Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain.
+But Gowrie had meantime spread the report below that the king had taken
+horse and had ridden away; and the royal retinue were seeking their
+horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret, attempted to
+bind James's hands; a struggle ensued, in the course of which the king
+was seen at the window by some of his followers below in the street, who
+also heard him cry "treason" and call for help to the earl of Mar.
+Gowrie affected not to hear these cries, but kept asking what was the
+matter. Lennox, Mar and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the
+main staircase to the king's help, but were stopped by the locked door,
+which they spent some time in trying to batter down. John Ramsay
+(afterwards earl of Holdernesse), noticing a small dark stairway leading
+directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it and found
+the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing his dagger, Ramsay
+wounded Ruthven, who was then pushed down the stairway by the king. Sir
+Thomas Erskine, summoned by Ramsay, now followed up the small stairs
+with Dr Hugh Herries, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven
+despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the courtyard with
+his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother's body, rushed up
+the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed by Cranstoun and
+others of his retainers; and in the melée Gowrie was killed. Some
+commotion was caused in the town by the noise of these proceedings; but
+it quickly subsided, though the king did not deem it safe to return to
+Falkland for some hours.
+
+
+  The Sprot forgeries.
+
+The tragedy caused intense excitement throughout Scotland, and the
+investigation of the circumstances was followed with much interest in
+England also, where all the details were reported to Elizabeth's
+ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose influence in Scotland was
+too extensive for the king to neglect, were only with the greatest
+difficulty persuaded to accept James's account of the occurrence,
+although he voluntarily submitted himself to cross-examination by one of
+their number. Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no
+doubt by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented
+the story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to cover his own design to extirpate
+the Ruthven family. James gave some colour to this belief, which has not
+been entirely abandoned, by the relentless severity with which he
+pursued the two younger, and unquestionably innocent, brothers of the
+earl. Great efforts were made by the government to prove the complicity
+of others in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert
+Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been privy to
+the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters produced by a
+notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been written by Logan to Gowrie
+and others. These letters, which are still in existence, were in fact
+forged by Sprot in imitation of Logan's handwriting; but the researches
+of Andrew Lang have shown cause for suspecting that the most important
+of them was either copied by Sprot from a genuine original by Logan, or
+that it embodied the substance of such a letter. If this be correct, it
+would appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan's
+impregnable fortress on the coast of Berwickshire, was part of the plot;
+and it supplies, at all events, an additional piece of evidence to prove
+the genuineness of the Gowrie conspiracy.
+
+Gowrie's two younger brothers, William and Patrick Ruthven, fled to
+England; and after the accession of James to the English throne William
+escaped abroad, but Patrick was taken and imprisoned for nineteen years
+in the Tower of London. Released in 1622, Patrick Ruthven resided first
+at Cambridge and afterwards in Somersetshire, being granted a small
+pension by the crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford, widow of the 1st
+Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a daughter, Mary; the latter
+entered the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and married the famous
+painter van Dyck, who painted several portraits of her. Patrick died in
+poverty in a cell in the King's Bench in 1652, being buried as "Lord
+Ruthven." His son, Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in
+1656, in which, after reciting that the parliament of Scotland in 1641
+had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, he prayed that his
+"extreme poverty" might be relieved by the bounty of the Protector.
+
+  See Andrew Lang, _James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (London, 1902),
+  and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, _Criminal Trials in
+  Scotland_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1833); David Moysie, _Memoirs of the
+  Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603_ (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A. Barbé,
+  _The Tragedy of Gowrie House_ (London, 1887); Andrew Bisset, _Essays
+  on Historical Truth_ (London, 1871); David Calderwood, _History of the
+  Kirk of Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); P. F. Tytler,
+  _History of Scotland_ (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1828-1843); John Hill
+  Burton, _History of Scotland_ (7 vols., Edinburgh, 1867-1870). W. A.
+  Craigie has edited as _Skotlands Rimur_ some Icelandic ballads
+  relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also printed the Danish
+  translation of the official account of the conspiracy, which was
+  published at Copenhagen in 1601.     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GOWRIE, a belt of fertile alluvial land (_Scotice_, "carse") of
+Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the Firth of Tay,
+it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends from the eastern
+boundaries of Perth city to the confines of Dundee. It measures 15 m. in
+length, its breadth from the river towards the base of the Sidlaw Hills
+varying from 2 to 4 m. Probably it is a raised beach, submerged until a
+comparatively recent period. Although it contained much bog land and
+stagnant water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained
+and cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in
+Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its castles and
+mansions, almost wholly residential, among which may be mentioned
+Kinfauns Castle, Inchyra House, Pitfour Castle, Errol Park, Megginch
+Castle, dating from 1575; Fingask Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in
+the 15th century and occupied by James VI. in 1617; Rossie Priory, the
+seat of Lord Kinnaird; and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of
+Kinghorne.
+
+
+
+
+GOYA, a river town and port of Corrientes, Argentine Republic, the
+commercial centre of the south-western departments of the province and
+chief town of a department of the same name, on a _riacho_ or side
+channel of the Paraná about 5 m. from the main channel and about 120 m.
+S. of the city of Corrientes. Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built
+on low ground which is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but
+its streets are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is
+good. Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a
+national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood are chiefly
+pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and oranges. Goya
+had an export of crudely-made cheese long before the modern cheese
+factories of the Argentine Republic came into existence. The place dates
+from 1807, and had its origin, it is said, in the trade established
+there by a ship captain and his wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied
+passing vessels with beef.
+
+
+
+
+GOYANNA, or GOIANA, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of the state of
+Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernambuco. Pop.(1890) 15,436.
+It is built on a fertile plain between the rivers Tracunhaem and
+Capibaribe-mirim near their junction to form the Goyanna river, and is
+15 m. from the coast. It is surrounded by, and is the commercial centre
+for, one of the richest agricultural districts of the state, which
+produces sugar, rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor
+oil. The Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the
+city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna is
+one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the Dutch from
+1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches, an orphans' asylum,
+hospital and some small industries.
+
+
+
+
+GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO (1746-1828), Spanish painter, was born in
+1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese village near Saragossa. At an
+early age he commenced his artistic career under the direction of José
+Luzan Martinez, who had studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It
+is clear that the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by
+diligent study of the best Italian masters did not much influence his
+erratic pupil. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold, capricious,
+headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent part on more than one
+occasion in those rival religious processions at Saragossa which often
+ended in unseemly frays; and his friends were led in consequence to
+despatch him in his nineteenth year to Madrid, where, prior to his
+departure for Rome, his mode of life appears to have been anything but
+that of a quiet orderly citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with
+a voice, he sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the
+capital, with whom he seems to have been a very general favourite.
+
+Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandalizing by his
+mode of life the sedate court officials, he did not receive--perhaps did
+not seek--the usual honorarium accorded to those students who visited
+Rome for the purpose of study. Finding it convenient to retire for a
+time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own cost; and being
+without resources he joined a "quadrilla" of bull-fighters, passing from
+town to town until he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next
+hear of him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt. In
+1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition initiated by the
+academy of Parma, styling himself "pupil to Bayeu, painter to the king
+of Spain." Compelled to quit Rome somewhat suddenly, he appears again in
+Madrid in 1775, the husband of Bayeu's daughter, and father of a son.
+About this time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos,
+no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre works. On
+returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases for the tapestry
+factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king took much interest. Between
+1776 and 1780 he appears to have supplied thirty examples, receiving
+about £1200 for them. Soon after the revolution of 1868, an official was
+appointed to take an inventory of all works of art belonging to the
+nation, and in one of the cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered
+forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected (see
+_Los Tapices de Goya; por Cruzado Villaamil, Madrid_, 1870).
+
+His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs, the king's
+painter, and royal favour naturally followed. His career now becomes
+intimately connected with the court life of his time. He was
+commissioned by the king to design a series of frescoes for the church
+of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid, and he also produced works for
+Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo. Ecclesiastical art was not his forte,
+and although he cannot be said to have failed in any of his work, his
+fame was not enhanced by his religious subjects.
+
+In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled: his portraits are
+evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained flattery. He
+worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid painted, amongst many
+others, the portraits of four sovereigns of Spain--Charles III. and IV.,
+Ferdinand VII. and "King Joseph." The duke of Wellington also sat to
+him; but on his making some remark which raised the artist's choler,
+Goya seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There
+are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in the British Museum,
+the other in a private collection. One of his best portraits is that of
+the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva. He now became the spoiled child
+of fortune, and acquired, at any rate externally, much of the polish of
+court manners. He still worked industriously upon his own lines, and,
+while there is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his
+portraits, the stern individuality is always preserved.
+
+Including the designs for tapestry, Goya's genre works are numerous and
+varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-like "Al Fresco
+Breakfast," "Romeria de San Isidro," to the "Curate feeding the Devil's
+Lamp," the "Meson del Gallo," and the painfully realistic massacre of
+the "Dos de Mayo" (1808). Goya's versatility is proverbial; in his hands
+the pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his crayon
+sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and character,
+slight but full of meaning. He was in his thirty-second year when he
+commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose influence may, however, be
+traced in his work at an earlier date. A careful examination of some of
+the drawings made for these etchings indicates a steadiness of purpose
+not usually discovered in Goya's craft as draughtsman. He is much more
+widely known by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must
+be sought in public and private collections, principally in Spain, while
+the former are known and prized in every capital of Europe. The etched
+collections by which Goya is best known include "Los Caprichos," which
+have a satirical meaning known only to the few; they are bold, weird and
+full of force. "Los Proverbios" are also supposed to have some hidden
+intention. "Los Desastres de la Guerra" may fairly claim to depict Spain
+during the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently
+at home; he was a skilled master of the barbarous art, and no doubt
+every sketch is true to nature, and from life.
+
+Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter years to
+escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at Bordeaux on the
+16th of April 1828, and a monument has been erected there over his
+remains. From the deaths of Velasquez and Murillo to the advent of
+Fortuny, Goya's name is the only important one found in the history of
+Spanish art.
+
+  See also the lives by Paul Lefort (1877), and Yriarte (1867).
+
+
+
+
+GOYÁZ, an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Grosso and Pará on
+the W., Maranhão, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the E., and Minas Geraes and
+Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1890) 227,572; (1900) 255,284, including
+many half-civilized Indians and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq. m.
+The outline of the state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin
+edge extending northward between and up to the junction of the rivers
+Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly 15° of latitude.
+The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian plateau region, but its
+surface is much broken towards the N. by the deeply eroded valleys of
+the Araguaya and Upper Tocantins rivers and their tributaries. The
+general slope of the plateau is toward the N., and the drainage of the
+state is chiefly through the above-named rivers--the principal
+tributaries of the Araguaya being the Grande and Vermelho, and of the
+Upper Tocantins, the Manoel Alves Grande, Somno, Paranan and Maranhão.
+A considerable part of southern Goyáz, however, slopes southward and the
+drainage is through numerous small streams flowing into the Paranahyba,
+a large tributary of the Paraná. The general elevation of the plateau is
+estimated to be about 2700 ft., and the highest elevation was reported
+in 1892 to be the Serra dos Pyreneos (5250 ft.). Crossing the state
+N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains, of which
+the Pyreneos, Santa Rita and Santa Martha ranges form parts, but their
+elevation above the plateau is not great. The surface of the plateau is
+generally open campo and scrubby arboreal growth called _caatingas_, but
+the streams are generally bordered with forest, especially in the deeper
+valleys. Towards the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character
+of the Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described as
+temperate, but it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions are
+tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation of the soil is
+limited to local needs, except in the production of tobacco, which is
+exported to neighbouring states. The open campos afford good pasturage,
+and live stock is largely exported. Gold-mining has been carried on in a
+primitive manner for more than two centuries, but the output has never
+been large and no very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have
+been found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable
+export of quartz crystal, commercially known as "Brazilian pebbles,"
+used in optical work. Although the northern and southern extremities of
+Goyáz lie within two great river systems--the Tocantins and Paraná--the
+upper courses of which are navigable, both of them are obstructed by
+falls. The only outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to
+the railway termini of São Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the extension
+of railways from both of those states, one entering Goyáz by way of
+Catalão, near the southern boundary, and the other at some point further
+N.
+
+The capital of the state is GOYÁZ, or Villa-Boa de Goyáz, a mining town
+on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya rising on the northern
+slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop. (1890) 6807. Gold was discovered
+here in 1682 by Bartholomeu Bueno, the first European explorer of this
+region, and the settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which
+is still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren, rocky
+mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the heat is most
+oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly cold. Goyáz is the
+see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and possesses a small cathedral and
+some churches.
+
+
+
+
+GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch painter, was born at
+Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned painting under several
+masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married in 1618 and settled at the Hague
+about 1631. He was one of the first to emancipate himself from the
+traditions of minute imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and
+Savery. Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those
+painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with
+considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He formed
+Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention from Rembrandt, and
+bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter de Molyn, Coelenbier,
+Saftleven, van der Kabel and even Berghem. His life at the Hague for
+twenty-five years was very prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be
+president of his gild. A friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der
+Helst, he sat to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter
+Margaret married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder
+Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the Hague. He
+died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and houses to the amount of
+15,000 florins.
+
+Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school to the other.
+He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh; he then passed through
+the workshops of de Man, Klok and de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive
+step and joined Esaias van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier
+pictures, some of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show
+the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is minute.
+Details of branching and foliage are given, and the figures are
+important in relation to the distances. After 1625 these peculiarities
+gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in landscapes of cool tints
+varying from grey green to pearl or brown and yellow dun is the
+principal object which van Goyen holds in view, and he succeeds
+admirably in light skies with drifting misty cloud, and downs with
+cottages and scanty shrubbery or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of
+foliage he now works in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of
+sepia or Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or
+lucidity. Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate
+light and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most pleasing
+views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with shipping near the
+banks, he sometimes has the strength if not the colour of Albert Cuyp.
+The defect of his work is chiefly want of solidity. But even this had
+its charm for van Goyen's contemporaries, and some time elapsed before
+Cuyp, who imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to
+the foliage of foreground trees.
+
+Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collections, but
+his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly at the Louvre, and in
+Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works
+were exhibited together at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once
+or twice, van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland
+and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views of
+Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts. But he was also
+fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did not neglect Arnheim or
+Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is a view of the Hague, executed in
+1651 for the municipality, and now in the town collection of that city.
+Most of his panels represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the
+Maese. But he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea
+at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict the calm
+inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more than a curling
+breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often painted winter scenes,
+with ice and skaters and sledges, in the style familiar to Isaac van
+Ostade. There are numerous varieties of these subjects in the master's
+works from 1621 to 1653. One historical picture has been assigned to van
+Goyen--the "Embarkation of Charles II." in the Bute collection. But this
+canvas was executed after van Goyen's death. When he tried this form of
+art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he produced little in
+partnership with his contemporaries, and we can only except the
+"Watering-place" in the gallery of Vienna, where the landscape is
+enlivened with horses and cattle by Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen,
+who was his son-in-law, only painted figures for one of his pictures,
+and it is probable that this piece was completed after van Goyen's
+death. More than 250 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible.
+Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist without the
+full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter whose hand it is
+easier to trace without the help of these adjuncts. An etcher, but a
+poor one, van Goyen has only bequeathed to us two very rare plates.
+
+
+
+
+GOZLAN, LÉON (1806-1866), French novelist and play-writer, was born on
+the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles. When he was still a boy, his
+father, who had made a large fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series
+of misfortunes, and Léon, before completing his education, had to go to
+sea in order to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined
+to run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Méry, who was
+then making himself famous by his political satires, introduced him to
+several newspapers, and Gozlan's brilliant articles in the _Figaro_ did
+much harm to the already tottering government of Charles X. His first
+novel was _Les Mémoires d'un apothicaire_ (1828), and this was followed
+by numberless others, among which may be mentioned _Washington Levert et
+Socrate Leblanc_ (1838), _Le Notaire de Chantilly_ (1836), _Aristide
+Froissart_ (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his
+productions), _Les Nuits du Père Lachaise_ (1846), _Le Tapis vert_
+(1855), _La Folle du logis_ (1857), _Les Émotions de Polydore Marasquin_
+(1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are--_La Pluie et le
+beau temps_ (1861), and _Une Tempête dans un verre d'eau_ (1850), two
+curtain-raisers which have kept the stage; _Le Lion empaillé_ (1848),
+_La Queue du chien d'Alcibiade_ (1849), _Louise de Nanteuil_ (1854), _Le
+Gâteau des reines_ (1855), _Les Paniers de la comtesse_ (1852); and he
+adapted several of his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a
+romantic and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions of
+his country entitled _Les Châteaux de France_ (2 vols., 1844),
+originally published (1836) as _Les Tourelles_, which has some
+archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (_Balzac chez
+lui_, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1846, and
+in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan died on the 14th of September
+1866, in Paris.
+
+  See also P. Audebrand, _Léon Gozlan_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+GOZO (GOZZO), an island of the Maltese group in the Mediterranean Sea,
+second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3¼ m. from the nearest point
+of Malta, is of oval form, 8¾ m. in length and 4½ m. in extreme breadth,
+and has an area of nearly 25 m. Its chief town, Victoria, formerly
+called Rabato (pop. in 1901, 5057) stands near the middle of the island
+on one of a cluster of steep conical hills, 3½ m. from the port of
+Migiarro Bay, on the south-east shore, below Fort Chambray. The
+character of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated
+population in 1907 was 21,911.
+
+
+
+
+GOZZI, CARLO, COUNT (1722-1806), Italian dramatist, was descended from
+an old Venetian family, and was born at Venice in March 1722. Compelled
+by the embarrassed condition of his father's affairs to procure the
+means of self-support, he, at the age of sixteen, joined the army in
+Dalmatia; but three years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he
+soon made a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the
+Granelleschi society, to which the publication of several satirical
+pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally devoted to
+conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims, and was especially
+zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature pure and untainted by foreign
+influences. The displacement of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of
+Pietro Chiari (1700-1788) and Goldoni, founded on French models,
+threatened defeat to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the
+rescue by publishing a satirical poem, _Tartana degli influssi per l'
+anno bisestile_, and in 1761 by his comedy, _Fiaba dell' amore delle tre
+melarancie_, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets, founded
+on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained the services of the
+Sacchi company of players, who, on account of the popularity of the
+comedies of Chiari and Goldoni--which afforded no scope for the display
+of their peculiar talents--had been left without employment; and as
+their satirical powers were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play
+met with extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the
+audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical element,
+which he had merely used as a convenient medium for his satirical
+purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic pieces based on fairy
+tales, which for a period obtained great popularity, but after the
+breaking up of the Sacchi company were completely disregarded. They
+have, however, obtained high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de
+Staël and Sismondi; and one of them, _Re Turandote_, was translated by
+Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production of
+tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced; but as this
+innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had recourse to the
+Spanish drama, from which he obtained models for various pieces, which,
+however, met with only equivocal success. He died on the 4th of April
+1806.
+
+  His collected works were published under his own superintendence, at
+  Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works, translated
+  into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in 1795. See Gozzi's
+  work, _Memorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gozzi_ (3 vols., Venice,
+  1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset (1848), and into
+  English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, _Über Gozzis dramatische
+  Poesie_ (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, _Vita di Gasp. Gozzi_ (1821);
+  "Charles Gozzi," by Paul de Musset, in the _Revue des deux mondes_ for
+  15th November 1844; Magrini, _Carlo Gozzi e la fiabe: saggi storici,
+  biografici, e critici_ (Cremona, 1876), and the same author's book on
+  Gozzi's life and times (Benevento, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+
+GOZZI, GASPARO, COUNT (1713-1786), eldest brother of Carlo Gozzi, was
+born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739 he married the poetess Luise
+Bergalli, and she undertook the management of the theatre of Sant'
+Angelo, Venice, he supplying the performers with dramas chiefly
+translated from the French. The speculation proved unfortunate, but
+meantime he had attained a high reputation for his contributions to the
+_Gazzetta Veneta_, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest
+critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a
+considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in 1774 he
+was appointed to reorganize the university system at Padua. He died at
+Padua on the 26th of December 1786.
+
+  His principal writings are _Osservatore Veneto periodico_ (1761), on
+  the model of the English _Spectator_, and distinguished by its high
+  moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; _Lettere famigliari_
+  (1755), a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on
+  subjects of general interest; _Sermoni_, poems in blank verse after
+  the manner of Horace; _Il Mondo morale_ (1760), a personification of
+  human passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian; and
+  _Giudizio degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante_
+  (1755), a defence of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli.
+  He also translated various works from the French and English,
+  including Marmontel's _Tales_ and Pope's _Essay on Criticism_. His
+  collected works were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes,
+  and several editions have appeared since.
+
+
+
+
+GOZZOLI, BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence in 1424, or
+perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career assisted Fra Angelico,
+whom he followed to Rome and worked with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed
+in Santa Maria in Aracoeli a fresco of "St Anthony and Two Angels." In
+1449 he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria.
+In S. Fortunate, near Montefalco, he painted a "Madonna and Child with
+Saints and Angels," and three other works. One of these, the altar-piece
+representing "St Thomas receiving the Girdle of the Virgin," is now in
+the Lateran Museum, and shows the affinity of Gozzoli's early style to
+Angelico's. He next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco,
+Montefalco, filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the
+life of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante,
+Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and is still
+marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there with a more
+distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church, in the chapel of St
+Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin and Saints, the Crucifixion
+and other subjects. He remained at Montefalco (with an interval at
+Viterbo) probably till 1456, employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he
+went to Perugia, and painted in a church a "Virgin and Saints," now in
+the local academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the
+headquarters of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished his
+important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the "Journey of
+the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of this chapel, a
+composition of "Angels in a Paradise." His picture in the National
+Gallery, London, a "Virgin and Child with Saints," 1461, belongs also to
+the period of his Florentine sojourn. Another small picture in the same
+gallery, the "Rape of Helen," is of dubious authenticity. In 1464
+Gozzoli left Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive
+works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St Sebastian
+protecting the City from the Plague of this same year, 1464; over the
+entire choir of the church, a triple course of scenes from the legends
+of St Augustine, from the time of his entering the school of Tegaste on
+to his burial, seventeen chief subjects, with some accessories; in the
+Pieve di S. Gimignano, the "Martyrdom of Sebastian," and other subjects,
+and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his style
+combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original elements, and he
+received co-operation from Giusto d'Andrea. He stayed in this city till
+1467, and then began, in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast
+series of mural paintings with which his name is specially identified.
+There are twenty-four subjects from the Old Testament, from the
+"Invention of Wine by Noah" to the "Visit of the Queen of Sheba to
+Solomon." He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten
+ducats each--a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to £100 at the
+present day. It appears, however, that this contract was not strictly
+adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was only three pictures in
+two years. Perhaps the great multitude of figures and accessories was
+accepted as a set-off against the slower rate of production. By January
+1470 he had executed the fresco of "Noah and his Family,"--followed by
+the "Curse of Ham," the "Building of the Tower of Babel" (which contains
+portraits of Cosmo de' Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and others),
+the "Destruction of Sodom," the "Victory of Abraham," the "Marriages of
+Rebecca and of Rachel," the "Life of Moses," &c. In the Cappella
+Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo Santo, he painted also an
+"Adoration of the Magi," wherein appears a portrait of himself. All this
+enormous mass of work, in which Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi
+Macchiavelli, was performed, in addition to several other pictures
+during his stay in Pisa (we need only specify the "Glory of St Thomas
+Aquinas," now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to 1485. This
+is the latest date which can with certainty be assigned to any work from
+his hand, although he is known to have been alive up to 1498. In 1478
+the Pisan authorities had given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb
+in the Campo Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and
+houses and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have
+been worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico.
+
+The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contemporaries
+either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently attractive by
+its sense of what is rich, winning, lively and abundant in the aspects
+of men and things. His landscapes, thronged with birds and quadrupeds,
+especially dogs, are more varied, circumstantial and alluring than those
+of any predecessor; his compositions are crowded with figures, more
+characteristically true when happily and gracefully occupied than when
+the demands of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or
+turmoil of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive.
+Gozzoli's genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than
+vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable
+imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations, and in
+the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings. In fresco-painting
+he used the methods of tempera, and the decay of his works has been
+severe in proportion. Of his untiring industry the recital of his
+labours and the number of works produced are the most forcible
+attestation.
+
+  Vasari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authorities,
+  can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate _Life_ of
+  him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes's Art library.
+       (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAAFF REINET, a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail N.W. by N. of Port
+Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, of whom 4055 were whites. The town lies
+2463 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Sunday river,
+which rises a little farther north on the southern slopes of the
+Sneeuwberg, and here ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is
+a handsome stone building with seating accommodation for 1500 people.
+The college is an educational centre of some importance; it was rebuilt
+in 1906. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for agricultural produce,
+the district being noted for its mohair industry, its orchards and
+vineyards.
+
+The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named after the
+then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff, and his wife. In 1795
+the burghers, smarting under the exactions of the Dutch East India
+Company proclaimed a republic. Similar action was taken by the burghers
+of Swellendam. Before the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive
+measures against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to
+capitulate to the British. The burghers having endeavoured,
+unsuccessfully, to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay
+surrendered to Colonel (afterwards General Sir) J. O. Vandeleur. In
+January 1799 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1795,
+again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo and
+nineteen others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle. After trial,
+Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced to death and others to
+banishment. The sentences were not carried out and the prisoners were
+released, March 1803, on the retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In
+1801 there had been another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the
+conciliatory measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape)
+peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican
+government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished large
+numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a strong Dutch
+centre.
+
+  See J. C. Voight, _Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in South
+  Africa 1795-1845_, vol. i. (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH (1801-1836), German dramatist, was born at
+Detmold on the 11th of December 1801. Entering the university of Leipzig
+in 1819 as a student of law, he continued the reckless habits which he
+had begun at Detmold, and neglected his studies. Being introduced into
+literary circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote
+the drama _Herzog Theodor von Gothland_ (1822). This, though showing
+considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and is morally
+repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the young author, pointed out
+its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed
+to Berlin University, and in 1824 passed his advocate's examination. He
+now settled in his native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a
+_Militärauditeur_. In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken
+habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his wife,
+visited Düsseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl Immermann.
+After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned to Detmold, where,
+as a result of his excesses, he died on the 12th of September 1836.
+
+Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain fine
+passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely reflect his own
+life and character, and are characterized by cynicism and indelicacy.
+Their construction also is defective and little suited to the
+requirements of the stage. The boldly conceived _Don Juan und Faust_
+(1829) and the historical dramas _Friedrich Barbarossa_ (1829),
+_Heinrich VI._ (1830), and _Napoleon oder die Hundert Tage_ (1831), the
+last of which places the battle of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best
+works. Among others are the unfinished tragedies _Marius and Sulla_
+(continued by Erich Korn, Berlin, 1890); and _Hannibal_ (1835,
+supplemented and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1901); and the patriotic
+_Hermannsschlacht_ or the battle between Arminius and Varus
+(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by E. Duller, 1838).
+
+  Grabbe's works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols., 1875), and
+  E. Grisebach (4 vols., 1902). For further notices of his life, see K.
+  Ziegler, _Grabbes Leben und Charakter_ (1855); O. Blumenthal,
+  _Beiträge zur Kenntnis Grabbes_ (1875); C. A. Piper, _Grabbe_ (1898),
+  and A. Ploch, _Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Literatur_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+GRABE, JOHN ERNEST (1666-1711), Anglican divine, was born on the 10th of
+July 1666, at Königsberg, where his father, Martin Sylvester Grabe, was
+professor of theology and history. In his theological studies Grabe
+succeeded in persuading himself of the schismatical character of the
+Reformation, and accordingly he presented to the consistory of Samland
+in Prussia a memorial in which he compared the position of the
+evangelical Protestant churches with that of the Novatians and other
+ancient schismatics. He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a
+commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written argument
+and called his attention to the English Church as apparently possessing
+that apostolic succession and manifesting that fidelity to ancient
+institutions which he desired. He came to England, settled in Oxford,
+was ordained in 1700, and became chaplain of Christ Church. His
+inclination was towards the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours
+to which the remainder of his life was devoted were rewarded with an
+Oxford degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November 1711,
+and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward Harley, earl of
+Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried in St Pancras Church,
+London.
+
+  Some account of Grabe's life is given in R. Nelson's _Life of George
+  Bull_, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet
+  against W. Whiston's _Collection of Testimonies against the True_
+  _Deity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost_. His works, which show him
+  to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in critical
+  acumen, include a _Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum_
+  (1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries of
+  the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of the
+  second. A second edition of this work was published in 1714. He
+  brought out an edition of Justin Martyr's _Apologia prima_ (1700), of
+  Irenaeus, _Adversus omnes haereses_ (1702), of the Septuagint, and of
+  Bishop Bull's Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septuagint was
+  based on the _Codex Alexandrinus_; it appeared in 4 volumes
+  (1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George Wigan.
+
+
+
+
+GRACCHUS, in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family of the
+Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives were the famous
+tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and
+(5) below, usually called simply "the Gracchi."
+
+1. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, consul in 238 B.C., carried on
+successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers, and, at the
+conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war, was in command of the
+fleet which at the invitation of the insurgents took possession of the
+island of Sardinia.
+
+2. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, probably the son of (1), distinguished
+himself during the second Punic war. Consul in 215, he defeated the
+Capuans who had entered into an alliance with Hannibal, and in 214
+gained a signal success over Hanno near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the
+_volones_ (slave-volunteers), to whom he had promised freedom in the
+event of victory. In 213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried
+on the war in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward
+to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed into
+the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank, who had
+formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected with Gracchus
+himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell fighting bravely; his body
+was sent to Hannibal, who accorded him a splendid burial.
+
+3. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (c. 210-151 B.C.), father of the
+tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter of the elder Scipio
+Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius Sempronius Gracchus who was
+tribune in 189. Although a determined political opponent of the two
+Scipios (Asiaticus and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on
+their behalf when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the
+king of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission
+sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes II. of
+Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule aedileship (182) he
+celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale that the burdens imposed
+upon the Italian and extra-Italian communities led to the official
+interference of the senate. In 181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain,
+and, after gaining signal successes in the field, applied himself to the
+pacification of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic
+attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the land had
+rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177, he was occupied in
+putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought back so many prisoners
+that _Sardi venales_ (Sardinians for sale) became a proverbial
+expression for a drug in the market. In 169 Gracchus was censor, and
+both he and his colleague (C. Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves
+determined opponents of the capitalists. They deeply offended the
+equestrian order by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts
+under the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently
+enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes, which
+completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In 165 and 161 he
+went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes, with whom he established
+friendly relations. Amongst the places visited by him was Rhodes, where
+he delivered a speech in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he
+was again consul.
+
+4. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (163-133 B.C.), son of (3), was the
+elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother were brought up by
+their mother Cornelia, assisted by the rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene
+and the Stoic Blossius of Cumae. In 147 he served under his
+brother-in-law the younger Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war,
+and was the first to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When
+quaestor in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to
+Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved from
+annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom alone the
+Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the memory of his
+father. The senate refused to ratify the agreement; Mancinus was handed
+over to the enemy as a sign that it was annulled, and only personal
+popularity saved Tiberius himself from punishment. In 133 he was
+tribune, and championed the impoverished farmer class and the lower
+orders. His proposals (see AGRARIAN LAWS) met with violent opposition,
+and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally,
+secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who had been
+persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate put every obstacle
+in the way of the three commissioners appointed to carry out the
+provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in view of the bitter enmity he had
+aroused, saw that it was necessary to strengthen his hold on the popular
+favour. The legacy to the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of
+Attalus III. of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the
+money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided, for the
+purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to whom assignments of
+land had been made under the new law. He is also said to have brought
+forward measures for shortening the period of military service, for
+extending the right of appeal from the _judices_ to the people, for
+abolishing the exclusive privilege of the senators to act as jurymen,
+and even for admitting the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen
+his position further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as
+tribune for the following year. The senate declared that it was illegal
+to hold this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this
+objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people, he appeared
+in mourning, and appealed for protection for his wife and children, and
+whenever he left his house he was accompanied by a bodyguard of 3000
+men, chiefly consisting of the city rabble. The meeting of the tribes
+for the election of tribunes broke up in disorder on two successive
+days, without any result being attained, although on both occasions the
+first divisions voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate
+that he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head with
+his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal to the consul
+P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death at once having
+failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola was acting
+treacherously towards the state, and called upon those who agreed with
+him to take up arms and follow him. During the riot that followed,
+Tiberius attempted to escape, but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol
+and was beaten to death with the end of a bench. At night his body, with
+those of 300 others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly
+assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a
+commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius, many
+of whom were banished and others put to death. Even the moderate
+Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica was justified in his
+action; and it was reported that Scipio, when he heard at Numantia of
+his brother-in-law's death, repeated the line of Homer--"So perish all
+who do the like again."
+
+  See Livy, _Epit._ 58; Appian, _Bell. civ._ i. 9-17; Plutarch,
+  _Tiberius Gracchus_; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3.
+
+5. GAIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (153-121 B.C.), younger brother of (4), was
+a man of greater abilities, bolder and more passionate, although
+possessed of considerable powers of self-control, and a vigorous and
+impressive orator. When twenty years of age he was appointed one of the
+commissioners to carry out the distribution of land under the provisions
+of his brother's agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius's death, Gaius
+was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but probably
+returned to Rome in the following year (132). In 131 he supported the
+bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of which was to make it legal for
+a tribune to offer himself as candidate for the office in two
+consecutive years, and thus to remove one of the chief obstacles that
+had hampered Tiberius. The bill was then rejected, but appears to have
+subsequently passed in a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected
+without any disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal,
+and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For the next few
+years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion pointed him out as the
+man to avenge his brother's death and carry out his plans, and the
+aristocratic party, warned by the example of Tiberius, were anxious to
+keep him away from Rome. In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius
+Orestes as quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made
+himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the command of
+Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to remain there in his
+capacity of quaestor. But he returned to Rome without the permission of
+the senate, and, when called to account by the censors, defended himself
+so successfully that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The
+disappointed aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of
+being implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways
+unsuccessfully endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then
+decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became a candidate
+for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined opposition of the
+aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123, although only fourth on
+the list. The legislative proposals[1] brought forward by him had for
+their object:--the punishment of his brother's enemies; the relief of
+distress and the attachment to himself of the city populace; the
+diminution of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the
+_equites_; the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and
+provincials.
+
+  A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in a matter
+  affecting his life or political status unless the people had
+  previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius
+  Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the
+  adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate who had
+  been deprived of office by decree of the people should be
+  incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against M.
+  Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate through
+  Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was withdrawn at the
+  earnest request of Cornelia.
+
+  He revived his brother's agrarian law, which, although it had not been
+  repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his _Lex Frumentaria_ every
+  citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain amount of corn at
+  about half the usual price; as the distribution only applied to those
+  living in the capital, the natural result was that the poorer country
+  citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the number of Gaius's
+  supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to serve in the army before
+  the commencement of his eighteenth year, and his military outfit was
+  to be supplied by the state, instead of being deducted from his pay.
+  Gaius also proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy (at
+  Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the site of Carthage 6000
+  colonists to found the new city of Junonia, the inhabitants of which
+  were to possess the rights of Roman citizens; this was the first
+  attempt at over-sea colonization. A new system of roads was
+  constructed which afforded easier access to Rome. Having thus gained
+  over the city proletariat, in order to secure a majority in the
+  comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with the system of voting in the
+  comitia centuriata, whereby the five property classes in each tribe
+  gave their votes one after another, and introduced promiscuous voting
+  in an order fixed by lot.
+
+  The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of particular
+  offences (the most important of which was that dealing with the trial
+  of provincial magistrates for extortion, _de repetundis_) were in
+  future to be chosen from the equites (q.v.), not as hitherto from the
+  senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be let out by
+  the censors to Roman _publicani_ (who belonged to the equestrian
+  order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of collecting them. It
+  is obvious that this afforded the equites extensive opportunities for
+  money-making and extortion, while the alteration in the appointment of
+  the judices gave them the same practical immunity and perpetuated the
+  old abuses, with the difference that it was no longer senators, but
+  equites, who could look forward with confidence to being leniently
+  dealt with by men belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected
+  that this moneyed aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate
+  against Tiberius, would now support him against it. It was enacted
+  that the provinces to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined
+  before, instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves
+  had to settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of
+  them would take.[2]
+
+These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity, and during
+the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered the absolute
+ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second time for the year
+122. To this period is probably to be assigned his proposal that the
+franchise should be given to all the Latin communities and that the
+status of the Latins should be conferred upon the Italian allies. In 125
+M. Fulvius Flaccus had brought forward a similar measure, but he was got
+out of the way by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This
+proposal, more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally
+opposed by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius's popularity
+amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the prospect of an
+increase in the number of Roman citizens. The senate put up M. Livius
+Drusus to outbid him, and his absence from Rome while superintending the
+organization of the newly-founded colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken
+advantage of by his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he
+found his popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship for
+the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected consul. The
+latter at once decided to propose the abandonment of the new colony,
+which was to occupy the site cursed by Scipio, while its foundation had
+been attended by unmistakable manifestations of the wrath of the gods.
+On the day when the matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named
+Antyllius, who had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to
+death. This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was
+declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with dictatorial
+powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their position in the temple of
+Diana on the Aventine, offered little resistance to the attack ordered
+by Opimius. Gaius managed to escape across the Tiber, where his dead
+body was found on the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side
+of that of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself.
+The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple of Concord
+erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath the inscription
+recording the occasion on which the temple had been built some one
+during the night wrote the words: "The work of Discord makes the temple
+of Concord."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Livy, _Epit._ 60; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 21;
+  Plutarch, _Gaius Gracchus_; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3, xi. 10.
+  For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng.
+  trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, _Geschichte Roms während
+  des Verfalles der Republik_ (1881); A. H. J. Greenidge, _History of
+  Rome_ (1904); E. Meyer, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Gracchen_
+  (1894); G. E. Underhill, Plutarch's _Lives of the Gracchi_ (1892); W.
+  Warde Fowler in _English Historical Review_ (1905), pp. 209 and 417;
+  Long, _Decline of the Roman Republic_, chs. 10-13, 17-19, containing a
+  careful examination of the ancient authorities; G. F. Hertzberg in
+  Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopädie_; C. W. Oman, _Seven Roman
+  Statesmen of the later Republic_ (1902); T. Lau, _Die Gracchen und
+  ihre Zeit_ (1854). The exhaustive monograph by C. W. Nitzsch, _Die
+  Gracchen und ihre nächsten Vorgänger_ (1847), also contains an account
+  of the other members of the family, with full references to ancient
+  authorities in the notes.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological
+    order, nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his
+    second tribuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in _Eng. Hist. Review_, 1905.
+    pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq.
+
+  [2] It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed to add
+    a certain number of _equites_ to the senate, thereby increasing it to
+    900, but the plan was never carried out.
+
+
+
+
+GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848-   ), English cricketer, was born at
+Downend, Gloucestershire, on the 18th of July 1848. He found himself in
+an atmosphere charged with cricket, his father (Henry Mills Grace) and
+his uncle (Alfred Pocock) being as enthusiastic over the game as his
+elder brothers, Henry, Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace
+the family name first became famous. A younger brother, George
+Frederick, also added to the cricket reputation of the family. "W. G."
+witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years old, the
+occasion being a game between W. Clarke's All-England Eleven and
+twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was endowed by nature with a
+splendid physique as well as with powers of self-restraint and
+determination. At the acme of his career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in.,
+being powerfully proportioned, loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker,
+and very moderate in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the
+year round, shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the
+cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds. over 20
+hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted as proof of his
+stamina that on the 30th of July 1866 he scored 224 not out for England
+_v._ Surrey, and two days later won a race in the National and Olympian
+Association meeting at the Crystal Palace. The title of "champion" was
+well earned by one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was
+actively engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was
+invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the Players,
+and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to play for the mother
+country. As late as 1899 he played in the first of the five
+international contests; in 1900 he played against the players at the
+Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he scored nearly 1300 runs in
+first-class cricket, made 100 runs and over on three different occasions
+and could claim an average of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs
+were achieved when only the very best cricket grounds received serious
+attention; when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher
+standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two brothers,
+E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made Gloucestershire in
+one season a first-class county; and it was he who first enabled the
+amateurs of England to meet the paid players on equal terms and to beat
+them. There was hardly a "record" connected with the game which did not
+stand to his credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England,
+in his earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later
+times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine thrower,
+fast runner and safe "catch." As a bowler he was long in the first
+flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times adopting a slower
+and more tricky style, frequently very effective. By profession he was a
+medical man. In later years he became secretary and manager of the
+London County Cricket Club. He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day,
+and one of his sons played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was
+the recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to
+£1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a cheque at
+Lord's ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd of July 1879; the
+second, collected by the M.C.C., the county of Gloucestershire, the
+_Daily Telegraph_ and the _Sportsman_, amounted to about £10,000, and
+was presented to him in 1896. He visited Australia in 1873-1874
+(captain), and in 1891-1892 with Lord Sheffield's Eleven (captain); the
+United States and Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald's team.
+
+  Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863, when, being only
+  fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven and
+  the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores which first
+  made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz. 170 and 56 not out for
+  the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen of Sussex. It was in 1865
+  that he first took an active part in first-class cricket, being then 6
+  ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight, and playing twice for the
+  Gentlemen _v._ the Players, but his selection was mainly due to his
+  bowling powers, the best exposition of which was his aggregate of 13
+  wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of
+  the South. His highest score was 400 not out, made in July 1876
+  against twenty-two of Grimsby; but on three occasions he was twice
+  dismissed without scoring in matches against odds, a fate that never
+  befell him in important cricket. In first-class matches his highest
+  score was 344, made for the M.C.C. v. Kent at Canterbury, in August
+  1876; two days later he made 177 for Gloucestershire _v._ Notts, and
+  two days after this 318 not out for Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire,
+  the two last-named opposing counties being possessed of exceptionally
+  strong bowling; thus in three consecutive innings Grace scored 839
+  runs, and was only got out twice. His 344 was the third highest
+  individual score made in a big match in England up to the end of 1901.
+  He also scored 301 for Gloucestershire _v._ Sussex at Bristol, in
+  August 1896. He made over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable
+  perhaps being in 1871, when he performed the feat twice, each time in
+  benefit matches, and each time in the second innings, having been each
+  time got out in the first over of the first innings. He scored over
+  100 runs on 121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at
+  Bristol for Gloucestershire _v._ Somersetshire in 1895. He made every
+  figure from 0 to 100, on one occasion "closing" the innings when he
+  had made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits. In
+  1871 he made ten "centuries," ranging from 268 to 116. In the matches
+  between the Gentlemen and Players he scored "three figures" fifteen
+  times, and at every place where these matches have been played. He
+  made over 100 in each of his "first appearances" at Oxford and
+  Cambridge. Three times he made over 100 in each innings of the same
+  match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v. North of the Thames,
+  130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887, for Gloucestershire _v._
+  Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton, in 1888, for
+  Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869, playing at the
+  Oval for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of the South,
+  Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first wicket, Grace
+  scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and Scotton put on 170 runs
+  for the first wicket of England _v._ Australia; this occurred at the
+  Oval in August, and Grace's total score was 170. In consecutive
+  innings against the Players from 1871 to 1873 he scored 217, 77 and
+  112, 117, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored over 100 in a big
+  match in Australia, nor did he ever make 200 at Lord's, his highest
+  being 196 for the M.C.C. _v._ Cambridge University in 1894. His
+  highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876), 2346 (1895), 2139
+  (1873), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored three successive
+  centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874 and 1876.
+  Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1895, he was batting, bowling or
+  fielding during the whole time the game was in progress, his scores
+  being 257 and 73 not out. He scored over 1000 runs and took over 100
+  wickets in seven different seasons, viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129
+  wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 192 wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124
+  wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, 179 wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153
+  wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs, 118 wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122
+  wickets. He never captured 200 wickets in a season, his highest record
+  being 192 in 1875. Playing against Oxford University in 1886, he took
+  all the wickets in the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he
+  not only made his hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in
+  the month of May alone, his chief scores in that month being 103, 288,
+  256, 73 and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made
+  during that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not out, his
+  aggregate for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of
+  118 was made against the Players (at Lord's), the chief bowlers being
+  Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his partner,
+  A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making 151
+  before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This may
+  fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1898 the
+  match between Gentlemen _v._ Players was, as a special compliment,
+  arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birthday, and he
+  celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out, though handicapped
+  by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty-six different seasons he
+  scored over 1000 runs, in three of these years being the only man to
+  do so and five times being one out of two.
+
+  During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored nearly
+  51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took more than
+  2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per wicket. He made
+  his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his highest average (78) in
+  1871; his average for the decade 1868-1877 was 57 runs. His style as a
+  batsman was more commanding than graceful, but as to its soundness and
+  efficacy there were never two opinions; the severest criticism ever
+  passed upon his powers was to the effect that he did not play slow
+  bowling quite as well as fast.     (W. J. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRACE (Fr. _grâce_, Lat. _gratia_, from _gratus_, beloved, pleasing;
+formed from the root _cra-_, Gr. [Greek: chas-] cf. [Greek: chairô,
+charma, charis]), a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting
+the idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others or that
+which one shows to others. The _New English Dictionary_ groups the
+meanings of the word under three main heads: (1) Pleasing quality,
+gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3) gratitude, thanks.
+
+It is in the second general sense of "favour bestowed" that the word has
+its most important connotations. In this sense it means something given
+by superior authority as a concession made of favour and goodwill, not
+as an obligation or of right. Thus, a concession may be made by a
+sovereign or other public authority "by way of grace." Previous to the
+Revolution of 1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known
+in constitutional law as "Graces." "Letters of Grace" (_gratiae,
+gratiosa rescripta_) is the name given to papal rescripts granting
+special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In the
+language of the universities the word still survives in a shadow of this
+sense. The word "grace" was originally a dispensation granted by the
+congregation of the university, or by one of the faculties, from some
+statutable conditions required for a degree. In the English universities
+these conditions ceased to be enforced, and the "grace" thus became an
+essential preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the
+meaning of (_a_) the licence granted by congregation to take a degree,
+(_b_) other decrees of the governing body (originally dispensations from
+statutes), all such degrees being called "graces" at Cambridge, (_c_)
+the permission which a candidate for a degree must obtain from his
+college or hall.
+
+To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses of the word
+in such phrases as "do me this grace," "to be in some one's good graces"
+and certain meanings of "the grace of God." The style "by the grace of
+God," borne by the king of Great Britain and Ireland among other
+sovereigns, though, as implying the principle of "legitimacy," it has
+been since the Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the
+addition of "and the will of the people," means in effect no more than
+the "by Divine Providence," which is the style borne by archbishops. To
+the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the phrases implying
+the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling certain obligations,
+e.g. "a fortnight's grace." In law the "days of grace" are the period
+allowed for the payment of a bill of exchange, after the term for which
+it has been drawn (in England three days), or for the payment of an
+insurance premium, &c. In religious language the "Day of Grace" is the
+period still open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of
+clemency or mercy, too, "grace" is still, though rarely used: "an Act of
+Grace" is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted by act of
+parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative of the great,
+"Your Grace," "His Grace," &c., became dutiful paraphrases for the
+simple "you" and "he." Formerly used in the royal address ("the King's
+Grace," &c.), the style is in England now confined to dukes and
+archbishops, though the style of "his most gracious majesty" is still
+used. In Germany the equivalent, _Euer Gnaden_, is the style of princes
+who are not _Durchlaucht_ (i.e. Serene Highness), and is often used as a
+polite address to any superior.
+
+In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the word is
+used in several of the above senses, "grace" (Gr. [Greek: charis]) has
+special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous, unmerited
+activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners, and the Divine
+influence operating in man for his regeneration and sanctification.
+Those thus regenerated and sanctified are said to be in a "state of
+grace." In the New Testament grace is the forgiving mercy of God, as
+opposed to any human merit (Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &c.); it
+is applied also to certain gifts of God freely bestowed, e.g. miracles,
+tongues, &c. (Rom. xv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Eph. iii. 8, &c.), to the
+Christian virtues, gifts of God also, e.g. charity, holiness, &c. (2
+Cor. viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally,
+as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; 1 Pet. v. 12, &c.);
+connected with this is the use of the term "year of grace" for a year of
+the Christian era.
+
+The word "grace" is the central subject of three great theological
+controversies: (1) that of the nature of human depravity and
+regeneration (see PELAGIUS), (2) that of the relation between grace and
+free-will (see CALVIN, JOHN, and ARMINIUS, JACOBUS), (3) that of the
+"means of grace" between Catholics and Protestants, i.e. whether the
+efficacy of the sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is _ex opere
+operato_ or dependent on the faith of the recipient.
+
+In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed, "grace"
+survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or after meals. The
+word was originally used in the plural, and "to do, give, render, yield
+graces" was said, in the general sense of the French _rendre grâces_ or
+Latin _gratias agere_, of any giving thanks. The close, and finally
+exclusive, association of the phrase "to say grace" with thanksgiving at
+meals was possibly due to the formula "Gratias Deo agamus" ("let us give
+thanks to God") with which the ceremony began in monastic refectories.
+The custom of saying grace, which obtained in pre-Christian times among
+the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and was adopted universally by Christian
+peoples, is probably less widespread in private houses than it used to
+be. It is, however, still maintained at public dinners and also in
+schools, colleges and institutions generally. Such graces are generally
+in Latin and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, e.g. "Laus
+Deo," "Benedictus benedicat," and sometimes, as at the Oxford and
+Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In some countries grace has
+sunk to a polite formula; in Germany, e.g. it is usual before and after
+meals to bow to one's neighbours and say "Gesegnete Malzeit!" (May your
+meal be blessed), a phrase often reduced in practice to "Malzeit"
+simply.
+
+
+
+
+GRACES, THE, (Gr. [Greek: Charites], Lat. _Gratiae_), in Greek
+mythology, the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in
+moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to a number
+or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the _Iliad_ one Charis is
+the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised wife of Sleep, while the
+plural Charites often occurs. The Charites are usually described as
+three in number--Aglaia (brightness), Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia
+(bloom)--daughters of Zeus and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus),
+or of Helios and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta
+(noise) and Phaënna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and Hegemone
+(queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with whom they live on Mount
+Olympus, and the companions of Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of
+persuasion, and of Hermes, the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm
+is an indispensable adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist
+is indicated by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient
+seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest images,
+in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up in their temple.
+Their worship was said to have been instituted by Eteocles, whose three
+daughters fell into a well while dancing in their honour. At Orchomenus
+nightly dances took place, and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by
+musical contests, was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated
+without music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while
+sacrificing to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son
+Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the Eumenides; at
+Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane, were held at the
+entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo, Hegemone and Agraulos, the
+daughter of Cecrops, that young Athenians, on first receiving their
+spear and shield, took the oath to defend their country. In works of art
+the Charites were represented in early times as beautiful maidens of
+slender form, hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery;
+later, the conception predominated of three naked figures gracefully
+intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the rose and musical
+instruments. In Rome the Graces were never the objects of special
+religious reverence, but were described and represented by poets and
+artists in accordance with Greek models.
+
+  See F. H. Krause, _Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen_ (1871), and the
+  articles by Stoll and Furtwängler in Roscher's _Lexikon der
+  Mythologie_, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire
+  des antiquités_, with the bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+GRACIÁN Y MORALES, BALTASAR (1601-1658), Spanish prose writer, was born
+at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of January 1601. Little is known of his
+personal history except that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of
+Jesus, and that ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at
+Tarazona, where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal
+works are _El Héroe_ (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic phrases
+the qualities of the ideal man; the _Arte de ingenio, tratado de la
+Agudeza_ (1642), republished six years afterwards under the title of
+_Agudeza, y arte de ingenio_ (1648), a system of rhetoric in which the
+principles of _conceptismo_ as opposed to culteranismo are inculcated;
+_El Discreto_ (1645), a delineation of the typical courtier; _El Oráculo
+manual y arte de prudencia_ (1647), a system of rules for the conduct of
+life; and _El Criticón_ (1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical
+allegory of human existence. The only publication which bears Gracián's
+name is _El Comulgatorio_ (1655); his more important books were issued
+under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracián (possibly a brother of the
+writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones. Gracián was
+punished for publishing without his superior's permission _El Criticón_
+(in which Defoe is alleged to have found the germ of _Robinson Crusoe_);
+but no objection was taken to its substance. He has been excessively
+praised by Schopenhauer, whose appreciation of the author induced him to
+translate the _Oráculo manual_, and he has been unduly depreciated by
+Ticknor and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his
+systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories.
+
+  See Karl Borinski, _Baltasar Gracián und die Hoflitteratur in
+  Deutschland_ (Halle, 1894); Benedetto Croce, _I Trattatisti italiani
+  del "concettismo" e Baltasar Gracián_ (Napoli, 1899); Narciso José
+  Liñán y Heredia, _Baltasar Gracián_ (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer and
+  Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the _Oráculo manual_ into
+  German and English.
+
+
+
+
+GRACKLE (Lat. _Gracculus_ or _Graculus_), a word much used in
+ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to members of
+the families _Sturnidae_ belonging to the Old World and _Icteridae_
+belonging to the New. Of the former those to which it has been most
+commonly applied are the species known as mynas, mainas, and minors of
+India and the adjacent countries, and especially the _Gracula religiosa_
+of Linnaeus, who, according to Jerdon and others, was probably led to
+confer this epithet upon it by confounding it with the _Sturnus_ or
+_Acridotheres tristis_,[1] which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to
+Ram Deo, one of their deities, while the true _Gracula religiosa_ does
+not seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in. in
+length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple and green
+reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the quill-feathers of
+the wings. The bill is orange and the legs yellow, but the bird's most
+characteristic feature is afforded by the curious wattles of bright
+yellow, which, beginning behind the eyes, run backwards in form of a
+lappet on each side, and then return in a narrow stripe to the top of
+the head. Beneath each eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This
+species is common in southern India, and is represented farther to the
+north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by cognate forms.
+They are all frugivorous, and, being easily tamed and learning to
+pronounce words very distinctly, are favourite cage-birds.[2]
+
+[Illustration: _Gracula religiosa._]
+
+In America the name Grackle has been applied to several species of the
+genera _Scolecophagus_ and _Quiscalus_, though these are more commonly
+called in the United States and Canada "blackbirds," and some of them
+"boat-tails." They all belong to the family _Icteridae_. The best known
+of these are the rusty grackle, _S. ferrugineus_, which is found in
+almost the whole of North America, and _Q. purpureus_, the purple
+grackle or crow-blackbird, of more limited range, for though abundant
+in most parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear
+on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer's or the blue-headed grackle,
+_S. cyanocephalus_, which has a more western range, not occurring to the
+eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth species, _Q. major_, inhabits
+the Atlantic States as far north as North Carolina. All these birds are
+of exceedingly omnivorous habit, and though destroying large numbers of
+pernicious insects are in many places held in bad repute from the
+mischief they do to the corn-crops.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] By some writers the birds of the genera _Acridotheres_ and
+    _Temenuchus_ are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of
+    _Gracula_ are called "hill mynas" by way of distinction.
+
+  [2] For a valuable monograph on the various species of _Gracula_ and
+    its allies see Professor Schlegel's "Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het
+    Geschlacht Beo'" (_Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde_ i.
+    1-9).
+
+
+
+
+GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Görz and Gradisca, 10 m.
+S.W. of Görz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly Italians. It is situated
+on the right bank of the Isonzo and was formerly a strongly fortified
+place. Its principal industry is silk spinning. Gradisca originally
+formed part of the margraviate of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of
+Aquileia in 1028, and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca
+was fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to the
+emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory, including
+Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected into a separate
+countship in favour of Johann Anton von Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On
+the extinction of his line in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was
+completely incorporated with Görz in 1754. The name was revived by the
+constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Görz and
+Gradisca.
+
+
+
+
+GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 11 m. W. by
+N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a left-hand tributary of
+the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grado is built in the midst of a
+mountainous, well-wooded and fertile region. It has some trade in
+timber, live stock, cider and agricultural produce. The nearest railway
+station is that of the Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and
+small-arms factory, 5 m. S.E.
+
+
+
+
+GRADUAL (Med. Lat. _gradualis_, of or belonging to steps or degrees;
+_gradus_, step), advancing or taking place by degrees or step by step;
+hence used of a slow progress or a gentle declivity or slope, opposed to
+steep or precipitous. As a substantive, "gradual" (Med. Lat. _graduale_
+or _gradale_) is used of a service book or antiphonal of the Roman
+Catholic Church containing certain antiphons, called "graduals," sung at
+the service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle.
+This antiphon received the name either because it was sung on the steps
+of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the steps of the ambo for
+the reading or singing of the Gospel. For the so-called Gradual Psalms,
+cxx.-cxxxiv., the "songs of degrees," LXX. [Greek: ôdê ana bathmôn], see
+PSALMS, BOOK OF.
+
+
+
+
+GRADUATE (Med. Lat. _graduare_, to admit to an academical degree,
+_gradus_), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the academical sense
+intransitively, i.e. "to take or proceed to a university degree," and
+figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, or proficiency in, anything. The
+original transitive sense of "to confer or admit to a degree" is,
+however, still preserved in America, where the word is, moreover, not
+strictly confined to university degrees, but is used also of those
+successfully completing a course of study at any educational
+establishment. As a substantive, a "graduate" (Med. Lat. _graduatus_) is
+one who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have matriculated
+at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are known as
+"undergraduates." The word "student," used of undergraduates e.g. in
+Scottish universities, is never applied generally to those of the
+English and Irish universities. At Oxford the only "students" are the
+"senior students" (i.e. fellows) and "junior students" (i.e.
+undergraduates on the foundation, or "scholars") of Christ Church. The
+verb "to graduate" is also used of dividing anything into degrees or
+parts in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application
+see GRADUATION below. It may also mean "to arrange in gradations" or "to
+adjust or apportion according to a given scale." Thus by "a graduated
+income-tax" is meant the system by which the percentage paid differs
+according to the amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.
+
+
+
+
+GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE), the art of dividing straight scales,
+circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required number of equal
+parts. It is the most important and difficult part of the work of the
+mathematical instrument maker, and is required in the construction of
+most physical, astronomical, nautical and surveying instruments.
+
+The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the teeth of
+their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was confined to
+them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in its performance was
+required. This only arose when astronomy began to be seriously studied,
+and the exact position of the heavenly bodies to be determined, which
+created the necessity for strictly accurate means of measuring linear
+and angular magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art
+which required special talents and training, and the best artists gave
+great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments. Of these
+may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John Bird (1709-1776), John
+Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward
+Troughton (1753-1835), William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross.
+
+The first graduated instrument must have been done by the hand and eye
+alone, whether it was in the form of a straight-edge with equal
+divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but, once in the possession of
+one such divided instrument, it was a comparatively easy matter to
+employ it as a standard. Hence graduation divides itself into two
+distinct branches, _original graduation_ and _copying_, which latter may
+be done either by the hand or by a machine called a dividing engine.
+Graduation may therefore be treated under the three heads of _original
+graduation_, _copying_ and _machine graduation_.
+
+_Original Graduation._--In regard to the graduation of straight scales
+elementary geometry provides the means of dividing a straight line into
+any number of equal parts by the method of continual bisection; but the
+practical realization of the geometrical construction is so difficult as
+to render the method untrustworthy. This method, which employs the
+common diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius,
+which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read to
+minutes--a result, according to Thomson and Tait (_Nat. Phil._), "giving
+no greater accuracy than is now attainable by the pocket sextants of
+Troughton and Simms, the radius of whose arc is little more than an
+inch."
+
+  The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the
+  method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection
+  the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as
+  possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked
+  off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks
+  coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as
+  will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is
+  carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The
+  same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on
+  in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8,
+  16, &c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of
+  stepping the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately
+  as possible, by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off,
+  by successive steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any
+  error at starting will be multiplied at each division by the number of
+  that division. Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being
+  put either back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch
+  guided by a magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as
+  the dots, when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably
+  large and shapeless.
+
+The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle as
+the graduation of straight lines.
+
+  The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was
+  graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Observatory in
+  1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96.85 and 95.8 in.
+  respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On the inner of
+  these the arc of 90° was to be divided into degrees and 12th parts of
+  a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided into 96 equal
+  parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for adopting the
+  latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the divisions could
+  be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in Graham's opinion,
+  who first employed it, is the only accurate method, and would thus
+  serve as a check upon the accuracy of the divisions of the outer arc.
+  With the same distance on the beam-compass as was used to describe the
+  inner arc, laid off from 0°, the point 60° was at once determined.
+  With the points 0° and 60° as centres successively, and a distance on
+  the beam-compass very nearly bisecting the arc of 60°, two slight
+  marks were made on the arc; the distance between these marks was
+  divided by the hand aided by a lens, and this gave the point 30°. The
+  chord of 60° laid off from the point 30° gave the point 90°, and the
+  quadrant was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts
+  was similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again trisected,
+  giving 18 parts of 5° each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees,
+  the 12th parts of which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as
+  before. The outer arc was divided by continual bisection alone, and a
+  table was constructed by which the readings of the one arc could be
+  converted into those of the other. After the dots indicating the
+  required divisions were obtained, either straight strokes all directed
+  towards the centre were drawn through them by the dividing knife, or
+  sometimes small arcs were drawn through them by the beam-compass
+  having its fixed point somewhere on the line which was a tangent to
+  the quadrantal arc at the point where a division was to be marked.
+
+  The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in 1767. His
+  quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided into degrees and
+  12th parts of a degree. He employed the method of continual bisection
+  aided by chords taken from an exact scale of equal parts, which could
+  read to .001 of an inch, and which he had previously graduated by
+  continual bisections. With the beam-compass an arc of radius 95.938
+  in. was first drawn. From this radius the chords of 30°, 15°, 10° 20',
+  4° 40[min] and 42° 40' were computed, and each of them by means of the
+  scale of equal parts laid off on a separate beam-compass to be ready.
+  The radius laid off from 0° gave the point 60°; by the chord of 30°
+  the arc of 60° was bisected; from the point 30° the radius laid off
+  gave the point 90°; the chord of 15° laid off backwards from 90° gave
+  the point 75°; from 75° was laid off forwards the chord of 10° 20';
+  and from 90° was laid off backwards the chord of 4° 40'; and these
+  were found to coincide in the point 85° 20'. Now 85° 20' being = 5' ×
+  1024 = 5' × 2^10, the final divisions of 85° 20' were found by
+  continual bisections. For the remainder of the quadrant beyond 85°
+  20', containing 56 divisions of 5' each, the chord of 64 such
+  divisions was laid off from the point 85° 40', and the corresponding
+  arc divided by continual bisections as before. There was thus a severe
+  check upon the accuracy of the points already found, viz. 15°, 30°,
+  60°, 75°, 90°, which, however, were found to coincide with the
+  corresponding points obtained by continual bisections. The short lines
+  through the dots were drawn in the way already mentioned.
+
+  The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers John
+  and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a means of
+  graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without the aid of such
+  a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His method was as follows:
+  The radius of the quadrant laid off from 0° gave the point 60°. This
+  arc bisected and the half laid off from 60° gave the point 90°. The
+  arc between 60° and 90° bisected gave 75°; the arc between 75° and 90°
+  bisected gave the point 82° 30', and the arc between 82° 30' and 90°
+  bisected gave the point 86° 15'. Further, the arc between 82° 30' and
+  86° 15' trisected, and two-thirds of it taken beyond 82° 30', gave the
+  point 85°, while the arc between 85° and 86° 15' also trisected, and
+  one-third part laid off beyond 85°, gave the point 85° 25'. Lastly,
+  the arc between 85° and 85° 25' being quinquesected, and four-fifths
+  taken beyond 85°, gave 85° 20', which as before is = 5' × 2^10, and so
+  can be finally divided by continual bisection.
+
+  The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Troughton is
+  fully described in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1809, as
+  employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The
+  circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and
+  outer edges. A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it
+  revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round the
+  outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots, was
+  attached to a frame-work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly,
+  along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of
+  frictional contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after
+  having been properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as
+  possible into 16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the
+  frame carrying the roller was moved once round along the circle, the
+  points of contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were
+  accurately observed by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of
+  which (which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near
+  its edge, which was to receive the divisions and the other viewed the
+  roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked
+  with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256 very
+  nearly equal parts.
+
+  The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the errors
+  of these dots, which are called _apparent_ errors, in consequence of
+  the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition that its
+  neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two microscopes (which we
+  shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires and micrometer
+  adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided into 100
+  divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite
+  direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires
+  respectively bisected the dots 0 and 128, which were supposed to be
+  diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way round on
+  its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A, and, should
+  dot 0 be found to coincide with B, then the two dots were 180° apart.
+  If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coincided with dot 0,
+  and the number of divisions of the micrometer head noted. Half this
+  number gave clearly the error of dot 128, and it was tabulated + or -
+  according as the arcual distance between 0 and 128 was found to exceed
+  or fall short of the remaining part of the circumference. The
+  microscope B was now shifted, A remaining opposite dot 0 as before,
+  till its wire bisected dot 64, and, by giving the circle one quarter
+  of a turn on its axis, the difference of the arcs between dots 0 and
+  64 and between 64 and 128 was obtained. The half of this difference
+  gave the apparent error of dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper
+  sign. With the microscope A still in the same position the error of
+  dot 192 was obtained, and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the
+  errors of dots 32, 96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In
+  this way the apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.
+
+  From this table of apparent errors a table of _real_ errors was drawn
+  up by employing the following formula:--
+
+    ½(x(a) + x(c)) + z = the real error of dot b,
+
+  where x(a) is the real error of dot a, x(c) the real error of dot c,
+  and z the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got
+  the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives
+  the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots.
+
+  The last part of Troughton's process was to employ them to cut the
+  final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5' each. Now
+  the mean interval between any two dots is 360°/256 = 5' × 16-7/8, and
+  hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into
+  16-7/8 equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a
+  subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and had
+  a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable as
+  to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis, and
+  rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional
+  adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow of
+  its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting the
+  roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to the
+  mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must pass over
+  16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle represented by
+  360° × 16/256 = 22° 30'. This interval was therefore divided by
+  16-7/8, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was laid off
+  on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each equal
+  to 1° 20'; and, to provide for the necessary 7/8ths of a division,
+  there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the 16 equal
+  parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts. A
+  microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on the
+  main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions, just as
+  the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle. Before the
+  first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was brought under I
+  and then the division cut at the point on the circle indicated by H,
+  which also coincided with the dot 0. The frame was then slipped along
+  the circle by the slow screw motion provided for the purpose, till the
+  first sector-division, by the action of the roller, was brought under
+  I. The second mark was then cut on the circle at the point indicated
+  by H. That the marks thus obtained are 5' apart is evident when we
+  reflect that the distance between them must be 1/16th of a division on
+  the section which by construction is 1° 20'. In this way the first 16
+  divisions were cut; but before cutting the 17th it was necessary to
+  adjust the micrometer wires of H to the real error of dot 1, as
+  indicated by the table, and bring back the sector, not to zero, but to
+  1/8th short of zero. Starting from this position the divisions between
+  dots 1 and 2 were filled in, and then H was adjusted to the real error
+  of dot 2, and the sector brought back to its proper division before
+  commencing the third course. Proceeding in this manner through the
+  whole circle, the microscope H was finally found with its wire at
+  zero, and the sector with its 16th division under its microscope
+  indicating that the circle had been accurately divided.
+
+_Copying._--In graduation by copying the pattern must be either an
+accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately divided circle,
+commonly called a _dividing plate_.
+
+In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided, usually
+called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their upper faces in
+the same plane. The dividing square, which closely resembles an ordinary
+joiner's square, is then laid across both, and the point of the dividing
+knife dropped into the zero division of the pattern. The square is now
+moved up close to the point of the knife; and, while it is held firmly
+in this position by the left hand, the first division on the work is
+made by drawing the knife along the edge of the square with the right
+hand.
+
+It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale are either
+greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet this case, and still
+use the same pattern, the work must be fixed at a certain angle of
+inclination with the pattern. This angle is found in the following way.
+Take the exact ratio of a division on the pattern to the required
+division on the scale. Call this ratio [alpha]. Then, if the required
+divisions are longer than those of the pattern, the angle is cos^-1
+[alpha], but, if shorter, the angle is sec^-1 [alpha]. In the former
+case two operations are required before the divisions are cut: first,
+the square is laid on the pattern, and the corresponding divisions
+merely notched very faintly on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the
+square is applied to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite
+each faint notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is sec^-1
+[alpha], the dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions
+cut when the edge of the square coincides with the end of each division
+on the pattern.
+
+In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This is a circular
+plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully graduated near
+its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has a steel pin fixed in
+its centre, and at right angles to its plane. For guiding the dividing
+knife an instrument called an index is employed. This is a straight bar
+of thin steel of length equal to the radius of the plate. A piece of
+metal, having a V notch with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one
+end of the bar in such a position that the vertex of the notch is
+exactly in a line with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the
+index is laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the
+straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The work to
+be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed by two clamps
+in a position exactly concentric with it. The index is now laid on, with
+its edge coinciding with any required division on the dividing plate,
+and the corresponding division on the work is cut by drawing the
+dividing knife along the straight edge of the index.
+
+_Machine Graduation._--The first dividing engine was probably that of
+Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly used by him for
+cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was followed shortly after by an
+engine devised by the duc de Chaulnes; but the first notable engine was
+that made by Ramsden, of which an account was published by the Board of
+Longitude in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of £300, and
+a further sum of £315 was given to him on condition that he would
+divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other makers. The
+essential principles of Ramsden's machine have been repeated in almost
+all succeeding engines for dividing circles.
+
+  Ramsden's machine consisted of a large brass prate 45 in. in diameter,
+  carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge of the plate
+  was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent screw worked, by
+  means of which the plate could be made to turn through any required
+  angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved the plate through 1°, and
+  1/60th of a turn through 1/360th of a degree. On the axis of the
+  tangent screw was placed a cylinder having a spiral groove cut on its
+  surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60 teeth was attached to this
+  cylinder, and was so arranged that, when the cylinder moved in one
+  direction, it carried the tangent screw with it, and so turned the
+  plate, but when it moved in the opposite direction, it left the
+  tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary. Round the spiral
+  groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound, one end of which was
+  attached to a treadle and the other to a counterpoise weight. When the
+  treadle was depressed the tangent screw turned round, and when the
+  pressure was removed it returned, in obedience to the weight, to its
+  former position without affecting the screw. Provision was also made
+  whereby certain stops could be placed in the way of the screw, which
+  only allowed it the requisite amount of turning. The work to be
+  divided was firmly fixed on the plate, and made concentric with it.
+  The divisions were cut, while the screw was stationary, by means of a
+  dividing knife attached to a swing frame, which allowed it to have
+  only a radial motion. In this way the artist could divide very rapidly
+  by alternately depressing the treadle and working the dividing knife.
+
+Ramsden also constructed a linear dividing engine on essentially the
+same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular plate with its
+notches stretched out into a straight line and made movable in a
+straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c., remaining as before, we get a
+very good idea of the linear engine.
+
+In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing engine, of which
+the plate was smaller than in Ramsden's, and which differed considerably
+in simplifying matters of detail. The plate was originally divided by
+Troughton's own method, already described, and the divisions so obtained
+were employed to ratch the edge of the plate for receiving the tangent
+screw with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (_Trans. Soc. Arts_, 1830-1831)
+constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably from those of
+Ramsden and Troughton.
+
+  The essential point of difference is that, in Ross's engine, the
+  tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an
+  independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is only
+  to stop the plate after it has passed through the required angular
+  interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated. Round the
+  circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which just look as
+  if the circumference had been divided into as many deep and somewhat
+  peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through each of these teeth a hole
+  is bored parallel to the plane of the plate and also to a tangent to
+  its circumference. Into these holes are screwed steel screws with
+  capstan heads and flat ends. The tangent screw consists only of a
+  single turn of a large square thread which works in the teeth or
+  notches of the plate. This thread is pierced by 90 equally distant
+  holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw, and at the same distance
+  from it. Into each of these holes is inserted a steel screw exactly
+  similar to those in the teeth, but with its end rounded. It is the
+  rounded and flat ends of these sets of screws coming together that
+  stop the engine plate at the desired position, and the exact point can
+  be nicely adjusted by suitably turning the screws.
+
+[Illustration: Dividing Engine.]
+
+A description is given of a dividing engine made by William Simms in the
+_Memoirs of the Astronomical Society_, 1843. Simms became convinced that
+to copy upon smaller circles the divisions which had been put upon a
+large plate with very great accuracy was not only more expeditious but
+more exact than original graduation. His machine involved essentially
+the same principle as Troughton's. The accompanying figure is taken by
+permission.
+
+  The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal cast
+  in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5' divisions--one very faint on
+  an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun-metal.
+  These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the plan of Edward
+  Troughton. One very great improvement in this engine is that the axis
+  B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this hollow is to receive
+  the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it can be fixed flat to
+  the plate by the clamps E, without having first to be detached from
+  the axis and other parts to which it has already been carefully
+  fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting, which can hardly be
+  done without some error. D is the tangent screw, and F the frame
+  carrying it, which turns on carefully polished steel pivots. The screw
+  is pressed against the edge of the plate by a spiral spring acting
+  under the end of the lever G, and by screwing the lever down the screw
+  can be altogether removed from contact with the plate. The edge of the
+  plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which were cut opposite the original
+  division by a circular cutter attached to the screw frame. H is the
+  spiral barrel round which the catgut band is wound, one end of which
+  is attached to the crank L on the end of the axis J and the other to a
+  counterpoise weight not seen. On the other end of J is another crank
+  inclined to L and carrying a band and counterpoise weight seen at K.
+  The object of this weight is to balance the former and give steadiness
+  to the motion. On the axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which
+  move the rod I, which, by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to
+  the box N, gives motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an
+  eccentric for moving the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying
+  the cutter. Between the eccentric and the point of the screw P is an
+  undulating plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting
+  apparatus is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be
+  elevated or depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting
+  apparatus can be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit
+  circles of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R,
+  and the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope
+  joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand or
+  by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in or out of
+  gear at once by a handle seen at S.
+
+Mention may be made of Donkin's linear dividing engine, in which a
+compensating arrangement is employed whereby great accuracy is obtained
+notwithstanding the inequalities of the screw used to advance the
+cutting tool. Dividing engines have also been made by Reichenbach,
+Repsold and others in Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other
+astronomical instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts &
+Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the _Monthly Not. R. A. S._, January
+1909.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Bird, _Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments_
+  (London, 1767); Duc de Chaulnes, _Nouvelle Méthode pour diviser les
+  instruments de mathématique et d'astronomie_ (1768); Ramsden,
+  _Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments_
+  (London, 1777); Troughton's memoir, _Phil. Trans._ (1809); _Memoirs of
+  the Royal Astronomical Society_, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35. See
+  also J. E. Watkins, "On the Ramsden Machine," _Smithsonian Rep._
+  (1890), p. 721; and L. Ambronn, _Astronomische Instrumentenkunde_
+  (1899).     (J. Bl.)
+
+
+
+
+GRADUS, or GRADUS AD PARNASSUM (a step to Parnassus), a Latin (or Greek)
+dictionary, in which the quantities of the vowels of the words are
+marked. Synonyms, epithets and poetical expressions and extracts are
+also included under the more important headings, the whole being
+intended as an aid for students in Greek and Latin verse composition.
+The first Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler
+(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus by C. D.
+Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and H. G. Wintle (1890);
+Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby (1815), bishop of Durham.
+
+
+
+
+GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish historian of modern
+times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died at Munich in 1891. He received
+a desultory education, and was largely self-taught. An important stage
+in his development was the period of three years that he spent at
+Oldenburg as assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened
+orthodoxy was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz
+proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau was then
+becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the leader of Jewish
+reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger's attitude, and though he
+subsequently took radical views of the Bible and tradition (which made
+him an opponent of Hirsch), Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform.
+He contended for freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for
+freedom of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the
+rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years he
+supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute by his
+published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the fourth volume of
+his history of the Jews made him famous. This fourth volume (the first
+to be published) dealt with the Talmud. It was a brilliant resuscitation
+of the past. Graetz's skill in piecing together detached fragments of
+information, his vast learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were
+equalled by his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book
+of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and Graetz won at
+a bound the position he still occupies as recognized master of Jewish
+history. His _Geschichte der Juden_, begun in 1853, was completed in
+1875; new editions of the several volumes were frequent. The work has
+been translated into many languages; it appeared in English in five
+volumes in 1891-1895. The _History_ is defective in its lack of
+objectivity; Graetz's judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular
+he lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work of genius.
+Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv. Graetz was appointed on
+the staff of the new Breslau Seminary, of which the first director was
+Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the remainder of his life in this office; in
+1869 he was created professor by the government, and also lectured at
+the Breslau University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a
+biblical critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the
+date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books. His
+critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief contribution to
+biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor Bacher edited Graetz's
+_Emendationes_ to many parts of the Hebrew scriptures.
+
+  A full bibliography of Graetz's works is given in the _Jewish
+  Quarterly Review_, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found
+  there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the "index" volume of the
+  _History_ in the American re-issue of the English translation in six
+  volumes (Philadelphia, 1898).     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAEVIUS (properly GRÄVE or GREFFE), JOHANN GEORG (1632-1703). German
+classical scholar and critic, was born at Naumburg, Saxony, on the 29th
+of January 1632. He was originally intended for the law, but having made
+the acquaintance of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer,
+under his influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He
+completed his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the
+Protestant theologians A. Morus and D. Blondel at Amsterdam. During his
+residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel's influence he abandoned
+Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church; and in 1656 he was called by
+the elector of Brandenburg to the chair of rhetoric in the university of
+Duisburg. Two years afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he
+was chosen to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was
+translated to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the
+chair of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January 11th, 1703)
+that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high reputation as
+a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded by pupils, many of them of
+distinguished rank, from all parts of the civilized world. He was
+honoured with special recognition by Louis XIV., and was a particular
+favourite of William III. of England, who made him historiographer
+royal.
+
+  His two most important works are the _Thesaurus antiquitatum
+  Romanarum_ (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the _Thesaurus antiquitatum
+  et historiarum Italiae_ published after his death, and continued by
+  the elder Burmann (1704-1725). His editions of the classics, although
+  they marked a distinct advance in scholarship, arc now for the most
+  part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667), Lucian, _Pseudosophista_
+  (1668), Justin, _Historiae Philippicae_ (1669), Suetonius (1672),
+  Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and several of the works of
+  Cicero (his best production). He also edited many of the writings of
+  contemporary scholars. The _Oratio funebris_ by P. Burmann (1703)
+  contains an exhaustive list of the works of this scholar; see also P.
+  H. Külb in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_, and J. E.
+  Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GRAF, ARTURO (1848-   ), Italian poet, of German extraction, was born at
+Athens. He was educated at Naples University and became a lecturer on
+Italian literature in Rome, till in 1882 he was appointed professor at
+Turin. He was one of the founders of the _Giornale della letteratura
+italiana_, and his publications include valuable prose criticism; but he
+is best known as a poet. His various volumes of verse--_Poesie e
+novelle_ (1874), _Dopo il tramonto versi_ (1893), &c.--give him a high
+place among the recent lyrical writers of his country.
+
+
+
+
+GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815-1869), German Old Testament scholar and
+orientalist, was born at Mülhausen in Alsace on the 28th of February
+1815. He studied Biblical exegesis and oriental languages at the
+university of Strassburg under E. Reuss, and, after holding various
+teaching posts, was made instructor in French and Hebrew at the
+Landesschule of Meissen, receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He
+died on the 16th of July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old
+Testament criticism. In his principal work, _Die geschichtlichen Bücher
+des Alten Testaments_ (1866), he sought to show that the priestly
+legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin than the
+book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the accepted view, that the
+Elohistic narratives formed part of the _Grundschrift_ and therefore
+belonged to the oldest portions of the Pentateuch. The reasons urged
+against the contention that the priestly legislation and the Elohistic
+narratives were separated by a space of 500 years were so strong as to
+induce Graf, in an essay, "Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs,"
+published shortly before his death, to regard the whole _Grundschrift_
+as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch. The idea had
+already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since Graf was the first to
+introduce it into Germany, the theory, as developed by Julius
+Wellhausen, has been called the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis.
+
+  Graf also wrote, _Der Segen Moses Deut. 33_ (1857) and _Der Prophet
+  Jeremia erklärt_ (1862). See T. K. Cheyne, _Founders of Old Testament
+  Criticism_ (1893); and Otto Pfleiderer's book translated into English
+  by J. F. Smith as _Development of Theology_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GRÄFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist, son of Karl Ferdinand
+von Gräfe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1828. At an early age
+he manifested a preference for the study of mathematics, but this was
+gradually superseded by an interest in natural science, which led him
+ultimately to the study of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at
+Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and
+devoting special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice
+as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution for the
+treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many similar ones in
+Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was appointed teacher of
+ophthalmology in Berlin university; in 1858 he became extraordinary
+professor, and in 1866 ordinary professor. Gräfe contributed largely to
+the progress of the science of ophthalmology, especially by the
+establishment in 1855 of his _Archiv für Ophthalmologie_, in which he
+had Ferdinand Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as
+collaborators. Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his
+method of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He was
+also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves and brain. He
+died at Berlin on the 20th of July 1870.
+
+  See _Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Gräfe_ (Halle, 1870) by
+  his cousin, Alfred Gräfe (1830-1899), also a distinguished
+  ophthalmologist, and the author of _Das Sehen der Schielenden_
+  (Wiesbaden, 1897); and E. Michaelis, _Albrecht von Gräfe. Sein Leben
+  und Wirken_ (Berlin, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868), German educationist, was born at Buttstädt
+in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802. He studied mathematics and
+theology at Jena, and in 1823 obtained a curacy in the town church of
+Weimar. He was transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825;
+in 1840 he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science of
+education (Pädagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he became head of
+the _Bürgerschule_ (middle class school) in Cassel. After reorganizing
+the schools of the town, he became director of the new _Realschule_ in
+1843; and, devoting himself to the interests of educational reform in
+electoral Hesse, he became in 1849 a member of the school commission,
+and also entered the house of representatives, where he made himself
+somewhat formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated
+in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular
+minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission, he was
+condemned to three years' imprisonment, a sentence afterwards reduced to
+one of twelve months. On his release he withdrew to Geneva, where he
+engaged in educational work till 1855, when he was appointed director of
+the school of industry at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of
+July 1868.
+
+  Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional papers on
+  educational subjects, he wrote _Das Rechisverhältnis der Volksschule
+  von innen und aussen_ (1829); _Die Schulreform_ (1834); _Schule und
+  Unterricht_ (1839); _Allgemeine Pädagogik_ (1845); _Die deutsche
+  Volksschule_ (1847). Together with Naumann, he also edited the _Archiv
+  für das praktische Volksschulwesen_ (1828-1835).
+
+
+
+
+GRÄFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787-1840), German surgeon, was born at
+Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He studied medicine at Halle and
+Leipzig, and after obtaining licence from the Leipzig university, he was
+in 1807 appointed private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg.
+In 1811 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical
+clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was
+superintendent of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded in
+1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed
+physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a director of
+the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy.
+He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840 at Hanover, whither he had been
+called to operate on the eyes of the crown prince. Gräfe did much to
+advance the practice of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment
+of wounds. He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was
+chiefly due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted
+students from all parts of Europe.
+
+  The following are his principal works: _Normen für die Ablösung
+  grosser Gliedmassen_ (Berlin, 1812); _Rhinoplastik_ (1818); _Neue
+  Beiträge zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen_
+  (1821); _Die epidemisch-kontagiöse Augenblennorrhoë Ägyptens in den
+  europäischen Befreiungsheeren_ (1824); and _Jahresberichte über das
+  klinisch-chirurgisch-augenärztliche Institut der Universität zu
+  Berlin_ (1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the
+  _Journal für Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde_. See E. Michaelis, _Karl
+  Ferdinand von Gräfe in seiner 30 jährigen Wirken für Staat und
+  Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1840).
+
+
+
+
+GRAFFITO, plural _graffiti_, the Italian word meaning "scribbling" or
+"scratchings" (_graffiare_, to scribble, Gr. [Greek: graphein]), adopted
+by archaeologists as a general term for the casual writings, rude
+drawings and markings on ancient buildings, in distinction from the more
+formal or deliberate writings known as "inscriptions." These "graffiti,"
+either scratched on stone or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a
+nail, or, more rarely, written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found
+in great abundance, e.g. on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The
+best-known "graffiti" are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and
+elsewhere in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci (_Graffiti di
+Pompei_, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra ("Graffiti di Roma" in _Bolletino
+della commissione municipale archaeologica_, Rome, 1893; see also _Corp.
+Ins. Lat._ iv., Berlin, 1871). The subject matter of these scribblings
+is much the same as that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys,
+street idlers and the casual "tripper." The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote
+out lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for
+memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, "sportsmen"
+scribbled the names of horses they had been "tipped," and wrote those of
+their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse is frequent, and rude
+caricatures are found, such as that of one Peregrinus with an enormous
+nose, or of Naso or Nasso with hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes
+up his election address and appeals to the _pilicrepi_ or ball-players
+for their votes for him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for
+lovers in dejection or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius
+appear to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt the
+nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome near the _Porta
+Portuensis_ has been found an inscription begging people not to scribble
+(_scariphare_) on the walls.
+
+Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to the
+philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the various
+alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasionally guide the
+archaeologist to the date of the building on which they appear, but they
+are chiefly valuable for the light they throw on the everyday life of
+the "man in the street" of the period, and for the intimate details of
+customs and institutions which no literature or formal inscriptions can
+give. The graffiti dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in
+this respect particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of
+the _secutor_ caught in the net of the _retiarius_ and lying entirely at
+his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents of these
+shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci, _op. cit._,
+Pls. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, _Pompeii in Leben und Kunst_, 2nd ed., 1908, ch.
+xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome, near the church of S.
+Crisogono, was discovered the guardhouse (_excubitorium_) of the seventh
+cohort of the city police (_vigiles_), the walls being covered by the
+scribblings of the guards, illustrating in detail the daily routine, the
+hardships and dangers, and the feelings of the men towards their
+officers (W. Henzen, "L' Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili"
+in _Bull. Inst._ 1867, and _Annali Inst._, 1874; see also R. Lanciani,
+_Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries_, 230, and _Ruins and
+Excavations of Ancient Rome_, 1897, 548). The most famous graffito yet
+discovered is that generally accepted as representing a caricature of
+Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the Domus Gelotiana on the
+Palatine in 1857, and now preserved in the Kircherian Museum of the
+Collegio Romano. Deeply scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad
+in the short _tunica_ with one hand upraised in salutation to another
+figure, with the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a
+cross; beneath is written in rude Greek letters "Anaxamenos worships
+(his) god." It has been suggested that this represents an adherent of
+some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal-headed deities of Egypt
+(see Ferd. Becker, _Das Spottcrucifix der römischen Kaiserpaläste_,
+Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, _Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin_, Freiburg in
+Breisgau, 1872; and Visconti and Lanciani, _Guida del Palatino_).
+
+  There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti, in
+  the _Edinburgh Review_, October 1859, vol. cx.     (C. We.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAFLY, CHARLES (1862-   ), American sculptor, was born at Philadelphia,
+Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December 1862. He was a pupil of the schools
+of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri
+M. Chapu and Jean Dampt, and the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. He
+received an Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his
+"Mauvais Présage," now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal
+at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893, Atlanta,
+1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor, Pennsylvania Academy of
+the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he became instructor in sculpture at the
+Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at
+the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1905. His better-known works include:
+"General Reynolds," Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; "Fountain of Man"
+(made for the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo); "From Generation to
+Generation"; "Symbol of Life"; "Vulture of War," and many portrait
+busts.
+
+
+
+
+GRÄFRATH, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach, 14 m. E. of
+Düsseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop. (1905) 9030. It has a
+Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, and there was an abbey here
+from 1185 to 1803. The principal industries are iron and steel, while
+weaving is carried on in the town.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier "graff," through the French from
+the Late Lat. _graphium_, a stylus or pencil), a small branch, shoot or
+"scion," transferred from one plant or tree to another, the "stock," and
+inserted in it so that the two unite (see HORTICULTURE). The name was
+adopted from the resemblance in shape of the "graft" to a pencil. The
+transfer of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another
+part of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows is
+also known as "grafting," and is frequently practised in modern surgery.
+The word is applied, in carpentry, to an attachment of the ends of
+timbers, and, as a nautical term, to the "whipping" or "pointing" of a
+rope's end with fine twine to prevent unravelling. "Graft" is used as a
+slang term, in England, for a "piece of hard work." In American usage
+Webster's _Dictionary_ (ed. 1904) defines the word as "the act of any
+one, especially an official or public employé, by which he procures
+money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position; also the
+surreptitious gain thus procured." It is thus a word embracing blackmail
+and illicit commission. The origin of the English use of the word is
+probably an obsolete word "graft," a portion of earth thrown up by a
+spade, from the Teutonic root meaning "to dig," seen in German _graben_,
+and English "grave."
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton are descended from HENRY
+FITZROY (1663-1690), the natural son of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers
+(countess of Castlemaine and duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was
+married to the daughter and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created
+earl of Euston; in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought
+up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg in
+1684. At James II.'s coronation he was lord high constable. In the
+rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the royal troops in
+Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill (duke of Marlborough),
+and joined William of Orange against the king. He died of a wound
+received at the storming of Cork, while leading William's forces, being
+succeeded as 2nd duke by his son Charles (1682-1757).
+
+AUGUSTUS HENRY FITZROY, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811), one of the
+leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the 2nd duke, and
+was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He first became known in
+politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in 1765 he was secretary of state
+under the marquis of Rockingham; but he retired next year, and Pitt
+(becoming earl of Chatham) formed a ministry in which Grafton was first
+lord of the treasury (1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham's
+illness at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective
+leader, but political differences and the attacks of "Junius" led to his
+resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy seal in Lord North's
+ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being in favour of conciliatory
+action towards the American colonists. In the Rockingham ministry of
+1782 he was again lord privy seal. In later years he was a prominent
+Unitarian.
+
+Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous other
+children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitzroy (1764-1829),
+whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858), governor of New South Wales,
+and Robert Fitzroy (q.v.), the hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th
+duke's son, who succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th
+dukes.
+
+  The 3rd duke left in manuscript a _Memoir_ of his public career, of
+  which extracts have been printed in Stanhope's _History_, Walpole's
+  _Memories of George III._ (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell's _Lives
+  of the Chancellors_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, RICHARD (d. 1572). English printer and chronicler, was probably
+born about 1513. He received the freedom of the Grocers' Company in
+1534. Miles Coverdale's version of the Bible had first been printed in
+1535. Grafton was early brought into touch with the leaders of religious
+reform, and in 1537 he undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch,
+to produce a modified version of Coverdale's text, generally known as
+Matthew's Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris to reprint Coverdale's
+revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch and he began to print the folio
+known as the Great Bible by special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from
+the French government. Suddenly, however, the work was officially
+stopped and the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell
+eventually bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed
+in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under his
+direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton and Whitchurch
+secured the exclusive right of printing church service books, and on the
+accession of Edward VI. he was appointed king's printer, an office which
+he retained throughout the reign. In this capacity he produced _The
+Booke of the Common Praier and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and
+other Rites and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche
+of Englande_ (1549 fol.), and _Actes of Parliament_ (1552 and 1553). In
+1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey's proclamation and signed himself the
+queen's printer. For this he was imprisoned for a short time, and he
+seems thereafter to have retired from active business. His historical
+works include a continuation (1543) of Hardyng's Chronicle from the
+beginning of the reign of Edward IV. down to Grafton's own times. He is
+said to have taken considerable liberties with the original, and may
+practically be regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in
+1548 Edward Hall's _Union of the ... Families of Lancastre and Yorke_,
+adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After he retired from
+the printing business he published _An Abridgement of the Chronicles of
+England_ (1562), _Manuell of the Chronicles of England_ (1565),
+_Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the Affayres of England_
+(1568). In these books he chiefly adapted the work of his predecessors,
+but in some cases he gives detailed accounts of contemporary events. His
+name frequently appears in the records of St Bartholomew's and Christ's
+hospitals, and in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King
+Edward's foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the City
+in Parliament, and in 1562-1563 he sat for Coventry.
+
+  An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A.
+  Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers' Company, with the title
+  _Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &c._, in continuation
+  of _Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton_ (1895). His
+  _Chronicle at large_ was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales, lying on both sides
+of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m. from its mouth, 342 m.
+N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901) 4174, South Grafton, 976. The two
+sections, North Grafton and South Grafton, form separate municipalities.
+The river is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate
+burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The entrance
+to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton is the seat of the
+Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton and Armidale, and of a Roman
+Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which have fine cathedrals.
+Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are important industries, and there are
+several sugar-mills in the neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also,
+are bred for the Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and
+fruits are also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney.
+There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a
+municipality in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052; (1910) 5705. It is served by the New York, New
+Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban
+electric lines. The township contains several villages (including
+Grafton, North Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville);
+the principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The
+villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many summer
+residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public library. There is
+ample water power from the Blackstone river and its tributaries, and
+among the manufactures of Grafton are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c.
+Within what is now Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of
+Hassanamesit. John Eliot, the "apostle to the Indians," visited it soon
+after 1651, and organized the third of his bands of "praying Indians"
+there; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of the kind
+in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massachusetts General
+Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive use, a tract of about
+4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole proprietors until 1718, when
+they sold a small farm to Elisha Johnson, the first permanent white
+settler in the neighbourhood. In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro,
+Sudbury, Concord and Stowe, with the permission of the General Court,
+bought from the Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to
+establish forty English families on the tract within three years, and to
+maintain a church and school of which the Indians should have free use.
+The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour of the
+2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded Indians died about
+1825.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West Virginia,
+U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of Wheeling. Pop.
+(1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign-born and 162 negroes;
+(1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions of the Baltimore & Ohio
+railway, which maintains extensive car shops here. The city is about
+1000 ft. above sea-level. It has a small national cemetery, and about 4
+m. W., at Pruntytown, is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is
+situated near large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among
+its manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window glass and
+pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill products. The first
+settlement was made about 1852, and Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and
+chartered as a city in 1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city
+were increased by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900,
+796), of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831-1899), British general, was born on the 27th of
+June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was educated at Dresden and Woolwich
+Academy, and entered the Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with
+distinction through the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the
+battles of the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches
+before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry at
+the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism on numerous occasions.
+He also received the Legion of Honour, and was promoted to a brevet
+majority. In the China War of 1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho
+and Tang-ku, the storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely
+wounded, and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and
+C.B.). Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties until
+1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works for barracks at
+the war office, a position he held until his promotion to major-general
+in 1881. In command of the advanced force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the
+brunt of the fighting, was present at the action of Magfar, commanded at
+the first battle of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his
+brigade at Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received
+the K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the expedition
+to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful battles of El Teb and
+Tamai. On his return home he received the thanks of parliament and was
+made a lieutenant-general for distinguished service in the field. In
+1885 he commanded the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin
+and Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the
+expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.). In 1896 he
+was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant Royal Engineers. He died
+on the 17th of December 1899. He published in 1875 a translation of
+Goetze's _Operations of the German Engineers in 1870-1871_, and in 1887
+_Last Words with Gordon_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792-1861), British statesman,
+son of a baronet, was born at Naworth, Cumberland, on the 1st of June
+1792, and was educated at Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting
+the university, while making the "grand tour" abroad, he became private
+secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England in
+1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the Whig
+interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820. In 1824 he
+succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered parliament as
+representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon exchanged for the
+county of Cumberland. In the same year he published a pamphlet entitled
+"Corn and Currency," which brought him into prominence as a man of
+advanced Liberal opinions; and he became one of the most energetic
+advocates in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl
+Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the
+admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he sat for the
+eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dissensions on the Irish
+Church question led to his withdrawal from the ministry in 1834, and
+ultimately to his joining the Conservative party. Rejected by his former
+constituents in 1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841
+for Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert Peel
+as secretary of state for the home department, a post he retained until
+1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable odium in Scotland, by
+his unconciliating policy on the church question prior to the
+"disruption" of 1843; and in 1844 the detention and opening of letters
+at the post-office by his warrant raised a storm of public indignation,
+which was hardly allayed by the favourable report of a parliamentary
+committee of investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but
+in the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord of
+the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short time in the
+Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of a select committee of
+inquiry into the conduct of the Russian war ultimately led to his
+withdrawal from official life. He continued as a private member to
+exercise a considerable influence on parliamentary opinion. He died at
+Netherby, Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.
+
+  His _Life_, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851), American dietarian, was born in Suffield,
+Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst College, and was ordained to
+the Presbyterian ministry in 1826, but he seems to have preached but
+little. He became an ardent advocate of temperance reform and of
+vegetarianism, having persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause
+of abnormal cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he
+died at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 11th of September 1851. His
+name is now remembered because of his advocacy of unbolted (Graham)
+flour, and as the originator of "Graham bread." But his reform was much
+broader than this. He urged, primarily, physiological education, and in
+his _Science of Human Life_ (1836; republished, with biographical
+memoir, 1858) furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had
+carefully planned a complete regimen including many details besides a
+strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding House was opened in New
+York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath Nicholson, who published _Nature's
+Own Book_ (2nd ed., 1835) giving Graham's rules for boarders; and in
+Boston a Graham House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.
+
+  There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American
+  Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly
+  called _The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to
+  illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science
+  of human life as taught by Sylvester Graham_, edited by David
+  Campbell. Graham wrote _Essay on Cholera_ (1832); _The Esculapian
+  Tablets of the Nineteenth Century_ (1834); _Lectures to Young Men on
+  Chastity_ (2nd ed., 1837); and _Bread and Bread Making_; and projected
+  a work designed to show that his system was not counter to the Holy
+  Scriptures.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805-1869), British chemist, born at Glasgow on the 20th
+of December 1805, was the son of a merchant of that city. In 1819 he
+entered the university of Glasgow with the intention of becoming a
+minister of the Established Church. But under the influence of Thomas
+Thomson (1773-1852), the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste
+for experimental science and especially for molecular physics, a subject
+which formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After
+graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of Professor T.
+C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow gave lessons in
+mathematics, and subsequently chemistry, until the year 1829, when he
+was appointed lecturer in the Mechanics' Institute. In 1830 he succeeded
+Dr Andrew Ure (1778-1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian
+Institution, and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was
+transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College, London.
+There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir John Herschel as
+Master of the Mint, a post he held until his death on the 16th of
+September 1869. The onerous duties his work at the Mint entailed
+severely tried his energies, and in quitting a purely scientific career
+he was subjected to the cares of official life, for which he was not
+fitted by temperament. The researches, however, which he conducted
+between 1861 and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he
+engaged. Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, and a
+corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847, while Oxford
+made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part in the foundation of
+the London Chemical and the Cavendish societies, and served as first
+president of both, in 1841 and 1846. Towards the close of his life the
+presidency of the Royal Society was offered him, but his failing health
+caused him to decline the honour.
+
+Graham's work is remarkable at once for its originality and for the
+simplicity of the methods employed obtaining most important results. He
+communicated papers to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow before the
+work of that society was recorded in _Transactions_, but his first
+published paper, "On the Absorption of Gases by Liquids," appeared in
+the _Annals of Philosophy_ for 1826. The subject with which his name is
+most prominently associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first
+paper on this subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment
+had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of gases.
+"Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in interesting
+speculations, the experimental information we possess on the subject
+amounts to little more than the well-established fact that gases of a
+different nature when brought into contact do not arrange themselves
+according to their density, but they spontaneously diffuse through each
+other so as to remain in an intimate state of mixture for any length of
+time." For the fissured jar of J. W. Döbereiner he substituted a glass
+tube closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple
+appliance he developed the law now known by his name "that the diffusion
+rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their density." (See
+DIFFUSION.) He further studied the passage of gases by transpiration
+through fine tubes, and by effusion through a minute hole in a platinum
+disk, and was enabled to show that gas may enter a vacuum in three
+different ways: (1) by the molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of
+which a gas penetrates through the pores of a disk of compressed
+graphite; (2) by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a
+platinum disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being
+similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is usually
+carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity many thousand
+times as great as is demonstrable by the latter; and (3) by the peculiar
+rate of passage due to transpiration through fine tubes, in which the
+ratios appear to be in direct relation with no other known property of
+the same gases--thus hydrogen has exactly double the transpiration rate
+of nitrogen, the relation of those gases as to density being as 1:14. He
+subsequently examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions
+of india-rubber, unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as
+palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa neither by
+diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue of a
+selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the gases in
+contact with them. By this means ("atmolysis") he was enabled partially
+to separate oxygen from air.
+
+His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine the
+spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the experiments he
+divided bodies into two classes--crystalloids, such as common salt, and
+colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type--the former having high and the
+latter low diffusibility. He also proved that the process of liquid
+diffusion causes partial decomposition of certain chemical compounds,
+the potassium sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium
+sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt. He also
+extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids, adopting the
+method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poiseuille. He found that
+dilution with water does not effect proportionate alteration in the
+transpiration velocities of different liquids, and a certain
+determinable degree of dilution retards the transpiration velocity.
+
+With regard to Graham's more purely chemical work, in 1833 he showed
+that phosphoric anhydride and water form three distinct acids, and he
+thus established the existence of polybasic acids, in each of which one
+or more equivalents of hydrogen are replaceable by certain metals (see
+ACID). In 1835 he published the results of an examination of the
+properties of water of crystallization as a constituent of salts. Not
+the least interesting part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain
+definite salts with alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of
+alcoholates was given. A brief paper entitled "Speculative Ideas on the
+Constitution of Matter" (1863) possesses special interest in connexion
+with work done since his death, because in it he expressed the view that
+the various kinds of matter now recognized as different elementary
+substances may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecule in
+different conditions of movement.
+
+  Graham's _Elements of Chemistry_, first published in 1833, went
+  through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled
+  under J. Otto's direction. His _Chemical and Physical Researches_ were
+  collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and printed "for
+  presentation only" at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith contributing to the
+  volume a valuable preface and analysis of its contents. See also T. E.
+  Thorpe, _Essays in Historical Chemistry_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAME, JAMES (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in Glasgow on the
+22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful lawyer. After completing his
+literary course at Glasgow university, Grahame went in 1784 to
+Edinburgh, where he qualified as writer to the signet, and subsequently
+for the Scottish bar, of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his
+preferences had always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four
+he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton,
+Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works include a
+dramatic poem, _Mary Queen of Scots_ (1801), _The Sabbath_ (1804),
+_British Georgics_ (1804), _The Birds of Scotland_ (1806), and _Poems on
+the Abolition of the Slave Trade_ (1810). His principal work, _The
+Sabbath_, a sacred and descriptive poem in blank verse, is characterized
+by devotional feeling and by happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In
+the notes to his poems he expresses enlightened views on popular
+education, the criminal law and other public questions. He was
+emphatically a friend of humanity--a philanthropist as well as a poet.
+He died in Glasgow on the 14th of September 1811.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM'S DYKE (or SHEUGH = trench), a local name for the Roman fortified
+frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road, which ran across the
+narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth to the Clyde (about 36 m.),
+and formed from A.D. 140 till about 185 the northern frontier of Roman
+Britain. The name is locally explained as recording a victorious assault
+on the defences by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been
+connected with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term _groma_.
+But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke (Fordun,
+A.D. 1385), it is the same as the term Grim's Ditch which occurs several
+times in England in connexion with early ramparts--for example, near
+Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between Berkhampstead (Herts) and
+Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might
+be credited with the wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short
+periods of time. By antiquaries the Graham's Dyke is usually styled the
+Wall of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus Pius,
+in whose reign it was constructed. See further BRITAIN: _Roman_.
+     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM'S TOWN, a city of South Africa, the administrative centre for the
+eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail N.E. of Port Elizabeth
+and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred. Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom
+7283 were whites and 1837 were electors. The town is built in a basin of
+the grassy hills forming the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above
+sea-level. It is a pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy
+climate, and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The
+streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the High Street
+are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St George, built from
+designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemoration Chapel, the chief place
+of worship of the Wesleyans, erected by the British emigrants of 1820.
+The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the
+left of the High Street. The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a
+square clock tower built on arches over the pavement. Graham's Town is
+one of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides the
+public schools and the Rhodes University College (which in 1904 took
+over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St Andrew's College),
+scholastic institutions are maintained by religious bodies. The town
+possesses two large hospitals, which receive patients from all parts of
+South Africa, and the government bacteriological institute. It is the
+centre of trade for an extensive pastoral and agricultural district.
+Owing to the sour quality of the herbage in the surrounding _zuurveld_,
+stock-breeding and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent
+replaced by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham's Town is the
+most important entrepôt. Dairy farming is much practised in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters of the
+British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape Colony from
+the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after Colonel John Graham
+(1778-1821), then commanding the forces. (Graham had commanded the light
+infantry battalion at the taking of the Cape by the British in the
+action of the 6th of January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in
+Italy and Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was
+made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham's Town, and 10,000 men attacked
+it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which numbered not more than
+320 men, infantry and artillery, under Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards
+General Sir) Thomas Willshire. In 1822 the town was chosen as the
+headquarters of the 4000 British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony
+in 1820. It has maintained its position as the most important inland
+town of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape
+parliament met in Graham's Town, the only instance of the legislature
+sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed by a municipality.
+The rateable value in 1906 was £891,536 and the rate levied 2½d. in the
+pound.
+
+  See T. Sheffield, _The Story of the Settlement ..._ (2nd ed., Graham's
+  Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, _British South Africa ... with notices of
+  some of the British Settlers of 1820_ (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GRAIL, THE HOLY, the famous talisman of Arthurian romance, the object of
+quest on the part of the knights of the Round Table. It is mainly, if
+not wholly, known to English readers through the medium of Malory's
+translation of the French _Quête du Saint Graal_, where it is the cup or
+chalice of the Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the
+wounds of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved.
+Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these texts
+an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature and origin of
+the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to determine the precise
+value of these differing versions.[1] Broadly speaking the Grail
+romances have been divided into two main classes: (1) those dealing with
+the search for the Grail, the _Quest_, and (2) those relating to its
+early history. These latter appear to be dependent on the former, for
+whereas we may have a _Quest_ romance without any insistence on the
+previous history of the Grail, that history is never found without some
+allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its
+successful termination. The _Quest_ versions again fall into three
+distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero who is
+respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most important and
+interesting group is that connected with Perceval, and he was regarded
+as the original Grail hero, Gawain being, as it were, his understudy.
+Recent discoveries, however, point to a different conclusion, and
+indicate that the _Gawain_ stories represent an early tradition, and
+that we must seek in them rather than in the _Perceval_ versions for
+indications as to the ultimate origin of the Grail.
+
+The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will be seen
+from the following summary.
+
+1. GAWAIN, included in the continuation to Chrétien's _Perceval_ by
+Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman, who is
+probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus Cambrensis, and
+considerably earlier than Chrétien de Troyes. Here the Grail is a
+food-providing, self-acting talisman, the precise nature of which is not
+specified; it is designated as the "rich" Grail, and serves the king and
+his court _sans serjant et sans seneschal_, the butlers providing the
+guests with wine. In another version, given at an earlier point of the
+same continuation, but apparently deriving from a later source, the
+Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called the
+"holy" Grail, but no details as to its history or character are given.
+In a third version, that of _Diu Crône_, a long and confused romance,
+the origin of which has not been determined, the Grail appears as a
+reliquary, in which the Host is presented to the king, who once a year
+partakes alike of it and of the blood which flows from the lance.
+Another account is given in the prose _Lancelot_, but here Gawain has
+been deposed from his post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be
+expected from the treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit
+ends in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with the
+atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the _Quête_, and
+is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These are the _Gawain_
+versions.
+
+2. PERCEVAL.--The most important _Perceval_ text is the _Conte del
+Grael_, or _Perceval le Galois_ of Chrétien de Troyes. Here the Grail is
+wrought of gold richly set with precious stones; it is carried in solemn
+procession, and the light issuing from it extinguishes that of the
+candles. What it is is not explained, but inasmuch as it is the vehicle
+in which is conveyed the Host on which the father of the Fisher king
+depends for nutriment, it seems not improbable that here, as in _Diu
+Crône_, it is to be understood as a reliquary. In the _Parzival_ of
+Wolfram von Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with
+that of Chrétien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a
+precious stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the
+guardianship of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a
+body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and youth
+preserving talisman--no man may die within eight days of beholding it,
+and the maiden who bears it retains perennial youth--and an oracle
+choosing its own servants, and indicating whom the Grail king shall wed.
+The sole link with the Christian tradition is the statement that its
+virtue is renewed every Good Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven.
+The discrepancy between this and the other Grail romances is most
+startling.
+
+In the short prose romance known as the "Didot" _Perceval_ we have, for
+the first time, the whole history of the relic logically set forth. The
+_Perceval_ forms the third and concluding section of a group of short
+romances, the two preceding being the _Joseph of Arimathea_ and the
+_Merlin_. In the first we have the precise history of the Grail, how it
+was the dish of the Last Supper, confided by our Lord to the care of
+Joseph, whom he miraculously visited in the prison to which he had been
+committed by the Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his
+brother-in-law Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the
+final winner and guardian of the relic. The _Merlin_ forms the
+connecting thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and the
+chivalric atmosphere of Arthur's court; and finally, in the _Perceval_,
+the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned by Merlin of the
+quest which awaits him and which he achieves after various adventures.
+
+In the _Perlesvaus_ the Grail is the same, but the working out of the
+scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea, Josephe, is
+introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar to that used so
+effectively in the _Parzival_.
+
+3. GALAHAD.--The _Quête du Saint Graal_, the only romance of which
+Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion of the _Lancelot_
+development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot, as lover of Guinevere,
+could not be permitted to achieve so spiritual an emprise, yet as
+leading knight of Arthur's court it was impossible to allow him to be
+surpassed by another. Hence the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by
+the Grail king's daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the
+quest, foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his
+father's fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-winner, could
+not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail, the chalice of the
+Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the _Gawain_ stories,
+self-acting and food-supplying.
+
+The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and the early
+history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and dealing only with the
+early history, is the _Grand Saint Graal_, a work of interminable
+length, based upon the _Joseph of Arimathea_, which has undergone
+numerous revisions and amplifications: its precise relation to the
+_Lancelot_, with which it has now much matter in common, is not easy to
+determine.
+
+To be classed also under the head of early history are certain
+interpolations in the MSS. of the _Perceval_, where we find the _Joseph_
+tradition, but in a somewhat different form, e.g. he is said to have
+caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of receiving the holy blood.
+With this account is also connected the legend of the _Volto Santo_ of
+Lucca, a crucifix said to have been carved by Nicodemus. In the
+conclusion to Chrétien's poem, composed by Manessier some fifty years
+later, the Grail is said to have _followed_ Joseph to Britain, how, is
+not explained. Another continuation by Gerbert, interpolated between
+those of Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought to
+Britain by Perceval's mother in the companionship of Joseph.
+
+It will be seen that with the exception of the _Grand Saint Graal_,
+which has now been practically converted into an introduction to the
+_Quête_, no two versions agree with each other; indeed, with the
+exception of the oldest _Gawain-Grail_ visit, that due to Bleheris, they
+do not agree with themselves, but all show, more or less, the influence
+of different and discordant versions. Why should the vessel of the Last
+Supper, jealously guarded at Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur's court
+independently? Why does a sacred relic provide purely material food?
+What connexion can there be between a precious stone, a _baetylus_, as
+Dr Hagen has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such
+questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn.
+
+Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems, and to
+construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so far the
+difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would admit of the
+practically simultaneous existence of apparently contradictory features.
+At one time considered as an introduction from the East, the theory of
+the Grail as an Oriental talisman has now been discarded, and the expert
+opinion of the day may be said to fall into two groups: (1) those who
+hold the Grail to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel
+which has accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained,
+acquired certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on
+the contrary, that the Grail is _aborigine_ folk-lore and Celtic, and
+that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather than an
+essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth in the work
+of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of Mr Alfred Nutt, the
+two constituting the only _travaux d'ensemble_ which have yet appeared
+on the subject. It now seems probable that both are in a measure
+correct, and that the ultimate solution will be recognized to lie in a
+blending of two originally independent streams of tradition. The
+researches of Professor Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in
+England have amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on
+popular thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation
+worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called mysteries
+of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature and progression of the
+seasons were symbolized under the figure of the death and resuscitation
+of the god. These rites are found all over the world, and in his
+monumental work, _The Golden Bough_, Dr Frazer has traced a host of
+extant beliefs and practices to this source. The earliest form of the
+Grail story, the _Gawain_-Bleheris version, exhibits a marked affinity
+with the characteristic features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we
+have a castle on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of
+which is never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted
+country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the dead man,
+and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester asks the meaning
+of the marvels he beholds (the two features of the weeping women and the
+wasted land being retained in versions where they have no significance);
+finally the mysterious food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common
+feast--one and all of these features may be explained as survivals of
+the Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key to
+the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature myth:
+Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero; Dr Lewis Mott has
+pointed out the correspondence between the so-called Round Table sites
+and the ritual of nature worship; but it is only with the discovery of
+the existence of Bleheris as reputed authority for Arthurian tradition,
+and the consequent recognition that the Grail story connected with his
+name is the earliest form of the legend, that we have secured a solid
+basis for such theories.
+
+With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research has
+again aided us--we know now that a legend similar in all respects to the
+Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely current at least a century
+before our earliest Grail texts. The story with Nicodemus as protagonist
+is told of the _Saint-Sang_ relic at Fécamp; and, as stated already, a
+similar origin is ascribed to the _Volto Santo_ at Lucca. In this
+latter case the legend professes to date from the 8th century, and
+scholars who have examined the texts in their present form consider that
+there may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable
+that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form, existed
+long anterior to any extant text, and there is no improbability in
+holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries which had assumed
+the form of a popular folk-tale, became finally Christianized by
+combination with an equally popular ecclesiastical legend, the point of
+contact being the vessel of the common ritual feast. Nor can there be
+much doubt that in this process of combination the Fécamp legend played
+an important rôle. The best and fullest of the _Perceval_ MSS. refer to
+a book written at Fécamp as source for certain _Perceval_ adventures.
+What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that certain
+special Fécamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail procession of
+the _Parzival_, it seems most probable that it was a _Perceval_-Grail
+story. The relations between the famous Benedictine abbey and the
+English court both before and after the Conquest were of an intimate
+character. Legends of the part played by Joseph of Arimathea in the
+conversion of Britain are closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks
+of which foundation showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary
+activity, and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the
+present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glastonbury
+elaborating ideas borrowed from Fécamp. This much is certain, that
+between the _Saint-Sang_ of Fécamp, the _Volto Santo_ of Lucca, and the
+Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link, the precise nature of
+which has yet to be determined. The two former were popular objects of
+pilgrimage; was the third originally intended to serve the same purpose
+by attracting attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of
+the Grail, Joseph of Arimathea?
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin edition of
+  the _Perceval_, which, however, only gives the Bleheris version; the
+  second visit is found in the best and most complete MSS., such as
+  12,576 and 12,577 (_Fonds français_) of the Paris library. _Diu
+  Crône_, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852). vol. vi. of _Arthurian
+  Romances_ (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, _Diu Crône_ and
+  _Prose Lancelot_ visits.
+
+  The _Conte del Graal_, or _Perceval_, is only accessible in the
+  edition of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which
+  this has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and
+  untrustworthy text. _Parzival_, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been
+  frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877), in
+  _Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters_, contains full notes and a
+  glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K.
+  Lachmann (1891), Leitzmann (1902-1903) and E. Martin (1903). There are
+  modern German translations by Simrock (very close to the original) and
+  Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with notes and appendices
+  by J. L. Weston. "Didot" _Perceval_, ed. Hucher, _Le Saint Graal_
+  (1875-1878), vol. i. _Perlesvaus_ was printed by Potvin, under the
+  title of _Perceval le Gallois_, in vol. i. of the edition above
+  referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS. was published with
+  translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols., 1876-1892). Under the title
+  of _The High History of the Holy Grail_ a fine version was published
+  by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple Classics (2 vols., 1898). The
+  _Grand Saint Graal_ was published by Hucher as given above; this
+  edition includes the _Joseph of Arimathea_. A 15th century metrical
+  English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich, was printed by Dr Furnivall
+  for the Roxburghe Club 1861-1863; a new edition was undertaken for the
+  Early English Text Society. _Quête du Saint Graal_ can best be studied
+  in Malory's somewhat abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the
+  _Morte Arthur_. It has also been printed by Dr Furnivall for the
+  Roxburghe Club, from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these
+  texts is, however, very good, and the student who can decipher old
+  Dutch would do well to read it in the metrical translation published
+  by Joenckbloet, _Roman van Lanceloet_, as the original here was
+  considerably fuller.
+
+  For general treatment of the subject see _Legend of Sir Perceval_, by
+  J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906); _Studies on the Legend
+  of the Holy Grail_, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise treatment of
+  the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of _Popular Studies_ (1902);
+  Professor Birch-Hirschfeld's _Die Sage vom Gral_ (1877). The late
+  Professor Heinzel's _Die alt-französischen Gral-Romane_ contains a
+  mass of valuable matter, but is very confused and ill-arranged. For
+  the Fécamp legend see Leroux de Lincey's _Essai sur l'abbaye de
+  Fescamp_ (1840); for the _Volto Santo_ and kindred legends, Ernest von
+  Dobschütz, _Christus-Bilder_ (Leipzig, 1899).     (J. L. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The etymology of the O. Fr. _graal_ or _greal_, of which "grail"
+    is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original,
+    _gradale_ or _grasale_, a flat dish or platter, has generally been
+    taken to represent a diminutive _cratella_ of _crater_, bowl, or a
+    lost _cratale_, formed from the same word (see W. W. Skeat, Preface
+    to _Joseph of Arimathie_, Early Eng. Text Soc).--ED.
+
+
+
+
+GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. _granum_, seed, from an
+Aryan root meaning "to wear down," which also appears in the common
+Teutonic word "corn"), a word particularly applied to the seed, in
+botanical language the "fruit," of cereals, and hence applied, as a
+collective term to cereal plants generally, to which, in English, the
+term "corn" is also applied (see GRAIN TRADE). Apart from this, the
+chief meaning, the word is used of the malt refuse of brewing and
+distilling, and of many hard rounded small particles, resembling the
+seeds of plants, such as "grains" of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, &c.
+"Grain" is also the name of the smallest unit of weight, both in the
+United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its origin is supposed
+to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and gathered from the middle
+of the ear. The troy grain = 1/5760 of a lb., the avoirdupois grain =
+1/7000 of a lb. In diamond weighing the grain = ¼ of the carat, = .7925
+of the troy grain. The word "grains" was early used, as also in French,
+of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the berries of
+trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see COCHINEAL and
+KERMES). From the Fr. _en graine_, literally in dye, comes the French
+verb _engrainer_, Eng. "engrain" or "ingrain," meaning to dye in any
+fast colour. From the further use of "grain" for the texture of
+substances, such as wood, meat, &c., "engrained" or "ingrained" means
+ineradicable, impregnated, dyed through and through. The "grain" of
+leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the hair has been
+removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different kinds of woods
+is known as "graining" (see PAINTER-WORK). "Grain," or more commonly in
+the plural "grains," construed as a singular, is the name of an
+instrument with two or more barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This
+word is Scandinavian in origin, and is connected with Dan. _green_,
+Swed. _gren_, branch, and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the
+prongs of a fork, &c. It is not connected with "groin," the inguinal
+parts of the body, which in its earliest forms appears as _grynde_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAINS OF PARADISE, GUINEA GRAINS, or MELEGUETA PEPPER (Ger.
+_Paradieskörner_, Fr. _graines de Paradis_, _maniguette_), the seeds of
+_Amomum Melegueta_, a reed-like plant of the natural order
+_Zingiberaceae_. It is a native of tropical western Africa, and of
+Prince's and St Thomas's islands in the Gulf of Guinea, is cultivated in
+other tropical countries, and may with ease be grown in hothouses in
+temperate climates. The plant has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth,
+nearly sessile, narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves; large,
+white, pale pink or purplish flowers; and an ovate-oblong fruit,
+ensheathed in bracts, which is of a scarlet colour when fresh, and
+reaches under cultivation a length of 5 in. The seeds are contained in
+the acid pulp of the fruit, are commonly wedge-shaped and bluntly
+angular, are about 1¼ lines in diameter and have a glossy dark-brown
+husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous caruncle at the base and
+a white kernel. They contain, according to Flückiger and Hanbury, 0.3%
+of a faintly yellowish neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not
+acrid taste, and a specific gravity at 15.5° C of 0.825, and giving on
+analysis the formula C20H32O, or C10H16 + C10H16O; also 5.83% of an
+intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin.
+
+Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British pharmacopoeias,
+and in the 13th and succeeding centuries were used as a drug and a
+spice, the wine known as hippocras being flavoured with them and with
+ginger and cinnamon. In 1629 they were employed among the ingredients of
+the twenty-four herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the
+city of Norwich, ordained to be carried to court by the lord of the
+manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, _Chem. of Common Life_, p. 355,
+1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought overland from West
+Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the Barbary states, to be shipped
+for Italy. They are now exported almost exclusively from the Gold Coast.
+Grains of paradise are to some extent used illegally to give a
+fictitious strength to malt liquors, gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III.
+c. 58, no brewer or dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use
+grains of paradise, under a penalty of £200 for each offence; and no
+druggist shall sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of £500. They
+are, however, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and are much
+esteemed as a spice by the natives of Guinea.
+
+  See Bentley and Trimen, _Medicinal Plants_, tab. 268; Lanessan, _Hist.
+  des Drogues_, pp. 456-460 (1878).
+
+
+
+
+GRAIN TRADE. The complexity of the conditions of life in the 20th
+century may be well illustrated from the grain trade of the world. The
+ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represents, for example, produce of
+nearly every country in the world outside the tropics.
+
+
+  General considerations.
+
+Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a wild state it is
+practically unknown. It is alleged to have been found growing wild
+between the Euphrates and the Tigris; but the discovery has never been
+authenticated, and, unless the plant be sedulously cared for, the
+species dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern
+experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Garton Brothers
+have evolved the most extraordinary "sports," showing, it is claimed,
+that the plant has probably passed through stages of which until the
+present day there had been no conception. The tales that grains of wheat
+found in the cerements of Egyptian mummies have been planted and come to
+maturity are no longer credited, for the vital principle in the wheat
+berry is extremely evanescent; indeed, it is doubtful whether wheat
+twenty years old is capable of reproduction. The Garton artificial
+fertilization experiments have shown endless deviations from the
+ordinary type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk to
+big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless. It is
+conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a degenerate form of
+something much finer which flourished thousands of years ago, and that
+possibly it may be restored to its pristine excellence, yielding an
+increase twice or thrice as large as it now does, thus postponing to a
+distant period the famine doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his
+presidential address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well
+repays careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled
+Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincolnshire
+farm, the former with its average yield of 8 bushels, the latter with
+its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality, as regards the quantity
+and flavour of the flour from a fine sample of British wheat, such as is
+on sale at almost every agricultural show in Great Britain, with the
+produce of an Egyptian or Syrian field; the difference is so great as to
+cause one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species.
+
+It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in Great Britain
+is made from wheat grown in the following countries in the proportions
+named:--
+
+  +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+
+  |U.S.A.| U.K.|Russia.|Argen-|British|Canada.|Rumania- |Austr-|  Other   |
+  |      |     |       | tina.|India. |       |Bulgaria.| alia.|Countries.|
+  +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+
+  |  Oz. | Oz. |  Oz.  | Oz.  |  Oz.  |  Oz.  |   Oz.   | Oz.  |   Oz.    |
+  |  26  | 13      9   |  5   |   4   |   3   |    2    |  1   |    1     |
+  |                Or expressed in percentages as follows:--              |
+  |  40  | 20  |  14   |  8   |   6   |   5   |    3    |  2   |    2     |
+  +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+
+
+For details connected with grain and its handling see AGRICULTURE, CORN
+LAWS, GRANARIES, FLOUR, BAKING, WHEAT, &c.
+
+Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food-stuff. Rice,
+which shares with millet the distinction of being the principal
+food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings, is not grown nearly
+as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the white races. Wheat grows
+as far south as Patagonia, and as far north as the edge of the Arctic
+Circle; it flourishes throughout Europe, and across the whole of
+northern Asia and in Japan; it is cultivated in Persia, and raised
+largely in India, as far south as the Nizam's dominions. It is grown
+over nearly the whole of North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop
+was raised in the autumn of 1898 as far north as the mission at Fort
+Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 62°--or less
+than 200 m. south of the latitude of Dawson City--the period between
+seed-time and harvest having been ninety-one days. In Africa it was an
+article of commerce in the days of Jacob, whose son Joseph may be said
+to have run the first and only successful "corner" in wheat. For many
+centuries Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat
+from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison on one of his
+shipwrecks, as was also, in all probability, that of the "ship of
+Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux," named in the same
+narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated that the Sudan if
+properly settled would be capable of feeding the whole of Europe. Along
+the north coast of Africa are areas which, if properly irrigated, as was
+done in the days of Carthage, could produce enough wheat to feed half of
+the Caucasian race. For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area
+of 400,000 sq. m., or three times the extent of Great Britain and
+Ireland, according to the opinion of a British consul, could raise
+millions of acres of wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high
+plateaus of South Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambezi. Land is being
+extensively put under wheat in the pampas of South America and in the
+prairies of Siberia.
+
+In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level the volume
+of the world's crop would be trebled, another fact which Sir William
+Crookes seems to have overlooked. The experiments of the late Sir J. B.
+Lawes in Hertfordshire have proved that the natural fruitfulness of the
+wheat plant can be increased threefold by the application of the proper
+fertilizer. The results of these experiments will be found in a
+compendium issued from the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station.
+
+It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest number
+of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a miller's
+standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness and strength
+of the flour are with him important considerations, too often overlooked
+by the farmer when buying his seed. Nevertheless it is the deficient
+quantity of the wheat raised in the British Islands, and not the quality
+of the grain, which has been the cause of so much anxiety to economists
+and statesmen.
+
+
+  Freight rates.
+
+Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion that
+arable land in Great Britain would always command a substantial rent of
+at least 30s. per acre. His figures were based on the assumption that
+wheat was imported duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage
+from abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of
+good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 30s. per ton.
+But freights had come down by 1900 to half the rates predicated by
+Caird; indeed, during a portion of the interval they ruled very close to
+zero, as far as steamer freights from America were concerned. In 1900 an
+all-round freight rate for wheat might be taken at 15s. _per ton_ (a ton
+representing approximately the produce of an acre of good wheat land in
+England), say from 10s. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 30s. for
+Pacific American and Australian; about midway between these two extremes
+we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk coming at about the 15s.
+rate. Inferior land bearing less than 4½ quarters per acre would not be
+protected to the same extent, and moreover, seeing that a portion of the
+British wheat crop has to stand a charge as heavy for land carriage
+across a county as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an
+ocean, the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make
+out. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges for the
+railway and other transportation services issued by the Division of
+Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A. (Miscellaneous series,
+Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable reference book. From its pages are
+culled the following facts relating to the changes in the rates of
+freight up to the year 1897.[1] In Table 3 the average rates per ton per
+mile in cents are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate
+for that year was 4.523 cents per ton per mile, since when a great and
+almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897, the latest
+year given, the rate had declined to .870 of a cent per ton per mile.
+The railway which shows the greatest fall is the Chesapeake & Ohio, for
+the charge has fallen from over 7 cents in 1862 and 1863 to .419 of a
+cent in 1897, whereas the Erie rates have fallen only from 1.948 in 1852
+to .609 in 1897. Putting the rates of the twelve returning railways
+together, we find the average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was
+3.006 cents per ton per mile, and that in 1896-1897 the average rate had
+fallen to .797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large
+compared with the smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates on grain,
+we find (in Table 23) a record for the forty years 1858-1897 of the
+charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via all rail from 1858, and
+via lake and rail since 1868, the authority being the secretary of the
+Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858 to 1862 the rate varied between 42.37
+and 34.80 cents per bushel for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the
+average rate in the quinquennium being 38.43. In the five years
+immediately prior to the time at which Sir J. Caird expressed the
+opinion that the cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the
+British grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York
+was 17.76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was 13.17
+cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the table, had fallen
+to 12.50 and 7.42 respectively. The rates have been as follows in
+quinquennial periods, via all rail:--
+
+_Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel._
+
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | 1858- | 1863- | 1868- | 1873- | 1878- | 1883- | 1888- | 1893- |
+  | 1862. | 1867. | 1872. | 1877. | 1882. | 1887. | 1892. | 1897. |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | 38.43 | 31.42 | 27.91 | 21.29 | 16.77 | 14.67 | 14.52 | 12.88 |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny, and eight bushels to
+the quarter, the above would appear in English currency as follows:--
+
+_Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter._
+
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | 1858- | 1863- | 1868- | 1873- | 1878- | 1883- | 1888- | 1893- |
+  | 1862. | 1867. | 1872. | 1877. | 1882. | 1887. | 1892. | 1897. |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. |
+  | 12 8  | 10 6  | 9  3  | 7  1  | 5  7  | 4 10½ | 4  10 | 4  3  |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+Another table (No. 38) shows the average rates from Chicago to New York
+by lakes, canal and river. These in their quinquennial periods are given
+for the season as follows:--
+
+_In Cents per Bushel of_ 60 lb.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |   22.15  |   10.47  |   4.92   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+
+_In Shillings and Pence per Quarter of_ 480 lb.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |  s.  d.  |  s.  d.  |  s.  d.  |
+  |  7   4   |  3   6   |  1   7   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+
+_In Shillings and Pence per Ton of_ 2240 lb.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |  s.   d. | s.   d.  |  s.  d.  |
+  |  34   6  | 16   6   |  7   6   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+
+This latter mode is the cheapest by which grain can be carried to the
+eastern seaboard from the American prairies, and it can now be done at a
+cost of 7s. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has to be added before the
+grain can be delivered free on the quay at Liverpool. A rate from New
+York to Liverpool of 2½d. per bushel, or 7s. 10d. per ton, a low rate,
+reached in Dec. 1900, is yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to leave
+a profit; indeed, there have frequently been times when the rate was as
+low as 1d. per bushel, or 3s. 1d. per ton; and in periods of great trade
+depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as ballast, being
+paid for by the ship-owner. Another route worked more cheaply than
+formerly is that by river, from the centre of the winter wheat belt, say
+at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence by steamer to Liverpool. The
+river rate has fallen below five cents per bushel, or 7s. per ton, 2240
+lb. In Table No. 71 the cost of transportation is compared year by year
+with the export price of the two leading cereals in the States as
+follows:--
+
+_Wheat and Corn--Export Prices and Transportation Rates compared._
+
+  +------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+  |      |              Wheat.              |              Corn.               |
+  |      +---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+
+  |      |         |             |  Number  |         |             |  Number  |
+  |      |         |Rate, Chicago|of Bushels|         |Rate, Chicago|of Bushels|
+  | Year.| Export  | to New York |  carried | Export  | to New York | carried  |
+  |      |Price per|   by Lake   | for Price|Price per|   by Lake   | for Price|
+  |      | Bushel. | and Canal,  |  of One  | Bushel. |  and Canal, |  of One  |
+  |      |         | per Bushel. |  Bushel. |         | per Bushel. |  Bushel. |
+  +------+---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+
+  |      |         |    Cents.   |          |         |    Cents.   |          |
+  | 1867 |  $0.92  |    15.95    |   5.77   |$0.72    |    14.58    |   4.94   |
+  | 1868 |   1.36  |    16.23    |   8.38   |  .84.1  |    13.57    |   6.20   |
+  | 1869 |   1.05  |    17.20    |   6.10   |  .72.8  |    14.98    |   4.86   |
+  | 1870 |   1.12  |    14.85    |   7.54   |  .80.5  |    13.78    |   5.84   |
+  | 1871 |   1.18  |    17.75    |   6.65   |  .67.9  |    16.53    |   4.11   |
+  | 1872 |   1.31  |    21.55    |   6.08   |  .61.8  |    19.62    |   3.15   |
+  | 1873 |   1.15  |    16.89    |   6.81   |  .54.3  |    15.39    |   3.53   |
+  | 1874 |   1.29  |    12.75    |  10.12   |  .64.7  |    11.29    |   5.73   |
+  | 1875 |    .97  |     9.90    |   9.80   |  .73.8  |     8.93    |   8.26   |
+  | 1876 |   1.11  |     8.63    |  12.86   |  .60.3  |     7.93    |   7.60   |
+  | 1877 |   1.12  |    10.76    |  10.41   |  .56.0  |     9.41    |   5.95   |
+  | 1878 |   1.33  |     9.10    |  14.62   |  .55.8  |     8.27    |   6.75   |
+  | 1879 |   1.07  |    11.60    |   9.22   |  .47.1  |    10.43    |   4.52   |
+  | 1880 |   1.25  |    12.27    |  10.19   |  .54.3  |    11.14    |   4.87   |
+  | 1881 |   1.11  |     8.19    |  13.55   |  .55.2  |     7.26    |   7.60   |
+  | 1882 |   1.19  |     7.89    |  15.08   |  .66.8  |     7.23    |   9.24   |
+  | 1883 |   1.13  |     8.37    |  13.50   |  .68.4  |     7.66    |   8.93   |
+  | 1884 |   1.07  |     6.31    |  16.96   |  .61.1  |     5.64    |  10.83   |
+  | 1885 |    .86  |     5.87    |  14.65   |  .54.0  |     5.38    |  10.04   |
+  | 1886 |    .87  |     8.71    |   9.99   |  .49.8  |     7.98    |   6.24   |
+  | 1887 |    .89  |     8.51    |  10.46   |  .47.9  |     7.88    |   6.08   |
+  | 1888 |    .85  |     5.93    |  14.33   |  .55.0  |     5.41    |  10.17   |
+  | 1889 |    .90  |     6.89    |  13.06   |  .47.4  |     6.19    |   7.66   |
+  | 1890 |    .83  |     5.86    |  14.16   |  .41.8  |     5.10    |   8.20   |
+  | 1891 |    .93  |     5.96    |  15.60   |  .57.4  |     5.36    |  10.71   |
+  | 1892 |   1.03  |     5.61    |  18.36   |  .55    |     5.03    |  10.93   |
+  | 1893 |    .80  |     6.31    |  12.68   |  .53    |     5.71    |   9.28   |
+  | 1894 |    .67  |     4.44    |  15.09   |  .46    |     3.99    |  11.53   |
+  | 1895 |    .58  |     4.11    |  14.11   |  .53    |     3.71    |  14.29   |
+  | 1896 |    .65  |     5.38    |  12.08   |  .38    |     4.94    |   7.69   |
+  | 1897 |    .75  |     4.35    |  17.24   |  .31    |     3.79    |   8.18   |
+  +------+---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+
+
+The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly increased
+output from Canada--the cost of transport from that country to England
+being much the same as from the United States. So much improved is the
+position of the farmer in North America compared with what it was about
+1870, that the transport companies in 1901 carried 17¼ bushels of his
+grain to the seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas
+in 1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the
+service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if he had
+improved his position; for he has to send his wheat to greater
+distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers or their
+removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen only to a very
+small extent; again the farmer's wheat is worth only half of what it was
+formerly; it may be said that the British farmer has to give up one
+bushel in nine to the railway company for the purpose of transportation,
+whereas in the 'seventies he gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has
+been said to prove that the advantage of position claimed for the
+British farmer by Caird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the
+Kansas or Minnesota farmer's wheat does not have to pay for carriage to
+Liverpool more than 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per ton in excess of the rate
+paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does not go very
+far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes and rates and taxes.
+
+The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods requires
+consideration if a proper understanding of the working of the foreign
+grain trade is to be obtained. Only a very small proportion of the
+decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due to cheapened transport
+rates; for while the mileage rate has been falling, the length of
+haulage has been extending, until in 1900 the principal wheat fields of
+America were 2000 m. farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case
+in 1870, and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate
+of 50 to 75%, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly as much to have
+its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did then. The
+difference in the cost of the operation is shown in the following
+tabular statement, both the cost in the aggregate on a year's imports
+and the cost per quarter:--
+
+_Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the United
+Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 1900, together
+with the average rate of freight._
+
+    1900.
+
+  +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                      |             | Ocean Freight | Total Cost |
+  | Countries of Origin. | Quantities. |   to United   |  of Ocean  |
+  |                      | Qrs. 480 lb.|    Kingdom.   |  Carriage. |
+  |                      |             |   Per 480 lb. |            |
+  +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                      |             |      s. d.    |     £      |
+  | Atlantic America     | 11,171,100  |      2  3     |  1,257,100 |
+  | South Russia         |    569,000  |      2  2     |     62,000 |
+  | Pacific America      |  2,389,900  |      8  1     |    966,000 |
+  | Canada               |  1,877,100  |      2  8     |    250,000 |
+  | Rumania              |    176,400  |      2  6     |     22,000 |
+  | Argentina and Uruguay|  4,322,300  |      4 10     |  1,045,000 |
+  | France               |    251,900  |      1  3     |     16,000 |
+  | Bulgaria and Rumelia |     30,600  |      2  6     |      4,000 |
+  | India                |      2,200  |      4  0     |        400 |
+  | Austria-Hungary      |    389,300  |      1  9     |     34,000 |
+  | Chile                |        600  |       ..      |     ..     |
+  | North Russia         |    462,700  |      1  6     |     35,000 |
+  | Germany              |    438,700  |      1  6     |     33,000 |
+  | Australasia          |    883,900  |      6  5     |    284,000 |
+  | Minor Countries      |    225,100  |      2  6     |     28,000 |
+  |                      +-------------+---------------+------------+
+  |     Total            | 23,190,800  |Average 3s. 6d.| £4,036,500 |
+  +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+
+
+Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year 1872, the
+most remote year for which similar facts are available, it will be found
+that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean carriage has not much
+decreased.
+
+_Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the United
+Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 1872, together
+with the average rate of freight._
+
+    1872.
+
+  +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+
+  |                       |           | Ocean Freight |            |
+  |  Countries of Origin. |Quantities.|   to United   | Total Cost |
+  |                       |    Qrs.   |    Kingdom.   |of Carriage.|
+  |                       |           |     Per qr.   |            |
+  +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+
+  |                       |           |      s. d.    |      £     |
+  | South Russia          | 3,678,000 |      8  6     |  1,563,000 |
+  | United States         | 2,030,000 |      6  6     |    659,000 |
+  | Germany               |   910,000 |      2  0     |     91,000 |
+  | France                |   660,000 |      3  0     |     99,000 |
+  | Egypt                 |   536,000 |      4  6     |    120,000 |
+  | North Russia          |   490,000 |      2  0     |     49,000 |
+  | Canada                |   400,000 |      7  6     |    150,000 |
+  | Chile                 |   330,000 |     12  0     |    198,000 |
+  | Turkey                |   195,000 |      7  6     |     72,000 |
+  | Spain                 |   130,000 |      3  6     |     23,000 |
+  | Scandinavia           |   160,000 |      2  0     |     16,000 |
+  |                       +-----------+---------------+------------+
+  | Total, Chief Countries| 9,519,000 |Average 6s. 5d.| £3,040,000 |
+  +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+
+
+_N.B._--A trifling quantity of Californian and Australian wheat was
+imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade records do
+not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot be given. The
+freight in that year from those countries averaged about 13s. per
+quarter.
+
+The exact difference between the average freight for the years 1872 and
+1900 amounts to about 2s. 11d. per quarter (480 lb.), a trifle in
+comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat during the same
+years.
+
+The following data bearing upon the subject, for selected periods, are
+partly taken from the _Corn Trade Year-Book_:--
+
+  +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+
+  |      | United Kingdom |Ocean Freight|              |
+  | Year.| Annual Imports.|  to United  |Aggregate Cost|
+  |      |Wheat and Flour.|   Kingdom.  | of Carriage. |
+  |      |      Qrs.      |   Per qr.   |              |
+  +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+
+  |      |                |     s. d.   |       £      |
+  | 1872 |    9,469,000   |     6  5    |   3,040,000  |
+  | 1882 |   14,850,000   |     7  4    |   5,420,000  |
+  | 1894 |   16,229,000   |     3  9    |   3,041,000  |
+  | 1895 |   25,197,000   |     3  0    |   3,825,000  |
+  | 1896 |   23,431,000   |     2  9    |   3,258,000  |
+  | 1900 |   23,196,000   |     3  6    |   4,036,000  |
+  +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+
+
+In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years, from
+1871 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 56s. per quarter (or 7s. per
+bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. 5d. per quarter,
+whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28s. (or 3s. 6d. per
+bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was 3s. 6d. per quarter; the
+ocean transport companies carried eight bushels of wheat across the seas
+in 1901 for the value of one bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in
+1872.
+
+The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean freight is to
+be explained by the greater length of the present ocean voyage, which
+now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of Europe's importation of white
+wheat from the Pacific Coast of the United States and Australia, in
+contrast with the short voyage from the Black Sea or across the English
+Channel or German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this
+phase of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the
+error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price of
+wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable to the
+lessened cost of transport.
+
+
+  WHEAT PRICES
+
+  The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year of
+  English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T. Smith,
+  Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905:
+
+  _Price per Quarter_
+
+    +------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------+
+    |      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.|
+    | 1656 | 38  2 || 1706 | 23  1 || 1756 | 40  1 || 1806 | 79  1 || 1856 | 69  2 |
+    | 1657 | 41  5 || 1707 | 25  4 || 1757 | 53  4 || 1807 | 75  4 || 1857 | 56  4 |
+    | 1658 | 57  9 || 1708 | 36 10 || 1758 | 44  5 || 1808 | 84  4 || 1858 | 44  2 |
+    | 1659 | 58  8 || 1709 | 69  9 || 1759 | 35  3 || 1809 | 97  4 || 1859 | 43  9 |
+    | 1660 | 50  2 || 1710 | 69  4 || 1760 | 32  5 || 1810 |106  5 || 1860 | 53  3 |
+    | 1661 | 62  2 || 1711 | 48  0 || 1761 | 26  9 || 1811 | 95  3 || 1861 | 55  4 |
+    | 1662 | 65  9 || 1712 | 41  2 || 1762 | 34  8 || 1812 |126  6 || 1862 | 55  5 |
+    | 1663 | 50  8 || 1713 | 45  4 || 1763 | 36  1 || 1813 |109  9 || 1863 | 44  9 |
+    | 1664 | 36  0 || 1714 | 44  9 || 1764 | 41  5 || 1814 | 74  4 || 1864 | 40  2 |
+    | 1665 | 43 10 || 1715 | 38  2 || 1765 | 48  0 || 1815 | 65  7 || 1865 | 41 10 |
+    | 1666 | 32  0 || 1716 | 42  8 || 1766 | 43  1 || 1816 | 78  6 || 1866 | 49 11 |
+    | 1667 | 32  0 || 1717 | 40  7 || 1767 | 57  4 || 1817 | 96 11 || 1867 | 64  5 |
+    | 1668 | 35  6 || 1718 | 34  6 || 1768 | 53  9 || 1818 | 86  3 || 1868 | 63  9 |
+    | 1669 | 39  5 || 1719 | 31  1 || 1769 | 40  7 || 1819 | 74  6 || 1869 | 48  2 |
+    | 1670 | 37  0 || 1720 | 32 10 || 1770 | 43  6 || 1820 | 67 10 || 1870 | 46 11 |
+    | 1671 | 37  4 || 1721 | 33  4 || 1771 | 47  2 || 1821 | 56  1 || 1871 | 56  8 |
+    | 1672 | 36  5 || 1722 | 32  0 || 1772 | 50  8 || 1822 | 44  7 || 1872 | 57  0 |
+    | 1673 | 41  5 || 1723 | 30 10 || 1773 | 51  0 || 1823 | 53  4 || 1873 | 58  8 |
+    | 1674 | 61  0 || 1724 | 32 10 || 1774 | 52  8 || 1824 | 63 11 || 1874 | 55  9 |
+    | 1675 | 57  5 || 1725 | 43  1 || 1775 | 48  4 || 1825 | 68  6 || 1875 | 45  2 |
+    | 1676 | 33  9 || 1726 | 40 10 || 1776 | 38  2 || 1826 | 58  8 || 1876 | 46  2 |
+    | 1677 | 37  4 || 1727 | 37  4 || 1777 | 45  6 || 1827 | 60  6 || 1877 | 56  9 |
+    | 1678 | 52  5 || 1728 | 48  5 || 1778 | 42  0 || 1828 | 60  5 || 1878 | 46  5 |
+    | 1679 | 53  4 || 1729 | 41  7 || 1779 | 33  8 || 1829 | 66  3 || 1879 | 43 10 |
+    | 1680 | 40  0 || 1730 | 32  5 || 1780 | 35  8 || 1830 | 64  3 || 1880 | 44  4 |
+    | 1681 | 41  5 || 1731 | 29  2 || 1781 | 44  8 || 1831 | 66  4 || 1881 | 45  4 |
+    | 1682 | 39  1 || 1732 | 23  8 || 1782 | 47 10 || 1832 | 58  8 || 1882 | 45  1 |
+    | 1683 | 35  6 || 1733 | 25  2 || 1783 | 52  8 || 1833 | 52 11 || 1883 | 41  7 |
+    | 1684 | 39  1 || 1734 | 34  6 || 1784 | 48 10 || 1834 | 46  2 || 1884 | 35  8 |
+    | 1685 | 41  5 || 1735 | 38  2 || 1785 | 51 10 || 1835 | 49  4 || 1885 | 32 10 |
+    | 1686 | 30  2 || 1736 | 35 10 || 1786 | 38 10 || 1836 | 48  6 || 1886 | 31  0 |
+    | 1687 | 22  4 || 1737 | 33  9 || 1787 | 41  2 || 1837 | 55  0 || 1887 | 32  6 |
+    | 1688 | 40 10 || 1738 | 31  6 || 1788 | 45  0 || 1838 | 64  7 || 1888 | 31 10 |
+    | 1689 | 26  8 || 1739 | 34  2 || 1789 | 51  2 || 1839 | 70  8 || 1889 | 29  9 |
+    | 1690 | 30  9 || 1740 | 45  1 || 1790 | 54  9 || 1840 | 66  4 || 1890 | 31 11 |
+    | 1691 | 30  2 || 1741 | 41  5 || 1791 | 48  7 || 1841 | 64  4 || 1891 | 37  0 |
+    | 1692 | 41  5 || 1742 | 30  2 || 1792 | 43  0 || 1842 | 57  3 || 1892 | 30  3 |
+    | 1693 | 60  1 || 1743 | 22  1 || 1793 | 49  3 || 1843 | 50  1 || 1893 | 26  4 |
+    | 1694 | 56 10 || 1744 | 22  1 || 1794 | 52  3 || 1844 | 51  3 || 1894 | 22 10 |
+    | 1695 | 47  1 || 1745 | 24  5 || 1795 | 75  2 || 1845 | 50 10 || 1895 | 23  1 |
+    | 1696 | 63  1 || 1746 | 34  8 || 1796 | 78  7 || 1846 | 54  8 || 1896 | 26  2 |
+    | 1697 | 53  4 || 1747 | 30 11 || 1797 | 53  9 || 1847 | 69  9 || 1897 | 30  2 |
+    | 1698 | 60  9 || 1748 | 32 10 || 1798 | 51 10 || 1848 | 50  6 || 1898 | 34  0 |
+    | 1699 | 56 10 || 1749 | 32 10 || 1799 | 69  0 || 1849 | 44  3 || 1899 | 25  8 |
+    | 1700 | 35  6 || 1750 | 28 10 || 1800 |113 10 || 1850 | 40  3 || 1900 | 26 11 |
+    | 1701 | 33  5 || 1751 | 34  2 || 1801 |119  6 || 1851 | 38  6 || 1901 | 26  9 |
+    | 1702 | 26  2 || 1752 | 37  2 || 1802 | 69 10 || 1852 | 40  9 || 1902 | 28  1 |
+    | 1703 | 32  0 || 1753 | 39  8 || 1803 | 58 10 || 1853 | 53  3 || 1903 | 26  9 |
+    | 1704 | 41  4 || 1754 | 30  9 || 1804 | 62  3 || 1854 | 72  5 || 1904 | 28  4 |
+    | 1705 | 26  8 || 1755 | 30  1 || 1805 | 89  9 || 1855 | 74  8 || 1905 | 29  8 |
+    +------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------+
+    |Average       ||              ||              ||              ||              |
+    |  50    42 10 ||        36  0 ||        51  9 ||        65 10 ||       *42  7 |
+    | years        ||              ||              ||              ||              |
+    +--------------++--------------++--------------++--------------++--------------+
+      * Average for 46 years only.
+
+Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat may be,
+it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of rail or ocean
+freights. Incidental charges are lower than they were in 1870; handling
+charges, brokers' commissions and insurance premiums have been in many
+instances reduced, but all these economies when combined only amount to
+about 2s. per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the
+rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive at an
+aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third of the actual
+difference between the average price of wheat in 1872 and 1900. To what
+the remaining difference was due it is difficult to say with certitude;
+there are some who argue that the tendency of prices to fall is
+inherent, and that the constant whittling away of intermediaries'
+profits is sufficient explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained
+that the phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German
+government in demonetizing silver in 1872.
+
+
+  FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Valuable information will also be found in Bulletin No. 38
+    (1905), "Crop Export Movement and Port Facilities on the Atlantic and
+    Gulf Coasts"; in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), "Cost of Hauling Crops from
+    Farms to Shipping Points"; and in Bulletin No. 69 (1908), "European
+    Grain Trade."
+
+
+
+
+GRAM, or CHICK-PEA, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal gram (from Port.
+_grão_, formerly _gram_, Lat. _granum_, Hindi _Chana_, Bengali _Chhola_,
+Ital. _cece_, Span. _garbanzo_), the _Cicer arietinum_ of Linnaeus, so
+named from the resemblance of its seed to a ram's head. It is a member
+of the natural order Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in
+the south of Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not
+known undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose
+branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves, with
+small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The flowers are
+borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half the length of the
+leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the corolla is blue-purple. The
+inflated pod, 1 to 1½ in. long, contains two roundish seeds. It was
+cultivated by the Greeks in Homer's time under the name _erebinthos_,
+and is also referred to by Dioscorides as _krios_ from the resemblance
+of the pea to the head of a ram. The Romans called it _cicer_, from
+which is derived the modern names given to it in the south of Europe.
+Names, more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the
+peoples of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there
+is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in modern
+Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in Egypt from the
+beginning of the Christian era, but there is no proof that it was known
+to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de Candolle (_Origin of Cultivated
+Plants_, p. 325) suggests that the plant originally grew wild in the
+countries to the south of the Caucasus and to the north of Persia. "The
+western Aryans (Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into
+southern Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was
+also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India." Gram is
+largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw or cooked
+in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition, and when
+roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as ordinary flour. In
+Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient in soups. They contain, in
+100 parts without husks, nitrogenous substances 22.7, fat 3.76, starch
+63.18, mineral matters 2.6 parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in
+Parkes's _Hygiene_). The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs
+clothing the leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the
+cold season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of
+oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by means of
+cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in domestic medicine.
+The steam of water in which the fresh plant is immersed is in the Deccan
+resorted to by the Portuguese for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The
+seed of _Phaseolus Mungo_, or green gram (Hind. and Beng. _moong_), a
+form of which plant with black seeds (_P. Max_ of Roxburgh) is termed
+black gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes
+in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is stated by
+Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu bath. A variety,
+var. _radiatus_ (_P. Roxburghii_, W. and Arn., or _P. radiatus_, Roxb.)
+(vern. _urid_, _mashkalai_), also known as green gram, is perhaps the
+most esteemed of the leguminous plants of India, where the meal of its
+seed enters into the composition of the more delicate cakes and dishes.
+Horse gram, _Dolichos biflorus_ (vern. _kulthi_), which supplies in
+Madras the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is
+extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in South India,
+where also it is eaten in curries.
+
+  See W. Elliot, "On the Farinaceous Grains and the various kinds of
+  Pulses used in Southern India," _Edin. New Phil. Journ._ xvi. (1862)
+  16 sq.; H. Drury, _The Useful Plants of India_ (1873); U. C. Dutt,
+  _Materia Medica of the Hindus_ (Calcutta, 1877); G. Watt, _Dictionary
+  of the Economic Products of India_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMAR (from Lat. _grammatica_, sc. _ars_; Gr. [Greek: gramma], letter,
+from [Greek: graphein], to write). By the grammar of a language is meant
+either the relations borne by the words of a sentence and by sentences
+themselves one to another, or the systematized exposition of these. The
+exposition may be, and frequently is, incorrect; but it always
+presupposes the existence of certain customary uses of words when in
+combination. In what follows, therefore, grammar will be generally
+employed in its primary sense, as denoting the mode in which words are
+connected in order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in
+logic, a proposition.
+
+
+  Scope of grammar.
+
+The object of language is to convey thought, and so long as this object
+is attained the machinery for attaining it is of comparatively slight
+importance. The way in which we combine our words and sentences matters
+little, provided that our meaning is clear to others. The expressions
+"horseflesh" and "flesh of a horse" are equally intelligible to an
+Englishman and therefore are equally recognized by English grammar. The
+Chinese manner of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word
+before that which it defines, as in _koue jin_, "man of the kingdom,"
+literally "kingdom man," and the only reason why it would be incorrect
+in French or Italian is that such a combination would be unintelligible
+to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is evident that the grammatical
+correctness or incorrectness of an expression depends upon its
+intelligibility, that is to say, upon the ordinary use and custom of a
+particular language. Whatever is so unfamiliar as not to be generally
+understood is also ungrammatical. In other words, it is contrary to the
+habit of a language, as determined by common usage and consent.
+
+In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar of a
+cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the same country so
+frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West Somerset, _thee_ is
+the nominative of the second personal pronoun, while in cultivated
+English the plural accusative _you_ (A.-S. _eow_) has come to represent
+a nominative singular. Both are grammatically correct within the sphere
+of their respective dialects, but no further. _You_ would be as
+ungrammatical in West Somerset as _thee_ is in classical English; and
+both _you_ and _thee_, as nominatives singular, would have been equally
+ungrammatical in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing more
+than the established usage of a particular body of speakers at a
+particular time in their history.
+
+It follows from this that the grammar of a people changes, like its
+pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early English grammar is
+not the grammar of Modern English, any more than Latin grammar is the
+grammar of modern Italian; and to defend an unusual construction or
+inflexion on the ground that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is
+as wrong as to import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the
+grammar of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different
+languages will have different grammars, and that the differences will be
+more or less according to the nearer or remoter relationship of the
+languages themselves and the modes of thought of those who speak them.
+Consequently, to force the grammatical framework of one language upon
+another is to misconceive the whole nature of the latter and seriously
+to mislead the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be
+understood until we discard, not only the terminology of European
+grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while the
+polysynthetic idioms of America defy all attempts to discover in them
+"the parts of speech" and the various grammatical ideas which occupy so
+large a place in our school-grammars. The endeavour to find the
+distinctions of Latin grammar in that of English has only resulted in
+grotesque errors, and a total misapprehension of the usage of the
+English language.
+
+
+  Subdivision of grammar.
+
+It is to the Latin grammarians--or, more correctly, to the Greek
+grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin writers were
+based--that we owe the classification of the subjects with which grammar
+is commonly supposed to deal. The grammar of Dionysius Thrax, which he
+wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time of Pompey, has formed the
+starting-point for the innumerable school-grammars which have since seen
+the light, and suggested that division of the matter treated of which
+they have followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with
+the language of literary men, and as divided into six parts--accentuation
+and phonology, explanation of figurative expressions, definition,
+etymology, general rules of flexion and critical canons. Of these,
+phonology and accentuation, or prosody, can properly be included in
+grammar only in so far as the construction of a sentence and the
+grammatical meaning of a word are determined by accent or letter-change;
+the accentual difference in English, for example, between _íncense_ and
+_incénse_ belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a
+difference between noun and verb; and the changes of vowel in the Semitic
+languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are distinguished
+from one another, constitute a very important part of their grammatical
+machinery. But where accent and pronunciation do not serve to express the
+relations of words in a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology,
+not of grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again, must be
+left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer; the
+grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with the canons of
+criticism.
+
+In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the grammarians
+of Rome and Alexandria, must be given up and a new one put in its place.
+What grammar really deals with are all those contrivances whereby the
+relations of words and sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is
+position, sometimes phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition,
+sometimes flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the
+speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be
+intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided into the
+three departments of composition or "word-building," syntax and
+accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the means adopted by
+language for expressing the relations of grammar when recourse is not
+had to composition or simple position.
+
+
+  Modes of treatment.
+
+A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for the purely
+practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a foreign language. In
+this case all that is necessary is a correct and complete statement of
+the facts. But a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no
+means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight. The facts will be
+distorted by a false theory in regard to them, while they will certainly
+not be presented in a complete form if the grammarian is ignorant of the
+true theory they presuppose. The Semitic verb, for example, remains
+unintelligible so long as the explanation of its forms is sought in the
+conjugation of the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense
+of the word, but denotes relation and not time.
+
+A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be based on a
+correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds, and a correct
+appreciation of the facts is only possible where they are examined and
+co-ordinated in accordance with the scientific method. A practical
+grammar ought, wherever it is possible, to be preceded by a scientific
+grammar.
+
+Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and a scientific
+grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative method has been
+applied to the relations of speech. If we would understand the origin
+and real nature of grammatical forms, and of the relations which they
+represent, we must compare them with similar forms in kindred dialects
+and languages, as well as with the forms under which they appeared
+themselves at an earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a
+comparative grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted
+to tracing the history of grammatical forms and usages in the same
+language. Of course, an historical grammar is only possible where a
+succession of written records exists; where a language possesses no
+older literature we must be content with a comparative grammar only, and
+look to cognate idioms to throw light upon its grammatical
+peculiarities. In this case we have frequently to leave whole forms
+unexplained, or at most conjecturally interpreted, since the machinery
+by means of which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often
+changed so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its
+earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover, our area of
+comparison must be as wide as possible; where we have but two or three
+languages to compare, we are in danger of building up conclusions on
+insufficient evidence. The grammatical errors of the classical
+philologists of the 18th century were in great measure due to the fact
+that their area of comparison was confined to Latin and Greek.
+
+The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which traces the
+grammatical forms and usages of the language as far back as documentary
+evidence allows, affords material to the comparative grammarian, whose
+task it is to compare the grammatical forms and usages of an allied
+group of tongues and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and
+senses. The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian within a
+particular family of languages is made use of by universal grammar, the
+object of which is to determine the ideas that underlie all grammar
+whatsoever, as distinct from those that are peculiar to special families
+of speech. Universal grammar is sometimes known as "the metaphysics of
+language," and it has to decide such questions as the nature of gender
+or of the verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin
+of grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered by
+comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment of the
+grammars of various groups of language. What historical grammar is to
+comparative grammar, comparative grammar is to universal grammar.
+
+
+  Universal grammar.
+
+Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific study of
+speech, is thus essentially different from that "universal grammar" so
+much in vogue at the beginning of the 19th century, which consisted of a
+series of a priori assumptions based on the peculiarities of European
+grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal grammar, as
+conceived by modern science, is as yet in its infancy; its materials are
+still in the process of being collected. The comparative grammar of the
+Indo-European languages is alone in an advanced state, those of the
+Semitic idioms, of the Finno-Ugrian tongues and of the Bantu dialects of
+southern Africa are still in a backward condition; and the other
+families of speech existing in the world, with the exception of the
+Malayo-Polynesian and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet
+been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an
+historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar of Basque,
+endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting language by a
+comparison of its various dialects; but in both cases the area of
+comparison is too small for more than a limited success to be
+attainable. Instead of attempting the questions of universal grammar,
+therefore, it will be better to confine our attention to three
+points--the fundamental differences in the grammatical conceptions of
+different groups of languages, the main results of a scientific
+investigation of Indo-European grammar, and the light thrown by
+comparative philology upon the grammar of our own tongue.
+
+
+  Differences in grammar of unallied languages.
+
+The proposition or sentence is the unit and starting-point of speech,
+and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations of its several
+parts one to another, together with the expression of them. These
+relations may be regarded from various points of view. In the
+polysynthetic languages of America the sentence is conceived as a whole,
+not composed of independent words, but, like the thought which it
+expresses, one and indivisible. What we should denote by a series of
+words is consequently denoted by a single long compound--_kuligatchis_
+in Delaware, for instance, signifying "give me your pretty little paw,"
+and _aglekkigiartorasuarnipok_ in Eskimo, "he goes away hastily and
+exerts himself to write." Individual words can be, and often are,
+extracted from the sentence; but in this case they stand, as it were,
+outside it, being represented by a pronoun within the sentence itself.
+Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only _ni-sotsi-temoa_, "I look for
+flowers," but also _ni-k-temoa sotsitl_, where the interpolated guttural
+is the objective pronoun. As a necessary result of this conception of
+the sentence the American languages possess no true verb, each act being
+expressed as a whole by a single word. In Cherokee, for example, while
+there is no verb signifying "to wash" in the abstract, no less than
+thirteen words are used to signify every conceivable mode and object of
+washing. In the incorporating languages, again, of which Basque may be
+taken as a type, the object cannot be conceived except as contained in
+the verbal action. Hence every verbal form embodies an objective
+pronoun, even though the object may be separately expressed. If we pass
+to an isolating language like Chinese, we find the exact converse of
+that which meets us in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition
+or thought is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over
+against one another as so many independent words. The relations of
+grammar are consequently denoted by position, the particular position of
+two or more words determining the relation they bear to each other. The
+analysis of the sentence has not been carried so far in agglutinative
+languages like Turkish. In these the relations of grammar are
+represented by individual words, which, however, are subordinated to the
+words expressing the main ideas intended to be in relation to one
+another. The defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, are,
+in a large number of instances, placed after the words which they
+define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu languages
+of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from the opposite point of
+view, the defining words being prefixed. The inflexional languages call
+in the aid of a new principle. The relations of grammar are denoted
+symbolically either by a change of vowel or by a change of termination,
+more rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each idea, together
+with the relation which it bears to the other ideas of a proposition, is
+thus represented by a single word; that is to say, the ideas which make
+up the elements of a sentence are not conceived severally and
+independently, as in Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion
+with one another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become
+analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea to
+which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is never
+altogether discarded, and traces of flexion remain even in English and
+Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language which has wholly
+forsaken the conception of the sentence and the relation of its elements
+with which it started, although each class of languages occasionally
+trespasses on the grammatical usages of the others. In language, as
+elsewhere in nature, there are no sharp lines of division, no sudden
+leaps; species passes insensibly into species, class into class. At the
+same time the several types of speech--polysynthetic, isolating,
+agglutinative and inflexional--remain clear and fixed; and even where
+two languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an
+Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group, or a
+Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group, we find no
+certain example of grammatical interchange. A mixed grammar, in which
+the grammatical procedure of two distinct families of speech is
+intermingled, is almost, if not altogether, unknown.
+
+It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest and most
+important basis for a classification of languages. Words may be borrowed
+freely by one dialect from another, or, though originally unrelated,
+may, by the action of phonetic decay, come to assume the same forms,
+while the limited number of articulate sounds and conceptions out of
+which language was first developed, and the similarity of the
+circumstances by which the first speakers were everywhere surrounded,
+naturally produce a resemblance between the roots of many unconnected
+tongues. Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and the
+machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we may have no
+hesitation in inferring a common origin.
+
+
+  Forms of Indo-European grammar.
+
+The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and primitive
+meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar may be summed up as
+follows. We start with stems or themes, by which are meant words of two
+or more syllables which terminate in a limited number of sounds. These
+stems can be classed in groups of two kinds, one in which the groups
+consist of stems of similar meanings and similar initial syllables, and
+another in which the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case
+we have what are termed roots, the simplest elements into which words
+can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper, which may be
+described as consisting of suffixes attached to roots. Roots, therefore,
+are merely the materials out of which speech can be made, the
+embodiments of isolated conceptions with which the lexicographer alone
+has to deal, whereas stems present us with words already combined in a
+sentence and embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly
+understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive it as
+having been expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems, and in
+the order according to which the stems were arranged in a sentence. In
+other words, the relations of grammar were denoted partly by
+juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes of stems.
+
+These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather clothed with
+vague significations, which changed according to the place occupied in
+the sentence by the stem to which they were joined. Gradually this
+vagueness of signification disappeared, and particular suffixes came to
+be set apart to represent particular relations of grammar. What had
+hitherto been expressed by mere position now attached itself to the
+terminations or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown
+words. Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is to
+say, were flexions; others were classificatory, serving to distinguish
+nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects from agents and the
+like; while others, again, remained unmeaning adjuncts of the root. This
+origin of the flexions explains the otherwise strange fact that the same
+suffix may symbolize wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin,
+for instance, the context and dictionary will alone tell us that
+_mus-as_ is the accusative plural of a noun, and _am-as_ the second
+person singular of a verb, or that _mus-a_ is the nominative singular of
+a feminine substantive, _bon-a_ the accusative plural of a neuter
+adjective. In short, the flexions were originally merely the
+terminations of stems which were adapted to express the various
+relations of words to each other in a sentence, as these gradually
+presented themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what
+had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same suffix
+might be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a flexional
+sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all. In the Greek
+dative-locative [Greek: pod-es-si], for example, the suffix [Greek: -es]
+is classificatory; in the nominative [Greek: pod-es] it is flexional.
+
+When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a special sense,
+it would be separated in thought from the stem to which it belonged, and
+attached in the same sense to other stems and other terminations. Thus
+in modern English we can attach the suffix -ize to almost any word
+whatsoever, in order to give the latter a transitive meaning, and the
+Gr. [Greek: podessi], quoted above, really contains no less than three
+suffixes, [Greek: -es], [Greek: -su] and [Greek: -i], the last two both
+denoting the locative, and coalescing, through [Greek: swi], into a
+single syllable [Greek: -si]. The latter instance shows us how two or
+more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may be tacked on one to
+another, if the original force and signification of the first of them
+comes to be forgotten. Thus, in O. Eng. _sang-estre_ was the feminine of
+_sang-ere_, "singer," but the meaning of the termination has so entirely
+died out of the memory that we have to add the Romanic _-ess_ to it if
+we would still distinguish it from the masculine _singer_. A familiar
+example of the way in which the full sense of the exponent of a
+grammatical idea fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new
+exponent is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English
+to denote the superlative. "Very warm" expresses little more than the
+positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings the Englishman
+has recourse to such expressions as "awfully warm" like the Ger.
+"schrecklich warm."
+
+Such words as "very," "awfully," "schrecklich," illustrate a second mode
+in which Indo-European grammar has found means of expression. Words may
+lose their true signification and become the mere exponents of
+grammatical ideas. Professor Earle divides all words into _presentive_
+and _symbolic_, the former denoting objects and conceptions, the latter
+the relations which exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are
+what the Chinese grammarians call "empty words"--words, that is, which
+have been divested of their proper signification and serve a grammatical
+purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of the flexional
+suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown to have had this origin.
+Thus the suffix _tar_, which denotes names of kinship and agency, seems
+to come from the same root as the Lat. _terminus_ and _trans_, our
+_through_, the Sans. _tar-ami_, "I pass over," and to have primarily
+signified "one that goes through" a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. _head_ or
+_hood_, in words like _godhead_ and _brotherhood_, is the A.-S. _hâd_,
+"character" or "rank"; _dom_, in kingdom, the A.-S. _dôm_, "judgment";
+and _lock_ or _ledge_, in _wedlock_ and _knowledge_, the A.-S. _lâc_,
+"sport" or "gift." In all these cases the "empty words," after first
+losing every trace of their original significance, have followed the
+general analogy of the language and assumed the form and functions of
+the suffixes with which they had been confused.
+
+A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is by the symbolic
+use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for instance, the distinction
+between the reduplicated present [Greek: didômi] and the reduplicated
+perfect [Greek: dedôka] is indicated by a distinction of vowel, and in
+primitive Aryan grammar the vowel _â_ seems to have been set apart to
+denote the subjunctive mood just as _ya_ or _i_ was set apart to denote
+the potential. So, too, according to M. Hovelacque, the change of _a_
+into _i_ or _u_ in the parent Indo-European symbolized a change of
+meaning from passive to active. This symbolic use of the vowels, which
+is the purest application of the principle of flexion, is far less
+extensively carried out in the Indo-European than in the Semitic
+languages. The Semitic family of speech is therefore a much more
+characteristic type of the inflexional languages than is the
+Indo-European.
+
+The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight
+cases--nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative, genitive,
+ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted to show that the first
+three of these, the "strong cases" as they are termed, are really
+abstracts formed by the suffixes _-as_ (_-s_), _-an, -m, -t, -i, -â_ and
+_-ya_ (_-i_), the plural being nothing more than an abstract singular,
+as may be readily seen by comparing words like the Gr. [Greek: epo-s],
+and [Greek: ope-s], which mean precisely the same. The remaining "weak"
+cases, formed by the suffixes _-sma, -sya, -syâ, -yâ, -i, -an, -t, -bhi,
+-su, -i, -a_ and _-â_, are really adjectives and adverbs. No
+distinction, for example, can be drawn between "a cup of gold" and "a
+golden cup," and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the
+locative are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb.
+The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent of the
+stem to which they are suffixed; the suffixes of the weak cases, on the
+other hand, generally draw the accent upon themselves.
+
+According to Hübschmann, the nominative, accusative and genitive cases
+are purely grammatical, distinguished from one another through the
+exigencies of the sentence only, whereas the locative, ablative and
+instrumental have a logical origin and determine the logical relation
+which the three other cases bear to each other and the verb. The nature
+of the dative is left undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in
+a place, the ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the
+means or concomitance of an action. The dative Hübschmann regards as
+"the case of the participant object." Like Hübschmann, Holzweissig
+divides the cases into two classes--the one grammatical and the other
+logical; and his analysis of their primitive meaning is the same as that
+of Hübschmann, except as regards the dative, the primary sense of which
+he thinks to have been motion towards a place. This is also the view of
+Delbrück, who makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbrück,
+however, holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of
+separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance, while
+there was a double locative, one used like the ablative absolute in
+Latin, the other being a locative of the object.
+
+The dual was older than the plural, and after the development of the
+latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which most of the
+Indo-European languages contrived in time to get rid. There are still
+many savage idioms in which the conception of plurality has not advanced
+beyond that of duality. In the Bushman dialects, for instance, the
+plural, or rather that which is more than one, is expressed by repeating
+the word; thus _tu_ is "mouth," _tutu_ "mouths." It may be shown that
+most of the suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more
+primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of them by
+the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases, on the other
+hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical with the singular of
+abstract nouns; so far as both form and meaning are concerned, no
+distinction can be drawn between [Greek: opes] and [Greek: epos].
+Similarly, _humanity_ and _men_ signify one and the same thing, and the
+use of English words like _sheep_ or _fish_ for both singular and plural
+shows to what an extent our appreciation of number is determined by the
+context rather than by the form of the noun. The so-called "broken
+plurals" of Arabic and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed
+to denote the plural.
+
+Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic decay. In
+many languages, such as Eskimo and Choctaw, its place is taken by a
+division of objects into animate and inanimate, while in other languages
+they are separated into rational and irrational. There are many
+indications that the parent Indo-European in an early stage of its
+existence had no signs of gender at all. The terminations of the names
+of _father_ and _mother_, _pater_ and _mater_, for example, are exactly
+the same, and in Latin and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as
+stems in _i_ or _ya_ and u (like [Greek: naus] and [Greek: nekus],
+[Greek: polis] and [Greek: lis]), may be indifferently masculine and
+feminine. Even stems in _o_ and _a_ (of the second and first
+declensions), though the first are generally masculine and the second
+generally feminine, by no means invariably maintain the rule; and
+feminines like _humus_ and [Greek: hodos], or masculines like _advena_
+and [Greek: politês], show that there was a time when these stems also
+indicated no particular gender, but owed their subsequent adaptation,
+the one to mark the masculine and the other to mark the feminine, to the
+influence of analogy. The idea of gender was first suggested by the
+difference between man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many
+languages at the present day, was represented not by any outward sign
+but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived at, the
+conception of gender was extended to other objects besides those to
+which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo-European did not
+distinguish between subject and object, but personified objects by
+ascribing to them the motives and powers of living beings. Accordingly
+they were referred to by different pronouns, one class denoting the
+masculine and another class the feminine, and the distinction that
+existed between these two classes of pronouns was after a time
+transferred to the nouns. As soon as the preponderant number of stems in
+_o_ in daily use had come to be regarded as masculine on account of
+their meaning, other stems in _o_, whatever might be their
+signification, were made to follow the general analogy and were
+similarly classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix _i_ or _ya_
+acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the feminine
+gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were not satisfied with
+these two genders, masculine and feminine. As soon as object and
+subject, patient and agent, were clearly distinguished from each other,
+there arose a need for a third gender, which should be neither masculine
+nor feminine, but denote things without life. This third gender was
+fittingly expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative
+(e.g. _regnum_), or by a stem without any case ending at all (e.g.
+_virus_).
+
+The adverbial meaning of so many of the cases explains the readiness
+with which they became crystallized into adverbs and prepositions. An
+adverb is the attribute of an attribute--"the rose smells sweetly," for
+example, being resolvable into "the rose has the attribute of scent with
+the further attribute of sweetness." In our own language _once_,
+_twice_, _needs_, are all genitives; _seldom_ is a dative. The Latin and
+Greek _humi_ and [Greek: chamai] are locatives, _facillime_
+(_facillumed_) and [Greek: eutychôs] ablatives, [Greek: pantê] and
+[Greek: hama] instrumentals, [Greek: paros], [Greek: hexês] and [Greek:
+têlou] genitives. The frequency with which particular cases of
+particular nouns were used in a specifically attributive sense caused
+them to become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in
+question passing out of use, and the original force of those that were
+retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions are adverbs employed to
+define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives. Their appearance in the
+Indo-European languages is comparatively late, and the Homeric poems
+allow us to trace their growth in Greek. The adverb, originally intended
+to define the verb, came to be construed with the noun, and the
+government of the case with which it was construed was accordingly
+transferred from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the
+_Odyssey_(iv. 43), [Greek: autous d eisêgon theion domon], we see that
+[Greek: eis] is still an adverb, and that the accusative is governed by
+the verb; it is quite otherwise, however, with a line like [Greek:
+Atreidês de gerontas aolleas êgen Achaiôn es klisiên] (Il. i. 89) where
+the adverb has passed into a preposition. The same process of
+transformation is still going on in English, where we can say
+indifferently, "What are you looking at?" using "at" as an adverb, and
+governing the pronoun by the verb, and "At what are you looking?" where
+"at" has become a preposition. With the growth and increase of
+prepositions the need of the case-endings diminished, and in some
+languages the latter disappeared altogether.
+
+Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs used in a
+demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the conjunctions are
+petrified cases of pronouns. The relation between two sentences was
+originally expressed by simply setting them side by side, afterwards by
+employing a demonstrative at the beginning of the second clause to refer
+to the whole preceding one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have
+been in the first instance a demonstrative; indeed, we can still use
+_that_ in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative at the
+beginning of the second clause represented the first clause, and was
+consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand in some case,
+and this case became a conjunction. How closely allied the adverb and
+the conjunction are may be seen from Greek and Latin, where [Greek: hôs]
+or _quum_ can be used as either the one or the other. Our own _and_, it
+may be observed, has probably the same root as the Greek locative adverb
+[Greek: eti], and originally signified "going further."
+
+Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force of which
+appears clearly in such a phrase as "A wonderful thing to see." Various
+cases, such as the locative, the dative or the instrumental, are
+employed in Vedic Sanskrit in the sense of the infinitive, besides the
+bare stem or neuter formed by the suffixes _man_ and _van_. In Greek the
+neuter stem and the dative case were alone retained for the purpose. The
+first is found in infinitives like [Greek: domen] and [Greek: ferein]
+(for an earlier [Greek: fere-wen]), the second in the infinitives in
+[Greek: -ai]. Thus the Gr. [Greek: dounai] answers letter for letter to
+the Vedic dative _davane_, "to give," and the form [Greek: pseudesthai]
+is explained by the Vedic _vayodhai_, for _vayas-dhai_, literally "to do
+living," _dhai_ being the dative of a noun from the root _dha_, "to
+place" or "do." When the form [Greek: pseudesthai] had once come into
+existence, analogy was ready to create such false imitations as [Greek:
+grapsasthai] or [Greek: graphthêsesthai]. The Latin infinitive in _-re_
+for _-se_ has the same origin, _amare_, for instance, being the dative
+of an old stem _amas_. In _fieri_ for _fierei_ or _fiesei_, from the
+same root as our English _be_, the original length of the final syllable
+is preserved. The suffix in _-um_ is an accusative, like the
+corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin of the
+infinitive explains the Latin construction of the accusative and
+infinitive. When the Roman said, "Miror te ad me nihil scribere," all
+that he meant at first was, "I wonder at you for writing nothing to me,"
+where the infinitive was merely a dative case used adverbially.
+
+The history of the infinitive makes it clear how little distinction must
+have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb. Indeed, the
+growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a time in the history
+of Indo-European speech when it had not as yet risen to the
+consciousness of the speaker, and in the period when the noun did not
+possess a plural there was as yet also no verb. The attachment of the
+first and second personal pronouns, or of suffixes resembling them, to
+certain stems, was the first stage in the development of the latter.
+Like the Semitic verb, the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have
+denoted relation only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the
+subject. The idea of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses
+were created, the one expressing a present or continuous action, the
+other an aoristic or momentary one. The distinction of sense was
+symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable of the
+aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present. This
+abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent (which
+was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination), and this change
+again was probably occasioned by the prefixing of the so-called augment
+to the aorist, which survived into historical times only in Sanskrit,
+Zend and Greek, and the origin of which is still a mystery. The weight
+of the first syllable in the aorist further caused the person-endings to
+be shortened, and so two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary
+and secondary, sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable
+of the present tense a perfect was formed; but originally no distinction
+was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs like [Greek:
+didômi] and [Greek: hêkô] are memorials of a time when the difference
+between "I am come" and "I have come" was not yet felt. Reduplication
+was further adapted to the expression of intensity and desire (in the
+so-called intensive and desiderative forms). By the side of the aorist
+stood the imperfect, which differed from the aorist, so far as outward
+form was concerned, only in possessing the longer and more original stem
+of the present. Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was
+primitively an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and
+imperfect is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of
+certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the accent,
+and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote a difference
+between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect which was beginning to
+be felt. After the analogy of the imperfect, a pluperfect was created
+out of the perfect by prefixing the augment (of which the Greek [Greek:
+ememêkon] is an illustration); though the pluperfect, too, was
+originally an imperfect formed from the reduplicated present.
+
+Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive Indo-European
+verb, recourse being had to symbolization for the purpose. The
+imperative was represented by the bare stem, like the vocative, the
+accent being drawn back to the first syllable, though other modes of
+denoting it soon came into vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the
+attachment of the suffix _-ya_ to the stem, probability by the
+attachment of _-a_ and _-a_, and in this way the optative and
+conjunctive moods first arose. The creation of a future by the help of
+the suffix _-sya_ seems to belong to the same period in the history of
+the verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form a
+large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek [Greek: hippoio]
+for [Greek: hipposio]); in this case future time will have been regarded
+as an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for
+instance, between "rising sun" and "the sun will rise." It is possible,
+however, that the auxiliary verb _as_, "to be," enters into the
+composition of the future; if so, the future will be the product of the
+second stage in the development of the Indo-European verb when new forms
+were created by means of composition. The sigmatic or first aorist is in
+favour of this view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European
+unity, and may be a compound of the verbal stem with the auxiliary _as_.
+
+After the separation of the Indo-European languages, composition was
+largely employed in the formation of new tenses. Thus in Latin we have
+perfects like _scrip-si_ and _ama-vi_, formed by the help of the
+auxiliaries _as (sum)_ and _fuo_, while such forms as _amaveram
+(amavi-eram)_ or _amarem (ama-sem)_ bear their origin on their face. So,
+too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic (_amabo_, Irish _carub_) is
+based upon the substantive verb _fuo_, "to be," and the English
+preterite in _-ed_ goes back to a suffixed _did_, the reduplicated
+perfect of _do_. New tenses and moods, however, were created by the aid
+of suffixes as well as by the aid of composition, or rather were formed
+from nouns whose stems terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in
+Greek we have aorists and perfects in [Greek: -ka], and the
+characteristics of the two passive aorists, _ye_ and _the_, are more
+probably the suffixes of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs
+_ya_, "to go," and _dhâ_, "to place," as Bopp supposed. How late some of
+these new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric poems
+are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative future, and
+the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future passive occurs but
+once and the desiderative but twice. On the other hand, many of the
+older tenses were disused and lost. In classical Sanskrit, for instance,
+of the modal aorist forms the precative and benedictive almost alone
+remain, while the pluperfect, of which Delbrück has found traces in the
+Veda, has wholly disappeared.
+
+The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European speech. No
+need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as "I am pleased" could be
+as well represented by "This pleases me," or "I please myself." It was
+long before the speaker was able to imagine an action without an object,
+and when he did so, it was a neuter or substantival rather than a
+passive verb that he formed. The passive, in fact, grew out of the
+middle or reflexive, and, except in the two aorists, continued to be
+represented by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second person
+plural is really the middle participle with _estis_ understood, and the
+whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that the
+characteristic _r_ which Latin shares with Celtic could have had at the
+outset no passive force.
+
+Much light has been thrown on the character and construction of the
+primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax. In
+contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows that which
+is defined, the Indo-European languages place that which is defined
+after that which defines it; and Bergaigne has made it clear that the
+original order of the sentence was (1) object, (2) verb, and (3)
+subject. Greater complication of thought and its expression, the
+connexion of sentences by the aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical
+inversion caused that dislocation of the original order of the sentence
+which reaches its culminating point in the involved periods of Latin
+literature. Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax
+of the parent Indo-European when it sets both adjective and genitive
+before the nouns which they define. In course of time a distinction came
+to be made between an attribute used as a mere qualificative and an
+attribute used predicatively, and this distinction was expressed by
+placing the predicate in opposition to the subject and accordingly after
+it. The opposition was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical
+copula or substantive verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly
+stood for the latter at first signified "existence," and it was only
+through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like _Deus bonus est_,
+"God exists as good," came to mean simply "God is good." It is needless
+to observe that neither of the two articles was known to the parent
+Indo-European; indeed, the definite article, which is merely a decayed
+demonstrative pronoun, has not yet been developed in several of the
+languages of the Indo-European family.
+
+
+  Investigation of English grammar.
+
+We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific investigation
+of English grammar and the modifications they necessitate in our
+conception of it. The idea that the free use of speech is tied down by
+the rules of the grammarian must first be given up; all that the
+grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses of his time, which
+are determined by habit and custom, and are accordingly in a perpetual
+state of flux. We must next get rid of the notion that English grammar
+should be modelled after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall
+never understand even the elementary principles upon which it is based.
+We cannot speak of declensions, since English has no genders except in
+the pronouns of the third person, and no cases except the genitive and a
+few faint traces of an old dative. Its verbal conjugation is essentially
+different from that of an inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be
+compressed into the same categories. In English the syntax has been
+enlarged at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place
+of forms. To speak of an adjective "agreeing" with its substantive is as
+misleading as to speak of a verb "governing" a case. In fact, the
+distinction between noun and adjective is inapplicable to English
+grammar, and should be replaced by a distinction between objective and
+attributive words. In a phrase like "this is a cannon," _cannon_ is
+objective; in a phrase like "a cannon-ball," it is attributive; and to
+call it a substantive in the one case and an adjective in the other is
+only to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative, the
+various forms of the noun are all attributive; there is no difference,
+for example, between "doing a thing" and "doing badly." Apart from the
+personal pronouns, the accusative of the classical languages can be
+represented only by position; but if we were to say that a noun which
+follows a verb is in the accusative case we should have to define "king"
+as an accusative in such sentences as "he became king" or "he is king."
+In conversational English "it is me" is as correct as "c'est moi" in
+French, or "det er mig" in Danish; the literary "it is I" is due to the
+influence of classical grammar. The combination of noun or pronoun and
+preposition results in a compound attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has
+well said that "the really characteristic feature of the English finite
+verb is its inability to stand alone without a pronominal prefix." Thus
+"dream" by itself is a noun; "I dream" is a verb. The place of the
+pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry and vulgar
+English frequently insert the pronoun even when the noun precedes. The
+number of inflected verbal forms is but small, being confined to the
+third person singular and the special forms of the preterite and past
+participle, though the latter may with more justice be regarded as
+belonging to the province of the lexicographer rather than to that of
+the grammarian. The inflected subjunctive (_be, were, save_ in "God save
+the King," &c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms, however,
+are coming into existence; at all events, we have as good a right to
+consider _wont, shant, cant_ new inflected forms as the French _aimerai
+(amare habeo), aimerais (amare habebam)_. If the ordinary grammars are
+correct in treating forms like "I am loving," "I was loving," "I did
+love," as separate tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting
+to notice the equally important emphatic form "I do love" or the
+negative form "I do not love" ("I don't love"), as well as the
+semi-inflexional "I'll love," "he's loving." It is true that these
+latter contracted forms are heard only in conversation and not seen in
+books; but the grammar of a language, it must be remembered, is made by
+those who speak it and not by the printers.
+
+
+  History of formal grammar.
+
+Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received from Greece and
+Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the Sophists to investigate
+the structure of the Greek language, and to them was accordingly due the
+first analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished the three
+genders and the verbal moods, while Prodicus busied himself with the
+definition of synonyms. Aristotle, taking the side of Democritus, who
+had held that the meaning of words is put into them by the speaker, and
+that there is no necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down
+that words "symbolize" objects according to the will of those who use
+them, and added to the [Greek: onoma] or "noun," and the [Greek: rhêma]
+or "verb," the [Greek: sundesmos] or "particle." He also introduced the
+term [Greek: ptôsis], "case," to denote any flexion whatsoever. He
+further divided nouns into simple and compound, invented for the neuter
+another name than that given by Protagoras, and starting from the
+termination of the nominative singular, endeavoured to ascertain the
+rules for indicating a difference of gender. Aristotle was followed by
+the Stoics, who separated the [Greek: arthron] or "article" from the
+particles, determined a fifth part of speech, [Greek: pandektês] or
+"adverb," confined the term "case" to the flexions of the nouns,
+distinguishing the four principal cases by names, and divided the verb
+into its tenses, moods and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics
+were studying the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing
+it with the language of their own day, the result being a minute
+examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of
+grammarians sprang up--the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus, who held
+that a strict law of analogy existed between idea and word, and refused
+to admit exceptions to the grammatical rules they laid down, and the
+Anomalists, who denied general rules of any kind, except in so far as
+they were consecrated by custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was
+Crates of Mallos, the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe
+the first formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts
+obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, as well as an
+attempt to reform Greek orthography. The immediate cause of this grammar
+seems to have been a comparison of Latin with Greek, Crates having
+lectured on the subject while ambassador of Attalus at Rome in 159 B.C.
+The zeal with which the Romans threw themselves into the study of Greek
+resulted in the school grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of
+Aristarchus, which he published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which
+is still in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it, and
+the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek grammarians
+into Latin was productive of numerous blunders which have been
+perpetuated to our own day. Thus _tenues_ is a mistranslation of the
+[Greek: psila], "unaspirated"; _genetivus_ of [Greek: genikê], the case
+"of the genus"; _accusativus_ of [Greek: aitiatikê], the case "of the
+object"; _infinitivus_ of [Greek: aparemphatos], "without a secondary
+meaning" of tense or person. New names were coined to denote forms
+possessed by Latin and not by Greek; _ablative_, for instance, was
+invented by Julius Caesar, who also wrote a treatise _De analogia_. By
+the 2nd century of the Christian era the dispute between the Anomalists
+and the Analogists was finally settled, analogy being recognized as the
+principle that underlies language, though every rule admits of
+exceptions. Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus
+and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies of their
+predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin grammar composed
+by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and the eighteen books on grammar
+compiled by Priscian in the age of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus
+dominated the schools of the middle ages, and, along with the
+productions of Priscian, formed the type and source of the Latin and
+Greek school-grammars of modern Europe.
+
+
+  Learning of grammar of foreign languages.
+
+A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the bearing of a
+scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of teaching and
+learning foreign languages. The grammar of a language is not to be
+confined within the rules laid down by grammarians, much less is it the
+creation of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode of making the
+pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules and paradigms not only gives a
+false idea of what grammar really is, but also throws obstacles in the
+way of acquiring it. The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with
+the sentence therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the
+pupil should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has been,
+so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them into their
+component parts, to show the relations that these bear to one another,
+and to indicate the nature and varieties of the latter. In this way the
+learner will be prevented from regarding grammar as a piece of dead
+mechanism or a Chinese puzzle, of which the parts must be fitted
+together in accordance with certain artificial rules, and will realize
+that it is a living organism which has a history and a reason of its
+own. The method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would
+learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did our
+mother-tongue, by first mastering the expression of a complete thought
+and then breaking up this expression into its several elements.
+     (A. H. S.)
+
+  See PHILOLOGY, and articles on the various languages. Also Steinthal,
+  _Charakteristik der hauptsächlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues_ (Berlin,
+  1860); Schleicher, _Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the
+  Indo-European Languages_, translated by H. Bendall (London, 1874);
+  Pezzi, _Aryan Philology according to the most recent Researches_,
+  translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce, _Introduction to
+  the Science of Language_ (London, 1879); Lersch, _Die
+  Sprachphilosophie der Alten_ (Bonn, 1838-1841); Steinthal, _Geschichte
+  der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Römern mit besonderer
+  Rücksicht auf die Logik_ (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); Delbrück,
+  _Ablativ localis instrumentalis im Altindischen, Lateinischen,
+  Griechischen, und Deutschen_ (Berlin, 1864); Jolly, _Ein Kapitel
+  vergleichender Syntax_ (Munich, 1873); Hübschmann, _Zur Casuslehre_
+  (Munich, 1875); Holzweissig, _Wahrheit und Irrthum der localistischen
+  Casustheorie_ (Leipzig, 1877); Draeger, _Historische Syntax der
+  lateinischen Sprache_ (Leipzig, 1874-1876); Sweet, _Words, Logic, and
+  Grammar_ (London, 1876); P. Giles, _Manual of Comp. Philology_ (1901);
+  C. Abel, _Ägypt.-indo-eur. Sprachverwandschaft_ (1903); Brugmann and
+  Delbrück, _Grundriss d. vergl. Gram. d. indogerm. Spr._ (1886-1900);
+  Fritz Mauthner, _Beiträge zu einer Kritik der Sprache_ vol. iii.
+  (1902); T. G. Tucker, _Introd. to a Nat. Hist. of Language_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMICHELE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, 55 m. S.W. of
+it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 15,075. It was built in 1693,
+after the destruction by an earthquake of the old town of Occhialà to
+the north; the latter, on account of the similarity of name, is
+generally identified with Echetla, a frontier city between Syracusan and
+Carthaginian territory in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have
+been originally a Sicel city in which Greek civilization prevailed from
+the 5th century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine of
+Demeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered.
+
+  See _Mon. Lincei_, vii. (1897), 201; _Not. degli scavi_ (1902), 223.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMONT (the Flemish name _Gheeraardsbergen_ more clearly reveals its
+etymology _Gerardi-mons_), a town in East Flanders, Belgium, near the
+meeting point with the provinces of Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the
+Dender almost due south of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the
+charter of Grammont given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders, in A.D.
+1068 was the first of its kind. This charter has been styled "the most
+ancient written monument of civil and criminal laws in Flanders." The
+modern town is a busy industrial centre. Pop. (1904) 12,835.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGÉNOR ALFRED, DUC DE, DUC DE GUICHE, PRINCE DE BIDACHE
+(1819-1880), French diplomatist and statesman, was born at Paris on the
+14th of August 1819, of one of the most illustrious families of the old
+_noblesse_, a cadet branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name
+from the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine Louis
+Marie, duc de Gramont (1755-1836), had emigrated during the Revolution,
+and his father, Antoine Héraclius Geneviève Agénor (1789-1855), duc de
+Gramont and de Guiche, fought under the British flag in the Peninsular
+War, became a lieutenant-general in the French army in 1823, and in 1830
+accompanied Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however,
+were Bonapartist in sympathy; Gramont's cousin Antoine Louis Raymond,
+comte de Gramont (1787-1825), though also the son of an _émigré_, served
+with distinction in Napoleon's armies, while Antoine Agénor, duc de
+Gramont, owed his career to his early friendship for Louis Napoleon.
+
+Educated at the École Polytechnique, Gramont early gave up the army for
+diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the _coup d'état_ of the 2nd
+of December 1851, which made Louis Napoleon supreme in France, that he
+became conspicuous as a diplomat. He was successively minister
+plenipotentiary at Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853),
+ambassador at Rome (1857) and at Vienna (1861). On the 15th of May 1870
+he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the Ollivier cabinet,
+and was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible for the bungling
+of the negotiations between France and Prussia arising out of the
+candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain,
+which led to the disastrous war of 1870-71. The exact share of Gramont
+in this responsibility has been the subject of much controversy. The
+last word may be said to have been uttered by M. Émile Ollivier himself
+in his _L'Empire libéral_ (tome xii., 1909, _passim_). The famous
+declaration read by Gramont in the Chamber on the 6th of July, the
+"threat with the hand on the sword-hilt," as Bismarck called it, was the
+joint work of the whole cabinet; the original draft presented by Gramont
+was judged to be too "elliptical" in its conclusion and not sufficiently
+vigorous; the reference to a revival of the empire of Charles V. was
+suggested by Ollivier; the paragraph asserting that France would not
+allow a foreign power to disturb to her own detriment the actual
+equilibrium of Europe was inserted by the emperor. So far, then, as this
+declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsibility must
+be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues (Ollivier _op. cit._
+xii. 107; see also the two _projets de déclaration_ given on p. 570). It
+is clear, however that he did not share the "passion" of his colleagues
+for "peace with honour," clear also that he wholly misread the
+intentions of the European powers in the event of war. That he reckoned
+upon the active alliance of Austria was due, according to M. Ollivier,
+to the fact that for nine years he had been a _persona grata_ in the
+aristocratic society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the
+humiliation of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him
+less disposed than many of his colleagues to make the best of the
+renunciation of the candidature made, on behalf of his son, by the
+prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It was Gramont who pointed out to
+the emperor, on the evening of the 12th, the dubious circumstances of
+the act of renunciation, and on the same night, without informing M.
+Ollivier, despatched to Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding
+the king of Prussia's guarantee that the candidature would not be
+revived. The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the
+emperor, "who imposed it by an exercise of personal power on the only
+one of his ministers who could have lent himself to such a forgetfulness
+of the safeguards of a parliamentary régime." As for Gramont, he had "no
+conception of the exigencies of this régime; he remained an ambassador
+accustomed to obey the orders of his sovereign; in all good faith he had
+no idea that this was not correct, and that, himself a parliamentary
+minister, he had associated himself with an act destructive of the
+authority of parliament."[1] "On his part," adds M. Ollivier, "it was
+the result only of obedience, not of warlike premeditation" (_op. cit._
+p. 262). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To France and to
+the world Gramont was responsible for the policy which put his country
+definitely into the wrong in the eyes of Europe, and enabled Bismarck to
+administer to her the "slap in the face" (_soufflet_)--as Gramont called
+it in the Chamber--by means of the mutilated "Ems telegram," which was
+the immediate cause of the French declaration of war on the 15th.
+
+After the defeat of Weissenburg (August 4) Gramont resigned office with
+the rest of the Ollivier ministry (August 9), and after the revolution
+of September he went to England, returning after the war to Paris, where
+he died on the 18th of January 1880. His marriage in 1848 with Miss
+Mackinnon, a Scottish lady, remained without issue. During his
+retirement he published various apologies for his policy in 1870,
+notably _La France et la Prusse avant la guerre_ (Paris, 1872).
+
+  Besides M. Ollivier's work quoted in the text, see L. Thouvenel, _Le
+  Secret de l'empereur, correspondance ... échangée entre M. Thouvenel,
+  le duc de Gramont, et le général comte de Flahaut 1860-1863_ (2nd ed.,
+  2 vols., 1889). A small pamphlet containing his _Souvenirs 1848-1850_
+  was published in 1901 by his brother Antoine Léon Philibert Auguste de
+  Gramont, duc de Lesparre.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Compare with this Bismarck's remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe,
+    _Denkwürdigkeiten_, ii. 71): "When Gramont was made minister,
+    Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor was
+    meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made so stupid
+    a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor knew too little
+    of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor had once described
+    Gramont to him as 'un ancien bellâtre.'"
+
+
+
+
+GRAMONT, PHILIBERT, COMTE DE (1621-1707), the subject of the famous
+_Memoirs_, came of a noble Gascón family, said to have been of Basque
+origin. His grandmother, Diane d'Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was "la
+belle Corisande," one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson
+assumed that his father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was
+the son of Henry IV., and regretted that he had not claimed the
+privileges of royal birth. Philibert de Gramont was the son of Antoine
+II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency, and was born in
+1621, probably at the family seat of Bidache. He was destined for the
+church, and was educated at the _collège_ of Pau, in Béarn. He refused
+the ecclesiastical life, however, and joined the army of Prince Thomas
+of Savoy, then besieging Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under
+his elder half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince of
+Condé. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and also served with
+distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 and 1648. He favoured Condé's
+party at the beginning of the Fronde, but changed sides before he was
+too severely compromised. In spite of his record in the army he never
+received any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps
+because of an incurable levity in his outlook, He was, however, made a
+governor of the Pays d'Aunis and lieutenant of Béarn. During the
+Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662 he was exiled from Paris
+for paying court to Mademoiselle de la Motte Houdancourt, one of the
+king's mistresses. He went to London, where he found at the court of
+Charles II. an atmosphere congenial to his talents for intrigue,
+gallantry and pleasure. He married in London, under pressure from her
+two brothers, Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer.
+She was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was,
+according to her brother's optimistic account, able to fix the count's
+affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and held her own at the
+court of Louis XIV., but her husband pursued his gallant exploits to the
+close of a long life, being, said Ninon de l'Enclos, the only old man
+who could affect the follies of youth without being ridiculous. In 1664
+he was allowed to return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in
+connexion with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688
+he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II. on the birth of an
+heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he succeeded in obtaining
+considerable profits, being destitute of scruples whenever money was in
+question. At the age of seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during
+which he became reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to
+have survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied his
+brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (q.v.), with the materials for his
+_Mémoires_. Hamilton said that they had been dictated to him, but there
+is no doubt that he was the real author. The account of Gramont's early
+career was doubtless provided by himself, but Hamilton was probably more
+familiar with the history of the court of Charles II., which forms the
+most interesting section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a
+reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to suppose
+that he was capable of producing a work which remains a masterpiece of
+style and of witty portraiture. When the _Mémoires_ were finished it is
+said that Gramont sold the MS. for 1500 francs, and kept most of the
+money himself. Fontenelle, then censor of the press, refused to license
+the book from considerations of respect to the strange old man, whose
+gambling, cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But
+Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition was
+removed. He died on the 10th of January 1707, and the _Mémoires_
+appeared six years later.
+
+Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he relates the
+story of his hero without comment, and no condemnation of the prevalent
+code of morals is allowed to appear, unless in an occasional touch of
+irony. The portrait is drawn with such skill that the count, in spite of
+his biographer's candour, imposes by his grand air on the reader much as
+he appears to have done on his contemporaries. The book is the most
+entertaining of contemporary memoirs, and in no other book is there a
+description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court of
+Charles II. There are other and less flattering accounts of the count.
+His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he was a privileged person
+who was allowed to state even the most unpleasing truths to Louis XIV.
+Saint-Simon in his memoirs describes the relief that was felt at court
+when the old man's death was announced.
+
+  _Mémoires de la vie du comte de Grammont contenant particulièrement
+  l'histoire amoureuse de la cour d'Angleterre sous le règne de Charles
+  II_ was printed in Holland with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other
+  editions followed in 1715 and 1716. _Memoirs of the Life of Count de
+  Grammont ... translated out of the French by Mr [Abel] Boyer_ (1714),
+  was supplemented by a "compleat key" in 1719. The _Mémoires_
+  "augmentées de notes et d'éclaircissemens" was edited by Horace
+  Walpole in 1772. In 1793 appeared in London an edition adorned with
+  portraits engraved after originals in the royal collection. An English
+  edition by Sir Walter Scott was published by H. G. Bohn (1846), and
+  this with additions was reprinted in 1889, 1890, 1896, &c. Among other
+  modern editions are an excellent one in the _Bibliothèque Charpentier_
+  edited by M. Gustave Brunet (1859); _Mémoires ..._ (Paris, 1888) with
+  etchings by L. Boisson after C. Delort and an introduction by H.
+  Gausseron; _Memoirs ..._ (1889), edited by Mr H. Vizetelly; and
+  _Memoirs ..._ (1903), edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed on an inversion of "phonogram";
+[Greek: phônê], sound, [Greek: gramma], letter), an instrument for
+recording and reproducing sounds. It depends on the same general
+principles as the phonograph (q.v.), but it differs in certain details
+of construction, especially in having the sound-record cut spirally on a
+flat disk instead of round a cylinder.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMPIANS, THE, a mass of mountains in central Scotland. Owing to the
+number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult to assign their
+precise limits, but they may be described as occupying the area between
+a line drawn from Dumbartonshire to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the
+valley of the Spey or even Glenmore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend
+is from south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural
+division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the shires of
+Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Banff
+and Inverness. Among the highest summits are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui, and
+Cairngorms, Ben Lawers, Ben More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachan and Ben
+Lomond. The principal rivers flowing from the watershed northward are
+the Findhorn, Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the
+South Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass is
+wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, affording
+excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain some of the
+finest deer-forests in Scotland. They are crossed by the Highland, West
+Highland and Callander to Oban railways, and present some of the finest
+scenery in the kingdom. The rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss,
+schists, quartzite, porphyry and diorite. Their fastnesses were
+originally inhabited by the northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under
+Galgacus, were defeated by Agricola in A.D. 84 at Mons Graupius--the
+false reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name of
+the mountains--the site of which has not been ascertained. Some
+authorities place it at Ardoch; others near the junction of the Tay and
+Isla, or at Dalginross near Comrie; while some, contending for a
+position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site in west Forfarshire
+or to Raedykes near Stonehaven.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMPOUND, a small market town in the mid-parliamentary division of
+Cornwall, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Truro, and 2 m. from its station
+(Grampound Road) on the Great Western railway. It is situated on the
+river Fal, and has some industry in tanning. It retains an ancient town
+hall; there is a good market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the
+Fal, are several early earthworks.
+
+Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graundpond) and the
+hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly so closely associated
+that in 1400 the former is found styled the vill of Grauntpond called
+Tibeste. At the time of the Domesday Survey Tibeste was amongst the most
+valuable of the manors granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic
+character of Ponsmure first appears in 1299. Thirty-five years later
+John of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Grauntpount.
+This grant was confirmed in 1378 when its extent and jurisdiction were
+defined. It was provided that the hundred court of Powdershire should
+always be held there and two fairs at the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra
+and St Barnabas, both of which are still held, and a Tuesday market (now
+held on Friday) and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly
+rent to the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parliament by
+Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an indefinite number of
+freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nominated by the mayor and
+corporation, which existed by prescription. The venality of the electors
+became notorious. In 1780 £3000 was paid for a seat: in 1812 each
+supporter of one of the candidates received £100. The defeat of this
+candidate in 1818 led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a
+system of wholesale corruption, and in 1821 the borough was
+disfranchised. A former woollen trade is extinct.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMPUS (_Orca gladiator_, or _Orca orca_), a cetacean belonging to the
+_Delphinidae_ or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded head
+without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical teeth. The
+upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and the under parts white,
+with a strip of the same colour over each eye. The O. Fr. word was
+_grapois_, _graspeis_ or _craspeis_, from Med. Lat. _crassus piscis_,
+fat fish. This was adapted into English as _grapeys_, _graspeys_, &c.,
+and in the 16th century becomes _grannie pose_ as if from _grand
+poisson_. The final corruption to "grampus" appears in the 18th century
+and was probably nautical in origin. The animal is also known as the
+"killer," in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which
+consists largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its
+fierceness is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a
+specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen seals and
+thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested state, while
+the animal appeared to have been choked in the endeavour to swallow
+another seal, the skin of which was found entangled in its teeth. These
+cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs or schools, and commit great havoc
+among the belugas or white whales, which occasionally throw themselves
+ashore to escape their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of
+northern seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been
+caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean. There are
+numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts. (See CETACEA.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and ascetic writer, born
+of poor parents named Sarriá at Granada. He lost his father at an early
+age and his widowed mother was supported by the charity of the
+Dominicans. A child of the Alhambra, he entered the service of the
+alcalde as page, and, his ability being discovered, received his
+education with the sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the
+Dominican convent and in 1525 took the vows; and, with the leave of his
+prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He was sent
+to Valladolid to continue his studies and then was appointed procurator
+at Granada. Seven years after he was elected prior of the convent of
+Scala Caeli in the mountains of Cordova, which after eight years he
+succeeded in restoring from its ruinous state, and there he began his
+work as a zealous reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the
+orator Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish
+preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became provincial of
+his order, declining the offer of the archbishopric of Braga but
+accepting the position of confessor and counsellor to Catherine, the
+queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure of the provincialship, he
+retired to the Dominican convent at Lisbon, where he lived till his
+death on the last day of 1588. Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical
+writings, at development of the religious view, the danger of the times
+as he saw it was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an
+outside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken among
+the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith was not understood
+by the people, and that their ignorance was the pressing danger. He fell
+under the suspicion of the Inquisition; his mystical teaching was said
+to be heretical, and his most famous book, the _Guia de Peccadores_,
+still a favourite treatise and one that has been translated into nearly
+every European tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisition,
+together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great opponent was the
+restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who stigmatized the second book
+as containing grave errors smacking of the heresy of the Alumbrados and
+manifestly contradicting Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the
+prohibition was removed and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by
+St Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St
+Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain of
+his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics excels Luis de
+Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety of illustration and
+soberness of statement.
+
+  The last collected edition of his works is that published in 9 vols.
+  at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, _La Vida y virtudes de
+  Luis de Granada_ (Madrid, 1639); a study of his system by P. Rousselot
+  in _Mystiques espagnoles_ (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, _History of Spanish
+  Literature_ (vol. iii.), and Fitzmaurice Kelly, _History of Spanish
+  Literature_, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, the capital of the department of Granada, Nicaragua; 32 m. by
+rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the republic. Pop. (1900) about
+25,000. Granada is built on the north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua,
+of which it is the principal port. Its houses are of the usual central
+American type, constructed of adobe, rarely more than one storey high,
+and surrounded by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs,
+scattered over a large area, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied by
+Indians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches and
+convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof is inlaid
+with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the railway station
+and the adjacent wharves with the market, about 1 m. distant. Ice,
+cigars, hats, boots and shoes are manufactured, but the characteristic
+local industry is the production of "Panama chains," ornaments made of
+thin gold wire. In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations;
+and the city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton,
+native tobacco and indigo.
+
+Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez de Córdoba. It became
+one of the wealthiest of central American cities, although it had always
+a keen commercial rival in Leon, which now surpasses it in size and
+importance. In the 17th century it was often raided by buccaneers,
+notably in 1606, when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured
+and partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see CENTRAL AMERICA:
+_History_).
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of
+districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with the central parts
+of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop. (1900) 492,460; area, 4928 sq.
+m. Granada is bounded on the N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by
+Murcia and Almería, S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It
+includes the western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (q.v.), a
+vast ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest
+altitudes in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta
+(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges, such as the
+Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana, adjoin the main ridge.
+From this central watershed the three principal rivers of the province
+take their rise, viz.: the Guadiana Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in
+a northerly direction, falls into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood
+of Ubeda; the Genil which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of
+Granada, leaves the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins
+the Guadalquivir between Cordova and Seville; and the Rio Grande or
+Guadalféo, which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The coast is
+little indented and none of its three harbours, Almuñécar, Albuñol and
+Motril, ranks high in commercial importance. The climate in the lower
+valleys and the narrow fringe along the coast is warm, but on the higher
+grounds of the interior is somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies
+accordingly from the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains
+is very productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the
+richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it has been
+systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield in great abundance
+and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine, oil, sugar, flax,
+cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit. In the mountains
+immediately surrounding the city of Granada occur many kinds of
+alabaster, some very fine; there are also quantities of jasper and other
+precious stones. Mineral waters chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are
+abundant, the most important springs being those of Alhama, which have a
+temperature of 112° F. There are valuable iron mines, and small
+quantities of zinc, lead and mercury are obtained. The cane and beet
+sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja, at Motril, and
+in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of the Spanish West Indies
+and the Philippine Islands in 1898, with the consequent decrease in
+competition. There are also tanneries, foundries and manufactories of
+woollen, linen, cotton, and rough frieze stuffs, cards, soap, spirits,
+gunpowder and machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the
+province, which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The
+railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and bifurcates
+north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward to Almería, the other
+westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras. Baza is the terminus of a
+railway from Lorca. The chief towns include Granada, the capital (pop.
+1900, 75,900) with Alhama de Granada (7697), Baza (12,770), Guadix
+(12,652), Loja (19,143), Montefrío (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These
+are described in separate articles. Other towns with upwards of 7000
+inhabitants are Albuñol (8646), Almuñécar (8022), Cúllar de Baza (8007),
+Huéscar (7763), Illora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique (7420). The
+history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from that of the city of
+Granada (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, the capital of the province, and formerly of the kingdom of
+Granada, in southern Spain; on the Madrid-Granada-Algeciras railway.
+Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnificently situated, 2195 ft. above
+the sea, on the north-western slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking
+the fertile lowlands known as the Vega de Granada on the west and
+overshadowed by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421
+ft.) on the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river
+Genil, the Roman _Singilis_ and Moorish _Shenil_, a swift stream flowing
+westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume of water in
+summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary the Darro, the Roman
+_Salon_ and Moorish _Hadarro_, enters Granada on the east, flows for
+upwards of a mile from east to west, and then turns sharply southward to
+join the main river, which is spanned by a bridge just above the point
+of confluence. The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation
+works along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized
+and partly covered with a roof.
+
+Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequeruela, the Albaicin
+(or Albaycin), and Granada properly so-called. The first division,
+founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410, consists of the districts
+enclosed by the Darro, besides a small area on its right, or western
+bank. It is bounded on the east by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra
+(q.v.), the most celebrated of all the monuments left by the Moors. The
+Albaicin (Moorish _Rabad al Bayazin_, "Falconers' Quarter") lies
+north-west of the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with
+that of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by
+citizens of Baeza, who fled hither in 1246, after the capture of their
+town by the Christians. It was long the favourite abode of the Moorish
+nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by gipsies and artisans. Granada,
+properly so-called, is north of the Antequeruela, and west of the
+Albaicin. The origin of its name is obscure; it has been sometimes,
+though with little probability, derived from _granada_, a pomegranate,
+in allusion to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood.
+A pomegranate appears on the city arms. The Moors, however, called
+Granada _Karnattah_ or _Karnattah-al-Yahud_, and possibly the name is
+composed of the Arabic words _kurn_, "a hill," and _nattah_,
+"stranger,"--the "city" or "hill of strangers."
+
+Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the architecture
+of its more ancient quarters has many Moorish characteristics. The
+streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved and irregular; but there
+are several fine squares and avenues, such as the Bibarrambla, where
+tournaments were held by the Moors; the spacious Plaza del Trionfo,
+adjoining the bull-ring, on the north; the Alameda, planted with plane
+trees, and the Paseo del Salon. The business centre of the city is the
+Puerta Real, a square named after a gate now demolished.
+
+Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its cathedral, which commemorates
+the reconquest of southern Spain from the Moors, is a somewhat heavy
+classical building, begun in 1529 by Diego de Siloe, and only finished
+in 1703. It is profusely ornamented with jasper and coloured marbles,
+and surmounted by a dome. The interior contains many paintings and
+sculptures by Alonso Cano (1601-1667), the architect of the fine west
+façade, and other artists. In one of the numerous chapels, known as the
+Chapel Royal (_Capilla Real_), is the monument of Philip I. of Castile
+(1478-1506), and his queen Joanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452-1516). The church of
+Santa Maria (1705-1759), which may be regarded as an annexe of the
+cathedral, occupies the site of the chief mosque of Granada. This was
+used as a church until 1661. Santa Ana (1541) also replaced a mosque;
+Nuestra Señora de las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine
+towers, and the rich decoration of its high altar. The convent of San
+Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella, was
+converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains the tomb of the
+famous captain Gonsalvo or Gonzalo de Cordova (1453-1515). The Cartuja,
+or Carthusian monastery north of the city, was built in 1516 on
+Gonzalo's estate, and in his memory. It contains several fine paintings,
+and an interesting church of the 17th and 18th centuries.
+
+After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the Generalife and
+Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described in connexion with it,
+the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada are the 13th-century villa
+known as the Cuarto Real de San Domingo, admirably preserved, and
+surrounded by beautiful gardens; the Alcázar de Genil, built in the
+middle of the 14th century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the
+Casa del Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a
+warehouse in the 19th century. Few Spanish cities possess a greater
+number of educational and charitable establishments. The university was
+founded by Charles V. in 1531, and transferred to its present buildings
+in 1769. It is attended by about 600 students. In 1900, the primary
+schools of Granada numbered 22, in addition to an ecclesiastical
+seminary, a training-school for teachers, schools of art and
+jurisprudence, and museums of art and archaeology. There were twelve
+hospitals and orphanages for both sexes, including a leper hospital in
+one of the convents. Granada has an active trade in the agricultural
+produce of the Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse
+linen and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once extensively carried on,
+and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy, France, Germany and
+even America, but this industry died during the 19th century.
+
+_History._--The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of _Iliberris_
+or _Iliberri_, which afterwards became a flourishing Roman colony, has
+never been fully established; but Roman tombs, coins, inscriptions, &c.,
+have been discovered in the neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia,
+as a result of the great invasion from the north in the 5th century,
+Granada fell to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of Cordova,
+onwards from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and
+ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which, after the
+fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 1031, or, according to some authorities,
+1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen and others as an independent
+principality. The family of the Zeri, Ziri or Zeiri maintained itself as
+the ruling dynasty until 1090; it was then displaced by the Almohades,
+who were in turn overthrown by the Almoravides, in 1154. The dominion of
+the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of one year
+(1160-1161), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada formed part of the
+kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named year it passed into the hands
+of Abu Abdullah Mahommed Ibn Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the
+dynasty of the Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but
+united Granada, Almería and Malaga under his sceptre, and, as the
+fervour of the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily
+abated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christians to
+vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time he offered
+asylum to refugees from Valencia, Murcia and other territories in which
+the Moors had been overcome. Al Ahmar and his successors ruled over
+Granada until 1492, in an unbroken line of twenty-five sovereigns who
+maintained their independence partly by force, and partly by payment of
+tribute to their stronger neighbours. Their encouragement of
+commerce--notably the silk trade with Italy--rendered Granada the
+wealthiest of Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and
+science attracted many learned Moslems, such as the historian Ibn
+Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and resulted in a
+brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is the supreme monument.
+
+The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other Moorish states in
+Spain, fell at last through dynastic rivalries and a harem intrigue. The
+two noble families of the Zegri and the Beni Serraj (better known in
+history and legend as the _Abencerrages_) encroached greatly upon the
+royal prerogatives during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis
+arose in 1462, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted in
+the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his son, Muley
+Abu'l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of Mulhacen, the loftiest
+peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score of legends. Muley Hassan
+weakened his position by resigning Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and
+incurred the enmity of his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful
+Spanish slave, Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and
+taken the name of Zorayah, "morning star." Aisha or Ayesha, who thus saw
+her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommed (Boabdil) and Yusuf in danger of being
+supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages, whose leaders, according to
+tradition, paid for their sympathy with their lives (see ALHAMBRA). In
+1482 Boabdil succeeded in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but
+the gradual advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella
+forced him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands of
+Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-1486). In 1491 after the loss of these
+leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten; Boabdil, who had already been
+twice captured and liberated by the Spaniards, was compelled to sign
+away his kingdom; and on the 2nd of January 1492 the Spanish army
+entered Granada, and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign
+had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when the news
+reached London a special thanksgiving service was held in St Paul's
+Cathedral by order of Henry VII.
+
+
+
+
+GRANADILLA, the name applied to _Passiflora quadrangularis_, Linn., a
+plant of the natural order _Passifloreae_, a native of tropical America,
+having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate leaves; petioles bearing from
+4 to 6 glands; an emetic and narcotic root; scented flowers; and a
+large, oblong fruit, containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid
+edible pulp. The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses. The
+fruits of several other species of _Passiflora_ are eaten. _P.
+laurifolia_ is the "water lemon," and _P. maliformis_ the "sweet
+calabash" of the West Indies.
+
+
+
+
+GRANARIES. From ancient times grain has been stored in greater or lesser
+bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice of preserving grain in years
+of plenty against years of scarcity, and probably Joseph only carried
+out on a large scale an habitual practice. The climate of Egypt being
+very dry, grain could be stored in pits for a long time without sensible
+loss of quality. The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a
+favourite way of storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental
+lands. In Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when
+comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons of
+dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta a relatively
+large stock of wheat is always preserved in some hundreds of pits
+(silos) cut in the rock. A single silo will store from 60 to 80 tons of
+wheat, which, with proper precautions, will keep in good condition for
+four years or more. The silos are shaped like a cylinder resting on a
+truncated cone, and surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit
+is round and small and covered by a stone slab, and the inside is lined
+with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally taken from
+the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any signs of fermentation
+the granary is cleared and the wheat turned over, but such is the
+dryness of these silos that little trouble of this kind is experienced.
+
+Towards the close of the 19th century warehouses specially intended for
+holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain, but America is the
+home of great granaries, known there as elevators. There are climatic
+difficulties in the way of storing grain in Great Britain on a large
+scale, but these difficulties have been largely overcome. To preserve
+grain in good condition it must be kept as much as possible from
+moisture and heat. New grain when brought into a warehouse has a
+tendency to sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the
+heating is allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An
+effectual remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a
+floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thoroughly. Grain
+can thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is reason to think
+that grain in a sound and dry condition can be better stored in bins or
+dry pits than in the open air; from a series of experiments carried out
+on behalf of the French government it would seem that grain exposed to
+the air is decomposed at 3½ times the rate of grain stored in silo or
+other bins.
+
+In comparing the grain-storage system of Great Britain with that of
+North America it must be borne in mind that whereas Great Britain raises
+a comparatively small amount of grain, which is more or less rapidly
+consumed, grain-growing is one of the greatest industries of the United
+States and of Canada. The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced
+in America can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage
+as has grown up there since the middle of the 19th century. The American
+farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate rate, and can get an
+advance on his warrant if he is in need of money. A holder of wheat in
+Chicago can withdraw a similar grade of wheat from a New York elevator.
+
+Modern granaries are all built on much the same plan. The mechanical
+equipment for receiving and discharging grain is very similar in all
+modern warehouses. A granary is usually erected on a quay at which large
+vessels can lie and discharge. On the land side railway sidings connect
+the warehouse with the chief lines in its district; accessibility to a
+canal is an advantage. Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators
+which are dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic
+elevators are substituted (see CONVEYORS). A travelling band with
+throw-off carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain. Band
+conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging the bins. Bins
+are invariably provided with hopper bottoms, and any bin can be
+effectively cleared by the band, which runs underneath, either in a
+cellar or in a specially constructed tunnel. All granaries should be
+provided with a sufficient plant of cleaning machinery to take from the
+grain impurities as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing
+qualities. Chief among such machines are the warehouse separators which
+work by sieves and air currents (see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE).
+
+The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of chambers for
+grain storage which are known as silos, and may be built of wood, brick,
+iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos are usually square, made of flat
+strips of wood nailed one on top of the other, and so overlapping each
+other at the corners that alternately a longitudinal and a transverse
+batten extends past the corner. The gaps are filled by short pieces of
+timber securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type
+of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain drawbacks, such
+as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt to harbour in the
+interstices unless lime washing is practised. Bricks and cement are good
+materials for constructing silos of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep
+foundations and substantial walls. Iron silos of circular form are used
+to some extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and South
+America. In their case the walls are much thinner than with any other
+material, but the condensation against the inner wall in wet weather is
+a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical tank silos have also been made
+of fire-proof tiles. Ferro-concrete silos have been built on both the
+Monier and the Hennebique systems. In the earlier type the bin was made
+of an iron or steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent
+structures are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement.
+Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if properly
+constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even in case of
+uneven expansion of the material. With brick silos collapses through
+pressure of the stored material are not unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+
+    Port Arthur, Canada.
+
+  One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or warehouses in
+  the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway Company, and was
+  erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in 1901-1904. It has a total storage
+  capacity of 7,000,000 bushels, or 875,000 qrs. of 480 lb. The range of
+  buildings and bins forms an oblong, and consists of two storage
+  houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses A and
+  D (fig. 1). The receiving houses are fed by railway sidings. House A,
+  for example, has two sidings, one running through it and the other
+  beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a receiving
+  elevator of 10,000 lb. capacity per minute, or 60,000 bushels per
+  hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five elevators of 12,000
+  bushels per hour on the other side of the house serve five warehouse
+  separators, and all the grain received or discharged is weighed, there
+  being ten sets of automatic scales in the upper part of the house,
+  known as the cupola. The hopper of each weigher can take a charge of
+  1400 bushels (84,000 lb.). Grain can be conveyed either vertically or
+  horizontally to any part of the house, into any of the bins in the
+  annex B, or into any truck or lake steamer. This house is constructed
+  of timber and roofed with corrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36
+  in. wide; those at the top of the house are provided with throw-off
+  carriages. The dust from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected
+  and spouted to the furnace under the boiler house, where it is
+  consumed. The cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of
+  hollow tiles of burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The
+  tiles are laid on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 in. to
+  6 in. in thickness according to the size of the bin. Each alternate
+  course consists of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous
+  groove or belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting
+  as a tension member and resisting the lateral pressure of the grain.
+  The steel bands once in position, the groove is completely filled with
+  cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually the
+  bottoms of the bins are furnished with self-discharging hoppers of
+  weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar. For the
+  foundation or supporting floor reinforced concrete is frequently used.
+  The tiles already described are faced with tiles ½ to 1 in. thick,
+  which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole exterior of
+  the bin. Any damage to the facing tiles can easily be repaired since
+  they can be removed and replaced without affecting the main bin walls.
+  It is claimed that these facers constitute the best possible
+  protection against fire. A steel framework, covered with tiles, crowns
+  these circular bins and contains the conveyors and spouts which are
+  used to fill the bins. Five tunnels in the concrete bedding that
+  supports the bins carry the belt conveyors which bring back the grain
+  to the working house for cleaning or shipment. There are altogether in
+  each of the storage houses 80 circular bins, each 21 ft. in diameter,
+  and so grouped as to form 63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in
+  all. Each bin will store grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole
+  group has a capacity of 2,500,000 bushels. These bins were all
+  constructed by the Barnett & Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota,
+  U.S.A., in accordance with the Johnson & Record patent system of
+  fire-proof tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working
+  houses is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not
+  only their own contents but also the other working house, and in the
+  event of its disablement or destruction the remaining one can be
+  easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their
+  contents.
+
+
+    Barrow-in-Furness.
+
+  Circular tank silos have not been extensively adopted in Great
+  Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley &
+  Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at
+  Barrow-in-Furness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steel
+  plates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill warehouse.
+  A covered gantry, through which passes a band conveyor, runs from the
+  mill warehouse to the working silo house which stands in the central
+  space amid the four steel tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a
+  diameter of 45 ft., and rest on foundations of concrete and steel.
+  Each has a separate conical roof and they are flat-bottomed, the grain
+  resting directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load
+  of the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed is
+  considered a point of importance. Each tank can hold about 2500 tons
+  of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of
+  over 45,000 qrs. of 480 lb. Attached to the mill warehouse is a skip
+  elevator with a discharging capacity of 75 tons an hour. The grain is
+  cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the vessel to be
+  unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence it
+  is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic weigher
+  capable of taking a charge of 1 ton. From the weighing machine it can
+  be taken, with or without a preliminary cleaning, to any floor of the
+  warehouse, which has a total storing capacity of 8000 tons, or it can
+  be carried by the band conveyor through the gantry to the working
+  house of the silo installation and distributed to any one of the four
+  tank silos. There is also a connexion by a band conveyor running
+  through a covered gantry into the mill, which stands immediately in
+  the rear. It is perfectly easy to turn over the contents of any tank
+  into any other tank. The whole intake and wheat handling plant is
+  moved by two electro-motors of 35 H.P. each, one installed in the
+  warehouse and the other in the silo working house. Steel silo tanks
+  have the advantage of storing a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively
+  small capital outlay. On an average an ordinary silo bin will not hold
+  more than 500 to 1000 qrs., but each of the bins at Barrow will
+  contain 2500 tons or over 1100 qrs. The steel construction also
+  reduces the risk of fire and consequently lessens the fire premium.
+
+
+    Liverpool.
+
+  The important granaries at the Liverpool docks date from 1868, but
+  have since been brought up to modern requirements. The warehouses on
+  the Waterloo docks have an aggregate storage area of 11¾ acres, while
+  the sister warehouses on the Birkenhead side, which stand on the
+  margin of the great float, have an area of 11 acres. The total
+  capacity of these warehouses is about 200,000 qrs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+
+    Manchester.
+
+  The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Trafford wharf is
+  locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a great
+  extent on the model of an American elevator. Some of the mechanical
+  equipment was supplied by a Chicago firm. The total capacity is
+  1,500,000 bushels or 40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226
+  separate bins. The granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side
+  of the dock, but is directly connected with the receiving tower, which
+  rises at the water's edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry.
+  The main building is 448 ft. long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the
+  superstructure was constructed of wood with an external casing of
+  brickwork and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket
+  elevator capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the
+  level of the hold to be unloaded. The elevator has the large unloading
+  capacity of 350 tons per hour, assuming it to be working in a full
+  hold. It is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system)
+  which can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly in dealing with
+  parcels of grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary
+  elevator cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator
+  as well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of
+  horizontal Corliss compound engines of 500 H.P. jointly, which are fed
+  by two Galloway boilers working at 100 lb. pressure. The pneumatic
+  elevator is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines of
+  600 H.P. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 160 lb. The
+  grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From the
+  receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where it is
+  at once elevated to the top of a central tower, and is thence
+  distributed to any of the bins by band conveyors in the usual way. The
+  mechanical equipment of this warehouse is very complete, and the
+  following several operations can be simultaneously effected:
+  discharging grain from vessels in the dock at the rate of 350 tons
+  per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain into the warehouse
+  and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain from bin to
+  bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously weighing in
+  bulk at the rate of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain, weighing and
+  loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and 10 carts simultaneously;
+  loading grain from the warehouse into barges or coasting craft at the
+  rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks per hour. This
+  warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American construction, which can
+  deal with 50 tons of damp grain at one time, and is connected with the
+  whole bin system so that grain can be readily moved from any bin to
+  the dryer or conversely.
+
+
+    London.
+
+  A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the
+  London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity of
+  about 25,000 qrs. or 200,000 bushels. It is over 100 ft. high, and is
+  built on the American plan of interlaced timbers resting on iron
+  columns. The walls are externally cased with steel plates. The grain
+  is stored in 56 silos, most of which are about 10 ft. square by 50 ft.
+  deep. The intake plant has a capacity of 100 tons of wheat an hour,
+  and includes six automatic grain scales, each of which can weigh off
+  one sack at a time. The main delivery floor of the warehouse is at a
+  convenient height above the ground level. Portable automatic weighing
+  machines can be placed under any bin. The whole of the plant is driven
+  by electric motors, one being allotted to each machine.
+
+  The transit silos of the London Grain Elevator Company, also at the
+  Victoria docks, consist of four complete and independent installations
+  standing on three tongues of land which project into the water (figs.
+  2 and 3). Each silo house is furnished with eight bins, each of which,
+  12 ft. square by 80 ft. deep, has a capacity of 1000 qrs. of grain. A
+  kind of well in the middle of each silo house contains the necessary
+  elevators, staircases, &c. The silo bins in each granary are erected
+  on a massive cast iron tank forming a sort of cellar, which rests on a
+  concrete foundation 6 ft. thick. The base of the tank is 30 ft. below
+  the water level. The silos are formed of wooden battens nailed one on
+  top of the other, the pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders resting
+  on cast iron columns support the silos. To ensure a clean discharge
+  the hopper bottoms were designed so as to avoid joints and thus to be
+  free from rivets or similar protuberances. The exterior of each silo
+  house is covered with corrugated iron, and the same material is used
+  for the roofing. No conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators
+  which rise above the tops of the silos can feed any one of them by
+  gravity. There are three delivery elevators to each granary, one with
+  a capacity of 120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour.
+  Each silo house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120
+  tons per hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the
+  house. The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which
+  there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines. Each
+  charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks, which
+  are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is provided with a
+  conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying sacks from the
+  weighing sheds to railway trucks or for carrying grain in bulk to
+  barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical mechanical
+  equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with its fellow
+  warehouse. All operations in connexion with the silo houses are
+  effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a fleet of
+  twenty-six of Philip's patent self-discharging lighters. These craft
+  are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of the ordinary
+  type, running between the double keelson of the lighter and delivering
+  into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By this means
+  little trimming is required after the barge, which holds about 200
+  tons of grain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such draft as to
+  preclude their entry into any of the up river docks are cleared at
+  Tilbury by these lighters. It is said that grain loaded at Tilbury
+  into these lighters can be delivered from the transit silos to railway
+  trucks or barges in about six hours. The total storage capacity of the
+  silos amounts to 32,000 qrs. The motive power is furnished by 14 gas
+  engines of a total capacity of 366 H.P.
+
+
+    Rumania.
+
+  Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are situated
+  at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in Rumania, and
+  serve for both the reception and discharge of grain. At the edge of
+  the quay on which these warehouses are built there are rails with a
+  gauge of 11½ ft., upon which run two mechanical loading and unloading
+  appliances. The first consists of a telescopic elevator which raises
+  the grain and delivers it to one of the two band conveyors at the head
+  of the apparatus. Each of these bands feeds automatic weighing
+  machines with an hourly capacity of 75 tons. From these weighers the
+  grain is either discharged through a manhole in the ground to a band
+  conveyor running in a tunnel parallel to the quay wall, or it is
+  raised by a second elevator (part of the same unloading apparatus),
+  set at an inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient height to
+  load railway trucks on the siding running parallel to the quay. A
+  turning gear is provided so as to reverse, if required, the operation
+  of the whole apparatus, that the portion overhanging the water can be
+  turned to the land side. The unloading capacity is 150 tons of grain
+  per hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic elevator has
+  only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15 wells, which can
+  be filled up with grain from the land side. The capacity of each
+  granary is 233,333 qrs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.
+
+  Transit Silos of the London Grain Elevator Co. Ltd., Victoria Docks,
+  London.
+
+    A. Barge Elevators
+    B. Receiving Elevators
+    C. Silo Bins
+    D. Delivery Elevators
+    E. Weigh Houses
+    F. Automatic Scales
+    G. Sack, Band Gantry
+
+  Longitudinal Elevation looking towards Barge Elevators.
+
+  Cross Section through Transit Silos.]
+
+
+    Stuttgart.
+
+  Many large granaries have been built, in which grain is stored on open
+  floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the warehouse of
+  the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of seven floors, including
+  a basement and entresol. An engine house accommodates two gas engines
+  as well as an hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is
+  received by an elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a
+  weighing machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the
+  top storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the
+  building. A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of
+  the band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be
+  shot to any floor. A second band conveyor is installed in the entresol
+  floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator, if it is
+  desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed. A
+  second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is
+  provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered into
+  the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain passes into
+  a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher; directly under
+  this weigher the grain is sacked.
+
+
+    Mannheim.
+
+  A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin and floor
+  storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim on the Rhine,
+  which has the storage capacity of 2100 tons. The building is 370 ft.
+  in length, 78 ft. wide and 78 ft. high, and by means of transverse
+  walls it is divided into three sections; of these one contains silos,
+  in another section grain is stored on open floors, while the third,
+  which is situated between the other two, is the grain-cleaning
+  department. This granary stands by the quay side, and a ship elevator
+  of great capacity, which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly
+  clear any ship or barge beneath. The central or screening house
+  section contains machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as
+  well as wheat. The barley plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour.
+  There are four main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve
+  the screen house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off
+  carriages are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of
+  pipes which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute
+  it at any required point. The plant is operated by electric motors. If
+  desired the floors of the non-silo section can be utilized for storing
+  other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of 1
+  ton runs from the basement to the top storey. The combined capacity
+  of the elevators and conveyors is 100 tons of grain per hour. The
+  mechanical equipment is so complete that four distinct operations are
+  claimed as possible. A ship may be unloaded into silos or into the
+  granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either from silos or
+  floors with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may be discharged
+  either into silos or upon the floors, and simultaneously the grain may
+  be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vessel, mixed with other
+  grain already received, and then distributed to any desired point.
+  With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended with other
+  varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and transferred
+  from one ship to another.
+
+
+    Dortmund.
+
+  A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay at
+  Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick on a
+  base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of timber. It is 78 ft.
+  high and consists of seven floors, including basement and attic. Here
+  again there are two sections, the larger being devoted to the storage
+  of grain in low bins, while the smaller section consists of an
+  ordinary silo house. Grain in sacks may be stored in the basement of
+  the larger section which has a capacity of 1675 tons as compared with
+  825 tons in the silo department. Thus the total storage capacity is
+  2500 tons. In the silo house the bins, constructed of planks nailed
+  one over the other, are of varying size and are capable of storing
+  grain to a depth of 42 to 47 ft. Some of the bins have been specially
+  adapted for receiving damp grain by being provided internally with
+  transverse wooden arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections.
+  The object of this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored
+  grain. The arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at
+  the base so as to bring a current of air into direct contact with the
+  grain. The air can be warmed if necessary. The other and larger
+  section of the granary is provided with 105 bins of moderate height
+  arranged in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and
+  attic. On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor each bin lies
+  exactly under the bin above. Grain is not stored in these bins to a
+  greater depth than 5 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side
+  walls, and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated for half
+  the area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements for
+  distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The uncleaned
+  grain is taken by the receiving elevator, with a lifting capacity of
+  20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is passed
+  through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or spouted to
+  the main elevator (capacity 25 tons per hour) and elevated to the
+  attic. From the head of this main elevator the grain can either be fed
+  to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors, or shot to one of
+  the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is carried by a
+  spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turntables, as the
+  appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute through spouts the
+  grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alternatively, the grain
+  may be shot into the basement and there fed back into the main
+  elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the grain may be turned over
+  as often as it is deemed necessary. At the bottom of each bin are four
+  apertures connected by spouts, both with the bin below and with the
+  central vertical pipe which passes down through the centre of each
+  group of bins. To regulate the course of the grain from bin to bin or
+  from bin to central pipe, the connecting spouts are fitted with valves
+  of ingenious yet simple construction which deflect the grain in any
+  desired direction, so that the contents of two or more bins may be
+  blended, or grain may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bin
+  on a lower floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are
+  controlled by chains from the basement.
+
+  With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be observed
+  that there are granaries built on a similar principle in the United
+  Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height are more suitable
+  for storing grain containing a considerable amount of moisture than
+  deep silos, whether made of wood, ferro-concrete or other material.
+  For one thing floor bins of the Dortmund pattern can be more
+  effectually aerated than deep silos. German wheat has many
+  characteristics in common with British, and, especially in north
+  Germany, is not infrequently harvested in a more or less damp
+  condition. In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer & Co., of Melksham,
+  have erected several granaries on the floor-bin principle, and have
+  adopted an ingenious system of "telescopic" spouting, by means of
+  which grain may be discharged from one bin to another or at any
+  desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins either with level
+  floors or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged one above the
+  other on the different floors, and is so constructed that an opening
+  can be effected at certain points by simply sliding upwards a section
+  of the spout.
+
+_National Granaries._--Wheat forms the staple food of a large proportion
+of the population of the British Isles, and of the total amount consumed
+about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks normally held in the country
+being limited, serious consequences might result from any interruption
+of the supply, such as might occur were Great Britain involved in war
+with a power or powers commanding a strong fleet. To meet this
+contingency it has been suggested that the State should establish
+granaries containing a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency,
+or should adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &c.,
+to hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production of
+home-grown wheat.
+
+
+  Amount of stocks.
+
+Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight of
+wheat) are held by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants' stocks are
+kept in granaries at ports of importation and are known as first-hand
+stocks. Stocks of wheat and flour in the hands of millers and of flour
+held by bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers' stocks only
+consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made of
+first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be possible
+in the case of farmers' stocks, but second-hand stocks are more
+difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the 19th century the
+storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased. As the
+number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the bigger ones has
+increased, and proportionately their warehousing accommodation has been
+enlarged. At the present time first-hand stocks tend to diminish because
+a larger proportion of millers' holdings are in mill granaries and silo
+houses. The immense preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in
+the grain trade has also had the effect of greatly diminishing stocks.
+With his cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to
+a day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British
+merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in preference
+to British warehouses. The merchant's risk is thereby lessened to a
+certain extent. When his wheat has been brought into a British port, to
+send it farther afield means extra expense. But wheat in an American or
+Argentine elevator may be ordered wherever the best price can be
+obtained for it. Options or "futures," too, have helped to restrict the
+size of wheat stocks in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of
+wheat on passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market
+value of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, he sells
+an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option serving
+as insurance against loss. This is why the British corn trade finds it
+less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting itself by option
+deals, than to store large quantities which may depreciate and involve
+their owners in loss.
+
+Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks' supply of
+breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various seasons of the
+year. A table compiled by the secretary of the National Association of
+British and Irish Millers from returns for 1902 made by 170 milling
+firms showed 4.7, 4.9, 4.9 and 5 weeks' supply at the end of March,
+June, September and December respectively. These 170 mills were said to
+represent 46% of the milling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed
+to have ground 12,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled in 1902.
+These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the other mills
+would not have shown anything like such a proportion of stock of either
+raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the stocks normally held by
+millers and bakers throughout the United Kingdom would be about four
+weeks' supply. First-hand stocks vary considerably, but the limits are
+definite, ranging from 1,000,000 to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a
+high figure. The tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two
+weeks' supply must be a minimum. Farmers' stocks necessarily vary with
+the size of the crop and the period of the year; they will range from 9
+or 10 weeks on the 1st of September to a half week on the 1st of August.
+Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional for the stock of
+breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks' supply. Between the cereal years
+1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of 570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds
+fell below 7 weeks' supply in only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were
+between the beginning of June and the end of August 1898. This was
+immediately after the Leiter collapse. In seven of these eleven years
+there is no instance of stocks falling below 8 weeks' supply. In 21 out
+of these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks dropped
+below 7½ and 8 weeks' supply respectively. Roughly speaking the stock of
+wheat available for bread-making varies from a two to four months'
+supply and is at times well above the latter figure.
+
+
+  National reserve.
+
+The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at the disposal
+of the state in case of urgent need during war, is beset by many
+practical difficulties. The father of the scheme was probably _The
+Miller_, a well-known trade journal. In March and April 1886 two
+articles appeared in that paper under the heading "Years of Plenty and
+State Granaries," in which it was urged that to meet the risk of hostile
+cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be desirable to lay up in
+granaries on British soil and under government control a stock of wheat
+sufficient for 12 or alternatively 6 months' consumption. This was to be
+national property, not to be touched except when the fortune of war sent
+up the price of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The
+State holding this large stock--a year's supply of foreign grain would
+have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about £25,000,000
+exclusive of warehousing--was in peace time to sell no wheat except when
+it became necessary to part with stock as a precautionary measure. In
+that case the wheat sold was to be replaced by the same amount of new
+grain. The idea was to provide the country with a supply of wheat until
+sufficient wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically
+self-sufficing in respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell quite
+flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper on "Great
+Britain's Corn Supplies in War," before the London Chamber of Commerce,
+and accepted national granaries as the only practicable safeguard
+against what appeared to him a great peril. The representatives of the
+shipping interest opposed the scheme, probably because it appeared to
+them likely to divert the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy.
+The corn trade opposed the project on account of its great practical
+difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat acreage kept
+the question alive, and during the earlier half of the 'nineties it was
+a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some influential members of
+parliament pressed the matter on the government, who, acting, no doubt,
+on the advice of their military and naval experts, refused either a
+royal commission or a departmental committee. While the then technical
+advisers of the government were divided on the advisability of
+establishing national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of
+expert opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then
+commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great Britain
+might in war be starved into submission as "unmitigated humbug."
+
+
+  Yerburgh committee.
+
+In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued, and early
+in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated Chambers of
+Agriculture, at the suggestion to a great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh,
+M.P., nominated a committee to examine the question of national wheat
+stores. This committee held thirteen sittings and examined fifty-four
+witnesses. Its report, which was published (L. G. Newman & Co., 12
+Finsbury Square, London, E.C.) with minutes of the evidence taken,
+practically recommended that a national reserve of wheat on the lines
+already sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and
+that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the appointment
+of a royal commission, comprising representatives of agriculture, the
+corn trade, shipping, and the army and navy, to conduct an exhaustive
+inquiry into the whole subject of the national food-supply in case of
+war. This recommendation was ultimately carried into effect, but not
+till nearly five years had elapsed. Of two schemes for national
+granaries put before the Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Mr
+Seth Taylor, a London miller and corn merchant, who reckoned that a
+store of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average
+cost of 40s. per qr.--this was in the Leiter year of high prices--and
+distributed in six specially constructed granaries to be erected at
+London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and Dublin. The cost of the
+granaries was put at £7,500,000. Mr Taylor's scheme, all charges
+included, such as 2½% interest on capital, cost of storage (at 6d. per
+qr.), and 2s. per qr. for cost of replacing wheat, involved an annual
+expenditure of £1,250,000. The Yerburgh committee also considered a
+proposal to stimulate the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to
+farmers for every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken
+different shapes; some have suggested that a bounty should be given on
+every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would only allow the
+bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition up to a certain date,
+say the beginning of the following harvest. It is obvious that a bounty
+on the area of land covered by wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a
+premium on poor farming, and might divert to wheat-growing land
+unsuitable for that purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say 3s.
+to 5s. per qr. for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands
+on a different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of 5s. might
+expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to 9,000,000
+qrs., which would mean that a bounty of £2,250,000 per annum, plus costs
+of administration, had secured an extra home production of 2,000,000
+qrs. Whether such a price would be worth paying is another matter; the
+Yerburgh committee's conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has
+also been suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent
+of 2s. 6d. per sack of 280 lb. per annum on condition that each
+maintained a minimum supply of two months' flour. This may be taken to
+mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over and above his usual
+output a miller would be entitled to an annual subsidy of 2s. 6d. per
+sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000 sacks might be thus kept up at an
+annual cost of £1,250,000, plus the expenditure of administration, which
+would probably be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very
+probable that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse
+accommodation and depots all over the country would be ready to keep up
+a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill of 10,000 sacks'
+capacity per week, which habitually maintains a total stock of 50,000
+sacks, might bring up its stock to 150,000 sacks. Such a mill, being a
+good customer to railways, could get from them the storage it required
+for little or nothing. But the bulk of the mills have no such
+advantages. They have little or no spare warehousing room, and are not
+accustomed to keep any stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as
+it is milled. It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 2s. 6d. per sack
+would have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks,
+sufficient for two to three months' bread consumption.
+
+
+  Royal commission, 1903-1905.
+
+The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission appointed in
+1903, to which was also referred the importation of raw material in war
+time. Its report appeared in 1905. To the question whether the
+unquestioned dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted supply
+of sea-borne breadstuffs renders it advisable or not to maintain at all
+times a six months' stock of wheat and flour, it returned no decided
+answer, or perhaps it would be more correct to say that the commission
+was hopelessly divided. The main report was distinctly optimistic so far
+as the liability of the country to harass and distress at the hands of a
+hostile naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But there
+were several dissentients, and there was hardly any portion of the
+report in chief which did not provoke some reservation or another. That
+a maritime war would cause freights and insurance to rise in a high
+degree was freely admitted, and it was also admitted that the price of
+bread must also rise very appreciably. But, provided the navy did not
+break down, the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the
+proposals for providing national granaries or inducing merchants and
+millers to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and
+unnecessary. The commission was, however, inclined to consider more
+favourably a suggestion for providing free storage for wheat at the
+expense of the State. The idea was that if the State would subsidize any
+large granary company to the extent of 6d. or 5d. per qr., grain now
+warehoused in foreign lands would be attracted to the British Isles. But
+on the whole the commission held that the main effect of the scheme
+would be to saddle the government with the rent of all grain stored in
+public warehouses in the United Kingdom without materially increasing
+stocks. The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stocks for a
+longer period and to grow more wheat met with equally little favour.
+
+To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming any sort of
+disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve of even six months'
+wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks would prevent panic prices.
+On the other hand, the difficulties in the way of forming and
+administering such a reserve are very great. The world grows no great
+surplus of wheat, and to form a six months', much more a twelve months',
+stock would be the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat
+would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending up prices with a
+rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when they let go a certain
+amount of stock they would be bound to sell cheaply. A stock once formed
+might be held by the State with little or no disturbance of the corn
+market, although the existence of such an emergency stock would hardly
+encourage British farmers to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting,
+equipping and keeping in good order the necessary warehouses would be,
+probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate hitherto made by
+advocates of national granaries.     (G. F. Z.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, MARQUESS OF (1721-1770), British soldier, was the
+eldest son of the third duke of Rutland. He was born in 1721 and
+educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was returned as
+member of parliament for Grantham in 1741. Four years later he received
+a commission as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in
+and about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745.
+This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granby went to the
+front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland's staff, and saw active
+service in the last stages of the insurrection. Very soon his regiment
+was disbanded. He continued in parliament, combining with it military
+duties, making the campaign of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general
+in 1755, three years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse
+Guards (Blues). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke of
+Somerset, and in 1754 had begun his parliamentary connexion with
+Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death. The same year
+that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues, saw also the despatch of a
+considerable British contingent to Germany. Minden was Granby's first
+great battle. At the head of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders
+halted at the critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that
+officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut.-General Lord Granby succeeded
+to the command of the British contingent in Ferdinand's army, having
+32,000 men under his orders at the beginning of 1760. In the remaining
+campaigns of the Seven Years' War the English contingent was more
+conspicuous by its conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 31st of
+July 1760 Granby brilliantly stormed Warburg at the head of the British
+cavalry, capturing 1500 men and ten pieces of artillery. A year later
+(15th of July 1761) the British defended the heights of Vellinghausen
+with what Ferdinand himself styled "indescribable bravery." In the last
+campaign, at Gravenstein und Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, Granby's
+men bore the brunt of the fighting and earned the greatest share of the
+glory.
+
+Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself the popular
+hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited his arrival at all the
+home ports to offer him the choice of the Ordnance or the Horse Guards.
+His appointment to the Ordnance bore the date of the 1st of July 1763,
+and three years later he became commander-in-chief. In this position he
+was attacked by "Junius," and a heated discussion arose, as the writer
+had taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member of the
+Grafton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political and financial
+trouble, resigned all his offices, except the colonelcy of the Blues. He
+died at Scarborough on the 18th of October 1770. He had been made a
+privy councillor in 1760, lord lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and
+LL.D. of Cambridge in 1769.
+
+  Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, one of
+  which is now in the National Gallery. His contemporary popularity is
+  indicated by the number of inns and public-houses which took his name
+  and had his portrait as sign-board.
+
+
+
+
+GRAN CHACO, an extensive region in the heart of South America belonging
+to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20° to 29° S. lat., and divided
+between the republics of Argentine, Bolivia and Paraguay, with a small
+district of south-western Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is estimated
+at from 250,000 to 425,000 sq. m., but the true Chaco region probably
+does not exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with marshes,
+lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still unexplored.
+On its southern and western borders there are extensive tracts of open
+woodland, intermingled with grassy plains, while on the northern side in
+Bolivia are large areas of open country subject to inundations in the
+rainy season. In general terms the Gran Chaco may be described as a
+great plain sloping gently to the S.E., traversed in the same direction
+by two great rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, whose sluggish courses
+are not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of overturned trees
+and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This excludes that part
+of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin, which is sometimes
+described as part of the Chaco. The greater part of its territory is
+occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians, some of whom are still unsubdued,
+while others, like the Matacos, are sometimes to be found on
+neighbouring sugar estates and estancias as labourers during the busy
+season. The forest wealth of the Chaco region is incalculable and
+apparently inexhaustible, consisting of a great variety of palms and
+valuable cabinet woods, building timber, &c. Its extensive tracts of
+"quebracho Colorado" (_Loxopterygium Lorentzii_) are of very great value
+because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its extract are
+largely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining footholds in this
+region along the southern and eastern borders.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE (alternatively called the War of the League
+of Augsburg), the third[1] of the great aggressive wars waged by Louis
+XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire, Great Britain, Holland and
+other states. The two earlier wars, which are redeemed from oblivion by
+the fact that in them three great captains, Turenne, Condé and
+Montecucculi, played leading parts, are described in the article DUTCH
+WARS. In the third war the leading figures are: Henri de
+Montmorency-Boutteville, duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of
+Condé and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of Orange, who
+had fought against both Condé and Luxemburg in the earlier wars, and was
+now king of England; Vauban, the founder of the sciences of
+fortification and siegecraft, and Catinat, the follower of Turenne's
+cautious and systematic strategy, who was the first commoner to receive
+high command in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these
+men--except Vauban--are overshadowed by the great figures of the
+preceding generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes,
+the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and manoeuvres.
+
+It was within these years that the art and practice of war began to
+crystallize into the form called "linear" in its strategic and tactical
+aspect, and "cabinet-war" in its political and moral aspect. In the
+Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that preceded the formation of the
+League of Augsburg, there were still survivals of the loose
+organization, violence and wasteful barbarity typical of the Thirty
+Years' War; and even in the War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier
+years) occasional brutalities and devastations showed that the old
+spirit died hard. But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery
+in the old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the fierce
+Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally understood that
+barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating popular sympathies, but
+also as rendering operations a physical impossibility for want of
+supplies.
+
+
+  Character of the war.
+
+Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people into
+submission, armies systematically conciliated them by paying cash and
+bringing trade into the country. Formerly, wars had been fought to
+compel a people to abjure their faith or to change sides in some
+personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no longer been the
+case. The Peace of Westphalia established the general relationship of
+kings, priests and peoples on a basis that was not really shaken until
+the French Revolution, and in the intervening hundred and forty years
+the peoples at large, except at the highest and gravest moments (as in
+Germany in 1689, France In 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from
+active participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of the
+theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only, and that
+intervention in it by the civil population was a punishable offence.
+Thus wars became the business of the professional soldiers in the king's
+own service, and the scarcity and costliness of these soldiers combined
+with the purely political character of the quarrels that arose to reduce
+a campaign from an "intense and passionate drama" to a humdrum affair,
+to which only rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour,
+and which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small
+expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between a prince
+and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred the average
+man--the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English Revolution--but
+foreign wars were "a stronger form of diplomatic notes," as Clausewitz
+called them, and were waged with the object of adding a codicil to the
+treaty of peace that had closed the last incident.
+
+Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war. Campaigns
+were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty thousand men. Large
+regular armies had come into fashion, and, as Guibert points out,
+instead of small armies charged with grand operations we find grand
+armies charged with small operations. The average general, under the
+prevailing conditions of supply and armament, was not equal to the task
+of commanding such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces
+that Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of the question, and the
+field armies split into six or eight independent fractions, each charged
+with operations on a particular theatre of war. From such a policy
+nothing remotely resembling the crushing of a great power could be
+expected to be gained. The one tangible asset, in view of future peace
+negotiations, was therefore a fortress, and it was on the preservation
+or capture of fortresses that operations in all these wars chiefly
+turned. The idea of the decisive battle for its own sake, as a
+settlement of the quarrel, was far distant; for, strictly speaking,
+there was no quarrel, and to use up highly trained and exceedingly
+expensive soldiers in gaining by brute force an advantage that might
+equally well be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish.
+
+The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent value to
+a state at war. A century of constant warfare had impoverished middle
+Europe, and armies had to spread over a large area if they desired to
+"live on the country." This was dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf.
+the Peninsular War), and it was also uneconomical. The only way to
+prevent the country people from sending their produce into the
+fortresses for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be
+paid, at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises
+rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether on supplies
+brought up from the home country and stored in magazines (which had to
+be guarded) or on local resources, an army had as a rule to maintain or
+to capture a large fortress. Sieges, therefore, and manoeuvres are the
+features of this form of war, wherein armies progressed not with the
+giant strides of modern war, but in a succession of short hops from one
+foothold to the next. This was the procedure of the average commander,
+and even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the
+Luxemburgs and Marlboroughs it was but momentary and spasmodic.
+
+The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine-tenths of its
+marches and manoeuvres can be almost "taken as read"; the remaining
+tenth, the exceptional and abnormal part of it, alone possesses an
+interest for modern readers.
+
+In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV. sent his
+troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest, into that
+country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding parties plundered
+the country as far south as Augsburg, for the political intent of their
+advance suggested terrorism rather than conciliation as the best method.
+The league of Augsburg at once took up the challenge, and the addition
+of new members (Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the "Grand
+Alliance" of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian states,
+Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg, &c.
+
+"Those who condemned the king for raising up so many enemies, admired
+him for having so fully prepared to defend himself and even to forestall
+them," says Voltaire. Louvois had in fact completed the work of
+organizing the French army on a regular and permanent basis, and had
+made it not merely the best, but also by far the most numerous in
+Europe, for Louis disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and
+60,000 sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket
+bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The only relic of
+the old armament was the pike, which was retained for one-quarter of the
+foot, though it had been discarded by the Imperialists in the course of
+the Turkish wars described below. The first artillery regiment was
+created in 1684, to replace the former semi-civilian organization by a
+body of artillerymen susceptible of uniform training and amenable to
+discipline and orders.
+
+
+  Devastation of the Palatinate, 1689.
+
+In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany, which had
+executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not in a position to
+resist the principal army of the coalition so far from support. Louvois
+therefore ordered it to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of
+the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, Oppenheim and Worms was
+pitilessly and methodically carried into effect in January and February.
+There had been devastations in previous wars, even the high-minded
+Turenne had used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population
+or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the great
+war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces of their passage
+that it took a century to remove. But here the devastation was a purely
+military measure, executed systematically over a given strategic front
+for no other purpose than to delay the advance of the enemy's army. It
+differed from the method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers
+were not those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to
+submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It differed
+from Wellington's laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in that it was not
+done for the defence of the Palatinate against a national enemy, but
+because the Palatinate was where it was. The feudal theory that every
+subject of a prince at war was an armed vassal, and therefore an enemy
+of the prince's enemy, had in practice been obsolete for two centuries
+past; by 1690 the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its
+instruments had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it had
+become thoroughly understood that the army alone was concerned with the
+army's business. Thus it was that this devastation excited universal
+reprobation; and that, in the words of a modern French writer, the
+"idea of Germany came to birth in the flames of the Palatinate."
+
+As a military measure this crime was, moreover, quite unprofitable; for
+it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French commander, to hold
+out on the east side of the middle Rhine, and he could think of nothing
+better to do than to go farther south and to ravage Baden and the
+Breisgau, which was not even a military necessity. The grand army of the
+Allies, coming farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of
+Lorraine and the elector of Bavaria--lately comrades in the Turkish war
+(see below)--invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn. The
+latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, shelled the town
+uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and overpowering its
+French garrison, an incident not calculated to advance the nascent idea
+of German unity. Mainz, valiantly defended by Nicolas du Blé, marquis
+d'Uxelles, had to surrender on the 8th of September. The governor of
+Bonn, baron d'Asfeld, not in the least intimidated by the bombardment,
+held out till the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of
+Brandenburg, and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered him
+by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the 12th of
+October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender on the
+16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the elector,
+escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufflers, with another of Louis's
+armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured by the French in 1684 and
+since held) and Trarbach towards the Rhine, but in spite of a minor
+victory at Kochheim on the 21st of August, he was unable to relieve
+either Mainz or Bonn.
+
+In the Low Countries the French marshal d'Humières, being in superior
+force, had obtained _special permission_ to offer battle to the Allies.
+Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to amuse the Spaniards, he
+hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the Dutch, who from Namur had advanced
+slowly on Philippeville. Coming upon their army (which was commanded by
+the prince of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an
+advanced post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his
+advanced guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to
+clear the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th August).
+After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt, he drew back. For a
+few days the two armies remained face to face, cannonading one another
+at intervals, but no further fighting occurred. Humières returned to the
+region of the Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the
+others of Louis' six armies the year's campaign passed off quite
+uneventfully.
+
+
+    The war in Ireland, 1689-1691.
+
+  Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was being
+  fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with desultory
+  engagements between the Orangemen of the north and the Irish regular
+  army, most of which the earl of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for
+  King James. The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into
+  the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former place,
+  begun by James himself and carried on by the French general Rosen,
+  lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges of the continent,
+  this was resisted by the townsmen themselves, under the leadership of
+  the clergyman George Walker. But the relieving force (consisting of
+  two frigates, a supply ship and a force under Major-general Percy
+  Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not until the defenders were in the
+  last extremity that Kirke actually broke through the blockade (July
+  31st). Enniskillen was less closely invested, and its inhabitants,
+  organized by Colonel Wolseley and other officers sent by Kirke,
+  actually kept the open field and defeated the Jacobites at Newtown
+  Butler (July 31st). A few days later the Jacobite army withdrew from
+  the north. But it was long before an adequate army could be sent over
+  from England to deal with it. Marshal Schomberg (q.v.), one of the
+  most distinguished soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from
+  the French service as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but
+  the army he brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits,
+  and when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its
+  work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James failed
+  to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the north,
+  and the relics of Schomberg's army wintered in security, covered by
+  the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however, more troops,
+  this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark and Brandenburg,
+  were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and Major-general
+  Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized and equipped the
+  field army, King William assumed the command himself. Five days after
+  his arrival he began his advance from Loughbrickland near Newry, and
+  on the 1st of July he engaged James's main army on the river Boyne,
+  close to Drogheda. Schomberg was killed and William himself wounded,
+  but the Irish army was routed.
+
+  No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin or in the
+  Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French auxiliary
+  corps in James's army, and Tyrconnel both discountenanced any attempt
+  to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces had reassembled; but
+  Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the spokesman of the younger and
+  more ardent of the Irish officers, pleaded for its retention. He was
+  left, therefore, to hold Limerick, while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved
+  northward into Galway. Here, as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the
+  active sympathies of the people against the invader, and Sarsfield not
+  only surprised and destroyed the artillery train of William's army,
+  but repulsed every assault made on the walls that Lauzun had said
+  "could be battered down by rotten apples." William gave up the siege
+  on the 30th of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a
+  measure by the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord
+  Marlborough, which captured Cork and Kinsale, and next year (1691) the
+  Jacobite cause was finally crushed by William's general Ginckell
+  (afterwards earl of Athlone) in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July
+  12th), in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the
+  Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, besieged
+  Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing the
+  defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as by
+  land. After six weeks' resistance the defenders offered to capitulate,
+  and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the 1st of October
+  the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfield and the most energetic of King
+  James's supporters retired to France and were there formed into the
+  famous "Irish brigade." Sarsfield was killed at the battle of
+  Neerwinden two years later.
+
+The campaign of 1690 on the continent of Europe is marked by two
+battles, one of which, Luxemburg's victory of Fleurus, belongs to the
+category of the world's great battles. It is described under FLEURUS,
+and the present article only deals summarily with the conditions in
+which it was fought. These, though they in fact led to an encounter that
+could, in itself, fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with
+the general spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of
+them.
+
+Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had consequently been
+allotted only an insignificant part in the first campaign. But after the
+disasters of 1689 Louis re-arranged the commands on the north-east
+frontier so as to allow Humières, Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine for
+united action. "I will take care that Louvois plays fair," Louis said to
+the duke when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently
+Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination himself, as
+senior officer he would automatically take command if it came about. The
+whole force available was probably close on 100,000, but not half of
+these were present at the decisive battle, though Luxemburg certainly
+practised the utmost "economy of force" as this was understood in those
+days (see also NEERWINDEN). On the remaining theatres of war, the
+dauphin, assisted by the duc de Lorge, held the middle Rhine, and
+Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, &c., as before.
+Catinat's operations are briefly described below. Those of the others
+need no description, for though the Allies formed a plan for a grand
+concentric advance on Paris, the preliminaries to this advance were so
+numerous and so closely interdependent that on the most favourable
+estimate the winter would necessarily find the Allied armies many
+leagues short of Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when
+Charles of Lorraine died (17th April), and the reconquest of his lost
+duchy ceased to be a direct object of the war.
+
+
+  Fleurus, 1690.
+
+Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre country, where
+he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt and "eating up" the
+country between Oudenarde and Ghent in the face of a Spanish army
+concentrated at the latter place (15th May-12th June). He then left
+Humières with a containing force in the Scheldt region and hurried back
+to the Sambre to interpose between the Allied army under Waldeck and the
+fortress of Dinant which Waldeck was credited with the intention of
+besieging. His march from Tournay to Gerpinnes was counted a model of
+skill--the _locus classicus_ for the maxim that ruled till the advent of
+Napoleon--"march always in the order in which you encamp, or purpose to
+encamp, or fight." For four days the army marched across country in
+close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring cavalry and
+advanced, flank and rear guards. Under these conditions eleven miles a
+day was practically forced marching, and on arriving at
+Jeumont-sur-Sambre the army was given three days' rest. Then followed a
+few leisurely marches in the direction of Charleroi, during which a
+detachment of Boufflers's army came in, and the cavalry explored the
+country to the north. On news of the enemy's army being at Trazegnies,
+Luxemburg hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this
+proved to be a detachment only, and soon information came in that
+Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon Luxemburg, without
+consulting his subordinate generals, took his army to Velaine. He knew
+that the enemy was marking time till the troops of Liége and the
+Brandenburgers from the Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the
+Dinant enterprise, and he was determined to fight a battle at once. From
+Velaine, therefore, on the morning of the 1st of July, the army moved
+forward to Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant victories in
+the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg was not allowed to pursue
+his advantage. He was ordered to hold his army in readiness to besiege
+either Namur, Mons, Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders
+dictated; and to send back the borrowed regiments to Boufflers, who was
+being pressed back by the Brandenburg and Liége troops. Thus Waldeck
+reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where William III. of England
+soon afterwards assumed command of the Allied forces in the Netherlands,
+and Luxemburg and the other marshals stood fast for the rest of the
+campaign, being forbidden to advance until Catinat--in Italy--should
+have won a battle.
+
+
+  Staffarda.
+
+In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy had long
+disquieted the French court. His personal connexions with the imperial
+family and his resentment against Louvois, who had on some occasion
+treated him with his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join
+the Allies, while on the other hand he could hope for extensions of his
+scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of this doubtful
+condition of affairs the French army under Catinat had for some time
+been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and in the summer of 1690 Louis
+XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor Amadeus to compel him to take one side
+or the other actively and openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel
+threw in his lot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards
+and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced into Piedmont,
+and won, principally by virtue of his own watchfulness and the high
+efficiency of his troops, the important victory of Staffarda (August
+18th, 1690). This did not, however, enable him to overrun Piedmont, and
+as the duke was soon reinforced, he had to be content with the
+methodical conquest of a few frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a
+small French army under the duc de Noailles passed into Catalonia and
+there lived at the enemy's expense for the duration of the campaign.
+
+In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion of the
+German princes prevented vigorous action, the following year, 1691, was
+uneventful. But in the Netherlands there were a siege, a war of
+manoeuvres and a cavalry combat, each in its way somewhat remarkable.
+The siege was that of Mons, which was, like many sieges in the former
+wars, conducted with much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and
+Vauban under him. On the surrender of the place, which was hastened by
+red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and divided his
+army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former of whom departed to the
+Meuse. There he attempted by bombardment to enforce the surrender of
+Liége, but had to desist when the elector of Brandenburg threatened
+Dinant. The principal armies on either side faced one another under the
+command respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies were
+first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg hurried thither,
+but neither party found any tempting opportunity for battle, and when
+the cavalry had consumed all the forage available in the district, the
+two armies edged away gradually towards Flanders. The war of manoeuvre
+continued, with a slight balance of advantage on Luxemburg's side,
+until September, when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in
+command of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter
+quarters amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary opportunity
+for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze (20th Sept.) he fell
+upon the cavalry of Waldeck's rearguard and drove it back in disorder
+with heavy losses until the pursuit was checked by the Allied infantry.
+
+In 1692[2] the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than before, although
+Lorge made a successful raid into Württemberg in September and foraged
+his cavalry in German territory till the approach of winter. The Spanish
+campaign was unimportant, but on the Alpine side the Allies under the
+duke of Savoy drove back Catinat into Dauphiné, which they ravaged with
+fire and sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms than
+the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry--amongst whom figured the
+heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708), daughter of the marquis
+de la Charce--they beset every road with such success that the small
+regular army of the invaders was powerless. Brought practically to a
+standstill, the Allies soon consumed the provisions that could be
+gathered in, and then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes
+behind them, they retreated.
+
+
+  Siege of Namur, 1692.
+
+  Steenkirk.
+
+In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a great siege.
+Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th of May. The place was
+defended by the prince de Barbançon (who had been governor of Luxemburg
+when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoorn (q.v.), Vauban's
+rival in the science of fortification. Luxemburg, with a small army,
+manoeuvred to cover the siege against William III.'s army at Louvain.
+The place fell on the 5th of June,[3] after a very few days of Vauban's
+"regular" attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as
+before, Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg to
+"preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing the enemy's
+enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense." This negative
+policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-fought battle. William,
+employing a common device, announced his intention of retaking Namur,
+but set his army in motion for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses
+held by the French. Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the
+Scheldt, and the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg
+about Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then formed the plan
+of surprising Luxemburg's right wing before it could be supported by the
+rest of his army, relying chiefly on false information that a detected
+spy at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke. But
+Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread net of outposts as
+well as a secret service, and although ill in bed when William's advance
+was reported, he shook off his apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by
+his outpost reports to divine his opponent's plan, he met it (3rd
+August) by a swift concentration of his army, against which the Allies,
+whose advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless (see
+STEENKIRK). In this almost accidental battle both sides suffered
+enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about, or even to risk,
+a second resultless trial of strength. Boufflers's army returned to the
+Sambre and Luxemburg and William established themselves for the rest of
+the season at Lessines and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both
+armies had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered Boufflers
+to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombardment failed to
+intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies began to re-assemble, the
+attempt was given up (19th-21st Oct.). This failure was, however,
+compensated by the siege and capture of Furnes (28th Dec. 1692-7th Jan.
+1693).
+
+In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It began, as
+mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at least indicated the
+aggressive spirit of the French generals. The king promoted his admiral,
+Tourville, and Catinat, the _roturier_, to the marshalship, and founded
+the military order of St Louis on the 10th of April. The grand army in
+the Netherlands this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William III.
+had only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning of operations
+Louis, after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, broke it up, in
+order to send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany, where Lorge had
+captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if reinforced, to overrun south
+Germany. But the imperial general Prince Louis of Baden took up a
+position near Heilbronn so strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not
+venture to attack him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream,
+and for the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed,
+of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge by his
+letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action as a
+sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And, before the
+event falsified predictions, there was much to be said for the course he
+took, which accorded better with the prevailing system of war than a
+Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system of war the rival armies, as
+armies, were almost in a state of equilibrium, and more was to be
+expected from an army dealing with something dissimilar to itself--a
+fortress or a patch of land or a convoy--than from its collision with
+another army of equal force.
+
+
+  Neerwinden.
+
+Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity. He was still
+superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had the advantage of
+position. The former, authorized by his master this year "_non seulement
+d'empêcher les ennemis de rien entreprendre, mais d'emporter quelques
+avantages sur eux_," threatened Liége, drew William over to its defence
+and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however, retired to another
+position, between the Great and Little Geete rivers, and there, in a
+strongly entrenched position around Neerwinden, they were attacked by
+Luxemburg on the 29th of July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the
+greatest victories ever won by the French army, is briefly described
+under NEERWINDEN. It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but
+Luxemburg's exhausted army did not pursue; William was as unshaken and
+determined as ever; and the campaign closed, not with a treaty of peace,
+but with a few manoeuvres which, by inducing William to believe in an
+attack on Ath, enabled Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi
+(October).
+
+
+  Marsaglia.
+
+Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year. Catinat,
+advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of Pinerolo
+(Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was besieging, took up a position in
+formal order of battle north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the
+4th of October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army, front
+to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency of the French,
+and Catinat's minute attention to details[4] in arraying them, gave the
+new marshal a victory that was a not unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The
+Piedmontese and their allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded
+and prisoners, as against Catinat's 1800. But here, too, the results
+were trifling, and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the
+year in which "people perished of want to the accompaniment of _Te
+Deums_."
+
+  In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and
+  famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The armies
+  were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William offered no
+  further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In September, after
+  inducing William to desist from his intention of besieging Dunkirk by
+  appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry,[5] which had ridden
+  from the Meuse, 100 m., in 4 days, Luxemburg gave up his command. He
+  died on the 4th of January following, and with him the tradition of
+  the Condé school of warfare disappeared from Europe. In Catalonia the
+  marshal de Noailles won a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the
+  ford of the Ter (Torroella, 5 m. above the mouth of the river), and
+  in consequence captured a number of walled towns.
+
+
+    Later campaigns of the war.
+
+  In 1695 William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable opponent
+  than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in keeping him in
+  Flanders while a corps of the Allies invested Namur. Coehoorn directed
+  the siege-works, and Boufflers the defence. Gradually, as in 1692, the
+  defenders were dislodged from the town, the citadel outworks and the
+  citadel itself, the last being assaulted with success by the "British
+  grenadiers," as the song commemorates, on the 30th of August.
+  Boufflers was rewarded for his sixty-seven days' defence by the grade
+  of marshal.
+
+  By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague and
+  indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his efforts
+  to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding campaigns. In
+  this new policy he met with much success. Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles
+  and even the incompetent Villeroi held the field in their various
+  spheres of operations without allowing the Allies to inflict any
+  material injury, and also (by having recourse again to the policy of
+  living by plunder) preserving French soil from the burden of their own
+  maintenance. In this, as before, they were powerfully assisted by the
+  disunion and divided counsels of their heterogeneous enemies. In
+  Piedmont, Catinat crowned his work by making peace and alliance with
+  the duke of Savoy, and the two late enemies having joined forces
+  captured one of the fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was
+  in 1697. Catinat and Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the
+  most regular and methodical of the great engineer's career. It lasted
+  23 days and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir
+  from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to
+  attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendôme, Noailles' successor,
+  captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on the 30th of
+  October, closed this war by practically restoring the _status quo
+  ante_; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand Alliance that
+  opposed them ceased to have force, and three years later the struggle
+  began anew (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE).
+
+
+    Austro-Turkish wars, 1682-1699.
+
+  Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been engaged in a
+  much more serious war on his eastern marches against the old enemy,
+  the Turks. This war arose in 1682 out of internal disturbances in
+  Hungary. The campaign of the following year is memorable for all time
+  as the last great wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommed IV. advanced from
+  Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove back the small imperial army
+  of Prince Charles of Lorraine, and early in July invested Vienna
+  itself. The two months' defence of Vienna by Count Rüdiger Starhemberg
+  (1635-1701) and the brilliant victory of the relieving army led by
+  John Sobieski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles on the 12th of
+  September 1683, were events which, besides their intrinsic importance,
+  possess the romantic interest of an old knightly crusade against the
+  heathen.
+
+  But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed,
+  differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe. Turkey
+  figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as the
+  "infidel," and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were
+  characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk
+  which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as
+  methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign. In 1684
+  Charles of Lorraine gained a victory at Waitzen on the 27th of June
+  and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and unsuccessfully
+  besieged Budapest.
+
+  In 1685 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory at
+  Gran (August 16th) and the storming of Neuhaüsel (August 19th) were
+  the only outstanding incidents. In 1686 Charles, assisted by the
+  elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Budapest (Sept.
+  2nd). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great victory at
+  Mohacz (Aug. 12th). In 1688 the Austrians advanced still further, took
+  Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia. The margrave Louis of
+  Baden, who afterward became one of the most celebrated of the
+  methodical generals of the day, won a victory at Derbent on the 5th of
+  September 1688, and next year, in spite of the outbreak of a general
+  European war, he managed to win another battle at Nisch (Sept. 24th),
+  to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to advance to the Balkans, but in
+  1690, more troops having to be withdrawn for the European war, the
+  imperialist generals lost Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the
+  other. There was, however, no repetition of the scenes of 1683, for in
+  1691 Louis won the battle of Szlankamen (Aug. 19th). After two more
+  desultory if successful campaigns he was called to serve in western
+  Europe, and for three years more the war dragged on without result,
+  until in 1697 the young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the
+  imperialists and won a great and decisive victory at Zenta on the
+  Theiss (Sept. 11th). This induced a last general advance of the
+  Germans eastward, which was definitively successful and brought about
+  the peace of Carlowitz (January 1699).     (C. F. A.)
+
+
+NAVAL OPERATIONS
+
+The naval side of the war waged by the powers of western Europe from
+1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King Louis XIV., was not
+marked by any very conspicuous exhibition of energy or capacity, but it
+was singularly decisive in its results. At the beginning of the struggle
+the French fleet kept the sea in face of the united fleets of Great
+Britain and Holland. It displayed even in 1690 a marked superiority over
+them. Before the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port, and
+though its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the
+French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to make a
+proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king's ministers
+to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most effective aims,
+were largely responsible for the result.
+
+When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still suffering
+from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II., which had been only
+in part corrected during the short reign of James II. The first
+squadrons were sent out late and in insufficient strength. The Dutch,
+crushed by the obligation to maintain a great army, found an increasing
+difficulty in preparing their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a
+despotic monarch, with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his
+power to strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting
+one. Ireland was still loyal to King James II., and would therefore have
+afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French fleet. No serious
+attempt was made to profit by the advantage thus presented. In March
+1689 King James was landed and reinforcements were prepared for him at
+Brest. A British squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert
+(afterwards Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached the French
+port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted the
+convoy off the Old Head of Kinsale on the 10th of May. The French
+admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay, and an indecisive
+encounter took place on the 11th of May. The troops and stores for King
+James were successfully landed. Then both admirals, the British and the
+French, returned home, and neither in that nor in the following year was
+any serious effort made by the French to gain command of the sea between
+Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet entered the
+Channel, and gained a success over the combined British and Dutch fleets
+on the 10th of July 1690 (see BEACHY HEAD, BATTLE OF), which was not
+followed up by vigorous action. In the meantime King William III. passed
+over to Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following
+year, while the cause of King James was being finally ruined in Ireland,
+the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of Biscay, principally for
+the purpose of avoiding battle. During the whole of 1689, 1690 and 1691,
+British squadrons were active on the Irish coast. One raised the siege
+of Londonderry in July 1689, and another convoyed the first British
+forces sent over under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy
+Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition
+under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took Cork and
+reduced a large part of the south of the island. In 1691 the French did
+little more than help to carry away the wreckage of their allies and
+their own detachments. In 1692 a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to
+employ their fleet to cover an invasion of England (see LA HOGUE, BATTLE
+OF). It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel.
+The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval power of
+King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. In the next year, 1693, he
+was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies. The important
+Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and Holland, called for convenience
+the Smyrna convoy, having been delayed during the previous year, anxious
+measures were taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the
+arrangements of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They
+made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps to
+discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port. The convoy
+was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet. But as the French
+admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits of Gibraltar with a
+powerful force and had been joined by a squadron from Toulon, the whole
+convoy was scattered or taken by him, in the latter days of June, near
+Lagos. But though this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat
+at La Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis
+XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his fleet up. The
+allies were now free to make full use of their own, to harass the French
+coast, to intercept French commerce, and to co-operate with the armies
+acting against France. Some of the operations undertaken by them were
+more remarkable for the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of
+the results. The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the
+attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active French
+privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A British attack on
+Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy loss. The scheme had been
+betrayed by Jacobite correspondents. Yet the inability of the French
+king to avert these enterprises showed the weakness of his navy and the
+limitations of his power. The protection of British and Dutch commerce
+was never complete, for the French privateers were active to the end.
+But French commerce was wholly ruined.
+
+It was the misfortune of the allies that their co-operation with armies
+was largely with the forces of a power so languid and so bankrupt as
+Spain. Yet the series of operations directed by Russel in the
+Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695 demonstrated the superiority of
+the allied fleet, and checked the advance of the French in Catalonia.
+Contemporary with the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises
+against the French in the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy,
+with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance
+from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain Lawrence
+Wright in 1690-1691, and ended with that of Admiral Nevil in 1696-1697.
+It cannot be said that they attained to any very honourable achievement,
+or even did much to weaken the French hold on their possessions in the
+West Indies and North America. Some, and notably the attack made on
+Quebec by Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British
+colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant as the plunder
+of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman Pointis, in 1697, at the
+head of a semi-piratical force. Too often there was absolute misconduct.
+In the buccaneering and piratical atmosphere of the West Indies, the
+naval officers of the day, who were still infected with the corruption
+of the reign of Charles II., and who calculated on distance from home to
+secure them immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and
+buccaneers. The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its
+ignorance of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the
+case of Admiral Nevil's squadron, the admiral himself and all his
+captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships were
+unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused these expeditions to
+fail, and not the strength of the French defence. When the war ended,
+the navy of King Louis XIV. had disappeared from the sea.
+
+  See Burchett, _Memoirs of Transactions at Sea during the War with
+  France, 1688-1697_ (London, 1703); Lediard, _Naval History_ (London,
+  1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in his notes. For the
+  West Indian voyages, Tronde, _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris,
+  1867); De Yonghe, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen_
+  (Haarlem, 1860).     (D. H.)
+
+
+  FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name "Grand Alliance" is applied to the coalition against
+    Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not only
+    waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only
+    slight modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the
+    war of the Spanish Succession (q.v.) that followed.
+
+  [2] Louvois died in July 1691.
+
+  [3] A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put an
+    end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at
+    Versailles.
+
+  [4] Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first,
+    instances of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry.
+
+  [5] Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A
+    regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the
+    Austrian service.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
+part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop.
+(1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand Canary, the most fertile island of
+the group, is nearly circular in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a
+circumference of 75 m. The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines
+radiating to the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large
+tracts are covered with native pine (_P. canariensis_). There are
+several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,517), the
+capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978), the second
+place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded by palm trees. At
+Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas, the making of earthenware
+vessels employs some hundreds of people, who inhabit holes made in the
+tufa.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND CANYON, a profound gorge in the north-west corner of Arizona, in
+the south-western part of the United States of America, carved in the
+plateau region by the Colorado river. Of it Captain Dutton says: "Those
+who have long and carefully studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do
+not hesitate for a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all
+earthly spectacles"; and this is also the verdict of many who have only
+viewed it in one or two of its parts.
+
+The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams, the
+Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky Mountains. It
+has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage area of 255,000 sq. m.,
+emptying into the head of the Gulf of California. In its course the
+Colorado passes through a mountain section; then a plateau section; and
+finally a desert lowland section which extends to its mouth. It is in
+the plateau section that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface
+of the country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a
+tableland region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions,
+flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of stratified
+rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position, though profoundly
+faulted here and there, and with some moderate folding. For a thousand
+miles the river has cut a series of canyons, bearing different names,
+which reach their culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the
+contiguous Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther
+down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from 2000 to
+6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest and deepest
+canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth is the work of the
+Colorado river, with accompanying weathering, through long ages; and the
+river is still engaged in deepening it as it rushes along the canyon
+bottom.
+
+The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient rainfall for
+forests, whose growth is also made possible in part by the cool climate
+and consequently retarded evaporation; but the less elevated portions
+have an arid climate, while the climate in the canyon bottom is that of
+the true desert. Thus the canyon is really in a desert region, as is
+shown by the fact that only two living streams enter the river for a
+distance of 500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand
+Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand Canyon itself.
+This, moreover, is dry during most of the year. In spite of this lack of
+tributaries, a large volume of water flows through the canyon at all
+seasons of the year, some coming from the scattered tributaries, some
+from springs, but most from the rains and snows of the distant mountains
+about the headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon
+walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility of the
+long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea across a vast
+stretch of arid land.
+
+The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown depth, and
+at times of flood has a greatly increased volume. The river varies in
+width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow Granite Gorges, where it bathes
+both rock walls, to 500 or 600 ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of
+the Marble and Grand Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point
+has a fall of 210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20
+or more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and
+rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the Green and
+Grand.
+
+Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude of lateral
+canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy rain. As Powell says,
+the region "is a composite of thousands, and tens of thousands of
+gorges." There are "thousands of gorges like that below Niagara Falls,
+and there are a thousand Yosemites." The largest of all, the Grand
+Canyon, has an average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4½ to 12 m. For
+a long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth is 6000
+ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower gorge sunk in
+the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow gorge is in some places
+no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top. To illustrate the depth of the
+Grand Canyon, Powell writes: "Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft. high)
+by the roots to the level of the sea, and drop it head first into the
+Grand Canyon, and the dam will not force its waters over the wall."
+
+While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon from point to
+point, the main elements are much alike throughout its length and are
+due to the succession of rock strata revealed in the canyon walls. At
+the base, for some 800 ft., there is a complex of crystalline rocks of
+early geological age, consisting of gneiss, schist, slate and other
+rocks, greatly plicated and traversed by dikes and granite intrusions.
+This is an ancient mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it
+rest a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal,
+forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this come first
+500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of bedded sandstone and
+limestone strata, some massive and some thin, which on weathering form a
+series of alcoves. These beds, like those above, are in nearly
+horizontal position. Above this comes 1600 ft. of limestone--often a
+beautiful marble, as in the Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon
+stained a brilliant red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above
+this "red wall" are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds
+looking "like vast ribbons of landscape." At the top of the canyon is
+1000 ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted for the pinnacles and
+towers which denudation has developed. It is these different rock beds,
+with their various colours, and the differences in the effect of
+weathering upon them, that give the great variety and grandeur to the
+canyon scenery. There are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves,
+cliffs, ledges, crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its
+characteristic colour and form according to the set of strata in which
+it lies. The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash;
+innumerable side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering
+has etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy
+colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur here and
+weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell puts the case
+graphically when he writes: "A wall of homogeneous granite like that in
+the Yosemite is but a naked wall, whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high.
+Hundreds and thousands of feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand
+in a meaningless front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high
+has but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of snow
+1000 ft. high--it is but more of the same thing; but a façade of seven
+systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied sevenfold."
+
+To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at present
+inaccessible, for, as Powell states, "a year scarcely suffices to see it
+all"; and "it is a region more difficult to traverse than the Alps or
+the Himalayas." But a part of the canyon is now easily accessible to
+tourists. A trail leads from the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway at
+Flagstaff, Arizona; and a branch line of the railway extends from
+Williams, Arizona, to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The
+plateau, which in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in
+elevation, but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace
+tops with steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and,
+especially near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain, with
+much evidence of former volcanic activity, including numerous cinder
+cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the edge of the canyon, at whose
+bottom, over a mile below, is seen the silvery thread of water where the
+muddy torrent rushes along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way
+into the depths of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and
+terraced slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m.
+distant.
+
+Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain system,
+formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth, then worn to an
+almost level condition through untold ages of slow denudation. Slowly,
+then, the mountains sank beneath the level of the sea, and in the
+Carboniferous Period--about the time of the formation of the
+coal-beds--sediments began to bury the ancient mountains. This lasted
+through other untold ages until the Tertiary Period--through much of the
+Palaeozoic and all of the Mesozoic time--and a total of from 12,000 to
+16,000 ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been
+dominant, and the river has eaten its way down to, and into, the deeply
+buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read, like the pages of a
+book. In some parts of the plateau region as much as 30,000 ft. of rock
+have been stripped away, and over an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average
+of over 6000 ft. has been removed.
+
+The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G. L. de Cardenas in 1540,
+but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region prevented its
+exploration. Various people visited parts of it or made reports
+regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858 contains a report upon the
+canyon written by Prof. J. S. Newberry. But it was not until 1869 that
+the first real exploration of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year
+Major J. W. Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the
+Grand Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction of
+the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand Canyon. This
+hazardous journey ranks as one of the most daring and remarkable
+explorations ever undertaken in North America; and Powell's descriptions
+of the expedition are among the most fascinating accounts of travel
+relating to the continent. Powell made another expedition in 1871, but
+did not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey
+conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts of the canyon,
+and C. E. Dutton carried on extensive studies of the canyon and the
+contiguous plateau region. In 1890 Robert B. Stanton, with six
+associates, went through the canyon in boats, making a survey to
+determine the feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two
+other parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond) the
+other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have made the journey
+through the canyon. So far as there is record these are the only four
+parties that have ever made the complete journey through the Grand
+Canyon. It has sometimes been said that James White made the passage of
+the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no real basis.
+
+  For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W. Powell,
+  _Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries_
+  (Washington, 1875); J. W. Powell, _Canyons of the Colorado_
+  (Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, _The Romance of the
+  Colorado River_ (New York, 1902); Capt. C. E. Dutton, _Tertiary
+  History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas_ (Washington, 1882),
+  being Monograph No. 2, U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent
+  topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes and
+  published by the U.S. Geological Survey.     (R. S. T.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAND-DUKE (Fr. _grand-duc_, Ital. _granduca_, Ger. _Grossherzog_), a
+title borne by princes ranking between king and duke. The dignity was
+first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke Cosimo I. of Florence,
+his son Francis obtaining the emperor's confirmation in 1576; and the
+predicate "Royal Highness" was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created
+his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same
+year the title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the
+elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric of
+Würzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany) on joining the
+Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time, according to the
+decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is borne by the sovereigns
+of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand-duke of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of
+Hesse-Darmstadt and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his
+titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king of
+Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen. The title is
+also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of Tuscany.
+
+Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of the Russian
+_velíkiy knyaz_, more properly "grand-prince" (Ger. Grossfürst), at one
+time the title of the rulers of Russia, who, as the eldest born of the
+house of Rurik, exercised overlordship over the _udyelniye knyazi_ or
+local princes. On the partition of the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest
+of each branch assumed the title of grand-prince. Under the domination
+of the Golden Horde the right to bestow the title _velíkiy knyaz_ was
+reserved by the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In
+Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and it
+passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with the Polish
+republic. The style of the emperor of Russia now includes the titles of
+grand-duke (_velíkiy knyaz_) of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia
+and Finland. Until 1886 this title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the
+style "Imperial Highness," was borne by all descendants of the imperial
+house. It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and
+sisters, and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of the
+imperial house bear the title of prince (_knyaz_) and princess
+(_knyaginya_, if married, _knyazhna_, if unmarried) with the style of
+"Highness." The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, also bears this
+title as "grand-duke" of Transylvania, which was erected into a
+"grand-princedom" (Grossfürstentum) in 1765 by Maria Theresa.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDEE (Span. _Grande_), a title of honour borne by the highest class
+of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have been originally assumed
+by the most important nobles to distinguish them from the mass of the
+_ricos hombres_, or great barons of the realm. It was thus, as Selden
+points out, not a general term denoting a class, but "an additional
+dignity not only to all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also"
+(_Titles of Honor_, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain
+privileges; notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until
+the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the territorial
+nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more important rights,
+e.g. freedom from taxation, immunity from arrest save at the king's
+express command, and even--in certain cases--the right to renounce their
+allegiance and make war on the king. Their number and privileges were
+further restricted by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved
+to the crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were
+further divided into three classes: (1) those who spoke to the king and
+received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those who addressed him
+uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his answer; (3) those who
+awaited the permission of the king before covering themselves. All
+grandees were addressed by the king as "my cousin" (_mi primo_), whereas
+ordinary nobles were only qualified as "my kinsman" (_mi pariente_). The
+title of "grandee," abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived
+in 1834, when by the _Estatudo real_ grandees were given precedence in
+the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however, purely titular,
+and implies neither privilege nor power.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND FORKS, a city in the Boundary district of British Columbia;
+situated at the junction of the north and south forks of the Kettle
+river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop. (1908) about 2500. It
+is in a good agricultural district, but owes its importance largely to
+the erection here of the extensive smelting plant of the Granby
+Consolidated Company, which smelts the ores obtained from the various
+parts of the Boundary country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and
+Old Ironsides mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great
+Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent railway
+communication with the south and east.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND FORKS, a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks county, North
+Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river (of the North) and Red
+Lake river (whence its name), about 80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652,
+of whom 2781 were foreign-born; (1905) 10,127; (1910) 27,888. It is
+served by the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has
+a considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a
+channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand Forks. At
+University, a small suburb, is the University of North Dakota
+(co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with it is Wesley College
+(Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks (with a campus adjoining that
+of the University), but formerly the Red River Valley University at
+Wahpeton, North Dakota. In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors
+and 861 students; its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000
+pamphlets. At Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard's Ursuline Academy
+(Roman Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the city's
+principal buildings are the public library, the Federal building and a
+Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great wheat valley of the Red
+river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour and agricultural machinery
+and implements, as well as large jobbing interests. There are railway
+car-shops here, and among the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks
+and tiles and cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an
+electric lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d.
+1804) erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur Company on
+the site of the present city; it afterwards became a trading post of the
+Hudson's Bay Company. The first permanent settlement was made in 1871,
+and Grand Forks was reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a
+city in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Ottawa
+county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of Grand river,
+30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and 78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900)
+4743, of whom 1277 were foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (1910) 5856. It is
+served by the Grand Trunk and the Père Marquette railways, and by
+steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is
+connected with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The city
+manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and leather; is a
+centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and has valuable fisheries
+near--fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially whitefish, are shipped in
+considerable quantities. Grand Haven is the port of entry for the
+Customs District of Michigan, and has a small export and import trade.
+The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
+plant. A trading post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the
+American Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not
+begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836, and was
+chartered as a city in 1867.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDIER, URBAN (1590-1634), priest of the church of Sainte Croix at
+Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was accused of witchcraft in
+1632 by some hysterical novices of the Carmelite Convent, where the
+trial, protracted for two years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and
+burnt alive at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND ISLAND, a city and the county-seat of Hall county, Nebraska,
+U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S. of Omaha. Pop. (1900)
+7554 (1339 foreign-born); (1910) 10,326. It is served by the Union
+Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand
+Island railways, being the western terminus of the last-named line and a
+southern terminus of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated
+on a slope skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river,
+in the midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist;
+co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island Business
+and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat of a state Sailors'
+and Soldiers' Home, established in 1888. Grand Island has a large
+wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c.; is an important horse-market,
+and has large stock-yards. There are shops of the Union Pacific in the
+city, and among its manufactures are beet-sugar--Grand Island is in one
+of the principal beet-sugar-growing districts of the state--brooms, wire
+fences, confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry of
+the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle. A "Grand
+Island" was founded in 1857, and was named from a large island (nearly
+50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site; but the present city was
+laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866. It was chartered as a city in
+1873.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDMONTINES, a religious order founded by St Stephen of Thiers in
+Auvergne towards the end of the 11th century. St Stephen was so
+impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he saw in Calabria that he
+desired to introduce the same manner of life into his native country. He
+was ordained, and in 1073 obtained the pope's permission to establish an
+order. He betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near
+Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived there for
+some time in complete solitude. A few disciples gathered round him, and
+a community was formed. The rule was not reduced to writing until after
+Stephen's death, 1124. The life was eremitical and very severe in regard
+to silence, diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule
+of the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from the
+Augustinian canons. The superior was called the "Corrector." About 1150
+the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled in the neighbouring
+desert of Grandmont, whence the order derived its name. Louis VII.
+founded a house at Vincennes near Paris, and the order had a great vogue
+in France, as many as sixty houses being established by 1170, but it
+seems never to have found favour out of France; it had, however, a
+couple of cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The
+system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the
+management of the temporals was in great measure left in their hands;
+the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels between the lay
+brothers and the choir monks were a constant source of weakness. Later
+centuries witnessed mitigations and reforms in the life, and at last the
+order came to an end just before the French Revolution. There were two
+or three convents of Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part
+in history.
+
+  See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55; Max
+  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896). i. § 31; and the art.
+  in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in Herzog,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Kent county, Michigan,
+U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river, about 30 m. from
+Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900)
+87,565, of whom 23,896 were foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910
+census) 112,571. Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were
+Hollanders; 3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from
+German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is served by the
+Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk,
+the Père Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana railways, and by
+electric interurban railways. The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a
+range of hills on either side, and about midway between these hills the
+river flows over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in 1 m. Factories
+and mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all along
+the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences command
+picturesque views from the hills farther back, the residences on the W.
+side being less pretentious and standing on bottom-lands. The principal
+business thoroughfares are Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the
+important buildings are the United States Government building (Grand
+Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial
+district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city hall,
+the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of Chicago), the
+Manufacturer's building, the _Evening Press_ building, the Michigan
+Trust building and several handsome churches. The principal charitable
+institutions are the municipal Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city
+hospital; the Union Benevolent Association, which maintains a home and
+hospital for the indigent, together with a training school for nurses;
+Saint John's orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the Dominican
+Sisters); Saint Mary's hospital (in charge of the Sisters of Mercy);
+Butterworth hospital (with a training school for nurses); the Woman's
+Home and Hospital, maintained largely by the Woman's Christian
+Temperance Union; the Aldrich Memorial Deaconess' Home; the D. A.
+Blodgett Memorial Children's Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home. About
+1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan Soldiers'
+Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E. limits of the city is Reed's
+Lake, a popular resort during the summer season. The city is the see of
+Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through
+the efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused
+in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for a "city
+plan," and flood walls were completed for the protection of the lower
+parts of the city from inundation. The large quantities of fruit,
+cereals and vegetables from the surrounding country, and ample
+facilities for transportation by rail and by the river, which is
+navigable from below the rapids to its mouth, make the commerce and
+trade of Grand Rapids very important. The manufacturing interests are
+greatly promoted by the fine water-power, and as a furniture centre the
+city has a world-wide reputation--the value of the furniture
+manufactured within its limits in 1904 amounted to $9,409,097, about
+5.5% of the value of all furniture manufactured in the United States.
+Grand Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers--a large proportion of the
+whole world's product,--flour and grist mill products, foundry and
+machine-shop products, planing-mill products, school seats, wood-working
+tools, fly paper, calcined plaster, barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons,
+agricultural implements and bricks and tile. The total factory product
+in 1904 was valued at $31,032,589, an increase of 39.6% in four years.
+
+On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large Ottawa
+Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a Baptist mission
+was established in 1824. Two years later a trading post joined the
+mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for the next few years the
+growth was rapid. The settlement was organized as a town in 1834, was
+incorporated as a village in 1838, and was chartered as a city in 1850,
+the city charter being revised in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about 137 m. N.W. of
+Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073 were foreign-born; (1905)
+6157; (1910) 6521. It is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste
+Marie, the Green Bay & Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the
+Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing
+centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds, hubs
+and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and flour. The
+public buildings include a post office, court house, city hall, city
+hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892). The city owns
+and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting and telephone
+companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was first chartered as a city
+in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on the west bank of the Wisconsin
+river was formerly the city of Centralia (pop. in 1890, 1435); it was
+annexed in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDSON (Ger. _Grandsee_), a town in the Swiss canton of Vaud, near the
+south-western end of the Lake of Neuchâtel, and by rail 20 m. S.W. of
+Neuchâtel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon. Its population in 1900 was 1771,
+mainly French-speaking and Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the
+home of a noted race of barons, while in the very old church (once
+belonging to a Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman
+columns, &c., from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory.
+Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle
+was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles the
+Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy. It was
+retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison put to death. The
+Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in a famous battle (2nd March
+1476) defeated Charles with great loss, capturing much booty. The scene
+of the battle was between Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town,
+and is marked by several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was
+thenceforward till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and then
+was given to the canton du Léman, which in 1803 became that of Vaud.
+
+  See F. Chabloz, _La Bataille de Grandson_ (Lausanne, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GRANET, FRANÇOIS MARIUS (1777-1849), French painter, was born at Aix in
+Provence, on the 17th of December 1777; his father was a small builder.
+The boy's strong desires led his parents to place him--after some
+preliminary teaching from a passing Italian artist--in a free school of
+art directed by M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation.
+In 1793 Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon, at
+the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in the arsenal.
+Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance of the young comte de
+Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet, in the year 1797, went to Paris.
+De Forbin was one of the pupils of David, and Granet entered the same
+studio. Later he got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins,
+which, having served for a manufactory of assignats during the
+Revolution, was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists. In
+the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the Capuchins,
+Granet found the materials for that one picture to the painting of
+which, with varying success, he devoted his life. In 1802 he left Paris
+for Rome, where he remained until 1819, when he returned to Paris,
+bringing with him besides various other works one of fourteen
+repetitions of his celebrated Choeur des Capucins, executed in 1811. The
+figures of the monks celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a
+substantive part of the architectural effect, and this is the case with
+all Granet's works, even with those in which the figure subject would
+seem to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest.
+"Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall," 1810 (Leuchtenberg
+collection); "Sodoma à l'hôpital," 1815 (Louvre); "Basilique basse de St
+François d'Assise," 1823 (Louvre); "Rachat de prisonniers," 1831
+(Louvre); "Mort de Poussin," 1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among
+his principal works; all are marked by the same peculiarities,
+everything is sacrificed to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated
+Granet, and afterwards named him Chevalier de l'Ordre St Michel, and
+Conservateur des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of the
+institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the ties which
+bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre, Granet
+constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to Aix, immediately
+lost his wife, and died himself on the 21st of November 1849. He
+bequeathed to his native town the greater part of his fortune and all
+his collections, now exhibited in the Musée, together with a very fine
+portrait of the donor painted by Ingres in 1811.
+
+
+
+
+GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. _graunge_, from the Med. Lat. _granea_, a
+place for storing grain, _granum_), properly a granary or barn. In the
+middle ages a "grange" was a detached portion of a manor with
+farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to a religious house; in it
+the crops could be conveniently stored for the purpose of collecting
+rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often known as "tithe-barns." In
+many cases a chapel was included among the buildings or stood apart as a
+separate edifice. The word is still used as a name for a superior kind
+of farm-house, or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and
+agricultural land attached to it.
+
+Architecturally considered, the "grange" was usually a long building
+with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or columns into a sort
+of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly buttressed. Sometimes these
+granges were of very great extent; one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was
+originally 225 ft. long by 75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft.
+long) existed at Chertsey. Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist
+at Glastonbury, Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary's Abbey, York, and at Coxwold.
+A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of the 19th
+century. In France there are many examples in stone of the 12th, 13th
+and 14th centuries; some divided into a central and two side aisles by
+arcades in stone. Externally granges are noticeable on account of their
+great roofs and the slight elevation of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only
+in height. In the 15th century they were sometimes protected by moats
+and towers. At Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long;
+Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys; at
+Perrières, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all in
+Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of fine examples.
+Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near Paris, is one of the
+best-preserved granges in France, with walls in stone and internally
+divided into three aisles in oak timber of extremely fine construction.
+
+In the social economic movement in the United States of America, which
+began in 1867 and was known as the "Farmers' Movement," "grange" was
+adopted as the name for a local chapter of the Order of the Patrons of
+Husbandry, and the movement is thus often known as the "Grangers'
+Movement" (see FARMERS' MOVEMENT). There are a National Grange at
+Washington, supervising the local divisions, and state granges in most
+states.
+
+
+
+
+GRANGEMOUTH, a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore of the estuary of the
+Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also of Grange Burn, a right-hand
+tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E. of Falkirk by the North British and
+Caledonian railways. It is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal,
+from the opening of which (1789) its history may be dated. The principal
+buildings are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public
+institute and free library, and there is a public park presented by the
+marquess of Zetland. Since 1810, when it became a head port, it has
+gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth west of
+Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second (1859) and the third
+(1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber ponds of 44 acres and a
+total quayage of 2500 yards. New docks, 93 acres in extent, with an
+entrance from the firth, were opened in 1905 at a cost of more than
+£1,000,000. The works rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the
+Grange from the Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are
+the leading imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The
+industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron founding.
+There is regular steamer communication with London, Christiania,
+Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experiments in steam navigation were
+carried out in 1802 with the "Charlotte Dundas" on the Forth and Clyde
+Canal at Grangemouth. Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a
+seat of the marquess of Zetland.
+
+
+
+
+GRANGER, JAMES (1723-1776), English clergyman and print-collector, was
+born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford, and then entered holy orders,
+becoming vicar of Shiplake; but apart from his hobby of
+portrait-collecting, which resulted in the principal work associated
+with his name, and the publication of some sermons, his life was
+uneventful. Yet a new word was added to the language--"to
+grangerize"--on account of him. In 1769 he published in two quarto
+volumes a _Biographical History of England_ "consisting of characters
+dispersed in different classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of
+engraved British heads"; this was "intended as an essay towards reducing
+our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge of portraits."
+The work was supplemented in later editions by Granger, and still
+further editions were brought out by the Rev. Mark Noble, with additions
+from Granger's materials. Blank leaves were left for the filling in of
+engraved portraits for extra illustration of the text, and it became a
+favourite pursuit to discover such illustrations and insert them in a
+_Granger_, so that "grangerizing" became a term for such an
+extra-illustration of any work, especially with cuts taken from other
+books. The immediate result of the appearance of Granger's own work was
+the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out and
+inserted in collector's copies.
+
+
+
+
+GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. _granito_, grained; Lat. _granum_,
+grain), the group designation for a family of igneous rocks whose
+essential characteristics are that they are of acid composition
+(containing high percentages of silica), consist principally of quartz
+and felspar, with some mica, hornblende or augite, and are of
+holocrystalline or "granitoid" structure. In popular usage the term is
+given to almost any crystalline rock which resembles granite in
+appearance or properties. Thus syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases,
+porphyries, gneiss, and even limestones and dolomites, are bought and
+sold daily as "granites." True granites are common rocks, especially
+among the older strata of the earth's crust. They have great variety in
+colour and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others
+are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state of
+preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant minerals,
+and partly also on the relative proportion in which they contain biotite
+and other dark coloured silicates. Many granites have large rounded or
+angular crystals of felspar (Shap granite, many Cornish granites), well
+seen on polished faces. Others show an elementary foliation or banding
+(e.g. Aberdeen granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear
+in the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group.
+
+In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering wide
+areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular and may be 20
+m. in diameter or more. In the same district separate areas or "bosses"
+of granite may be found, all having much in common in their
+mineralogical and structural features, and such groups have probably all
+proceeded from the same focus or deep-seated source. Towards their
+margins these granite outcrops often show modifications by which they
+pass into diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also be finer grained (like
+porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of
+pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out into the
+surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is intrusive and has
+forced its way upwards by splitting apart the strata among which it
+lies. Further evidence of this is afforded by the alteration which the
+granite has produced through a zone which varies from a few yards to a
+mile or more in breadth around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites
+slates become converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite
+or andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; limestones
+recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their composition,
+are more or less profoundly modified in such a way as to prove that they
+have been raised to a high temperature by proximity to the molten
+intrusive mass. Where exposed in cliffs and other natural sections many
+granites have a rudely columnar appearance. Others weather into large
+cuboidal blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean
+masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature. These
+differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks which traverse
+the rock and are opened up by the action of frost and weathering.
+
+The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their principal
+component minerals may be identified in the hand specimens by the
+unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white or pink, with smooth cleaved
+surfaces; the quartz is usually transparent, glassy with rough irregular
+fractures; the micas appear as shining black or white flakes. Very
+coarse granites are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine
+granites are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also
+been applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly scales of
+white mica; others contain dark green or black hornblende in small
+prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet are occasionally visible.
+In the tourmaline granites prisms of black schorl occur either singly or
+in stellate groups. The parallel banded structures of many granites,
+which may be original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the
+granite gneisses or orthogneisses.
+
+Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with perthite or
+microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase (ranging from oligoclase
+to albite) is practically never absent. These minerals are often clouded
+by a deposit of fine mica and kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is
+transparent, irregular in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled
+with very small cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and
+sometimes a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in
+parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale green in
+section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless. Tourmaline may be
+brown, yellow or blue, and often the same crystal shows zones of
+different colours. Apatite, zircon and iron oxides, in small crystals,
+are always present. Among the less common accessories may be mentioned
+pinkish garnets; andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless
+grains of topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which
+weather to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl,
+tinstone, orthite and pyrites.
+
+The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal type, and
+may be ascertained by observing the perfection with which the different
+minerals have crystallized and the order in which they enclose one
+another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides are the first; their crystals
+are small, very perfect and nearly free from enclosures; they are
+followed by hornblende and biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds
+the brown mica. Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and
+forms well-shaped crystals of which the central parts may be more basic
+than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline and
+micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left between the
+earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are unusual; sometimes the
+first of the felspars have preceded the hornblende or biotite which may
+envelop them in ophitic manner. An earlier generation of felspar, and
+occasionally also of quartz, may be represented by large and perfect
+crystals of these minerals giving the rock a porphyritic character.
+
+Many granites have suffered modification by the action of vapours
+emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric emanations exert a
+profound influence on granitic rocks; their felspar is resolved into
+aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and quartz; tourmaline appears, largely
+replacing the brown mica; topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the
+rotten granite or china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over
+considerable areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable
+sources of china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may
+traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable quantities.
+These veins are the principal sources of tin in Cornwall, but the same
+changes may appear in the body of the granite without being restricted
+to veins, and tinstone occurs also as an original constituent of some
+granite pegmatites.
+
+Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals tend to lose
+their original forms and to break into mosaics of interlocking grains.
+The latter structure is very well seen in the quartz, which is a brittle
+mineral under stress. White mica develops in the felspars. The larger
+crystals are converted into lenticular or elliptical "augen," which may
+be shattered throughout or may have a peripheral seam of small detached
+granules surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of
+"granulitic" or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock,
+giving it a roughly foliated character.
+
+The interesting structural variation of granite in which there are
+spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known as "orbicular
+granite." The spheroids range from a fraction of an inch to a foot in
+diameter, and may have a felspar crystal at the centre. Around this
+there may be several zones, alternately lighter and darker in colour,
+consisting of the essential minerals of the rock in different
+proportions. Radiate arrangement is sometimes visible in the crystals of
+the whole or part of the spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are
+found in Sweden, Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are
+simply dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably
+due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as they
+separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its crystallization.
+The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many round or ovoidal felspar
+crystals scattered through a granitic matrix. These larger felspars have
+no crystalline outlines and consist of orthoclase or microcline
+surrounded by borders of white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark
+crystals of biotite and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these
+granites contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite
+masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks, it is
+common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous materials
+which are more or less dissolved and permeated by the granitic magma.
+
+  The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts of the
+  world is given below:--
+
+    +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |     | SiO2. | Al2O3.| Fe2O3.| FeO. | MgO. | CaO. | Na2O.| K2O. |
+    +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |  I. | 74.69 | 16.21 |  ..   | 1.16 | 0.48 | 0.28 | 1.18 | 3.64 |
+    | II. | 71.33 | 11.18 | 3.96  | 1.45 | 0.88 | 2.10 | 3.51 | 3.49 |
+    |III. | 72.93 | 13.87 | 1.94  | 0.79 | 0.51 | 0.74 | 3.68 | 3.74 |
+    | IV. | 76.12 | 12.18 | 1.21  | 0.72 | 1.12 | 1.54 | 2.55 | 3.21 |
+    |  V. | 73.90 | 13.65 | 0.28  | 0.42 | 0.14 | 0.23 | 2.53 | 7.99 |
+    | VI. | 68.87 | 16.62 | 0.43  | 2.72 | 1.60 | 0.71 | 1.80 | 6.48 |
+    +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana
+  (Harrison); III. Rödö, near Alnö, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holmquist);
+  IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch); V. Pikes
+  Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near Omeo, Victoria
+  (Howitt).
+
+  Only the most important components are shown in the table, but all
+  granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium oxide,
+  phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium, manganese and
+  water. These are in all cases less than 1%, and usually much less than
+  this, except the water, which may be 2 or 3% in weathered rocks. From
+  the chemical composition it may be computed that granites contain, on
+  an average, 35 to 55% of quartz, 20 to 30% of orthoclase, 20 to 30% of
+  plagioclase felspar (including the albite of microperthite) and 5 to
+  10% of ferromagnesian silicates and minor accessories such as
+  apatite, zircon, sphene and iron oxides. The aplites, pegmatites,
+  graphic granites and muscovite granites are usually richest in silica,
+  while with increase of biotite and hornblende, augite and enstatite
+  the analyses show the presence of more magnesia, iron and lime.
+
+  In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change; the
+  felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, muscovite
+  and secondary quartz, while chlorite, quartz and calcite replace the
+  biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes a rusty brown
+  colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and the decomposed
+  mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade; where the granite
+  has been cut by joint planes not too close together weathering
+  proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks may be left
+  embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water in the rock
+  increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in solution; they
+  form valuable sources of mineral food to plants. The chemical changes
+  are shown by the following analyses:
+
+    +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |     | H2O. | SiO2. | TiO2.| Al2O3.| FeO. |Fe2O3.| CaO. | MgO. | Na2O.| K2O. | P2O5. |
+    +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |  I. | 1.22 | 69.33 | n.d. | 14.33 | 3.60 |  ..  | 3.21 | 2.44 | 2.70 | 2.67 | 0.10  |
+    | II. | 3.27 | 66.82 | n.d. | 15.62 | 1.69 | 1.88 | 3.13 | 2.76 | 2.58 | 2.44 |  n.d. |
+    |III. | 4.70 | 65.69 | 0.31 | 15.23 |  ..  | 4.39 | 2.63 | 2.64 | 2.12 | 2.00 | 0.06  |
+    +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+  Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm granite;
+  III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the same mass (anal.
+  G. P. Merrill).
+
+The differences are surprisingly small and are principally an increase
+in the water and a diminution in the amount of alkalis and lime together
+with the oxidation of the ferrous oxide.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA ("Great Rock of Italy"), a mountain of the Abruzzi,
+Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines, 9560 ft. in height. In
+formation it resembles the limestone Alps of Tirol and there are on its
+elevated plateaus a number of _doline_ or funnel-shaped depressions into
+which the melted snow and the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow
+for the greater part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno,
+as it is sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a
+magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit is still the
+home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense woods of beech and
+pine. The group has numerous other lofty peaks, of which the chief are
+the Pizzo d'Intermesole (8680 ft.), the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the
+Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The
+most convenient starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of
+Aquila, at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has
+erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a special
+guidebook (E. Abbate, _Guida al Gran Sasso d' Italia_, Rome, 1888). The
+view from the summit extends to the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the
+mountains of Dalmatia on the east in clear weather. The ascent was first
+made in 1794 by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the
+interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150, with later
+alterations (see Gavini, in _L' Arte_, 1901, 316, 391).
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British scholar and
+educationalist, was born in New York on the 13th of September 1826.
+After a childhood spent in the West Indies, he was educated at Harrow
+and Oxford. He entered Oxford as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently
+held a fellowship at Oriel from 1849 to 1860. He made a special study of
+the Aristotelian philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the
+_Ethics_ (4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford. In
+1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service, and in
+1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the latter year he
+succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to Madras with Sir Charles
+Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector of schools; the next year he
+removed to Bombay, to fill the post of Professor of History and
+Political Economy in the Elphinstone College. Of this he became
+Principal in 1862; and, a year later, vice-chancellor of Bombay
+University, a post he held from 1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to
+1868. In 1865 he took upon himself also the duties of Director of Public
+Instruction for Bombay Presidency. In 1868 he was appointed a member of
+the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of Sir David
+Brewster, he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh University, which had
+conferred an honorary LL.D. degree upon him in 1865. From that time till
+his death (which occurred in Edinburgh on the 30th of November 1884) his
+energies were entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The
+institution of the medical school in the University was almost solely
+due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival, celebrated in
+1884, was the result of his wisely directed enthusiasm. In that year he
+published _The Story of the University of Edinburgh during its First
+Three Hundred Years_. He was created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and
+an honorary fellow of Oriel College in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known as Mrs Grant
+of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 21st of February 1755. Her
+childhood was spent in America, her father, Duncan MacVicar, being an
+army officer on service there. In 1768 the family returned to Scotland,
+and in 1779 Anne married James Grant, an army chaplain, who was also
+minister of the parish of Laggan, near Fort Augustus, Inverness, where
+her father was barrack-master. On her husband's death in 1801 she was
+left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she published by
+subscription a volume of _Original Poems, with some Translations from
+the Gaelic_, which was favourably received. In 1806 her _Letters from
+the Mountains_, with their spirited description of Highland scenery and
+legends, awakened much interest. Her other works are _Memoirs of an
+American Lady, with Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as they
+existed previous to the Revolution_ (1808), containing reminiscences of
+her childhood; _Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of
+Scotland_ (1811); and _Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem_ (1814). In
+1810 she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her
+life she received a pension from government. She died on the 7th of
+November 1838.
+
+  See _Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited by her
+  son J. P. Grant_ (3 vols., 1844).
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823), British politician, was born at Aldourie,
+Inverness-shire, on the 16th of April 1746, the day on which his father,
+Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting for the Jacobites at
+Culloden. When a young man Charles went to India, where he became
+secretary, and later a member of the board of trade. He returned to
+Scotland in 1790, and in 1802 was elected to parliament as member for
+the county of Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests
+were in Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility
+to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen chairman
+of the directors of the East India Company and he retired from
+parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce, Grant was a
+prominent member of the evangelical party in the Church of England; he
+was a generous supporter of the church's missionary undertakings. He was
+largely responsible for the establishment of the East India college,
+which was afterwards erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the
+31st of October 1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in
+1835 as Baron Glenelg.
+
+  See Henry Morris, _Life of Charles Grant_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878), English portrait-painter, fourth son of
+Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born at Edinburgh in 1803.
+He was educated for the bar, but at the age of twenty-four he began at
+Edinburgh systematically to study the practice of art. On completing a
+course of instruction he removed to London, and as early as 1843
+exhibited at the Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he
+utilized his sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses
+and hounds, such as the "Meet of H.M. Staghounds" and the "Melton Hunt";
+but his position in society gradually made him a fashionable
+portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste of a connoisseur, and
+rendered the minutest details of costume with felicitous accuracy. In
+female portraiture he achieved considerable success, although rather in
+depicting the high-born graces and external characteristics than the
+true personality. Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned
+Lady Glenlyon, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs
+Beauclerk. In his portraits of generals and sportsmen he proved himself
+more equal to his subjects than in those of statesmen and men of
+letters. He painted many of the principal celebrities of the time,
+including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart, Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby,
+Palmerston and Russell, his brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir
+Edwin Landseer. From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In
+1842 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 an
+Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C. Eastlake in the
+post of president, for which his chief recommendations were his social
+distinction, tact, urbanity and friendly and liberal consideration of
+his brother artists. Shortly after his election as president he was
+knighted, and in 1870 the degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the
+university of Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835-1902), principal of Queen's University,
+Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835. He was educated at
+Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant academic career; and having
+entered the ministry of the Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada
+and obtained a pastoral charge in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held
+from 1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher and
+as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada was
+confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most strongly opposed
+to federal union. Grant threw the whole weight of his great influence in
+favour of confederation, and his oratory played an important part in
+securing the success of the movement. When the consolidation of the
+Dominion by means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872,
+Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers who
+surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his book _Ocean
+to Ocean_ (1873) was one of the first things that opened the eyes of
+Canadians to the value of the immense heritage they enjoyed. He never
+lost an opportunity, whether in the pulpit or on the platform, of
+pressing on his hearers that the greatest future for Canada lay in unity
+with the rest of the British Empire; and his broad statesman-like
+judgment made him an authority which politicians of all parties were
+glad to consult. In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen's
+University, Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence
+expanded from a small denominational college into a large and
+influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an exceptionally
+able body of professors whose influence in speculation and research was
+widely felt during the quarter of a century that he remained at its
+head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the
+effect of this experience being to strengthen still further the
+Imperialism which was the guiding principle of his political opinions.
+On the outbreak of the South African War in 1899 Grant was at first
+disposed to be hostile to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr
+Chamberlain; but his eyes were soon opened to the real nature of
+President Kruger's government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and
+supported the national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions
+of the Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa.
+Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occurring
+at Kingston on the 10th of May 1902. At the time of his death _The
+Times_ observed that "it is acknowledged on all hands that in him the
+Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it has yet produced." He
+was the author of a number of works, of which the most notable besides
+_Ocean to Ocean_ are, _Advantages of Imperial Federation_ (1889), _Our
+National Objects and Aims_ (1890), _Religions of the World in Relation
+to Christianity_ (1894) and volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant
+married in 1872 Jessie, daughter of William Lawson of Halifax.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, JAMES (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in Edinburgh on the
+1st of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was a captain in the 92nd
+Gordon Highlanders and had served through the Peninsular War. For
+several years James Grant was in Newfoundland with his father, but in
+1839 he returned to England, and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In
+1843 he resigned his commission and devoted himself to writing, first
+magazine articles, but soon a profusion of novels, full of vivacity and
+incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters. His
+best stories, perhaps, were _The Romance of War_ (his first, 1845),
+_Bothwell_ (1851), _Frank Hilton; or, The Queen's Own_ (1855), _The
+Phantom Regiment_ and _Harry Ogilvie_ (1856), _Lucy Arden_ (1858), _The
+White Cockade_ (1867), _Only an Ensign_ (1871), _Shall I Win Her?_
+(1874), _Playing with Fire_ (1887). Grant also wrote _British Battles on
+Land and Sea_ (1873-1875) and valuable books on Scottish history.
+Permanent value attaches to his great work, in three volumes, on _Old
+and New Edinburgh_ (1880). He was the founder and energetic promoter of
+the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875
+he became a Roman Catholic. He died on the 5th of May 1887.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827-1892), Scottish explorer of eastern
+equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father was the parish
+minister, on the 11th of April 1827. He was educated at the grammar
+school and Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1846 joined the Indian
+army. He saw active service in the Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout
+the mutiny of 1857, and was wounded in the operations for the relief of
+Lucknow. He returned to England in 1858, and in 1860 joined J. H. Speke
+(q.v.) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of the Nile
+sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860 and reached
+Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch with civilization,
+in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but Grant carried out several
+investigations independently and made valuable botanical collections. He
+acted throughout in absolute loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he
+published, as supplementary to Speke's account of their journey, _A Walk
+across Africa_, in which he dealt particularly with "the ordinary life
+and pursuits, the habits and feelings of the natives" and the economic
+value of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron's
+medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1866 given the
+Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in the
+expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the Abyssinian
+expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I. and received the
+Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he retired from the army with
+the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He had married in 1865, and he now
+settled down at Nairn, where he died on the 11th of February 1892. He
+made contributions to the journals of various learned societies, the
+most notable being the "Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition" in
+vol. xxix. of the _Transactions of the Linnaean Society_.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808-1875), English general, fifth and youngest
+son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, and brother of Sir
+Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd of July 1808. He entered the
+army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828
+and captain in 1835. In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the
+Chinese War, and specially distinguished himself at the capture of
+Chin-Kiang, after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In
+the first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon; and
+in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded the 9th Lancers, and won
+high reputation in the battles of Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat).
+He was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the
+same substantive rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856
+brigadier of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the
+Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command of the cavalry
+division, and afterwards of a movable column of horse and foot. After
+rendering valuable service in the operations before Delhi and in the
+final assault on the city, he directed the victorious march of the
+cavalry and horse artillery despatched in the direction of Cawnpore to
+open up communication with the commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell,
+whom he met near the Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of
+brigadier-general, and placed the whole force under his command during
+what remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the
+residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly aided in
+effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by making a detour
+which threatened their rear; and following in pursuit with a flying
+column, he defeated them with the loss of nearly all their guns at
+Serai Ghat. He also took part in the operations connected with the
+recapture of Lucknow, shortly after which he was promoted to the rank of
+major-general, and appointed to the command of the force employed for
+the final pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied
+energy, and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring,
+rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification was
+quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was appointed, with the
+local rank of lieutenant-general, to the command of the British land
+forces in the united French and British expedition against China. The
+object of the campaign was accomplished within three months of the
+landing of the forces at Pei-tang (1st of August 1860). The Taku Forts
+had been carried by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the
+open and Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called
+the "most successful and the best carried out of England's little wars,"
+he received the thanks of parliament and was gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he
+was made lieutenant-general and appointed commander-in-chief of the army
+of Madras; on his return to England in 1865 he was made
+quartermaster-general at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to
+the command of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in
+the reform of the educational and training systems of the forces, which
+followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of annual army
+manoeuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant. In 1872 he was gazetted
+general. He died in London on the 7th of March 1875.
+
+  _Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private
+  Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B., together with some
+  explanatory chapters by Capt. H. Knollys, Royal Artillery_, was
+  published in 1873, and _Incidents in the China War of 1860_ appeared
+  posthumously under the same editorship in 1875.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895), British field marshal, was the second
+son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair, Inverness-shire,
+where he was born on the 11th of September 1804. He entered the Bengal
+native infantry as ensign in 1820, and became captain in 1832. He served
+in Oudh from 1834 to 1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry.
+Employed in the adjutant-general's department of the Bengal army from
+1838 until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served under Sir
+Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843, winning a brevet
+majority, was adjutant-general of the army at the battles of Moodkee in
+1845 (twice severely wounded), and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846,
+receiving the C.B. and the brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took
+part in the battles of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining
+further promotion, and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He
+served also in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted
+major-general in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army from
+1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General Anson's death
+was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme command of the army in India.
+From Calcutta he directed the operations against the mutineers, sending
+forces under Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow,
+until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as
+commander-in-chief, when he returned to Madras. On leaving India in 1861
+he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted lieutenant-general in
+1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to 1872, was made G.C.M.G. in
+1868, promoted general in 1870, field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the
+Royal Horse Guards and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He
+married as his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh
+(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal Hospital, Chelsea,
+from 1874 until his death there on the 28th of March 1895.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born at Grantown,
+Scotland, on the 17th of June 1814. At the age of thirteen the promise
+of a brilliant career was clouded by a prolonged illness of such a
+serious character as to incapacitate him from all school-work for six
+years. At twenty, however, his health greatly improved, and he set
+himself resolutely, without assistance, to repair his earlier
+disadvantages by the diligent study of Greek, Latin, Italian and
+mathematics. Astronomy also occupied his attention, and it was
+stimulated by the return of Halley's comet in 1835, as well as by his
+success in observing the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May
+1836. After a short course at King's College, Aberdeen, he obtained in
+1841 employment in his brother's counting-house in London. During this
+period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of physical
+astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he had to search,
+amongst other records, those of the French Academy, and for that purpose
+took up his residence in Paris in 1845, supporting himself by giving
+lessons in English. He returned to London in 1847. _The History of
+Physical Astronomy from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the
+Nineteenth Century_ was first published in parts in _The Library of
+Useful Knowledge_, but after the issue of the ninth part this mode of
+publication was discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852.
+The main object of the work is, in the author's words, "to exhibit a
+view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a knowledge
+of the mechanical principles which regulate the movements of the
+celestial bodies, and in explaining the various phenomena relative to
+their physical constitution which observation with the telescope has
+disclosed." The lucidity and completeness with which a great variety of
+abstruse subjects were treated, the extent of research and the maturity
+of judgment it displayed, were the more remarkable, when it is
+remembered that this was the first published work of one who enjoyed no
+special opportunities, either for acquiring materials, or for discussing
+with others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of. The
+book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature, and earned
+for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal Astronomical Society's
+gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John Pringle Nichol as professor of
+astronomy in the University of Glasgow. From time to time he contributed
+astronomical papers to the _Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten,
+Comptes rendus_ and other scientific serials; but his principal work at
+Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large number of stars
+with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory. The results of these
+labours, extending over twenty-one years, are contained in the _Glasgow
+Catalogue of 6415 Stars_, published in 1883. This was followed in 1892
+by the _Second Glasgow Catalogue of 2156 Stars_, published a few weeks
+after his death, which took place on the 24th of October 1892.
+
+  See _Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin);
+  _Nature_, Nov. 10, 1892; _The Times_, Nov. 2, 1892; _Roy. Society's
+  Catalogue of Scient. Papers_.     (A. A. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885), American soldier, and eighteenth
+president of the United States, was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the
+27th of April 1822. He was a descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman,
+who settled in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years
+were spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in Ohio.
+In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military academy at West
+Point, and it was then that his name assumed the form by which it is
+generally known. He was christened Hiram, after an ancestor, with
+Ulysses for a middle name. As he was usually called by his middle name,
+the congressman who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his
+first name, and added thereto the name of his mother's family, Simpson.
+Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took a respectable place
+in mathematics, but at his graduation in 1843 he only ranked
+twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In September 1845 he went with
+his regiment to join the forces of General Taylor in Mexico; there he
+took part in the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Monterey,
+and, after his transfer to General Scott's army, which he joined in
+March 1847, served at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey
+and at the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant for
+gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at Chapultepec. In
+August 1848, after the close of the war, he married Julia T. Dent
+(1826-1902), and was for a while stationed in California and Oregon, but
+in 1854 he resigned his commission. His reputation in the service had
+suffered from allegations of intemperate drinking, which, whether well
+founded or not, certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the
+next six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty
+subsistence by farming and dealings in real estate. In 1860 he removed
+to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept by his
+father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to have exceeded
+$800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends as a broken and
+disappointed man. He was living at Galena at the outbreak of hostilities
+between the North and South.
+
+
+  Grant's Civil War career.
+
+[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant's battles and campaigns,
+the reader is referred to the article AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. To the "call
+to arms" of 1861 Grant promptly responded. After some delay he was
+commissioned colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment and soon afterwards
+brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to a territorial command on
+the Mississippi, and first won distinction by his energy in seizing, on
+his own responsibility, the important point of Paducah, Kentucky,
+situated at the confluence of the two great waterways of the Tennessee
+and the Ohio (6th Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his
+first battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if it
+failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him to be a
+capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was entrusted by General H.
+W. Halleck with the command of a large force to clear the lower reaches
+of the Cumberland and the Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be
+passed on the general strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his
+able and energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant
+success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced to
+capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were promoted to the rank
+of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, but Grant's own fortunes
+suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a disagreement with Halleck. When,
+after being virtually under arrest, he rejoined his army, it was
+concentrated about Savannah on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign
+towards Corinth, Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on
+Grant's camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (q.v.). After two days'
+desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the combined attack
+of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the Army of the Ohio under
+Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee had been on the verge of
+annihilation on the evening of the first day, and Grant's leadership
+throughout was by no means equal to the emergency, though he displayed
+his usual personal bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of
+Halleck's armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all
+important duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole
+force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace. But
+Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and Grant took
+command of his old army and of Rosecrans' Army of the Mississippi. Two
+victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won in the autumn of 1862, but the
+credit of both fell to Rosecrans, who commanded in the field, and the
+nadir of Grant's military fortunes was reached when the first advance on
+Vicksburg (q.v.), planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a
+series of political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the
+original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly Springs
+and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862).
+
+It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other unsuccessful
+generals into retirement, had he not shown that, whatever his mistakes
+or failures, and whether he was or was not sober and temperate in his
+habits, he possessed the iron determination and energy which in the eyes
+of Lincoln and Stanton,[1] and of the whole Northern people, was the
+first requisite of their generals. He remained then with his army near
+Vicksburg, trying one plan after another without result, until at last
+after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was crowned with
+success--a success directly consequent upon a strange and bizarre
+campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring and vigour were more
+conspicuous than ever before. On the 4th of July 1863 the great fortress
+surrendered with 29,491 men, this being one of the most important
+victories won by the Union arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made
+a major-general in the regular army. A few months later the great
+reverse of Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with
+the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg and
+Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga, to decide the
+fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second battle. Four armies were
+placed under his command, and three of these concentrated at
+Chattanooga. On the 25th of November 1863 a great three-days' battle
+ended with the crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day
+had no foothold in the centre and west.
+
+After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all the Union
+forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and the rank of
+lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864). Grant's headquarters
+henceforth accompanied the Army of the Potomac, and the
+lieutenant-general directed the campaign in Virginia. This, with Grant's
+driving energy infused into the best army that the Union possessed,
+resolved itself into a series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible
+battles. Tactically the Confederates were almost always victorious,
+strategically, Grant, disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back
+Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and
+Petersburg, while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of
+"attrition," the Federal leader used his men with a merciless energy
+that has few, if any, parallels in modern history. At Cold Harbor six
+thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting an hour, and after two
+months the Union armies lay before Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but
+had lost no fewer than 72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his
+determination. "I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all
+summer," was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the
+chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he never relaxed
+his hold on Lee's army, and, in spite of repeated partial reverses, that
+would have been defeats for his predecessors, he gradually wore down his
+gallant adversary. The terrible cost of these operations did not check
+him: only on one occasion of grave peril were any troops sent from his
+lines to serve elsewhere, and he drew to himself the bulk of the men
+whom the Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final
+effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely supervised by
+Grant, preoccupied though he was with the operations against his own
+adversary. At a critical moment he actually left the Virginian armies to
+their own commanders, and started to take personal command in a
+threatened quarter, and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman
+and Thomas, who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the
+centre. That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command
+of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating many
+hundreds of miles apart from each other, while at the same time he
+watched and manoeuvred against a great captain and a veteran army in one
+field of the war, must be the greatest proof of Grant's powers as a
+general. In the end complete success rewarded the sacrifices and efforts
+of the Federals on every theatre of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in
+personal control, the merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee's army
+until a mere remnant was left for the final surrender.
+
+Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was universally
+regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful study of the history of
+the war thoroughly bears out the popular view. There were soldiers more
+accomplished, as was McClellan, more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and
+more exact, as was Buell, but it would be difficult to prove that these
+generals, or indeed any others in the service, could have accomplished
+the task which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be
+supposed that Grant learned little from three years' campaigning in
+high command. There is less in common than is often supposed between the
+buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the grim plodding
+determination that led him to Vicksburg and to Appomattox. Shiloh
+revealed to Grant the intensity of the struggle, and after that battle,
+appreciating to the full the material and moral factors with which he
+had to deal, he gradually trained his military character on those lines
+which alone could conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose,
+and relentless vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the
+qualities necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing
+the Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree that
+he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical finesse he was
+surpassed by many of his predecessors and his subordinates, he had the
+most important qualities of a great captain, courage that rose higher
+with each obstacle, and the clear judgment to distinguish the essential
+from the minor issues in war.--(C. F. A.)]
+
+
+  Presidency, 1868.
+
+After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was shown by
+his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with the Confederate
+leaders, and it was understood that indictments for treason were to be
+brought against General Lee and others. Grant, however, insisted that
+the United States government was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and
+his army at Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his
+commission if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic
+action on Grant's part saved the United States from a foul stain upon
+its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was created, for the
+first time since the organization of the government, and Grant was
+promoted to that position. In the following year he became involved in
+the deadly quarrel between President Johnson and Congress. To tie the
+president's hands Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act,
+forbidding the president to remove any cabinet officer without the
+consent of the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended
+Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war _ad interim_
+until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained. Grant accepted
+the appointment under protest, and held it until the following January,
+when the Senate refused to confirm the president's action, and Secretary
+Stanton resumed his office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the
+readiness with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a
+bitter controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto Grant had
+taken little part in politics. The only vote which he had ever cast for
+a presidential candidate was in 1856 for James Buchanan; and leading
+Democrats, so late as the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their
+candidate in the election of that year; but the effect of the
+controversy with President Johnson was to bring Grant forward as the
+candidate of the Republican party. At the convention in Chicago on the
+20th of May 1868 he was unanimously nominated on the first ballot. The
+Democratic party nominated the one available Democrat who had the
+smallest chance of beating him--Horatio Seymour, lately governor of New
+York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless as a candidate
+because of his attitude during the war. The result of the contest was at
+no time in doubt; Grant received 214 electoral votes and Seymour 80.
+
+The most important domestic event of Grant's first term as president was
+the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution on the 30th
+of March 1870, providing that suffrage throughout the United States
+should not be restricted on account of race, colour or previous
+condition of servitude. The most important event in foreign policy was
+the treaty with Great Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as
+the Treaty of Washington, whereby several controversies between the
+United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions as to
+damage inflicted upon the United States by the "Alabama" and other
+Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England, were referred to
+arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo Domingo (or the Dominican
+Republic) expressed a wish for annexation by the United States, and such
+a step was favoured by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in
+view failed to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In
+May 1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious
+Reconstruction laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed by
+Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The Amnesty Bill
+restored civil rights to all persons in the South, save from 300 to 500
+who had held high positions under the Confederacy. As early as 1870
+President Grant recommended measures of civil service reform, and
+succeeded in obtaining an act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service
+commission. A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the
+politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty years
+since Crawford's Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820, the country
+had been growing more and more familiar with the spectacle of corruption
+in high places. The evil rose to alarming proportions during Grant's
+presidency, partly because of the immense extension of the civil
+service, partly because of the growing tendency to alliance between
+spoilsmen and the persons benefited by protective tariffs, and partly
+because the public attention was still so much absorbed in Southern
+affairs that little energy was left for curbing rascality in the North.
+The scandals, indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in
+close relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping with
+the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high intellectual
+powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of nature charming in
+itself, but often calculated to render him the easy prey of sharpers. He
+found it almost impossible to believe that anything could be wrong in
+persons to whom he had given his friendship, and on several occasions
+such friends proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely
+prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure government in
+the United States demanded that President Grant should not be elected to
+a second term. This feeling led a number of high-minded gentlemen to
+form themselves into an organization under the name of Liberal
+Republicans. They held a convention at Cincinnati in May with the
+intention of nominating for the presidency Charles Francis Adams, who
+had ably represented the United States at the court of St James's during
+the Civil War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians who
+converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating Horace Greeley,
+editor of the _New York Tribune_, who represented almost anything rather
+than the object for which the convention had been called together. The
+Democrats had despaired of electing a candidate of their own, and hoped
+to achieve success by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove
+to be an eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in
+1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them wisdom; it was
+still in their power to make a gallant fight by nominating a person for
+whom Republican reformers could vote. But with almost incredible
+fatuity, they adopted Greeley as their candidate. As a natural result
+Grant was re-elected by an overwhelming majority.
+
+
+  Second presidency.
+
+The most important event of his second term was his veto of the
+Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the Resumption Act in
+the following year. The country was still labouring under the curse of
+an inconvertible paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act of
+1862. There was a considerable party in favour of debasing the currency
+indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with that object was passed by
+Congress in April 1874. It was promptly vetoed by President Grant, and
+two months later he wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones
+of Nevada advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of
+the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his consistent
+advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high credit as for his
+victories in the field. In spite of these great services, popular
+dissatisfaction with the Republican party rapidly increased during the
+years 1874-1876. The causes were twofold: firstly, there was great
+dissatisfaction with the troubles in the Southern states, owing to the
+harsh Reconstruction laws and the robberies committed by the carpet-bag
+governments which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at
+Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue, awakened
+lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near to President
+Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid the suspicion that
+he was himself implicated, and never perhaps was his hold upon popular
+favour so slight as in the summer and autumn of 1876.
+
+
+  Later life.
+
+After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant started on
+a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife and one son. He was
+received with distinguished honours in England and on the continent of
+Europe, whence he made his way to India, China and Japan. After his
+return to America in September 1880 he went back to his old home in
+Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers of the Republican party
+attempted to secure his nomination for a third term as president, and in
+the convention at Chicago in June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300
+during 36 consecutive ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such
+effective use of the popular prejudice against third terms that the
+scheme was defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881
+General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His income was
+insufficient for the proper support of his family, and accordingly he
+had become partner in a banking house in which one of his sons was
+interested along with other persons. The name of the firm was Grant and
+Ward. The ex-president invested in it all his available property, but
+paid no attention to the management of the business. His facility in
+giving his confidence to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire
+calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was discovered that
+two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic and gigantic
+frauds. This severe blow left General Grant penniless, just at the time
+when he was beginning to suffer acutely from the disease which finally
+caused his death. Down to this time he had never made any pretensions to
+literary skill or talent, but on being approached by the _Century
+Magazine_ with a request for some articles he undertook the work in
+order to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and
+led to the writing of his _Personal Memoirs_, a frank, modest and
+charming book, which ranks among the best standard military biographies.
+The sales earned for the general and his family something like half a
+million dollars. The circumstances in which it was written made it an
+act of heroism comparable with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier.
+During most of the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the
+throat, and it was only four days before his death that he finished the
+manuscript. In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him a
+general on the retired list; and in the summer he was removed to a
+cottage at Mount M'Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed the last five
+weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of July 1885. His body
+was placed in a temporary tomb in Riverside Drive, in New York City,
+overlooking the Hudson river.[2]
+
+Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was a charming
+side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times almost like that of
+a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindliness and generosity, and if
+there was anything especially difficult for him to endure, it was the
+sight of human suffering, as was shown on the night at Shiloh, where he
+lay out of doors in the icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room
+where the surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as
+his sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as
+president, especially in his triumphant fight against the greenback
+monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings, Grant was a massive,
+noble and lovable personality, well fit to be remembered as one of the
+heroes of a great nation. (J. Fi.)
+
+General Grant's son, FREDERICK DENT GRANT (b. 1850), graduated at the
+U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de-camp to General Philip
+Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from the army in 1881, after having
+attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was U.S. minister to Austria
+in 1889-1893, and police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He
+served as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American War
+of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-general in the
+regular army in February 1901 and major-general in February 1906.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Adam Badeau's _Military History of U. S. Grant_ (3
+  vols., New York, 1867-1881), and _Grant in Peace_ (Hartford, 1887),
+  are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William Conant
+  Church's _Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Preservation and
+  Reconstruction_ (New York, 1897) is a good succinct account. Hamlin
+  Garland's _Ulysses S. Grant, His Life and Character_ (New York, 1898)
+  gives especial attention to the personal traits of Grant and abounds
+  in anecdote. See also Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ (2 vols., New York,
+  1885-1886); J. G. Wilson's _Life and Public Services of U. S. Grant_
+  (New York, 1886); J. R. Young's _Around the World with General Grant_
+  (New York, 1880); Horace Porter's _Campaigning with Grant_ (New York,
+  1897); James Ford Rhodes's _History of the United States_ (vols.
+  iii.-vii., New York, 1896-1906); James K. Hosmer's _Appeal to Arms and
+  Outcome of the Civil War_ (New York, 1907); John Eaton's _Grant,
+  Lincoln, and the Freedmen_ (New York, 1907), and various works
+  mentioned in the articles AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN, &c.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] President Lincoln was Grant's most unwavering supporter. Many
+    amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations which
+    waited upon him to ask for Grant's removal. On one occasion he asked
+    the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by Grant, so
+    that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The question of
+    Grant's abstemiousness was and is of little importance. The cause at
+    stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the United States,
+    since the war, have been in general content to leave the question
+    alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908, when President
+    Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant's tomb.
+
+  [2] The permanent tomb is of white granite and white marble and is
+    150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building 90 ft.
+    on the side and 72 ft. high; the sarcophagus, in the centre of the
+    building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone was laid by
+    President Harrison in 1892, and the tomb was dedicated on the 27th of
+    April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by President McKinley
+    and General Horace Porter, president of the Grant Monument
+    Association, which from 90,000 contributions raised the funds for the
+    tomb.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT (from A.-Fr. _graunter_, O. Fr. _greanter_ for _creanter_, popular
+Lat. _creantare_, for _credentare_, to entrust, Lat. _credere_, to
+believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the gift
+of privileges, rights, &c., specifically in law, the transfer of
+property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant. According
+to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold in corporeal
+hereditaments lay in livery (see FEOFFMENT), whereas incorporeal
+hereditaments, such as a reversion, remainder, advowson, &c., lay in
+grant, that is, passed by the delivery of the deed of conveyance or
+grant without further ceremony. The distinction between property lying
+in livery and in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845
+providing that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be
+transferable as well by grant as by livery (see CONVEYANCING). A grant
+of personal property is properly termed an assignment or bill of sale.
+
+
+
+
+GRANTH, the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the spiritual and
+moral teaching of Sikhism (q.v.). The book is called the _Adi Granth
+Sahib_ by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it is believed by
+them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title is generally applied to
+the volume compiled by the fifth guru Arjan, which contains the
+compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion; of his
+successors, Guru Angad, Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu
+bhagats or saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir, Rai
+Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna and Dhanna Jat;
+verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid; and panegyrics of the gurus
+by bards who either attended them or admired their characters. The
+compositions of the ninth guru, Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to
+the _Adi Granth_ by Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred
+volume preserved at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn
+composed by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The _Adi Granth_ contains
+passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original copy is said
+to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the chief copy in use
+is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple at Amritsar, where it is daily
+read aloud by the attendant Granthis or scripture readers.
+
+There is also a second _Granth_ which was compiled by the Sikhs in 1734,
+and popularly known as the _Granth of the tenth Guru_, but it has not
+the same authority as the _Adi Granth_. It contains Guru Govind Singh's
+_Japji_, the _Akal Ustit_ or Praise of the Creator, thirty-three
+_sawaias_ (quatrains containing some of the main tenets of the guru and
+strong reprobation of idolatry and hypocrisy), and the _Vachitar Natak_
+or wonderful drama, in which the guru gives an account of his parentage,
+divine mission and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three
+abridged translations by different hands of the _Devi Mahatamya_, an
+episode in the _Markandeya Puran_, in praise of Durga, the goddess of
+war. Then follow the _Gyan Parbodh_ or awakening of knowledge, accounts
+of twenty-four incarnations of the deity, selected because of their
+warlike character; the _Hazare de Shabd_; the _Shastar Nam Mala_, which
+is a list of offensive and defensive weapons used in the guru's time,
+with special reference to the attributes of the Creator; the _Tria
+Charitar_ or tales illustrating the qualities, but principally the
+deceit of women; the _Kabit_, compositions of a miscellaneous character;
+the _Zafarnama_ containing the tenth guru's epistle to the emperor
+Aurangzeb, and several metrical tales in the Persian language. This
+_Granth_ is only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The
+greater portion of it was written by bards in his employ.
+
+
+  Form of the Granth.
+
+The two volumes are written in several different languages and dialects.
+The _Adi Granth_ is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi, but Prakrit,
+Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also represented. The _Granth of the
+Tenth Guru_ is written in the old and very difficult Hindi affected by
+literary men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In neither of
+these sacred volumes is there any separation of words. As there is no
+separation of words in Sanskrit, the _gyanis_ or interpreters of the
+guru's hymns prefer to follow the ancient practice of junction of words.
+This makes the reading of the Sikh scriptures very difficult, and is one
+of the causes of the decline of the Sikh religion.
+
+The hymns in the _Adi Granth_ are arranged not according to the gurus or
+bhagats who compose them, but according to rags or musical measures.
+There are thirty-one such measures in the _Adi Granth_, and the hymns
+are arranged according to the measures to which they are composed. The
+gurus who composed hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth
+and ninth gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their
+compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the
+compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the compositions of
+Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on. After the hymns of the
+gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats under their several musical
+measures. The Sikhs generally dislike any arrangement of the _Adi
+Granth_ by which the compositions of each guru or bhagat should be
+separately shown.
+
+
+  The Sikh doctrines.
+
+All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two _Granths_
+and in compositions called _Rahit Namas_ and _Tanakhwah Namas_, which
+are believed to have been the utterances of the tenth guru. The cardinal
+principle of the sacred books is the unity of God, and starting from
+this premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition. Thus Guru
+Govind Singh writes:
+
+  "Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads;
+     Some suspend lingams from their necks;
+   Some see the God in the South; some bow their heads to the West.
+     Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with worshipping
+        the dead.
+   The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found God's
+        secret."
+
+Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His sight, and
+so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak says:
+
+  "Caste hath no power in the next world; there is a new order of beings,
+   Those whose accounts are honoured are the good."
+
+The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by Hinduized
+Sikhs, is forbidden in the _Granth_. Guru Arjan writes:
+
+  "She who considereth her beloved as her God,
+   Is the blessed _sati_ who shall be acceptable in God's Court."
+
+It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine and other
+intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak wrote:
+
+  "By drinking wine man committeth many sins."
+
+Guru Arjan wrote:
+
+  "The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin."
+
+And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desu Singh there is the following:
+
+  "Let a Sikh take no intoxicant; it maketh the body lazy; it diverteth
+  men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth them to
+  evil deeds."
+
+It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to abstain from
+the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising from the Sikh
+adoption of Hindu usages. The two _Granths_ of the Sikhs and all their
+canonical works are absolutely silent on the subject. The Sikhs are not
+bound to abstain from any flesh, except that which is obviously unfit
+for human food, or what is killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging
+an animal's throat with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of
+the main sources of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly
+prohibited by the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host
+as follows:
+
+  "Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the service
+  of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the degrading smoke and
+  cultivate their lands, their wealth and prosperity shall increase, and
+  they shall want for nothing ... but when they smoke the vile
+  vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose their wealth."
+
+Guru Govind Singh also said:
+
+  "Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco destroyeth
+  all generations."
+
+In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most of the
+positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to rulers, a
+quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of the British crown.
+
+  The _Granth_ was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary, on
+  behalf of the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is in many
+  respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the Punjabi
+  dialects. _The Sikh Religion_, &c., in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is an
+  authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with the
+  modern leaders of the Sikh sect.     (M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON, 1st BARON (c. 1695-1770), English diplomatist
+and politician, was a younger son of Sir William Robinson, Bart.
+(1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire, who was member of parliament for York
+from 1697 to 1722. Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity
+College, Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic
+experience in Paris and then went to Vienna, where he was English
+ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought to make peace
+between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great, but in vain,
+and in 1748 he represented his country at the congress of
+Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he sat in parliament for
+Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754 Robinson was appointed a
+secretary of state and leader of the House of Commons by the prime
+minister, the duke of Newcastle, and it was on this occasion that Pitt
+made the famous remark to Fox, "the duke might as well have sent us his
+jackboot to lead us." In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761 he
+was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe from 1749 to
+1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint postmaster-general in
+1765 and 1766. He died in London on the 30th of September 1770.
+
+Grantham's elder son, THOMAS ROBINSON (1738-1786), who became the 2nd
+baron, was born at Vienna on the 30th of November 1738. Educated at
+Westminster School and at Christ's College, Cambridge, he entered
+parliament as member for Christchurch in 1761, and succeeded to the
+peerage in 1770. In 1771 he was sent as ambassador to Madrid and
+retained this post until war broke out between England and Spain in
+1779. From 1780 to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of
+trade and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783
+secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne. He died on
+the 20th of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas Philip, who became the
+3rd baron, and Frederick John afterwards 1st earl of Ripon.
+
+THOMAS PHILIP ROBINSON, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859). in 1803 took the
+name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson. In May 1833 he became Earl
+de Grey of Wrest on the death of his maternal aunt, Amabell
+Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey (1751-1833), and he now took the name of
+de Grey. He was first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in
+1834-1835 and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his
+death without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robinson,
+afterwards marquess of Ripon (q.v.), succeeded as Earl de Grey.
+
+
+
+
+GRANTHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire,
+England; situated in a pleasant undulating country on the river Witham.
+Pop. (1901) 17,593. It is an important junction of the Great Northern
+railway, 105 m. N. by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham,
+Lincoln and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham and the
+Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St Wulfram is a
+splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles, but mainly Early
+English and Decorated. The massive and ornate western tower and spire,
+about 280 ft. in height, are of early Decorated workmanship. There is a
+double Decorated crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south
+porches are fine examples of a later period of the same style. The
+delicately carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the
+16th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the King Edward
+VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received part of his education. A
+bronze statue commemorates him. The late Perpendicular building is
+picturesque, and the school was greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel
+Hotel is a hostelry of the 15th century, with a gateway of earlier date.
+A conduit dating from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern
+public buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches
+and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was erected in
+1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the manufacture of
+agricultural implements. Grantham returns one member to parliament. The
+borough falls within the S. Kesteven or Stamford division of the county.
+Grantham was created a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in
+1905. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 1726 acres.
+
+Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation, Grantham
+(Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its situation on the Ermine
+Street, is supposed to have been a Roman station. It was possibly a
+borough in the Saxon period, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it
+was a royal borough with 111 burgesses. Charters of liberties existing
+now only in the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various
+kings. From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed by
+the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the office of
+alderman had come into existence. Finally government under a mayor and
+alderman was granted by Edward IV. in 1463, and Grantham became a
+corporate town. Among later charters, that of James II., given in 1685,
+changed the title to that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but
+this was afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham was
+first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two members; but
+by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number was reduced to one. Richard
+III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday market and two fairs yearly, namely on
+the feast of St Nicholas the Bishop, and the two following days, and on
+Passion Sunday and the day following. At the present day the market is
+held on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and
+Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair on the 11th
+of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October and the 17th of
+December.
+
+
+
+
+GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, 1st Baron (1716-1789), English politician,
+was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was
+born on the 23rd of June 1716. He became a barrister in 1739, and, after
+a period of inactivity, obtained a large and profitable practice,
+becoming a K.C. in 1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county
+palatine of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for
+Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was appointed
+solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762. He took part in the
+proceedings against John Wilkes, and, having become attorney-general in
+1763, prosecuted the 5th Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth,
+losing his office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in
+July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for Guildford,
+Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice in eyre of the
+forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen Speaker of the House
+of Commons. In 1777, when presenting the bill for the increase of the
+civil list to the king, he told George III. that parliament has "not
+only granted to your majesty a large present supply, but also a very
+great additional revenue; great beyond example; great beyond your
+majesty's highest expense." This speech aroused general attention and
+caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox and by the
+city of London, and received the thanks of the House of Commons. George,
+however, did not forget these plain words, and after the general
+election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord North, and his followers
+declined to support the re-election of the retiring Speaker, alleging
+that his health was not equal to the duties of the office, and he was
+defeated when the voting took place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron
+Grantley of Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789.
+He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William
+(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as "a bold, able and eloquent, but
+not a popular pleader," and as Speaker he was aggressive and indiscreet.
+Derided by satirists as "Sir Bullface Doublefee," and described by
+Horace Walpole as one who "rose from obscure infamy to that infamous
+fame which will long stick to him," his character was also assailed by
+Junius, and the general impression is that he was a hot-tempered,
+avaricious and unprincipled man.
+
+  See H. Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F.
+  R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, _Historical and Posthumous
+  Memoirs_, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A. Manning, _Lives
+  of the Speakers_ (1850).
+
+
+
+
+GRANTOWN, the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
+1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23¼ m. S. of Forres by the
+Highland railway, with a station on the Great North of Scotland's
+Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with Boat of Garten. It was
+founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of Grant, and became the chief seat
+of that ancient family, who had lived on their adjoining estate of
+Freuchie (Gaelic, _fraochach_, "heathery") since the beginning of the
+15th century, and hence were usually described as the lairds of
+Freuchie. The public buildings include the town hall, court house and
+orphan hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the cattle
+trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey granite,
+presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully situated in the
+midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods in Scotland, with pure
+air and a bracing climate, is an attractive resort. Castle Grant,
+immediately to the north, is the principal mansion of the earl of
+Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant. In a cave, still called "Lord
+Huntly's Cave," in a rocky glen in the vicinity, George, marquess of
+Huntly, lay hid during Montrose's campaign in 1644-45.
+
+
+
+
+GRANULITE (Lat. _granulum_, a little grain), a name used by
+petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. According to
+the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite in which
+both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and corresponds to the
+German _Granit_, or to the English "muscovite biotite granite." This
+application has not been accepted generally. To the German petrologists
+"granulite" means a more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock,
+consisting mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular
+crystals, and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded
+pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the term is
+generally employed in this sense. The granulites are very closely allied
+to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the same minerals, but they
+are finer grained, have usually less perfect foliation, are more
+frequently garnetiferous, and have some special features of microscopic
+structure. In the rocks of this group the minerals, as seen in a
+microscopic slide, occur as small rounded grains forming a mosaic
+closely fitted together. The individual crystals have never perfect
+form, and indeed rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they
+interlock, with irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out
+and flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they
+are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger. This is
+especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the predominant
+minerals; mica always appears as flat scales (irregular or rounded but
+not hexagonal). Both muscovite and biotite may be present and vary
+considerably in abundance; very commonly they have their flat sides
+parallel and give the rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be
+aggregated into bands--in which case the granulites are
+indistinguishable from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very
+generally larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily
+visible with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock.
+They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals.
+
+The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or cryptoperthite;
+microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common. Basic felspars occur
+only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in addition to apatite, zircon,
+and iron oxides, the following may be mentioned: hornblende (not
+common), riebeckite (rare), epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene,
+andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile,
+orthite and tourmaline. Though occasionally we may find larger grains of
+felspar, quartz or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks
+that all the minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped
+individuals.
+
+On account of the minuteness with which it has been described and the
+important controversies on points of theoretical geology which have
+arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony (around Rosswein,
+Penig, &c.) may be considered the typical region for rocks of this
+group. It should be remembered that though granulites are probably the
+commonest rocks of this country, they are mingled with granites,
+gneisses, gabbros, amphibolites, mica schists and many other
+petrographical types. All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism
+either of a thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The
+granites pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro
+and amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, and
+show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks were regarded
+as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes Georg Lehmann propounded
+the hypothesis that their present state was due principally to crushing
+acting on them in a solid condition, grinding them down and breaking up
+their minerals, while the pressure to which they were subjected welded
+them together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that they
+are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, partly of
+Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be nearly massive or may
+have gneissose, flaser or granulitic structures. These have been
+developed largely by the injection of semi-consolidated highly viscous
+intrusions, and the varieties of texture are original or were produced
+very shortly after the crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however,
+Lehmann's advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the
+development of granulites has been so successful that the terms
+granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed to
+indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks at a period
+long after their solidification.
+
+The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous and
+correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. There are,
+however, many granulites which undoubtedly were originally sediments
+(arkoses, grits and sandstones). A large part of the highlands of
+Scotland consists of paragranulites of this kind, which have received
+the group name of "Moine gneisses."
+
+Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in Saxony,
+India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-coloured basic
+granulites ("trap granulites"). These are fine-grained rocks, not
+usually banded, nearly black in colour with small red spots of garnet.
+Their essential minerals are pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet:
+chemically they resemble the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form
+a considerable part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite,
+hornblende and quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial
+grouping of small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of
+felspar: these "centric" structures are frequent in granulites. The
+rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpentine, but the exact
+conditions under which they are formed and the significance of their
+structures is not very clearly understood.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT, CARDINAL DE (1517-1586), one of the ablest
+and most influential of the princes of the church during the great
+political and ecclesiastical movements which immediately followed the
+appearance of Protestantism in Europe, was born on the 20th of August
+1517 at Besançon, where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella
+(1484-1550), who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under
+Charles V., was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an
+influential position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death
+he was one of the emperor's most trusted advisers in Germany. On the
+completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity at Louvain,
+Antoine held a canonry at Besançon, but he was promoted to the bishopric
+of Arras when barely twenty-three (1540). In his episcopal capacity he
+attended several diets of the empire, as well as the opening meetings of
+the council of Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor,
+led to his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of
+public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare talent
+for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate acquaintance
+with most of the currents of European politics. One of his specially
+noteworthy performances was the settlement of the terms of peace after
+the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden at Mühlberg in 1547, a
+settlement in which, to say the least, some particularly sharp practice
+was exhibited. In 1550 he succeeded his father in the office of
+secretary of state; in this capacity he attended Charles in the war with
+Maurice, elector of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from
+Innsbruck, and afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In
+the following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage of
+Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555, on the
+abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services, and by whom he
+was employed in the Netherlands. In April 1559 Granvella was one of the
+Spanish commissioners who arranged the peace of Cateau Cambrésis, and on
+Philip's withdrawal from the Netherlands in August of the same year he
+was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma. The
+policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued during the next
+five years secured for him many tangible rewards, in 1560 he was
+elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines, and in 1561 he received
+the cardinal's hat; but the growing hostility of a people whose
+religious convictions he had set himself to trample under foot
+ultimately made it impossible for him to continue in the Low Countries,
+and by the advice of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to
+Franche Comté. Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary
+character, but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent
+in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in 1565; but
+in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed public life by
+accepting another mission to Rome. Here he helped to arrange the
+alliance between the Papacy, Venice and Spain against the Turks, an
+alliance which was responsible for the victory of Lepanto. In the same
+year he became viceroy of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger,
+which for five years he occupied with ability and success. He was
+summoned to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council
+for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of his later
+years were those of 1580, which had for their object the ultimate union
+of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and those of 1584, which resulted
+in a check to France by the marriage of the Spanish infanta Catherine to
+Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop
+of Besançon, but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering
+disease; he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of
+September 1586. His body was removed to Besançon, where his father had
+been buried. Granvella was a man of great learning, which was equalled
+by his industry, and these qualities made him almost indispensable both
+to Charles V. and to Philip II.
+
+  Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the
+  archives of Besançon. These were to some extent made use of by Prosper
+  Levêque in his _Mémoires pour servir_ (1753), as well as by the Abbé
+  Boisot in the _Trésor de Granvella_. A commission for publishing the
+  whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by Guizot in 1834, and
+  the result has been the issue of nine volumes of the _Papiers d'État
+  du cardinal de Granvelle_, edited by C. Weiss (Paris, 1841-1852). They
+  form a part of the _Collection de documents inédits sur l'histoire de
+  France_, and were supplemented by the _Correspondance du cardinal
+  Granvelle, 1565-1586_, edited by M. E. Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12
+  vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also the anonymous _Histoire du
+  cardinal de Granville_, attributed to Courchetet D'Esnans (Paris,
+  1761); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; M. Philippson, _Ein
+  Ministerium unter Philipp II._ (Berlin, 1895); and the _Cambridge
+  Modern History_ (vol. iii. 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER, 2ND EARL (1815-1891), English
+statesman, eldest son of the 1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his
+marriage with Lady Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born
+in London on the 11th of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower,
+was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess of
+Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the second wife
+(a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became the 2nd marquess of
+Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter and heiress of the 17th
+earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland in her own right) led to the
+merging of the Gower and Stafford titles in that of the dukes of
+Sutherland (created 1833), who represent the elder branch of the family.
+As Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created
+viscount in 1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and
+was ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-1841). He
+was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of Canning. The title
+of Earl Granville had been previously held in the Carteret family.
+
+After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord Leveson went
+to Paris for a short time under his father, and in 1836 was returned to
+parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth. For a short time he was
+under-secretary for foreign affairs in Lord Melbourne's ministry. In
+1840 he married Lady Acton (Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of
+Sir Richard Acton; see ACTON and DALBERG). From 1841 till his father's
+death in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield. In
+the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader, and Lord John
+Russell made him master of the buckhounds (1846). He proved a useful
+member of the party, and his influence and amiable character were
+valuable in all matters needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became
+vice-president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent part
+in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter year, having
+already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded Palmerston at the
+foreign office until Lord John Russell's defeat in 1852; and when Lord
+Aberdeen formed his government at the end of the year, he became first
+president of the council, and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
+(1854). Under Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council.
+His interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led to
+his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University, a post he
+held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent champion of the
+movement for the admission of women, and also of the teaching of modern
+languages. From 1855 Lord Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House,
+both in office, and, after Palmerston's resignation in 1858, in
+opposition. He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar's
+coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed by the rival
+ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him to form a ministry,
+but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston again became prime minister,
+with Lord John as foreign secretary and Granville as president of the
+council. In 1860 his wife died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added
+that of his great friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother
+(1862); but he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his
+office when, on Palmerston's death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer)
+became prime minister and took over the leadership in the House of
+Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, and in the same
+year married again, his second wife being Miss Castalia Campbell. From
+1866 to 1868 he was in opposition, but in December 1868 he became
+colonial secretary in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was
+invaluable to the government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills
+through the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord
+Clarendon's death, he was transferred to the foreign office. Lord
+Granville's name is mainly associated with his career as foreign
+secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal foreign policy of
+that period was not distinguished by enterprise or "backbone." Lord
+Granville personally was patient and polite, but his courteous and
+pacific methods were somewhat inadequate in dealing with the new
+situation then arising in Europe and outside it; and foreign governments
+had little scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and
+relying on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong
+measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within a few days of
+Lord Granville's quoting in the House of Lords (11th of July) the
+curiously unprophetic opinion of the permanent under-secretary (Mr
+Hammond) that "he had never known so great a lull in foreign affairs."
+Russia took advantage of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses
+of the treaty of Paris, and Lord Granville's protest was ineffectual. In
+1871 an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan was
+agreed on between him and Shuválov; but in 1873 Russia took possession
+of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord Granville had to accept the
+aggression. When the Conservatives came into power in 1874, his part for
+the next six years was to criticize Disraeli's "spirited" foreign
+policy, and to defend his own more pliant methods. He returned to the
+foreign office in 1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing
+in German policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders
+were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed to realize
+in time the importance of the Angra Pequeña question in 1883-1884, and
+he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to yield to Bismarck over it.
+Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan or equatorial and south-west Africa,
+British foreign policy was dominated by suavity rather than by the
+strength which commands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home
+Rule for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive to
+new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave way to Lord
+Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign office; the
+Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground in the country by
+Lord Granville's occupancy of the post. He went to the Colonial Office
+for six months, and in July 1886 retired from public life. He died in
+London on the 31st of March 1891, being succeeded in the title by his
+son, born in 1872. Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many
+friendships, and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like
+a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no place in
+history as a constructive statesman.
+
+  The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of
+  interesting material for the history of the period, but being written
+  by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it
+  explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that
+  department.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763), English statesman, commonly
+known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret, born on the 22nd of April
+1690, was the son of George, 1st Lord Carteret, by his marriage with
+Grace Granville, daughter of Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and
+great grandson of the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous
+for his death in the "Revenge." The family of Carteret was settled in
+the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John Carteret was
+educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford. Swift says that
+"with a singularity scarce to be justified he carried away more Greek,
+Latin and philosophy than properly became a person of his rank."
+Throughout life Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics,
+but a taste for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures.
+He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew German. Harte,
+the author of the _Life of Gustavus Adolphus_, acknowledged the aid
+which Carteret had given him. On the 17th of October 1710 he married at
+Longleat Lady Frances Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount
+Weymouth. He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though
+his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of Stuart,
+Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian dynasty. He was a
+friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and Sunderland, took a share in
+defeating the Jacobite conspiracy of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen
+Anne, and supported the passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret's
+interests were however in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His
+serious work in public life began with his appointment, early in 1719,
+as ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year he was
+employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter the Great, and in
+arranging the pacification of the north. His efforts were finally
+successful. During this period of diplomatic work he acquired an
+exceptional knowledge of the affairs of Europe, and in particular of
+Germany, and displayed great tact and temper in dealing with the Swedish
+senate, with Queen Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick
+William I. of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the
+intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary of state
+for the southern department on his return home, he soon became
+helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend and Sir Robert
+Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every able colleague, or
+subordinate, as an enemy to be removed, Carteret was exceptionally
+odious. His capacity to speak German with the king would alone have made
+Sir Robert detest him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland
+against Wood's halfpence (see SWIFT, JONATHAN) made it necessary to
+replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was sent to
+Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October 1724, and remained
+there till 1730. In the first months of his tenure of office he had to
+deal with the furious opposition to Wood's halfpence, and to counteract
+the effect of Swift's _Draper's Letters_. The lord lieutenant had a
+strong personal liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady
+Carteret's family. It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have
+reconciled his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if
+government had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage
+on the Irish people. Wood's patent was however withdrawn, and Ireland
+settled down. Carteret was a profuse and popular lord lieutenant who
+pleased both the "English interest" and the native Irish. He was at all
+times addicted to lavish hospitality, and according to the testimony of
+contemporaries was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in
+1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of Commons,
+and as the trusted minister of King George II. He had the full
+confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced against Carteret. Till
+the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret could take no share in public
+affairs except as a leader of opposition of the Lords. His brilliant
+parts were somewhat obscured by his rather erratic conduct, and a
+certain contempt, partly aristocratic and partly intellectual, for
+commonplace men and ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who
+loved literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having paid
+the expenses of the first handsome edition of _Don Quixote_ to please
+her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed himself to be
+entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between Frederick, prince of
+Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline was provoked into classing him
+and Bolingbroke, as "the two most worthless men of parts in the
+country." Carteret took the popular side in the outcry against Walpole
+for not making war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession
+approached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa--mainly on
+the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would dangerously
+increase the power of France, even if she gained no accession of
+territory. These views made him welcome to George II., who gladly
+accepted him as secretary of state in 1742. In 1743 he accompanied the
+king of Germany, and was present at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th
+of June. He held the secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in
+promoting an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He
+understood the relations of the European states, and the interests of
+Great Britain among them. But the defects which had rendered him unable
+to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him equally unable to contend
+with the Pelhams. His support of the king's policy was denounced as
+subservience to Hanover. Pitt called him "an execrable, a sole minister
+who had renounced the British nation." A few years later Pitt adopted an
+identical policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt from
+Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became Earl Granville on
+the death of his mother. His first wife died in June 1743 at
+Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter
+of Lord Pomfret--a fashionable beauty and "reigning toast" of London
+society, who was younger than his daughters. "The nuptials of our great
+Quixote and the fair Sophia," and Granville's ostentatious performance
+of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace Walpole. The countess
+Granville died on the 7th of October 1745, leaving one daughter Sophia,
+who married Lord Shelburne, 1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may
+have done something to increase Granville's reputation for eccentricity.
+In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the intrigues of
+the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but resigned in
+forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president of the council, and
+was still liked and trusted by the king, but his share in government did
+not go beyond giving advice, and endeavouring to forward ministerial
+arrangements. In 1756 he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister
+as the alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood why
+the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When in October 1761
+Pitt, who had information of the signing of the "Family Compact" wished
+to declare war on Spain, and declared his intention to resign unless his
+advice was accepted, Granville replied that "the opinion of the majority
+(of the Cabinet) must decide." He spoke in complimentary terms of Pitt,
+but resisted his claim to be considered as a "sole minister" or, in the
+modern phrase, "a prime minister." Whether he used the words attributed
+to him in the Annual Register for 1761 is more than doubtful, but the
+minutes of council show that they express his meaning. Granville
+remained in office as president till his death. His last act was to
+listen while on his death-bed to the reading of the preliminaries of the
+treaty of Paris. He was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood,
+author of an essay on _The Original Genius of Homer_, would have
+postponed the business, but Granville said that it "could not prolong
+his life to neglect his duty," and quoted the speech of Sarpedon from
+_Iliad_ xii. 322-328, repeating the last word ([Greek: iomen]) "with a
+calm and determined resignation." He died in his house in Arlington
+Street, London, on the 22nd of January 1763. The title of Granville
+descended to his son Robert, who died without issue in 1776, when the
+earldom of this creation became extinct.
+
+  A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by
+  Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of _Lord Carteret, a Political
+  Biography_.
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South Wales, 13 m. by rail
+W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is an important railway junction and
+manufacturing town, producing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes,
+tiles and bricks; there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene
+and meat export works. It became a municipality in 1885.
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western
+France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of the Bosq, 85 m. S.
+by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,530. Granville consists of
+two quarters, the upper town built on a promontory jutting into the sea
+and surrounded by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below
+it. The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building of
+granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in the
+upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two floating basins
+and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part in deep sea fishing,
+including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, and oyster-fishing is
+carried on. It has regular communication with Guernsey and Jersey, and
+with the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. The principal exports are
+eggs, vegetables and fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are
+imported. The industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the
+manufacture of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing,
+metal-founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical manures.
+Among the public institutions are a tribunal and a chamber of commerce.
+In the commune are included the Iles Chausey about 7½ m. N.W. of
+Granville (see Channel Islands). Granville, before an insignificant
+village, was fortified by the English in 1437, taken by the French in
+1441, bombarded and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully
+besieged by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by the
+English in 1803.
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of
+Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop.
+of the village (1910) 1394; of the township (1910) 2442. Granville is
+served by the Toledo & Ohio Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the
+latter reaching Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways),
+Columbus, Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of
+Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist Education
+Society and opened as a manual labour school, called the Granville
+Literary and Theological Institution. It was renamed Granville College
+in 1845, and took its present name in 1854 in honour of William S.
+Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, who had given $10,000 to the college. The
+university comprised in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College
+(229 students), the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College
+(246 students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the
+collegiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies' Institute
+of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination in 1887 by Dr
+Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, and closely affiliated for
+scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the university, though legally it
+is still a distinct institution; Doane Academy (137 students), the
+preparatory department for boys, established in 1831, named Granville
+Academy in 1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of
+Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music (137
+students); and a school of art (38 students).
+
+In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding year in
+Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land in Ohio, including
+the site of Granville; the town was laid out, and in the last months of
+that year settlers from Granville, Mass., began to arrive. By January
+1806 the colony numbered 234 persons; the township was incorporated in
+1806 and the village was incorporated in 1831. There are several
+remarkable Indian mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an
+alligator.
+
+  See Henry Bushnell, _History of Granville, Ohio_ (Columbus, O., 1889).
+
+
+
+
+GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (q.v.). The word is adopted from the O. Fr.
+_grape_, mod. _grappe_, bunch or cluster of flowers or fruit, _grappes
+de raisin_, bunch of grapes. The French word meant properly a hook; cf.
+M.H.G. _krapfe_, Eng. "grapnel," and "cramp." The development of meaning
+seems to be vine-hook, cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in
+English a single grape of a cluster. The projectile called "grape" or
+"grape-shot," formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name
+from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted of a
+number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary
+musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron plates, a bolt passing
+through the centre of the plates binding the whole together. On being
+discharged the projectile delivered the bullets in a shower somewhat
+after the fashion of case-shot.
+
+
+
+
+GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometrical figures the
+numerical data which result from the quantitative investigation of
+phenomena. The simplest application is met with in the representation of
+tabular data such as occur in statistics. Such tables are usually of
+single entry, i.e. to a certain value of one variable there corresponds
+one, and only one, value of the other variable. To construct the graph,
+as it is called, of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually
+employed. Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen,
+intersecting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the
+axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along one,
+say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin
+corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these points
+perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates distances are
+taken corresponding to the related values of the other variable. The
+curve drawn through these points is the graph. A general inspection of
+the graph shows in bold relief the essential characters of the table.
+For example, if the world's production of corn over a number of years be
+plotted, a poor yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a
+peak, a uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on.
+Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two or more
+different phenomena, and the curves render apparent at first sight
+similarities or differences which can be made out from the tables only
+after close examination. In making graphs for comparison, the scales
+chosen must give a similar range of variation, otherwise the
+correspondence may not be discerned. For example, the scales adopted for
+the average consumption of tea and sugar must be ounces for the former
+and pounds for the latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by
+automatic recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph,
+seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more rarely used,
+being only specially applicable when one of the variables is a direction
+or recorded as an angle. A simple case is the representation of
+photometric data, i.e. the value of the intensity of the light emitted
+in different directions from a luminous source (see LIGHTING).
+
+  The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems is
+  usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems in
+  mechanics is treated in MECHANICS, § 5, _Graphic Statics_, and
+  DIAGRAM. A special phase is presented in VECTOR ANALYSIS.
+
+
+
+
+GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element carbon
+crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically, it is thus
+indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between the two there are
+very wide differences in physical characters. Graphite is black and
+opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and transparent; it is one of the
+softest (H = 1) of minerals, and diamond the hardest of all; it is a
+good conductor of electricity, whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The
+specific gravity is 2.2, that of diamond is 3.5. Further, unlike
+diamond, it never occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as
+imperfect six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage
+parallel to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are
+flexible but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils
+everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is bright and
+metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus strikingly similar
+to molybdenite (q.v.).
+
+The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from the Greek
+[Greek: gráphein], "to write," because the mineral is used for making
+pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plumbago and
+black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these names are
+singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. _plumbum_, lead) was originally
+used for an artificial product obtained from lead ore, and afterwards
+for the ore (galena) itself; it was confused both with graphite and with
+molybdenite. The true chemical nature of graphite was determined by K.
+W. Scheele in 1779.
+
+Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks--gneiss,
+granulite, schist and crystalline limestone--and also sometimes in
+granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks, or as
+large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been observed as a
+product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous clay-slates near their
+contact with granite, and where igneous rocks have been intruded into
+beds of coal; in these cases the mineral has clearly been derived from
+organic matter. The graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as
+well as that contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an
+origin. As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark
+lustrous scales in grey pig-iron, and in the "kish" of iron furnaces: it
+is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with
+carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite veins in
+the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalliferous veins and
+the material derived from deep-seated sources; the decomposition of
+metallic carbides by water and the reduction of hydrocarbon vapours have
+been suggested as possible modes of origin. Such veins often attain a
+thickness of several feet, and sometimes possess a columnar structure
+perpendicular to the enclosing walls; they are met with in the
+crystalline limestones and other Laurentian rocks of New York and
+Canada, in the gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of
+Ceylon. Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount
+are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale mine in
+Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico, probably the
+richest deposits in the world, supply the American lead pencil
+manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Pennsylvania and Alabama is
+"flake" and unsuitable for this purpose.
+
+Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants, grate
+polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The material as mined
+usually does not contain more than 20 to 50% of graphite: the ore has
+therefore to be crushed and the graphite floated off in water from the
+heavier impurities. Even the purest forms contain a small percentage of
+volatile matter and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially
+suitable for pencils, contains about 12% of impurities. (L. J. S.)
+
+_Artificial Manufacture._--The alteration of carbon at high temperatures
+into a material resembling graphite has long been known. In 1893 Girard
+and Street patented a furnace and a process by which this transformation
+could be effected. Carbon powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed
+through a tube in which it was subjected to the action of one or more
+electric arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his
+carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899 the
+International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing electric
+current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are adopted: (1)
+graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitization of anthracite _en
+masse_. The former includes electrodes, lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some
+other form of amorphous carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the
+required article moulded in a press or by a die. The articles are
+stacked transversely in a furnace, each being packed in granular coke
+and covered with carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at
+220 volts, increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In
+graphitizing _en masse_ large lumps of anthracite are treated in the
+electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating carbon with
+ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the so-called
+"deflocculated" variety when treated with gallotannic acid. These two
+modifications are valuable lubricants. The massive graphite is very
+easily machined and is widely used for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead
+pencils and the like.
+
+  See "Graphite and its Uses," _Bull. Imperial Institute_, (1906) P.
+  353. (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, _Graphite_ (Ottawa, 1907).     (W. G. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAPTOLITES, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose skeletal remains
+are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally in great abundance. They
+are usually preserved as branching or unbranching carbonized bodies,
+tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in shape, their edges regularly toothed
+or denticulated. Most frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes
+of black shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of
+sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their original
+relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.
+
+Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous investment or
+supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each tooth-like projection
+marking the position of the sheath or _theca_ of an individual zooid.
+Some of the branching forms have a distinct outward resemblance to the
+polyparies of _Sertularia_ and _Plumularia_ among the recent Hydroida
+(_Calyptoblastea_); in none of the unbranching forms, however, is the
+similarity by any means close.
+
+The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the majority range
+from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples have been met with
+having a length or more than 30 in.
+
+Very different views have been held as to the systematic place and rank
+of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them in his group of false fossils
+(_Graptolithus_ = written stone). At one time they were referred by some
+to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), and later, by almost general consent, to the
+Hydroida (Calyptoblastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late
+years an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as
+constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own
+(_Graptolithina_).
+
+There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the _Graptoloidea_ or
+Graptolites proper, and the _Dendroidea_ or tree-like Graptolites; the
+former is typified by the unbranched genus _Monograptus_ and the latter
+by the many-branched genus _Dendrograptus_.
+
+  A _Monograptus_ makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like
+  body (the _sicula_), which represents the flattened covering of the
+  primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had
+  originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or
+  regions--an upper and smaller (_apical_ or embryonic) portion, marked
+  by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread (the
+  _nema_) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or _apertural_)
+  portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the
+  direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms the
+  broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with a
+  perpendicular spine (_virgella_) and occasionally with two shorter
+  lateral spines or lobes.
+
+  A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its
+  length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial
+  theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of
+  the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the
+  mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial
+  theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180°
+  with the direction of that of the sicula.
+
+  From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same
+  direction, and from the second a third, and soon, in a continuous
+  linear series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the
+  one immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is
+  effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of
+  the sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to
+  grow soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains
+  permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it
+  forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third or
+  fourth theca.
+
+A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or _virgula_)
+becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall of the polypary,
+and is sometimes continued distally as a naked rod. It was formerly
+supposed that a virgula was present in all the Graptoloidea; hence the
+term _Rhabdophora_ sometimes employed for the Graptoloidea in general,
+and _rhabdosome_ for the individual polypary; but while the virgula is
+present in many (Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).
+
+The GRAPTOLOIDEA are arranged in eight families, each named after a
+characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Leptograptidae; (3)
+Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5) Glossograptidae (sub-family,
+Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae; (7) Dimorphograptidae; (8)
+Monograptidae.
+
+In all these families the polypary originates as in _Monograptus_ from a
+nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards and gives off only
+a single bud, such branching as may take place occurring at subsequent
+stages in the growth of the polypary. In some species young examples
+have been met with in which the nema ends above in a small membranous
+disk, which has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the
+underside of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young
+polypary hung suspended.
+
+Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance in time in
+the order given above, and show a progressive morphological evolution
+along certain special lines. There is a tendency for the branches to
+become reduced in number, and for the serial thecae to become directed
+more and more upwards towards the line of the nema. In the oldest
+family--Dichograptidae--in which the branching polypary is bilaterally
+symmetrical and the thecae uniserial (_monoprionidian_)--there is a
+gradation from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with
+only two; and from species in which all the branches and their thecae
+are directed downwards, through species in which the branches become
+bent back more and more outwards and upwards, until in some the terminal
+thecae open almost vertically. In the genus _Phyllograptus_ the branches
+have become reduced to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls
+along the line of the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base
+of the polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are
+reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal walls, and
+the polypary thus becomes biserial (_diprionidian_), and the line of the
+nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure, the _nemacaulus_ or
+virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family, the Monograptidae, the
+branches are theoretically reduced to one, the polypary is uniserial
+throughout, and all the thecae are directed outwards and upwards.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+   1, _Diptograptus_, young sicula.
+   2, _Monograptus dubius_, sicula and first serial theca (partly
+        restored).
+   3, Young form (all above after Wiman).
+  4a, Older form.
+  4b, Showing virgula (after Holm).
+   5, _Rastrites distans._
+   6, Base of Diptograptus (after Wiman).
+   7, D. calcaratus.
+   8, Dimorphograptus.
+   9, Base of _Didymograptus minulus_ (after Holm).
+  10, Young _Dictyograptus_, with primary disk.
+  11, Ibid. _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).
+  12 a-b, Base and transverse section, _Retiolites Geinitzianus_ (after
+        Holm).
+  13, _Bryograptus Kjerulfi_.
+  14, _Dichograptus octobrachiatus_, with central disk.
+  15, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_.
+  16, _D. gibberulus_.
+  17 a-b, _Phyllograptus_ and transverse section.
+  18, _Nemagraptus gracilis_.
+  19, _Dicranograptus ramosus_.
+  20, _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_.
+  21, _Glossograptus Hincksii_.
+  22, _Lasiograptus costatus_ (after Elles and Wood).
+  23, _Dictyonema (-graptus) flabelliforme (-is)_.
+  24, _Dictyonema (-dendron) peltatum_ with base of attachment.
+  25, _D. cervicorne_, branches (after Holm).
+  26, _D. rarum_ (section after Wiman).
+  27, _Dendrograptus Hallianus_.
+  28, Synrhabdosome of _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).
+  S,  Sicula.
+  u,  Upper or apical portion.
+  l,  Lower or apertural.
+  m,  Mouth.
+  N,  Nema.
+  nn, Nemacaulus or virgular tube.
+  V,  Virgula.
+  vv,  Virgella.
+  zz, Septal strands.
+  T,  Theca.
+  C,  Common canal (in Retiolites).
+  G,  Gonangium.
+  g,  Gonotheca.
+  b,  Budding theca.]
+
+  The thecae in the earliest family--Dichograptidae--are so similar in
+  form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a
+  colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in those
+  of the latest family--Monograptidae--in some species of which the
+  terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (_Rastrites_) and in
+  some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the families
+  are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes: the spines
+  are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial forms: in the
+  Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a marginal meshwork
+  surrounding the polypary.
+
+  _Histologically_, the perisarc or _test_ in the Graptoloidea appears
+  to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure,
+  and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity. The
+  central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth; but in
+  _Glossograptus_ and _Lasiograptus_ it is thinned down to a fine
+  membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, and
+  in _Retiolites_ this membrane is reduced to a delicate network. The
+  groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to,
+  collectively, as the _Retioloidea_, and the structure as _retioloid_.
+
+It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each graptolite
+polypary (_rhabdosome_) developed from a single sicula as an individual
+of the highest order. Certain American forms, however, which are
+preserved as stellate groups, have been interpreted as complex
+umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, individuals of a still higher order
+(_synrhabdosomes_), composed of a number of biserial polyparies (each
+having a sicula at its outer extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a
+common centre of origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming
+bladder and a ring of capsules.
+
+In the DENDROIDEA, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical in shape
+and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous branches irregularly
+disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or short basal portion ending
+below in root-like fibres or in a membranous disk or sheet of
+attachment. An exception, however, is constituted by the comprehensive
+genus _Dictyonema_, which embraces species composed of a large number of
+divergent and sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments
+into a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes
+some forms (_Dictyograptus_) which originate from a nema-bearing sicula
+and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.
+
+Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea little is
+known, but the more mature stages have been fully worked out. In
+_Dictyonema_ the branches show thecae of two kinds: (1) the ordinary
+tubular thecae answering to those of the Graptoloidea and occupied by
+the nourishing zooids; and (2) the so-called _bithecae_, birdnest-like
+cups (regarded by their discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately
+right and left of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third
+set of thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals.
+In the genus _Dendrograptus_ the gonothecae open within the walls of the
+ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward resemblance to
+those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in striking contrast to what
+obtains among the Graptoloidea in general, the budding orifices in the
+Dendroidea become closed, and all the various cells shut off from each
+other.
+
+The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory: the
+families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera
+_Dendrograptus_, _Dictyonema_, _Inocaulis_ and _Thamnograptus_.
+
+  As regards the _modes of reproduction among the Graptolites_ little is
+  known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae were
+  possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some as
+  nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular
+  appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked upon
+  as connected with the reproductive system; and in the umbrella-shaped
+  _synrhabdosomes_ already referred to, the common centre is surrounded
+  by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian capsules. The theory
+  of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies in the Graptoloidea
+  is, however, disputed by some authorities, and it has been suggested
+  that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the product of the normal
+  or sexual mode of propagation in the group, but owes its origin to a
+  peculiar type of budding or non-sexual reproduction, in which, as
+  temporary resting or protecting structures, the vesicular bodies may
+  have had a share.
+
+As respects the _mode of life of the Graptolites_ there can be little
+doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions, sessile or
+benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the recent
+Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining attached to the
+sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The Graptoloidea have
+also been regarded by some as benthonic organisms. A more prevalent
+view, however, is that the majority were pseudo-planktonic or drifting
+colonies, hanging from the underside of floating seaweeds; their
+polyparies being each suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of
+growth, and, in later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others
+became adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their
+dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained
+permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may have become
+broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum, at the mercy of the
+winds and currents, carrying the attached Graptolites into all
+latitudes. The more complex umbrella-shaped colonies of colonies
+(synrhabdosomes) described as provided with a common swimming bladder
+(pneumatophore?) may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming
+mode of existence.
+
+The _range of the Graptolites in time_ extends from the Cambrian to the
+Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have this extended range,
+the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the close of Silurian time. Both
+groups make their first appearance together near the end of the
+Cambrian; but while in the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian the
+Dendroidea are comparatively rare, the Graptoloidea become the most
+characteristic and, locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.
+
+The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably short
+range in geological time; but the geographical distribution of the group
+as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost world-wide. This
+combination of circumstances has given the Graptoloidea a paramount
+stratigraphical importance as palaeontological indices of the detailed
+sequence and correlation of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many
+_Graptolite zones_, showing a constant uniformity of succession,
+paralleled in this respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of
+the Jurassic, have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe,
+each marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and
+associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding horizons
+to those on which they are found in Britain, have been met with in the
+graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations of other parts of Europe,
+in America, Australia, New Zealand and elsewhere.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Linnaeus, _Systema naturae_ (12th ed. 1768); Hall,
+  _Graptolites of the Quebec Group_ (1865); Barrande, _Graptolites de
+  Bohème_ (1850); Carruthers, _Revision of the British Graptolites_
+  (1868); H. A. Nicholson, _Monograph of British Graptolites_, pt. 1
+  (1872); id. and J. E. Marr, _Phylogeny of the Graptolites_ (1895);
+  Hopkinson, _On British Graptolites_ (1869); Allman, _Monograph of
+  Gymnoblastic Hydroids_ (1872); Lapworth, _An Improved Classification
+  of the Rhabdophora_ (1873); _The Geological Distribution of the
+  Rhabdophora_ (1879, 1880); Walther, _Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere_
+  (1897); Tullberg, _Skånes Grapioliter_ (1882, 1883); Törnquist,
+  _Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds_ (1899); Wiman, _Die Graptolithen_
+  (1895); Holm, _Gotlands Graptoliter_ (1890); Perner, _Graptolites de
+  Bohème_ (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, _Development and Mode of Growth of
+  Diplograptus_ (1895-1896); _Graptolites of New York_, vol. i. (1904),
+  vol. ii. (1908); Frech, _Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden_ (1897);
+  Elles and Wood, _Monograph of British Graptolites_ (1901-1909).
+       (C. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GRASLITZ (Czech, _Kraslice_), a town of Bohemia, on the Zwodau, 145 m.
+N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, exclusively German. Graslitz
+is one of the most important industrial towns of Bohemia, its
+specialities being the manufacture of musical instruments, carried on
+both as a factory and a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in
+importance are cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing,
+and the mother-of-pearl industry.
+
+
+
+
+GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart of the English
+Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district in 1901, 781) lies
+near the head of the lake, on the small river Rothay and the
+Keswick-Ambleside road, 12½ m. from Keswick and 4 from Ambleside. The
+scenery is very beautiful; the valley about the lakes of Grasmere and
+Rydal Water is in great part wooded, while on its eastern flank there
+rises boldly the range of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and
+Seat Sandal, and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are
+Loughrigg Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre
+for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered appearance.
+In a house still standing William Wordsworth lived from 1799 to 1808,
+and it was subsequently occupied by Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley
+Coleridge. Wordsworth's tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the
+churchyard of the ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial
+to Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival called the
+Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the octave of St Oswald's
+day (August 5th), when a holiday is observed and the church decorated
+with rushes, heather and flowers. The festival is of early origin, and
+has been derived by some from the Roman _Floralia_, but appears also to
+have been made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches,
+unpaved in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which
+forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories are
+symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle plays may
+be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, _A Rambler's Note-Book at the English
+Lakes_, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for an athletic meeting
+in August.
+
+The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has an extreme
+breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from north to south, and
+rises so high as to form an island about the middle. The greatest depth
+of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east of this ridge.
+
+
+
+
+GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The natural vegetable covering of
+the soil in most countries is "grass" (for derivation see GRASSES) of
+various kinds. Even where dense forest or other growth exists, if a
+little daylight penetrates to the ground grass of some sort or another
+will grow. On ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried
+out, the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either be
+in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone, after
+having been cultivated.
+
+Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm, but since
+the "era of cheap corn" set in its importance has been increased, and
+much more attention has been given to the study of the different species
+of grass, their characteristics, the improvement of a pasture generally,
+and the "laying down" of arable land into grass where tillage farming
+has not paid. Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their
+farms--from a third to a half of the area--and even on wholly arable
+farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops devoted
+to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation is corn, roots,
+corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots, corn, grass, grass;
+the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn, flax, grass, grass, grass;
+and so on, to the point where the grass remains down for 5 years, or is
+left indefinitely.
+
+Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed as pasture pure
+and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the latter case it is usually
+classed as "meadow" land, and often forms an alluvial tract alongside a
+stream, but as grass is often grazed and hayed in alternate years, the
+distinction is not a hard and fast one.
+
+There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent. The latter
+again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass natural to land that
+has never been cultivated, and the pasture that has been laid down
+artificially on land previously arable and allowed to remain and improve
+itself in the course of time. The existence of ridge and furrow on many
+old pastures in Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one
+time, though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid down
+pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality about the fifth
+and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and improve year by year
+afterwards. This is usually attributed to the fact that the unsuitable
+varieties die out, and the "naturally" suitable varieties only come in
+gradually. This trouble can be largely prevented, however, by a
+judicious selection of seed, and by subsequently manuring with
+phosphatic manures, with farmyard or other bulky "topdressings," or by
+feeding sheep with cake and corn over the field.
+
+All the grasses proper belong to the natural order _Gramineae_ (see
+GRASSES), to which order also belong all the "corn" plants cultivated
+throughout the world, also many others, such as bamboo, sugar-cane,
+millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for mankind. Of the grasses
+which constitute pastures and hay-fields over a hundred species are
+classified by botanists in Great Britain, with many varieties in
+addition, but the majority of these, though often forming a part of
+natural pastures, are worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The
+grasses of good quality which should form a "sole" in an old pasture and
+provide the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass are
+only about a dozen in number (see below), and of these there are only
+some six species of the very first importance and indispensable in a
+"prescription" of grass seeds intended for laying away land in temporary
+or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a botanical examination to be
+made of several of the most celebrated pastures of England, and,
+contrary to expectation, found that their chief constituents were
+ordinary perennial ryegrass and white clover. Many other grasses and
+legumes were present, but these two formed an overwhelming proportion of
+the plants.
+
+In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &c., includes many
+varieties of clover and other members of the natural order _Leguminosae_
+as well as other "herbs of the field," which, though not strictly
+"grasses," are always found in a grass field, and are included in
+mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows. The following is a list of
+the most desirable or valuable agricultural grasses and clovers, which
+are either actually sown or, in the case of old pastures, encouraged to
+grow by draining, liming, manuring, and so on:--
+
+  _Grasses._
+
+    Alopecurus pratensis     Meadow foxtail.
+    Anthoxanthum odoratum    Sweet vernal grass.
+    Avena elatior            Tall oat-grass.
+    Avena flavescens         Golden oat-grass.
+    Cynosurus cristatus      Crested dogstail.
+    Dactylis glomerata       Cocksfoot.
+    Festuca duriuscula       Hard fescue.
+    Festuca elatior          Tall fescue.
+    Festuca ovina            Sheep's fescue.
+    Festuca pratensis        Meadow fescue.
+    Lolium italicum          Italian ryegrass.
+    Phleum pratense          Timothy or catstail.
+    Poa nemoralis            Wood meadow-grass.
+    Poa pratensis            Smooth meadow-grass.
+    Poa trivialis            Rough meadow-grass.
+
+  _Clovers, &c._
+
+    Medicago lupulina        Trefoil or "Nonsuch."
+    Medicago sativa          Lucerne (Alfalfa).
+    Trifolium hybridum       Alsike clover.
+       "      pratense       Broad red clover.
+       "      pratense  \    Perennial clover.
+       "      perennne  /
+       "      incarnatum     Crimson clover or "Trifolium."
+       "      procumbens     Yellow Hop-trefoil.
+       "      repens         White or Dutch clover.
+    Achillea Millefolium     Yarrow or Milfoil.
+    Anthyllis vulneraria     Kidney-vetch.
+    Lotus major              Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil.
+    Lotus corniculatus       Lesser      "        "
+    Carum petroselinum       Field parsley.
+    Plantago lanceolata      Plantain.
+    Cichorium intybus        Chicory.
+    Poterium officinale      Burnet.
+
+The predominance of any particular species is largely determined by
+climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the treatment it
+receives. In limestone regions sheep's fescue has been found to
+predominate; on wet clay soil the dog's bent (_Agrostis canina_) is
+common; continuous manuring with nitrogenous manures kills out the
+leguminous plants and stimulates such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring
+with phosphates stimulates the clovers and other legumes; and so on.
+Manuring with basic slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre has
+been found to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils.
+Basic slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in
+a soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially
+stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has renovated
+many inferior pastures.
+
+In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with "mineral manures"
+(no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced the grasses from 71 to 64% of
+the whole, while at the same time it has increased the _Leguminosae_
+from 7% to 24%. On the other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure
+in addition to "minerals" has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and
+reduced the legumes to less than 1%.
+
+As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture out of
+arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have demonstrated that
+of the many varieties offered by seedsmen only a very few are of any
+permanent value. A complex mixture of tested seeds was sown, and after
+five years an examination of the pasture showed that only a few
+varieties survived and made the "sole" for either grazing or forage.
+These varieties in the order of their importance were:--
+
+  Cocksfoot               26
+  Perennial rye grass     16
+  Meadow fescue           13
+  Hard fescue              9
+  Crested dogstail         8
+  Timothy                  6
+  White clover             4
+  Meadow foxtail           2
+
+The figures represent approximate percentages.
+
+Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already
+growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of this sort
+will show that the Cambridge experiments are very conclusive, and that
+the above species are the only ones to be depended on. Occasionally some
+other variety will be prominent, but if so there will be a special local
+reason for this.
+
+On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass like to have a
+good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and therefore include
+several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass, evergreen ryegrass,
+&c., knowing that these will die out in the course of years and leave
+the ground to the more permanent species.
+
+There are also several mixtures of "seeds" (the technical name given on
+the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted with success in laying
+down permanent pasture in some localities.
+
+  +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+  |                     |      |         |          |       |Cambridge|General |
+  |                     |Young.|De Laune.|Leicester.|Elliot.| average.|purpose |
+  |                     |      |         |          |       |         |mixture.|
+  +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+  | Cocksfoot           |  ..  |    8    |    4     |   8   |    8    |    4   |
+  | Perennial ryegrass  |  ..  |   ..    |    2     |   6   |   10    |   10   |
+  | Meadow fescue       |  ..  |    6    |    2     |  ..   |    5    |   ..   |
+  | Hard fescue         |  ..  |    1    |    1     |   2   |    3    |   ..   |
+  | Crested dogstail    |   3  |    2    |   ..     |   1   |    3    |   ..   |
+  | Timothy             |  ..  |    3    |    1     |  ..   |    2    |    2   |
+  | Meadow foxtail      |  ..  |   10    |   ..     |  ..   |    1    |    1   |
+  | Tall fescue         |  ..  |    3    |    1     |   3½  |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Tall oat grass      |  ..  |   ..    |    1     |   3   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Italian ryegrass    |  ..  |   ..    |    2     |  ..   |   ..    |    5   |
+  | Smooth meadow grass |  ..  |   ..    |   ..     |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Rough meadow grass  |  ..  |    1    |   ..     |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Golden oat grass    |  ..  |   ..    |     ¼    |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Sheep's fescue      |  ..  |    1    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Broad red clover    |  ..  |    1    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Perennial red clover|  ..  |    1    |   ..     |   1½  |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Alsike              |  ..  |    1    |    1½    |   1   |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Lucerne (Alfalfa)   |  ..  |   ..    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |    8   |
+  | White clover        |   4  |    1    |    1     |   2   |    2    |    2   |
+  | Kidney vetch        |   6  |   ..    |   ..     |   2½  |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Sheep's parsley     |  ..  |   ..    |   ..     |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Yarrow              |   1  |    1    |     ¼    |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Burnet              |   8  |   ..    |   ..     |   8   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Chicory             |   4  |   ..    |   ..     |   2½  |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Plantain            |   4  |   ..    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  |                     +------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+  | Total lb. per acre  |  30  |   40    |   17     |  40   |   30    |   40   |
+  +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+
+Arthur Young more than 100 years ago made out one to suit chalky
+hillsides; Mr Faunce de Laune (Sussex) in our days was the first to
+study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of all kinds; Lord
+Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for poor land with success;
+Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many deep-rooted "herbs" in his mixture
+with good results. Typical examples of such mixtures are given on
+preceding page.
+
+Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation purposes, and
+in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived grasses and clovers are
+given the preference. Three examples of temporary mixtures are given
+below.
+
+  +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |                       |  One  |  Two  | Three |
+  |                       | year. | years.|or four|
+  |                       |       |       | years.|
+  +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | Italian ryegrass      |  14   |  10   |   6   |
+  | Cocksfoot             |   2   |   4   |   6   |
+  | Timothy               |  ..   |   2   |   3   |
+  | Broad red clover      |   8   |   5   |   3   |
+  | Alsike                |   3   |   2   |   2   |
+  | Trefoil               |   3   |   2   |   2   |
+  | Perennial ryegrass    |  ..   |   5   |  10   |
+  | Meadow fescue         |  ..   |   2   |   2   |
+  | Perennial red clover  |  ..   |   2   |   2   |
+  | White clover          |  ..   |   1   |   2   |
+  | Meadow foxtail        |  ..   |   1   |   2   |
+  |                       +-------+-------+-------+
+  |   Total lb. per acre  |  30   |  36   |  40   |
+  +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is often grown,
+either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass, while other forage
+crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown alone.
+
+In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for pasture,
+both because it takes most kindly to grass and because the expense of
+cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land when the price of
+corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently suffers from drought in
+summer, the want of moisture preventing it from obtaining proper
+root-hold. On such soil the use of a heavy roller is advantageous, and
+indeed on any soil excepting heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial
+to the grass, as it promotes the capillary action of the soil-particles
+and the consequent ascension of ground-water.
+
+In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture from
+being wasted by the sun's heat.
+
+The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are similar to those
+enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found certain grasses, such as
+Hungarian brome, which are suitable for introduction into the British
+Isles. The grasses of the American prairies also include many plants not
+met with in Great Britain. Some half-dozen species are common to both
+countries: Kentucky "blue-grass" is the British _Poa pratensis_; couch
+grass (_Triticum repens_) grows plentifully without its underground
+runners; bent (_Agrostis vulgaris_) forms the famous "red-top," and so
+on. But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the
+"bunch" grasses, "squirrel-tail" and many others which have no
+equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the prairie
+pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover found on the
+prairies, though cultivated varieties can be introduced.     (P. McC.)
+
+
+
+
+GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL, MARQUIS DE GRASSETILLY, COMTE DE
+(1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar, in the present department
+of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he took service on the galleys of the
+order of Malta, and in 1740 entered the service of France, being
+promoted to chief of squadron in 1779. He took part in the naval
+operations of the American War of Independence, and distinguished
+himself in the battles of Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago
+(1781). He was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by
+Admiral Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and
+taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he returned to
+France, published a _Mémoire justificatif_, and was acquitted by a
+court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January 1788.
+
+  His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a _Notice bibliographique sur
+  l'amiral comte de Grasse d'après les documents inédits_ in 1840. See
+  G. Lacour-Gayet, _La Marine militaire de la France sous le règne de
+  Louis XV_ (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes Maritimes (till
+1860 in that of the Var), 12½ m. by rail N. of Cannes. Pop. (1906) town,
+13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a picturesque situation, in the
+form of an amphitheatre and at a height o£ 1066 ft. above the sea, on
+the southern slope of a hill, facing the Mediterranean. In the older
+(eastern) part of the town the streets are narrow, steep and winding,
+but the new portion (western) is laid out in accordance with modern
+French ideas. It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious climate, and
+is well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of the factories
+comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking water used in the
+higher portions of the town flows, by means of a conduit, from the
+Foulon stream, one of the sources of the Loup. Grasse was from 1244
+(when the see was transferred hither from Antibes) to 1790 an episcopal
+see, but was then included in the diocese of Fréjus till 1860, when
+politically as well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to the
+newly-formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a
+12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an ancient
+tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town hall, which was
+formerly the bishop's palace (13th century). There is a good town
+library, containing the muniments of the abbey of Lérins, on the island
+of St Honorat opposite Cannes. In the chapel of the old hospital are
+three pictures by Rubens. The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a
+native of Grasse, and some of his best works were formerly to be seen
+here (now in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its
+perfumery. Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the
+neighbourhood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses
+(which costs nearly £100 per 2 lb.) requires alone nearly 7,000,000
+roses a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at
+Grasse.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRASSES,[1] a group of plants possessing certain characters in common
+and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class Monocotyledons. It is
+one of the largest and most widespread and, from an economic point of
+view, the most important family of flowering plants. No plant is
+correctly termed a grass which is not a member of this family, but the
+word is in common language also used, generally in combination, for many
+plants of widely different affinities which possess some resemblance
+(often slight) in foliage to true grasses; e.g. knot-grass (_Polygonum
+aviculare_), cotton-grass (_Eriophorum_), rib-grass (_Plantago_),
+scorpion-grass (_Myosotis_), blue-eyed grass (_Sisyrinchium_), sea-grass
+(_Zostera_). The grass-tree of Australia (_Xanthorrhoea_) is a
+remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but
+with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-like trunk bearing a crown of
+long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of small,
+densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an extended
+signification to include the various fodder-plants, chiefly leguminous,
+often called "artificial grasses." Indeed, formerly _grass_ (also spelt
+_gwrs_, _gres_, _gyrs_ in the old herbals) meant any green herbaceous
+plant of small size.
+
+Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized and
+separated a group of _Gramina_, and this, though bounded by nothing more
+definite than habit and general appearance, contained the Gramineae of
+modern botanists. The older group, however, even with such systematists
+as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer (1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in
+addition the Cyperaceae (Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and
+some other monocotyledons with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough,
+the sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more distinctly
+the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all of the former
+then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst the latter found
+themselves under his other classes and orders.
+
+I. STRUCTURE.--The general type of true grasses is familiar in the
+cultivated cereals of temperate climates--wheat, barley, rye, oats, and
+in the smaller plants which make up pastures and meadows and form a
+principal factor of the turf of natural downs. Less familiar are the
+grains of warmer climates--rice, maize, millet and sorgho, or the
+sugar-cane. Still farther removed are the bamboos of the tropics, the
+columnar stems of which reach to the height of forest trees. All are,
+however, formed on a common plan.
+
+_Root._--Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and possess a
+tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched and of great
+length. The majority of the members of the family are of longer
+duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer, thicker and less
+branched. In such cases they are very generally given off from just
+above each node (often in a circle) of the lower part of the stem or
+rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In some bamboos they are very
+numerous from the lower nodes of the erect culms, and pass downwards to
+the soil, whilst those from the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles
+of spiny fibres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Rhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series
+of axes, the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced.]
+
+_Stem._--The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of perennial
+grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very long creeping or
+subterranean rhizomes, with elongated internodes and sheathing scales;
+the widely-creeping, slender rhizomes in Marram-grass (_Psamma_),
+_Agropyrum junceum_, _Elymus arenarius_, and other sand-loving plants
+render them useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with
+the nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic of open
+situations in cool temperate climates, results from an extensive
+production of short stolons, the branches and the fibrous roots
+developed from their nodes forming the dense "sod." The very large
+rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also a striking example of "definite"
+growth; it is much branched, the short, thick, curved branches being
+given off below the apex of the older ones and at right angles to them,
+the whole forming a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their
+ends, which were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is
+always solid, and has the usual internal structure of the
+monocotyledonous stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches
+break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with which
+they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards through the sheaths
+which they ultimately split from above, and emerging as aerial shoots
+give a tufted habit to the plant. Good examples are the oat, cock's-foot
+(_Dactylis_) and other British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause
+of the "tillering" of cereals, or the production of a large number of
+erect growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem. Isolated
+tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe--and
+savanna--vegetation and open places generally in the warmer parts of the
+earth.
+
+The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic feature of
+grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylindrical (rarely
+flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident nodes. The nodes are
+solid, a strong plate of tissue passing across the stem, but the
+internodes are commonly hollow, although examples of completely solid
+stems are not uncommon (e.g. maize, many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The
+swollen nodes are a characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of
+the British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm, but
+of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes is to raise
+again culms which have become bent down; they are composed of highly
+turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate on the side next the
+earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal or oblique position, and
+thus raise the culm again to an erect position. The internodes continue
+to grow in length, especially the upper ones, for some time; the
+increase takes place in a zone at the extreme base, just above the node.
+The exterior of the culms is more or less concealed by the leaf-sheaths;
+it is usually smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells
+containing an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a
+distinct skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance
+mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos. A few
+of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub-globular, forming
+nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized are termed "bulbous"
+(_Arrhenatherum_, _Poa bulbosa_, &c.). In internal structure
+grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform to that usual in
+monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run parallel in the internodes, but
+a horizontal interlacement occurs at the nodes. In grasses of temperate
+climates branching is rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is
+characteristic of the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches
+are strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spreading or
+drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are reduced to hooked
+spines. One genus (_Dinochloa_, a native of the Malay archipelago) is
+scandent, and climbs over trees 100 ft. or more in height, _Olyra
+latifolia_, a widely-spread tropical species, is also a climber on a
+humbler scale.
+
+Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly seen in
+bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft. is attained in from two to three
+months, and many species grow two, three or even more feet in
+twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not begin till the full height
+is nearly attained. The largest bamboo recorded is 170 ft., and the
+diameter is usually reckoned at about 4 in. to each 50 ft.
+
+_Leaves._--These present special characters usually sufficient for
+ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and arranged in
+two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal tuft. They consist of
+two distinct portions, the sheath and the blade. The sheath is often of
+great length, and generally completely surrounds the culm, forming a
+firm protection for the internode, the younger basal portion of which,
+including the zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it
+is split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae
+which is almost invariably (_Eriospora_ is an exception) a complete
+tube; in some grasses, however (species of _Poa_, _Bromus_ and others),
+the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated in _Alopecurus
+vaginatus_ and in a species of _Potamochloa_, in the latter, an East
+Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the summit of the sheath,
+above the origin of the blade, is the _ligule_, a usually membranous
+process of small size (occasionally reaching 1 in. in length) erect and
+pressed around the culm. It is rarely quite absent, but may be
+represented by a tuft of hairs (very conspicuous in _Pariana_). It
+serves to prevent rain-water, which has run down the blade, from
+entering the sheath. _Melica uniflora_ has in addition to the ligule, a
+green erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges
+of the sheath.
+
+The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect in the basal
+leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath at an angle.
+The usual form is familiar--sessile, more or less ribbon-shaped,
+tapering to a point, and entire at the edge. The chief modifications are
+the articulation of the deciduous blade on to the sheath, which occurs
+in all the Bambuseae (except _Planotia_) and in _Spartina stricta_; and
+the interposition of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in
+bamboos, _Leptaspis_, _Pharus_, _Pariana_, _Lophatherum_ and others. In
+the latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate or
+sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also (_Olyra_,
+_Panicum_). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib usually
+strong, and the other ribs more slender. In _Anomochloa_ there are
+several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved grasses (_Bambuseae_,
+_Pharus_, _Leptaspis_) the venation becomes tesselated by transverse
+connecting veins. The tissue is often raised above the veins, forming
+longitudinal ridges, generally on the upper face; the stomata are in
+lines in the intervening furrows. The thick prominent veins in
+_Agropyrum_ occupy the whole upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal
+appendages are rare, the most frequent being marginal, saw-like,
+cartilaginous teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (_Danthonia
+scabra_, _Panicum serratum_) so large as to give the margin a serrate
+appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in _Alopecurus
+lanatus_ and one or two _Panicums_. The blade is often twisted,
+frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become reversed. In
+dry-country grasses the blades are often folded on the midrib, or rolled
+up. The rolling is effected by bands of large wedge-shaped
+cells--motor-cells--between the nerves, the loss of turgescence by
+which, as the air dries, causes the blade to curl towards the face on
+which they occur. The rolling up acts as a protection from too great
+loss of water, the exposed surface being specially protected to this end
+by a strong cuticle, the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the
+protected surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked
+in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of
+thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all or the
+principal veins (fig. 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Magnified transverse section of one-half of a
+leaf-blade of _Festuca rubra_. The dark portions represent supporting
+and conducting tissue; the upper face bears furrows, at the bottom of
+each of which are seen the motor cells m.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One-flowered spikelet of _Agrostis_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Two-flowered spikelet of _Aira_.
+
+b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glumes. (Both Enlarged.)]
+
+_Inflorescence._--This possesses an exceptional importance in grasses,
+since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the sexual organs
+of very great uniformity, the characters employed for classification are
+mainly derived from the arrangement of the flowers and their investing
+bracts. Various interpretations have been given to these glumaceous
+organs and different terms employed for them by various writers. It may,
+however, be considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as
+glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to the flower,
+form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the nature of bracts.
+These are arranged so as to form _spikelets_ (locustae), and each
+spikelet may contain one, as in _Agrostis_ (fig. 3) two, as in _Aira_
+(fig. 4) three, or a great number of flowers, as in _Briza_ (fig. 5)
+_Triticum_ (fig. 6); in some species of _Eragrostis_ there are nearly
+60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed laterally on the axis
+(_rachilla_) of the spikelet, but in one-flowered spikelets they appear
+to be terminal, and are probably really so in _Anthoxanthum_ (fig. 7)
+and in two anomalous genera, _Anomochloa_ and _Streptochaeta_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Spikelet of _Briza_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Spikelet of _Triticum_.
+
+(Both enlarged.)]
+
+In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely
+concealing it, is the _palea_ or _pale_ ("upper pale" of most systematic
+agrostologists). This organ (fig. 13, 1) is peculiar to grasses among
+Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families Gramineae and
+Cyperaceae), and is almost always present, certain _Oryzeae_ and
+_Phalarideae_ being the only exceptions. It is of thin membranous
+consistence, usually obtuse, often bifid, and possesses no central rib
+or nerve, but has two lateral ones, one on either side; the margins are
+frequently folded in at the ribs, which thus become placed at the sharp
+angles. This structure was formerly regarded as pointing to the fusion
+of two organs, and the pale was considered by Robert Brown to represent
+two portions soldered together of a trimerous perianth-whorl, the third
+portion being the "lower pale." The pale is now generally considered to
+represent the single bracteole, characteristic of Monocotyledons, the
+binerved structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the
+spikelet during the development of the pale, as in _Iris_ and others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Spikelet of _Anthoxanthum_ (enlarged) without
+the two lower barren glumes, showing the two upper awned barren glumes
+(g) and the flower.]
+
+The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axis of
+another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed to it,
+though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract or flowering
+glume which has been generally called by systematists the "lower pale,"
+and with the "upper pale" was formerly considered to form an outer
+floral envelope ("calyx," Jussieu; "perianthium," Brown). The two bracts
+are, however, on different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot
+therefore be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike
+one another, but in some genera (e.g. most _Festuceae_) are very similar
+in shape and appearance.
+
+The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped form, is of
+firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central midrib and
+frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a large proportion of
+genera extends into an appendage termed the _awn_ (fig. 4), and the
+lateral veins more rarely extend beyond the glume as sharp points (e.g.
+_Pappophorum_). The form of the flowering glume is very various, this
+organ being plastic and extensively modified in different genera. It
+frequently extends downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the
+latter a swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a
+furrow. In _Leptaspis_ it is formed into a closed cavity by the union of
+its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting through the
+pervious summit. Valuable characters for distinguishing genera are
+obtained from the awn. This presents itself variously developed from a
+mere subulate point to an organ several inches in length, and when
+complete (as in _Andropogoneae_, _Aveneae_ and _Stipeae_) consists of
+two well-marked portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight
+portion, usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid
+and occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most
+often suppressed, and in the large group of the _Paniceae_ awns of any
+sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal or may come
+off from the back of the flowering glume, and Duval Jouve's observations
+have shown that it represents the blade of the leaf of which the portion
+of the flowering glume below its origin is the sheath; the twisted part
+(so often suppressed) corresponds with the petiole, and the portion of
+the glume extending beyond the origin of the awn (very long in some
+species, e.g. of _Danthonia_) with the ligule of the developed
+foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has three fibro-vascular bundles,
+when dorsal only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing epidermis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Spikelet of _Stipa pennata_. The pair of barren
+glumes (b) are separated from the flowering glume, which bears a long
+awn, twisted below the knee and feathery above. About ¾ nat. size.]
+
+The flower with its palea is thus sessile in the axil of a floriferous
+glume, and in a few grasses (_Leersia_ (fig. 9), _Coleanthus_, _Nardus_)
+the spikelet consists of nothing more, but usually (even in uniflorous
+spikelets) other glumes are present. Of these the two placed
+distichously opposite each other at the base of the spikelet never bear
+any flower in their axils, and are called the _empty_ or _barren glumes_
+(figs. 3, 8). They are the "glumes" of most writers, and together form
+what was called the "gluma" by R. Brown. They rarely differ much from
+one another, but one may be smaller or quite absent (_Panicum_,
+_Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Paspalum_, _Lolium_), or both be altogether
+suppressed, as above noticed. They are commonly firm and strong, often
+enclose the spikelet, and are rarely provided with long points or
+imperfect awns. Generally speaking they do not share in the special
+modifications of the flowering glumes, and rarely themselves undergo
+modification, chiefly in hardening of portions (_Sclerachne_,
+_Manisuris_, _Anthephora_, _Peltophorum_), so as to afford greater
+protection to the flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the
+basal glumes, a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or
+more-flowered spikelets (see _Triticum_, fig. 6) at the top of the
+rhachilla (numerous in _Lophatherum_), or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10)
+below and interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Spikelet of _Leersia_. f, Flowering glume; p,
+pale.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Spikelet of _Setaria_, with an abortive branch
+(h) beneath it. b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glume; p, pale.]
+
+The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up into
+articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs are
+frequently present (_Calamagrostis_, _Phragmites_, _Andropogon_), and
+are often so long as to surround and conceal the flowers (fig. 11). The
+axis is often continued beyond the last flower or glume as a bristle or
+stalk.
+
+_Involucres_ or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are formed
+in various ways. Thus in _Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Pennisetum_, &c., the one
+or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent abortive branches
+of the inflorescence; in _Cenchrus_ (fig. 12) these become consolidated,
+and the inner ones flattened so as to form a very hard globular spiny
+case to the spikelets. The cup-shaped involucre of _Cornucopia_ is a
+dilatation of the axis into a hollow receptacle with a raised border. In
+_Cynosurus_ (Dog's tail) the pectinate involucre which conceals the
+spikelet is a barren or abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more general
+character subtending branches of the inflorescence are singularly rare
+in Gramineae, in marked contrast with Cyperaceae, where they are so
+conspicuous. They however occur in a whole section of _Andropogon_, in
+_Anomochloa_, and at the base of the spike in _Sesleria_. The remarkable
+ovoid involucre of _Coix_, which becomes of stony hardness, white and
+polished (then known as "Job's tears," q.v.), is also a modified bract
+or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at the apex, and contains the female
+spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles
+emerging through the small apical orifice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Spikelet of Reed (_Phragmites communis_) opened
+out.
+
+  a, b, Barren glumes.
+
+  c, c, Fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower with its pale d.
+
+    Note the zigzag axis (_rhachilla_) bearing long silky hairs.]
+
+Any number of spikelets may compose the inflorescence, and their
+arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with sessile
+spikelets on the main axis, the latter is often dilated and flattened
+(_Paspalum_), or is more or less thickened and hollowed out
+(_Stenotaphrum_, _Rottboellia_, _Tripsacum_), when the spikelets are
+sunk and buried within the cavities. Every variety of racemose and
+paniculate inflorescence obtains, and the number of spikelets composing
+those of the large kinds is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence
+consists of very few flowers; thus _Lygeum Spartum_, the most anomalous
+of European grasses, has but two or three large uniflorous spikelets,
+which are fused together at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are
+enveloped in a large, hooded, spathe-like bract.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Spikelet of _Cenchrus echinatus_ enclosed in a
+bristly involucre.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Flowers of Grasses (enlarged). 1,
+_Piptatherum_, with the palea p; 2, _Poa_; 3, _Oryza_; l, Lodicule.]
+
+_Flower._--This is characterized by remarkable uniformity. The perianth
+is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy scales arising below
+the ovary, called _lodicules_; they are elongated or truncate, sometimes
+fringed with hairs, and are in contact with the ovary. Their usual
+number is two, and they are placed collaterally at the anterior side of
+the flower (fig. 13,) that is, within the flowering glume. They are
+generally considered to represent the inner whorl of the ordinary
+monocotyledonous (liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being
+suppressed as well as the posterior member of the inner whorl. This
+latter is present almost constantly in _Stipeae_ and _Bambuseae_, which
+have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally more
+numerous. In _Anomochloa_ they are represented by hairs. In
+_Streptochaeta_ there are six lodicules, alternately arranged in two
+whorls. Sometimes, as in _Anthoxanthum_, they are absent. In _Melica_
+there is one large anterior lodicule resulting presumably from the union
+of the two which are present in allied genera. Professor E. Hackel,
+however, regards this as an undivided second pale, which in the majority
+of the grasses is split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when
+present, as a third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth.
+The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and glume to
+allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they effect this by
+swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of these two structures.
+Where, as in _Anthoxanthum_, there are no lodicules, pale and glume do
+not become laterally separated, and the stamens and stigmas protrude
+only at the apex of the floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually
+hermaphrodite, but there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to
+find one or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet
+with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important in
+classification. _Holcus_ and _Arrhenatherum_ are examples in English
+grasses; and as a rule in species of temperate regions separation of the
+sexes is not carried further. In warmer countries monoecious and
+dioecious grasses are more frequent. In such cases the male and female
+spikelets and inflorescence may be very dissimilar, as in maize, Job's
+tears, _Euchlaena_, _Spinifex_, &c.; and in some dioecious species this
+dissimilarity has led to the two sexes being referred to different
+genera (e.g. _Anthephora axilliflora_ is the female of _Buchloe
+dactyloides_, and _Neurachne paradoxa_ of a species of _Spinifex_). In
+other grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants (e.g.
+_Brizopyrum_, _Distichlis_, _Eragrostis capitala_, _Gynerium_), no such
+dimorphism obtains. _Amphicarpum_ is remarkable in having cleistogamic
+flowers borne on long radical subterranean peduncles which are fertile,
+whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones, though apparently perfect,
+never produce fruit. Something similar occurs in _Leersia oryzoides_,
+where the fertile spikelets are concealed within the leaf-sheaths.
+
+_Androecium._--In the vast majority there are three stamens alternating
+with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, i.e. opposite the
+flowering glume, the other two being posterior and in contact with the
+palea (fig. 13, 1 and 2). They are hypogynous, and have long and very
+delicate filaments, and large, linear or oblong two-celled anthers,
+dorsifixed and ultimately very versatile, deeply indented at each end,
+and commonly exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen
+sometimes occurs (e.g. _Anthoxanthum_, fig. 7), or the two posterior
+ones may be absent (_Uniola_, _Cinna_, _Phippsia_, _Festuca bromoides_).
+There is in some genera (_Oryza_, most _Bambuseae_) another row of three
+stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and _Anomochloa_ and
+_Tetrarrhena_ possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten to forty)
+in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (_Pariana_, _Luziola_).
+In _Ochlandra_ they vary from seven to thirty, and in _Gigantochloa_
+they are monadelphous.
+
+_Gynoecium._--The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the pale
+in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small, rounded to
+elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single slightly bent ovule
+sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing from the back of the
+ovary); the micropyle points downwards. It bears usually two lateral
+styles which are quite distinct or connate at the base, sometimes for a
+greater length (fig. 14, 1), each ends in a densely hairy or feathery
+stigma (fig. 14). Occasionally there is but a single style, as in
+_Nardus_ (fig. 14, 7), which corresponds to the midrib of the carpel.
+The very long and apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the
+union of two. Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style.
+
+Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general monocotyledonous plan
+as represented by Liliaceae and other families (fig. 15), it will be
+seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and the posterior member
+of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of the whole inner row of
+stamens, and of the two lateral carpels, whilst the remaining members of
+the perianth are in a rudimentary condition. But each or any of the
+usually missing organs are to be found normally in different genera, or
+as occasional developments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Pistils of grasses (much enlarged). 1,
+_Alopecurus_; 2, _Bromus_; 3, _Arrhenatherum_; 4, _Glyceria_; 5,
+_Melica_; 6, _Mibora_; 7, _Nardus_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Diagrams of the ordinary Grass-flower.
+
+  1, Actual condition;
+  2, Theoretical, with the suppressed organs supplied.
+  a, Axis.
+  b, Flowering glume.
+  c, Palea.
+  d, Outer row of perianth leaves.
+  e, Inner row.
+  f, Outer row of stamens.
+  g, Inner row.
+  h, Pistil.]
+
+_Pollination._--Grasses are generally wind-pollinated, though
+self-fertilization sometimes occurs. A few species, as we have seen, are
+monoecious or dioecious, while many are polygamous (having unisexual as
+well as bisexual flowers as in many members of the tribes
+_Andropogoneae_, fig. 18, and _Paniceae_), and in these the male flower
+of a spikelet always blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its
+pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets in the
+same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual flowers, many are
+strongly protogynous (the stigmas protruding before the anthers are
+ripe), such as _Alopecurus_ and _Anthoxanthum_ (fig. 7), but generally
+the anthers protrude first and discharge the greater part of their
+pollen before the stigmas appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at
+flowering-time, and the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of
+finely granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some flowers,
+such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertilization, but in
+most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization, seem to be
+possible. Thus the species of wheat are usually self-fertilized, but
+cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are open above, the
+stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty only about one-third of
+their pollen in their own flower and the rest into the air. In some
+cultivated races of barley, cross-fertilization is precluded, as the
+flowers never open. Reference has already been made to cleistogamic
+species which occur in several genera.
+
+_Fruit and Seed._--The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid or
+rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large seed, from
+which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp being completely
+united to its surface. To this peculiar fruit the term _caryopsis_ has
+been applied (more familiarly "grain"); it is commonly furrowed
+longitudinally down one side (usually the inner, but in _Coix_ and its
+allies, the outer), and an additional covering is not unfrequently
+provided by the adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the
+flowering glume ("chaff" of cereals). From this type are a few
+deviations; thus in _Sporobolus_, &c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not
+united with the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the
+loose seed to escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes
+hard, forming a nut, as in some genera of _Bambuseae_, while in other
+_Bambuseae_ it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as large
+as an apple. In _Melocanna_ the berry forms an edible fruit 3 or 4 in.
+long, with a pointed beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the
+small seed germinates whilst the fruit is still attached to the tree,
+putting out a tuft of roots and a shoot, and not falling till the latter
+is 6 in. long. The position of the embryo is plainly visible on the
+front side at the base of the grain. On the other, posterior, side of
+the grain is a more or less evident, sometimes punctiform, sometimes
+elongated or linear mark, the hilum, the place where the ovule was
+fastened to the wall of the ovary. The form of the hilum is constant
+throughout a genus, and sometimes also in whole tribes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Fruit of _Sporobolus_, showing the dehiscent
+pericarp and seed.]
+
+The testa is thin and membranous but occasionally coloured, and the
+embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied by the hard
+farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the nutritive value of the
+grain depends. The outermost layer of endosperm, the aleuron-layer,
+consists of regular cells filled with small proteid granules; the rest
+is made up of large polygonal cells containing numerous starch-grains in
+a matrix of proteid which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or
+granular (mealy endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest.
+Its position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the
+endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is absolute for
+the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae from Cyperaceae.
+The part in contact with the endosperm is plate-like, and is known as
+the _scutellum_; the surface in contact with the endosperm forms an
+absorptive epithelium. In some grasses there is a small scale-like
+appendage opposite the scutellum, the _epiblast_. There is some
+difference of opinion as to which structure or structures represent the
+cotyledon. Three must be considered: (1) the scutellum, connected by
+vascular tissue with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the
+embryo which it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving
+merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm; (2) the
+cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and inconspicuous as
+in wheat, or larger as in _Stipa_; (3) the pileole or germ-sheath,
+arising on the same side of the axis and above the scutellum, enveloping
+the plumule in the seed and appearing above ground as a generally
+colourless sheath from the apex of which the plumule ultimately breaks
+(fig. 17, 4, b). The development of these structures (which was
+investigated by van Tieghem), especially in relation to the origin of
+the vascular bundles which supply them, favours the view that the
+scutellum and pileole are highly differentiated parts of a single
+cotyledon, and this view is in accord with a comparative study of the
+seedling of grasses and of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been
+regarded as representing a second cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful
+interpretation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Grain of Wheat. 1, back, and 2, front view;
+3, vertical section, showing (b) the endosperm, and (a) embryo; 4,
+beginning of germination, showing (b) the pileole and (c) the radicle
+and secondary rootlets surrounded by their coleorrhizae.]
+
+_Germination._--In germination the coleorhiza lengthens, ruptures the
+pericarp, and fixes the grain to the ground by developing numerous
+hairs. The radicle then breaks through the coleorhiza, as do also the
+secondary rootlets where, as in the case of many cereals, these have
+been formed in the embryo (fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows vertically
+upwards, its stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is
+hidden in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves
+successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath. The
+scutellum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from the endosperm. The
+growth of the primary root is limited; sooner or later adventitious
+roots develop from the axis above the radicle which they ultimately
+exceed in growth.
+
+_Means of Distribution._--Various methods of scattering the grain have
+been adopted, in which parts of the spikelet or inflorescence are
+concerned. Short spikes may fall from the culm as a whole; or the axis
+of a spike or raceme is jointed so that one spikelet falls with each
+joint as in many _Andropogoneae_ and _Hordeae_. In many-flowered
+spikelets the rachilla is often jointed and breaks into as many pieces
+as there are fruits, each piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered
+spikelets may fall as a whole (as in the tribes _Paniceae_ and
+_Andropogoneae_), or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that
+only the flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These
+arrangements are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals
+though present in their wild forms, so far as these are known. Such
+arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gathering of the
+fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not present would be
+preferred for cultivation. The persistent bracts (glume and pale) afford
+an additional protection to the fruit; they protect the embryo, which is
+near the surface, from too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from
+drying up again. They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the
+grain is more readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in
+_Briza_, the glume has a large surface compared with the size of the
+grain, or when, as in _Holcus_, empty glumes also take part; in Canary
+grass (_Phalaris_) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing on the
+keel. In the sugar-cane (_Saccharum_) and several allied genera the
+separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below the spikelets; in
+others, as in _Arundo_ (a reed-grass), the flowering glumes are
+enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently borne on the
+flowering glume is also a very efficient means of distribution, catching
+into fur of animals or plumage of birds, or as often in _Stipa_ (fig. 8)
+forming a long feather for wind-carriage. In _Tragus_ the glumes bear
+numerous short hooked bristles. The fleshy berries of some _Bambuseae_
+favour distribution by animals.
+
+The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus in
+_Stipa_, species of _Avena_, _Heteropogon_ and others the base of the
+glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the ground; above
+the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs which oppose its
+withdrawal. The long awn, which is bent and closely twisted below the
+bend, acts as a driving organ; it is very hygroscopic, the coils
+untwisting when damp and twisting up when dry. The repeated twisting and
+untwisting, especially when the upper part of the awn has become fixed
+in the earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point
+deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause harm to
+sheep by catching in the wool and boring through the skin.
+
+A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and arctic
+grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of the fruit is
+often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single flowers, are transformed
+into small-leaved shoots which fall from the axes and readily root in
+the ground. Some species, such as _Poa stricta_, are known only in this
+viviparous condition; others, like our British species _Festuca ovina_
+and _Poa alpina_, become viviparous under the special climatic
+conditions.
+
+II. CLASSIFICATION.--Gramineae are sharply defined from all other
+plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible to feel a
+doubt whether they should be referred to it or not. The only family
+closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of difference between the
+two may be here brought together. The best distinctions are found in
+the position of the embryo in relation to the endosperm--lateral in
+grasses, basal in Cyperaceae--and in the possession by Gramineae of the
+2-nerved palea below each flower. Less absolute characters, but
+generally trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery
+stigmas, the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual
+absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split
+leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms--some or all of
+which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same characters will
+distinguish grasses from the other glumiferous orders, Restiaceae, and
+Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further removed by their capsular
+fruit and pendulous ovules. To other monocotyledonous families the
+resemblances are merely of adaptive or vegetative characters. Some
+Commelinaceae and Marantaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of
+_Allium_, &c., possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of
+the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an inconspicuous
+scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera containing about 3500
+well-defined species.
+
+The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this vast family
+renders its _classification_ very difficult. The difficulty has been
+increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplication of genera
+founded on slight characters, and from the description (in consequence
+of their wide distribution) of identical plants under several different
+genera.
+
+No characters for main divisions can be obtained from the flower proper
+or fruit (with the exception of the character of the hilum), and it has
+therefore been found necessary to trust to characters derived from the
+usually less important inflorescence and bracts.
+
+Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions--Paniceae and Poaceae,
+according to the position of the most perfect flower in the spikelet;
+this is the upper (apparently) terminal one in the first, whilst in the
+second it occupies the lower position, the more imperfect ones (if any)
+being above it. Munro supplemented this by another character easier of
+verification, and of even greater constancy, in the articulation of the
+pedicel in the Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae
+this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently articulates
+_above_ the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of these great divisions
+will well accommodate certain genera allied to _Phalaris_, for which
+Brown proposed tentatively a third group (since named _Phalarideae_);
+this, or at least the greater part of it, is placed by Bentham under the
+Poaceae.
+
+The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor Eduard Hackel
+in his recent monograph on the order.
+
+  A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, falling from
+  the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity.
+  Rachilla not produced beyond the flowers.
+
+  a. Hilum a point; spikelets not laterally compressed.
+
+    [alpha] Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick,
+    membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest the largest.
+    Rachis generally jointed and breaking up when mature.
+
+      1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in separate inflorescences
+      or on different parts of the same inflorescence.
+                     1. _Maydeae_.
+
+      2. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male standing
+      close to a bisexual.
+                     2. _Andropogoneae_.
+
+    [beta] Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery;
+    empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the lowest usually
+    smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the unjointed rachis of the
+    spike or the ultimate branches of the panicle.
+                     3.  _Paniceae_.
+
+  b. Hilum a line; spikelets laterally compressed.
+                     4. _Oryzeae_.
+
+  B. Spikelets one- to indefinite-flowered; in the one-flowered the
+  rachilla frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally
+  jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting glumes
+  have fallen. When more than one-flowered, distinct internodes are
+  developed between the flowers.
+
+  a. Culm herbaceous, annual; leaf-blade sessile, and not jointed to the
+  sheath.
+
+    [alpha] Spikelets upon distinct pedicels and arranged in panicles or
+    racemes.
+
+    I. Spikelets one-flowered.
+
+       i. Empty glumes 4.     5. _Phalarideae_.
+      ii. Empty glumes 2.     6. _Agrostideae_.
+
+    II. Spikelets more than one-flowered.
+
+      i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty glumes, usually
+      with a bent awn on the back.
+                     7. _Aveneae_.
+
+      ii. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, unawned or
+      with a straight, terminal awn.
+                     9. _Festuceae_.
+
+    [beta] Spikelets crowded in two close rows, forming a one-sided
+    spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis.
+                     8. _Chlorideae_.
+
+    [gamma] Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike.
+                     10. _Hordeae_.
+
+  b. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the
+  sheath, often with a short, slender petiole.
+                     11. _Bambuseae_.
+
+  Tribe 1. _Maydeae_ (7 genera in the warmer parts of the earth). _Zea
+  Mays_ (maize, q.v., or Indian corn) (q.v.). _Tripsacum_, 2 or 3
+  species in subtropical America north of the equator; _Tr. dactyloides_
+  (gama grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut; it is
+  used for fodder and as an ornamental plant. _Coix Lacryma-Jobi_ (Job's
+  tears) q.v.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A pair of spikelets of _Andropogon_.]
+
+  Tribe 2. _Andropogoneae_ (25 genera, mainly tropical). The spikelets
+  are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs consisting of a
+  sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis (fig. 18).
+  Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics, for
+  instance the large genus _Andropogon_, _Elionurus_ and others.
+  _Saccharum officinarum_ (sugar-cane) (q.v.). _Sorghum_, an important
+  tropical cereal known as black millet or _durra_ (q.v.). _Miscanthus_
+  and _Erianthus_, nearly allied to _Saccharum_, are tall reed-like
+  grasses, with large silky flower-panicles, which are grown for
+  ornament. _Imperata_, another ally, is a widespread tropical genus;
+  one species _I. arundinacea_ is the principal grass of the alang-alang
+  fields in the Malay Archipelago; it is used for thatch. _Vossia_, an
+  aquatic grass, often floating, is found in western India and tropical
+  Africa. In the swampy lands of the upper Nile it forms, along with a
+  species of _Saccharum_, huge floating grass barriers. _Elionurus_, a
+  widespread savanna grass in tropical and subtropical America, and also
+  in the tropics of the old world, is rejected by cattle probably on
+  account of its aromatic character, the spikelets having a strong
+  balsam-like smell. Other aromatic members are _Andropogon Nardus_, a
+  native of India, but also cultivated, the rhizome, leaves and
+  especially the spikelets of which contain a volatile oil, which on
+  distillation yields the citronella oil of commerce. A closely allied
+  species, _A. Schoenanthus_ (lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil; a
+  variety is used by the negroes in western Africa for haemorrhage.
+  Other species of the same genus are used as stimulants and cosmetics
+  in various parts of the tropics. The species of _Heteropogon_, a
+  cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have strongly
+  awned spikelets. _Themeda Forskalii_, which occurs from the
+  Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo
+  grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often covers wide
+  tracts.
+
+  Tribe 3. _Paniceae_ (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical; a few
+  temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely hermaphrodite, is
+  often present below the fertile flower. _Paspalum_, is a large
+  tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the pampas and
+  campos; many species are good forage plants, and the grain is
+  sometimes used for food. _Amphicarpum_, native in the south-eastern
+  United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on filiform runners
+  at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are sterile.
+  _Panicum_, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest in the
+  order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with species
+  of _Paspalum_ they form good forage grasses in the South American
+  savannas and campos. _Panicum Crus-galli_ is a polymorphic
+  cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one form (_P.
+  frumentaceum_) it is cultivated in India for its grain. _P. plicatum_,
+  with broad folded leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grass. _P.
+  miliaceum_ is millet (q.v.), and _P. altissimum_, Guinea grass. In the
+  closely allied genus _Digitaria_, which is sometimes regarded as a
+  section of _Panicum_, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a point;
+  _D. sanguinalis_ is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is
+  cultivated as a food-grain; it is also the crab-grass of the southern
+  United States, where it is used for fodder.
+
+  In _Setaria_ and allied genera the spikelet is subtended by an
+  involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of
+  the inflorescence. _Setaria italica_, Hungarian grass, is extensively
+  grown as a food-grain both in China and Japan, parts of India and
+  western Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from
+  prehistoric times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake
+  dwellings of the Stone age.
+
+  In _Cenchrus_ the bristles unite to form a tough spiny capsule (fig.
+  12); _C. tribuloides_ (bur-grass) and other species are troublesome
+  weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the wool
+  of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. _Pennisetum typhoideum_
+  is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. _Spinifex_, a
+  dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and eastern
+  Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads are spinose
+  with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are carried away
+  by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand and falling to
+  pieces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Phalarideae._ Spikelet of Hierochloe.]
+
+  Tribe 4. _Oryzeae_ (16 genera, mainly tropical and subtropical). The
+  spikelets are sometimes unisexual, and there are often six stamens.
+  _Leersia_ is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which _L. oryzoides_
+  occurs in the north temperate zone of both old and new worlds, and is
+  a rare grass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. _Zizania aquatica_
+  (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over large
+  areas on banks of streams and lakes in North America and north-east
+  Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. _Oryza sativa_ (rice)
+  (q.v.). _Lygeum Spartum_, with a creeping stem and stiff rush-like
+  leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the
+  western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto.
+
+  Tribe 5. _Phalarideae_ (6 genera, three of which are South African and
+  Australasian; the others are more widely distributed, and represented
+  in our flora). _Phalaris arundinacea_, is a reed-grass found on the
+  banks of British rivers and lakes; a variety with striped leaves known
+  as ribbon-grass is grown for ornament. _P. canariensis_ (Canary grass,
+  a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean area) is grown for
+  bird-food and sometimes as a cereal. _Anthoxanthum odoratum_, the
+  sweet vernal grass of our flora, owes its scent to the presence of
+  coumarin, which is also present in the closely allied genus
+  _Hierochloe_ (fig. 19), which occurs throughout the temperate and
+  frigid zones.
+
+  Tribe 6. _Agrostideae_ (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of the
+  world; eleven are British). _Aristida_ and _Stipa_ are large and
+  widely distributed genera, occurring especially on open plains and
+  steppes; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms an
+  efficient means of dispersing the grain. _Stipa pennata_ is a
+  characteristic species of the Russian steppes. _St. spartea_
+  (porcupine grass) and other species are plentiful on the North
+  American prairies. _St. tenacissima_ is the Spanish esparto grass
+  (q.v.), known in North Africa as halfa or alfa. _Phleum_ has a
+  cylindrical spike-like inflorescence; _P. pratense_ (timothy) is a
+  valuable fodder grass, as also is _Alopecurus pratensis_ (foxtail).
+  _Sporobolus_, a large genus in the warmer parts of both hemispheres,
+  but chiefly America, derives its name from the fact that the seed is
+  ultimately expelled from the fruit. _Agrostis_ is a large world-wide
+  genus, but especially developed in the north temperate zone, where it
+  includes important meadow-grasses. _Calamagrostis_ and _Deyeuxia_ are
+  tall, often reed-like grasses, occurring throughout the temperate and
+  arctic zones and upon high mountains in the tropics. _Ammophila
+  arundinacea_ (or _Psamma arenaria_) (Marram grass) with its long
+  creeping stems forms a useful sand-binder on the coasts of Europe,
+  North Africa and the Atlantic states of America.
+
+  Tribe 7. _Aveneae_ (about 24 genera, seven of which are British).
+  _Holcus lanatus_ (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and
+  wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. _Aira_ is a genus of
+  delicate annuals with slender hair-like branches of the panicle.
+  _Deschampsia_ and _Trisetum_ occur in temperate and cold regions or on
+  high mountains in the tropics; _T. pratense_ (_Avena flavescens_) with
+  a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets is a valuable
+  fodder-grass. _Avena fatua_ is the wild oat and _A. sativa_ the
+  cultivated oat (q.v.). _Arrhenatherum avenaceum_, a perennial field
+  grass, native in Britain and central and southern Europe, is
+  cultivated in North America.
+
+  Tribe 8. _Chlorideae_ (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries).
+  The only British representative is _Cynodon Dactylon_ (dog's tooth,
+  Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England; it
+  is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming an
+  important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass of the
+  southern United States, and known as durba, dub and other names in
+  India). Species of _Chloris_ are grown as ornamental grasses.
+  _Bouteloua_ with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama grass) on the
+  plains of the south-western United States, afford good grazing.
+  _Eleusine indica_ is a common tropical weed; the nearly allied species
+  _E. Coracana_ is a cultivated grain in the warmer parts of Asia and
+  throughout Africa. _Buchloe dactyloides_ is the buffalo grass of the
+  North American prairies, a valuable fodder.
+
+  Tribe 9. _Festuceae_ (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate,
+  arctic and alpine forms) many are important meadow-grasses; 15 are
+  British. _Gynerium argenteum_ (pampas grass) is a native of southern
+  Brazil and Argentina. _Arundo_ and _Phragmites_ are tall reed-grasses
+  (see REED). Several species of _Triodia_ cover large areas of the
+  interior of Australia, and from their stiff, sharply pointed leaves
+  are very troublesome. _Eragrostis_, one of the larger genera of the
+  order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth; many
+  species are grown for ornament and _E. abyssinica_ is an important
+  food-plant in Abyssinia. _Koeleria cristata_ is a fodder-grass. _Briza
+  media_ (quaking grass) is a useful meadow-grass. _Dactylis glomerata_
+  (cock's-foot), a perennial grass with a dense panicle, common in
+  pastures and waste places is a useful meadow-grass. It has become
+  naturalized in North America, where it is known as orchard grass, as
+  it will grow in shade. _Cynosurus cristatus_ (dog's tail) is a common
+  pasture-grass. _Poa_, a large genus widely distributed in temperate
+  and cold countries, includes many meadow and alpine grasses; eight
+  species are British; _P. annua_ (fig. 20) is the very common weed in
+  paths and waste places; _P. pratensis_ and _P. trivialis_ are also
+  common grasses of meadows, banks and pastures, the former is the "June
+  grass" or "Kentucky blue grass" of North America; _P. alpina_ is a
+  mountain grass of the northern hemisphere and found also in the Arctic
+  region. The largest species of the genus is _Poa flabellata_ which
+  forms great tufts 6-7 ft. high with leaves arranged like a fan; it is
+  a native of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is
+  known as tussock grass. _Glyceria fluitans_, manna-grass, so-called
+  from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder grasses for swampy
+  meadows; the grain is an article of food in central Europe. _Festuca_
+  (fescue) is also a large and widely distributed genus, but found
+  especially in the temperate and cold zones; it includes valuable
+  pasture grasses, such as _F. ovina_ (sheep's fescue), _F. rubra_; nine
+  species are British. The closely allied genus _Bromus_ (brome grass)
+  is also widely distributed but most abundant in the north temperate
+  zone; _B. erectus_ is a useful forage grass on dry chalky soil.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Poa annua._ Plant in Flower; about ½ nat.
+  size. 1, one spikelet.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Spike of Wheat (_Triticum sativum_). About
+  2/3 nat. size.]
+
+  Tribe 10. _Hordeae_ (about 19 genera, widely distributed; six are
+  British). _Nardus stricta_ (mat-weed), found on heaths and dry
+  pastures, is a small perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it
+  is a useless grass, crowding out better sorts. _Lolium perenne_, ray-
+  (or by corruption rye-) grass, is common in waste places and a
+  valuable pasture-grass; _L. italicum_ is the Italian ray-grass; _L.
+  temulentum_ (darnel) contains a narcotic principle in the grain.
+  _Secale cereale_, rye (q.v.), is cultivated mainly in northern Europe.
+  _Agropyrum repens_ (couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem,
+  and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land; the widely creeping stem
+  of _A. junceum_, found on sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful
+  sand-binder. _Triticum sativum_ is wheat (q.v.) (fig. 21), and
+  _Hordeum sativum_, barley (q.v.). _H. murinum_, wild barley, is a
+  common grass in waste places. _Elymus arenarius_ (lyme grass) occurs
+  on sandy sea-shores in the north temperate zone and is a useful
+  sand-binder.
+
+  Tribe 11. _Bambuseae_. Contains 23 genera, mainly tropical. See
+  BAMBOO.
+
+III. DISTRIBUTION.--Grasses are the most universally diffused of all
+flowering plants. There is no district in which they do not occur, and
+in nearly all they are a leading feature of the flora. In number of
+species Gramineae comes considerably after Compositae and Leguminosae,
+the two most numerous orders of phanerogams, but in number of individual
+plants it probably far exceeds either; whilst from the wide extension of
+many of its species, the proportion of Gramineae to other orders in the
+various floras of the world is much higher than its number of species
+would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where Leguminosae is the
+leading order, grasses closely follow as the second, whilst in the warm
+and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, in which Compositae
+takes the lead, Gramineae again occupies the second position.
+
+While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical zone, the
+number of individuals is greater in the temperate zones, where they form
+extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow-formation depends upon uniform
+rainfall. Grasses also characterize steppes and savannas, where they
+form scattered tufts. The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest
+vegetation, especially in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes
+are entered the grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the
+leading family in Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries where
+the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some extra-tropical
+regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia, the Cape, Chili, &c. The
+proportion of graminaceous species to the whole phanerogamic flora in
+different countries is found to vary from nearly ¼th in the Arctic
+regions to about 1/25th at the Cape; in the British Isles it is about
+1/12th.
+
+The principal climatic cause influencing the number of graminaceous
+species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable feature of the
+distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are no great centres
+for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked preponderance of endemic
+species exists; and the genera, except some of the smallest or monotypic
+ones, have usually a wide distribution.
+
+The distribution of the tropical tribe _Bambuseae_ is interesting. The
+species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan region and
+tropical America, only one species being common to both. The tribe is
+very poorly represented in tropical Africa; one species _Oxytenanthera
+abyssinica_ has a wide range, and three monotypic genera are endemic in
+western tropical Africa. None is recorded for Australia, though species
+may perhaps occur on the northern coast. One species of _Arundinaria_
+reaches northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the
+Andes by some species of _Chusquea_ is very remarkable,--one, _C.
+aristata_, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level of
+perpetual snow.
+
+Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common reed,
+_Phragmites communis_; and many range throughout the warm regions of the
+globe, e.g. _Cynodon Dactylon_, _Eleusine indica_, _Imperata
+arundinacea_, _Sporobolus indicus_, &c., and such weeds of cultivation
+as species of _Setaria_, _Echinochloa_. Several species of the north
+temperate zone, such as _Poa nemoralis_, _P. pratensis_, _Festuca
+ovina_, _F. rubra_ and others, are absent in the tropics but reappear in
+the antarctic regions; others (e.g. _Phleum alpinum_) appear in isolated
+positions on high mountains in the intervening tropics. No tribe is
+confined to one hemisphere and no large genus to any one floral region;
+facts which indicate that the separation of the tribes goes back to very
+ancient times. The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well
+exhibits the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally
+so peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90
+indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 are endemic, 1
+extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia and New Zealand, 18
+extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than 54 are found in both the Old
+and New Worlds; 26 being chiefly tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical.
+
+Of specially remarkable species _Lygeum_ is found on the sea-sand of the
+eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, and the minute _Coleanthus_
+occurs in three or four isolated spots in Europe (Norway, Bohemia,
+Austria, Normandy), in North-east Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast
+of North America (Oregon, Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera
+occur in tropical America, including _Anomochloa_ of Brazil, and most of
+the large aquatic species with separated sexes are found in this region.
+The only genus of flowering plants peculiar to the arctic regions is the
+beautiful and rare grass _Pleuropogon Sabinii_, of Melville Island.
+
+_Fossil Grasses._--While numerous remains of grass-like leaves are a
+proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly developed in past
+geological ages, especially in the Tertiary period, the fossil remains
+are in most cases too fragmentary and badly preserved for the
+determination of genera, and conclusions based thereon in explanation of
+existing geographical distribution are most unsatisfactory. There is,
+however, justification for referring some specimens to _Arundo_,
+_Phragmites_, and to the _Bambuseae_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Hackel, _The True Grasses_ (translated from Engler
+  and Prantl, _Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien_, by F. Lamson Scribner
+  and E. A. Southworth); and _Andropogoneae_ in de Candolle's
+  _Monographiae phanerogamarum_ (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth, _Revision
+  des graminées_ (Paris, 1829-1835) and _Agrostographia_ (Stuttgart,
+  1833); J. C. Döll in Martius and Eichler, _Flora Brasiliensis_, ii.
+  Pts. II. and III. (Munich, 1871-1883); A. W. Eichler,
+  _Blüthendiagramme_ i. 119 (Leipzig, 1875); Bentham and Hooker, _Genera
+  plantarum_, iii. 1074 (London, 1883); H. Baillon, _Histoire des
+  plantes_, xii. 136 (Paris, 1893); J. S. Gamble, "_Bambuseae_ of
+  British India" in _Annals Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta_, vii.
+  (1896); John Percival, _Agricultural Botany_ (chapters on "Grasses,"
+  2nd ed., London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various
+  great floras, such as Ascherson and Graebner, _Synopsis der
+  mitteleuropäischen Flora_; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, _Illustrated
+  Flora of the Northern United States and Canada_ (New York, 1896);
+  Hooker's _Flora of British India_; _Flora Capensis_ (edited by W.
+  Thiselton-Dyer); Boissier, _Flora orientalis_, &c. &c.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "grass" (O. Eng. _gærs_, _græs_) is common to Teutonic
+    languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth, _gras_, Dan. _græs_; the root is the
+    O. Teut. _gra_-, _gro_-, to increase, whence "grow," and "green," the
+    typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is seen
+    in Lat. _gramen_. The O. Eng. _grasian_, formed from _græs_, gives
+    "to graze," of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also "grazier," one
+    who grazes or feeds cattle for the market; "to graze," to abrade, to
+    touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this from the idea
+    of close cropping; if it is to be distinguished a possible connexion
+    may be found with "glace" (Fr. _glacer_, glide, slip, Lat. _glacies_,
+    ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced by "grate,"
+    to scrape, scratch (Fr. _gratter_, Ger. _kratzen_).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3
+       "Gordon, Lord George" to "Grasses"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 11, 2011 [EBook #37984]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE III<br /><br />
+Gordon, Lord George to Grasses</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GORDON, LORD GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GOZZOLI, BENOZZO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GRAAFF REINET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GORDON, LEON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GORDON, PATRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GRABE, JOHN ERNEST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GRACCHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GORE, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GRACE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GRACES, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GOREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GRACIÁN Y MORALES, BALTASAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GRACKLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GÖRGEI, ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GRADISCA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GRADO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GORGET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GRADUAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GORGIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GRADUATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GORGON, GORGONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GRADUATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GORGONZOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GRADUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GORI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GRAETZ, HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GORILLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GRAEVIUS, JOHANN GEORG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GORINCHEM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GRAF, ARTURO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GORING, GEORGE GORING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GRAF, KARL HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GORKI, MAXIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GRÄFE, ALBRECHT VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GÖRLITZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GRAFE, HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GÖRRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GRÄFE, KARL FERDINAND VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GRAFFITO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GRAFLY, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GORTON, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GRÄFRATH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GORTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GRAFT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GORTYNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GRAFTON, DUKES OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GÖRTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GRAFTON, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GÖRZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GRAFTON (New South Wales)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GÖRZ AND GRADISCA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GRAFTON</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GRAFTON</a> (West Virginia, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GOS-HAWK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GRAHAM, SIR GERALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GOSHEN</a> (Egypt)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GOSHEN</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GRAHAM, SYLVESTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GOSLAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GRAHAM, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GRAHAME, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GOSLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GRAHAM&rsquo;S DYKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GRAHAM&rsquo;S TOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GOSPATRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GRAIL, THE HOLY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GOSPEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GRAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GOSPORT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GRAINS OF PARADISE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GOSS, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GRAIN TRADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GOSSAMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GRAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GOSSE, EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GRAMMAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GRAMMICHELE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GOSSEC, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GRAMMONT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GOSSIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGÉNOR ALFRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GRAMONT, PHILIBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GOSSON, STEPHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GRAMOPHONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GOT, FRANÇOIS JULES EDMOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GRAMPIANS, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GÖTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GRAMPOUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GOTARZES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GRAMPUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GOTHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GRANADA, LUIS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GRANADA</a> (Nicaragua)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GOTHENBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GRANADA</a> (province of Spain)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GOTHIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GRANADA</a> (town of Spain)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GÖTHITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GRANADILLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GOTHS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GRANARIES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GOTLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GOTO ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GRAN CHACO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GRAND CANARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GÖTTINGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GRAND CANYON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GÖTTLING, CARL WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GRAND-DUKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GOTTSCHALK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GRANDEE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">GRAND FORKS</a> (Canada)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GRAND FORKS</a> (North Dakota, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GÖTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GRAND HAVEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GOUACHE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GRANDIER, URBAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GOUDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">GRAND ISLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GRANDMONTINES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GOUFFIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GRAND RAPIDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GOUGE, MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GRAND RAPIDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GOUGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GRANDSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GRANET, FRANÇOIS MARIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GRANGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GOUGH, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GRANGEMOUTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GRANGER, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GOUJON, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GRANITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GRAN SASSO D&rsquo;ITALIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GOULBURN, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GRANT, ANNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GOULBURN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GRANT, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GRANT, SIR FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GRANT, GEORGE MONRO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GRANT, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GOULD, JAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GOURD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GRANT, SIR PATRICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GOURGAUD, GASPAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GRANT, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GOURMET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GRANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GOUROCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GRANTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GOUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GRANTHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GOUTHIÈRE, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GRANTOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GOVAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GRANULITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GOVERNMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GOVERNOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GOW, NIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GOWER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GRANVILLE</a> (Australia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GOWER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GRANVILLE</a> (France)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GOWN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GRANVILLE</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GRAPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GOWRIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GRAPHICAL METHODS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GOYA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GRAPHITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GOYANNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GRAPTOLITES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GRASLITZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GOYÁZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">GRASMERE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">GRASS AND GRASSLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GOZLAN, LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GOZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">GRASSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GOZZI, CARLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">GRASSES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GOZZI, GASPARO</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON, LORD GEORGE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1751-1793), third and youngest
+son of Cosmo George, duke of Gordon, was born in London on
+the 26th of December 1751. After completing his education at
+Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant
+in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of the admiralty,
+would not promise him the command of a ship, and he resigned
+his commission shortly before the beginning of the American
+War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought
+for him by General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-shire,
+in order to bribe him not to contest the county. He was
+considered flighty, and was not looked upon as being of any
+importance. In 1779 he organized, and made himself head of
+the Protestant associations, formed to secure the repeal of the
+Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 he headed
+the mob which marched in procession from St George&rsquo;s Fields
+to the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster
+petition against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a
+terrific riot ensued, which continued several days, during which
+the city was virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they
+dispersed after threatening to make a forcible entry into the
+House of Commons, but reassembled soon afterwards and
+destroyed several Roman Catholic chapels, pillaged the private
+dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set fire to Newgate and
+broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank of England
+and several other public buildings, and continued the work of
+violence and conflagration until the interference of the military,
+by whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded
+before the riots were quelled. For his share in instigating the
+riots Lord Gordon was apprehended on a charge of high treason;
+but, mainly through the skilful and eloquent defence of Erskine,
+he was acquitted on the ground that he had no treasonable
+intentions. His life was henceforth full of crack-brained schemes,
+political and financial. In 1786 he was excommunicated by the
+archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear witness in an
+ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of libelling the
+queen of France, the French ambassador and the administration
+of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to withdraw
+from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland;
+but on account of representations from the court of Versailles
+he was commanded to quit that country, and, returning to
+England, was apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced
+to five years&rsquo; imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his
+ease, giving dinners and dances. As he could not obtain securities
+for his good behaviour on the termination of his term of imprisonment,
+he was not allowed to leave Newgate, and there he died
+of delirious fever on the 1st of November 1793. Some time before
+his apprehension he had become a convert to Judaism, and had
+undergone the initiatory rite.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in
+<i>The Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his
+Political Conduct</i>, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The
+best accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the <i>Annual
+Registers</i> from 1780 to the year of his death.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1788-1864), Scottish painter,
+was the eldest son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the
+family of Watson of Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He
+was born in Edinburgh in 1788, and was educated specially with
+a view to his joining the Royal Engineers. He entered as a
+student in the government school of design, under the management
+of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for art
+quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow
+him to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself
+a skilful draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, afterwards
+president of the Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait
+painter, second only to Sir Henry Raeburn, who also was a
+friend of the family. In the year 1808 John sent to the exhibition
+of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject from the <i>Lay of the
+Last Minstrel</i>, and continued for some years to exhibit fancy
+subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they were
+altogether without the force and character which stamped his
+portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of
+Sir Henry Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice.
+He assumed in 1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest
+of his famous sitters was Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first
+portrait in 1820. Then came J. G. Lockhart in 1821; Professor
+Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir Archibald Alison,
+1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey, and Sir
+David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may
+be mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers&rsquo; Hall,
+Edinburgh; Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings,
+Linlithgow; Lord President Hope, in the Parliament House;
+and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike his later works, are generally
+rich in colour. The full length of Dr Brunton (1844),
+and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both on the
+staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his style,
+which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both
+of colour and treatment.</p>
+
+<p>During the last twenty years of his life he painted many
+distinguished Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him.
+And it is significant that David Cox, the landscape painter, on
+being presented with his portrait, subscribed for by many
+friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to have it executed by Watson
+Gordon, although he neither knew the painter personally nor
+had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits
+painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style,
+are De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London;
+General Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society;
+the prince of Wales, Lord Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord
+Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford and Sir John Shaw
+Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These latter pictures
+are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or no positive
+colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling extremely
+masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very
+successful in rendering acute observant character. A good
+example of his last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely
+handled, yet highly finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw
+Lefevre.</p>
+
+<p>John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the
+Royal Scottish Academy, and was elected its president in 1850;
+he was at the same time appointed limner for Scotland to the
+queen, and received the honour of knighthood. Since 1841 he
+had been an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 he
+was elected a royal academician. He died on the 1st of June
+1864.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON, LEON,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> originally <span class="sc">Judah Loeb Ben Asher</span> (1831-1892),
+Russian-Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at
+Wilna in 1831 and died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took
+a leading part in the modern revival of the Hebrew language
+and culture. His satires did much to rouse the Russian Jews
+to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon was the apostle
+of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is classical
+and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, <i>Kol Shire
+Yehudah</i> (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in <i>Kol Kithbe
+Yehuda</i> (Odessa, 1889).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For his works see <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, xviii. 437 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON, PATRICK<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1635-1699), Russian general, was
+descended from a Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who
+possessed the small estate of Auchleuchries, and were connected
+with the house of Haddo. He was born in 1635, and after
+completing his education at the parish schools of Cruden and
+Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at Braunsberg,
+Prussia; but, as &ldquo;his humour could not endure such a
+still and strict way of living,&rdquo; he soon resolved to return home.
+He changed his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after
+journeying on foot in several parts of Germany, ultimately, in
+1655, enlisted at Hamburg in the Swedish service. In the
+course of the next five years he served alternately with the
+Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by either. In 1661,
+after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he took service
+in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was sent
+on a special mission to England. After his return he distinguished
+himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in
+southern Russia, and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was
+made major-general, in 1679 was appointed to the chief command
+at Kiev, and in 1683 was made lieutenant-general. He visited
+England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689 took part as quartermaster-general
+in expeditions against the Crim Tatars in the
+Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite of the
+denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he
+was exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow
+in 1689, Gordon with the troops he commanded virtually decided
+events in favour of the tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa
+Sophia. He was therefore during the remainder of his life in
+high favour with the tsar, who confided to him the command of
+his capital during his absence from Russia, employed him in
+organizing his army according to the European system, and
+latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died
+on the 29th of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him
+frequently during his illness, was with him when he died, and
+with his own hands closed his eyes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in
+English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian
+foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr
+Maurice Possalt (<i>Tagebuch des Generals Patrick Gordon</i>) was published,
+the first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in
+1851, and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and <i>Passages from
+the Diary of General Patrick Gordon of Auchleuchries</i> (1635-1699),
+was printed, under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the
+Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1820-1866),
+Scottish traveller and sportsman, known as the &ldquo;lion hunter,&rdquo;
+was born on the 15th of March 1820. He was the second son of
+Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd baronet of Altyre and
+Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he was distinguished
+by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and
+at eighteen joined the East India Co.&rsquo;s service as a cornet in the
+Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him,
+after two years&rsquo; experience he retired from the service and
+returned to Scotland. During his stay in the East he had laid
+the foundation of his collection of hunting trophies and specimens
+of natural history. In 1843 he joined the Cape Mounted Rifles,
+but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out at the end of the
+year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers set out
+for the interior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the
+Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In
+1848 he returned to England. The story of his remarkable
+exploits is vividly told in his book, <i>Five Years of a Hunter&rsquo;s
+Life in the Far Interior of South Africa</i> (London, 1850, 3rd
+ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first with incredulity
+by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who furnished
+Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: &ldquo;I
+have no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming&rsquo;s book conveys a
+truthful idea of South African hunting&rdquo; (<i>Missionary Travels</i>,
+chap. vii.). His collection of hunting trophies was exhibited
+in London in 1851 at the Great Exhibition, and was illustrated
+by a lecture delivered by Gordon-Cumming. The collection,
+known as &ldquo;The South Africa Museum,&rdquo; was afterwards exhibited
+in various parts of the country. In 1858 Gordon-Cumming went
+to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal, where the
+exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died
+there on the 24th of March 1866.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title
+of <i>The Lion Hunter of South Africa</i>, and in this form was frequently
+reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1799-1861), English
+novelist and dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-merchant,
+was born in 1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire.
+In 1823 she was married to Captain Charles Gore; and, in the
+next year, she published her first work, <i>Theresa Marchmont, or
+the Maid of Honour</i>. Then followed, among others, the <i>Lettre
+de Cachet</i> (1827), <i>The Reign of Terror</i> (1827), <i>Hungarian Tales</i>
+(1829), <i>Manners of the Day</i> (1830), <i>Mothers and Daughters</i> (1831),
+and <i>The Fair of May Fair</i> (1832), <i>Mrs Armytage</i> (1836). Every
+succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen: The <i>Cabinet
+Minister</i> and <i>The Courtier of the Days of Charles II.</i>, in 1839;
+<i>Preferment</i> in 1840. In 1841 <i>Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb</i>,
+attracted considerable attention. <i>Greville, or a Season in
+Paris</i> appeared in the same year; then <i>Ormington, or Cecil a
+Peer, Fascination, The Ambassador&rsquo;s Wife</i>; and in 1843 <i>The
+Banker&rsquo;s Wife</i>. Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing
+fertility of invention, till her death on the 29th of January 1861.
+She also wrote some dramas of which the most successful was
+the <i>School for Coquettes</i>, produced at the Haymarket (1831).
+She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to music Burns&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;And ye shall walk in silk attire,&rdquo; one of the most popular songs
+of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved by
+the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best
+novels are <i>Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb</i>, and <i>The Banker&rsquo;s
+Wife</i>. <i>Cecil</i> gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable
+life, and is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the knowledge
+of London clubs displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to
+William Beckford, the author of <i>Vathek</i>. <i>The Banker&rsquo;s Wife</i>
+is distinguished by some clever studies of character, especially
+in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating money-maker,
+and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs Gore&rsquo;s novels had an immense temporary popularity;
+they were parodied by Thackeray in <i>Punch</i>, in his &ldquo;Lords and
+Liveries by the author of <i>Dukes and Déjeuners</i>&rdquo;; but, tedious
+as they are to present-day readers, they presented on the whole
+faithful pictures of the contemporary life and pursuits of the
+English upper classes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORE, CHARLES<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1853-&emsp;&emsp;), English divine, was born in
+1853, the 3rd son of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother
+of the 4th earl of Arran. His mother was a daughter of the 4th
+earl of Bessborough. He was educated at Harrow and at Balliol
+College, Oxford, and was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1875.
+From 1880 to 1883 he was vice-principal of the theological
+college at Cuddesdon, and, when in 1884 Pusey House was
+founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey&rsquo;s library and a centre
+for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed principal,
+a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey House
+Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the
+younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this
+influence that the &ldquo;Oxford Movement&rdquo; underwent a change
+which to the survivors of the old school of Tractarians seemed
+to involve a break with its basic principles. &ldquo;Puseyism&rdquo; had
+been in the highest degree conservative, basing itself on authority
+and tradition, and repudiating any compromise with the modern
+critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span>
+basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical experience
+in dealing with the &ldquo;doubts and difficulties&rdquo; of the younger
+generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable,
+and set himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority
+in religion with that of scientific authority by attempting to
+define the boundaries of their respective spheres of influence.
+To him the divine authority of the Catholic Church was an
+axiom, and in 1889 he published two works, the larger of which,
+<i>The Church and the Ministry</i>, is a learned vindication of the
+principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate against the
+Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second,
+<i>Roman Catholic Claims</i>, is a defence, couched in a more popular
+form, of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the
+attacks of the Romanists.</p>
+
+<p>So far his published views had been in complete consonance
+with those of the older Tractarians. But in 1890 a great stir
+was created by the publication, under his editorship, of <i>Lux
+Mundi</i>, a series of essays by different writers, being an attempt
+&ldquo;to succour a distressed faith by endeavouring to bring the
+Christian Creed into its right relation to the modern growth of
+knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to modern problems
+of politics and ethics.&rdquo; Mr Gore himself contributed an essay
+on &ldquo;The Holy Spirit and Inspiration.&rdquo; The book, which ran
+through twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a somewhat
+mixed reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and
+Tractarian alike, were alarmed by views on the incarnate nature
+of Christ that seemed to them to impugn his Divinity, and by
+concessions to the Higher Criticism in the matter of the inspiration
+of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them to convert the
+&ldquo;impregnable rock,&rdquo; as Gladstone had called it, into a foundation
+of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly
+impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an
+artificial line beyond which criticism was not to advance. None
+the less the book produced a profound effect, and that far beyond
+the borders of the English Church, and it is largely due to its
+influence, and to that of the school it represents, that the High
+Church movement developed thenceforth on &ldquo;Modernist&rdquo;
+rather than Tractarian lines.</p>
+
+<p>In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures
+before the university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation.
+In these lectures he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of
+which in <i>Lux Mundi</i> had caused so much heart-searching. This is
+an attempt to explain how it came that Christ, though incarnate
+God, could be in error, <i>e.g.</i> in his citations from the Old Testament.
+The orthodox explanation was based on the principle of
+accommodation (<i>q.v.</i>). This, however, ignored the difficulty that
+if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to human
+limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other
+men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations.
+This difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the
+<span class="grk" title="kenôsis">&#954;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into
+the canon theologians had, from various points of view, attempted
+to explain what St Paul meant when he wrote of
+Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that &ldquo;he emptied himself and took upon
+him the form of a servant&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="heauton ekenôsen morphên doulou labôn">&#7953;&#945;&#965;&#964;&#8056;&#957; &#7952;&#954;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#949;&#957; &#956;&#959;&#961;&#966;&#8052;&#957; &#948;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#8166; &#955;&#945;&#946;&#8182;&#957;</span>). According to Mr Gore this means that Christ, on his
+incarnation, became subject to all human limitations, and had,
+so far as his life on earth was concerned, stripped himself of all
+the attributes of the Godhead, including the Divine omniscience,
+the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under the human.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Lux Mundi</i> and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of
+some tension which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned
+his principalship and became vicar of Radley, a small parish
+near Oxford. In 1894 he became canon of Westminster. Here
+he gained commanding influence as a preacher and in 1898 was
+appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he succeeded
+J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was installed
+bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been
+mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views
+on the divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the
+Christian Church, Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly
+relations with the ministers of other denominations, and advocated
+co-operation with them in all matters when agreement
+was possible. In social questions he became one of the leaders
+of the considerable group of High Churchmen known, somewhat
+loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against the
+sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Macedonia,
+and was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908.
+In 1892 he founded the clerical fraternity known as the Community
+of the Resurrection. Its members are priests, who are
+bound by the obligation of celibacy, live under a common rule
+and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral, evangelistic,
+literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the Resurrection
+at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the community;
+in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was
+established there, and in the same year a branch house, for
+missionary work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dr Gore&rsquo;s works include <i>The Incarnation</i> (Bampton Lectures,
+1891), <i>The Creed of the Christian</i> (1895), <i>The Body of Christ</i> (1901),
+<i>The New Theology and the Old Religion</i> (1908), and expositions of
+<i>The Sermon on the Mount</i> (1896), <i>Ephesians</i> (1898), and <i>Romans</i>
+(1899), while in 1910 he published <i>Orders and Unity</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his <i>Lehre von
+der heiligen Liebe</i> (1844), <i>Lehre</i> ii. pp. 21 et seq.: &ldquo;the Son of God
+veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as
+child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the
+world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows
+it to shine forth in all its glory.&rdquo; See Loofs, Art. &ldquo;Kenosis&rdquo; in
+Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1901), x. 247.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORE.<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1) (O. Eng. <i>gor</i>, dung or filth), a word formerly
+used in the sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has
+thickened after being shed. (2) (O. Eng. <i>gára</i>, probably connected
+with <i>gare</i>, an old word for &ldquo;spear&rdquo;), something of
+triangular shape, resembling therefore a spear-head. The word
+is used for a tapering strip of land, in the &ldquo;common or open
+field&rdquo; system of agriculture, where from the shape of the land
+the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in straight
+divisions. Similarly &ldquo;gore&rdquo; is used in the United States,
+especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out
+in surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked.
+The triangular sections of material used in forming the covering
+of a balloon or an umbrella are also called &ldquo;gores,&rdquo; and in
+dressmaking the term is used for a triangular piece of material
+inserted in a dress to adjust the difference in widths. To gore,
+<i>i.e.</i> to stab or pierce with any sharp instrument, but more
+particularly used of piercing with the horns of a bull, is probably
+directly connected with <i>gare</i>, a spear.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOREE,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part
+of the French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the
+large natural harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde.
+The island, some 900 yds. long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant
+from the nearest point of the mainland, is mostly barren rock.
+The greater part of its surface is occupied by a town, formerly
+a thriving commercial entrepôt and a strong military post.
+Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar (<i>q.v.</i>),
+c. 1860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its
+inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1905 to about 1500.
+Its healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium.
+The streets are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-red
+stone, are flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the governor&rsquo;s
+residence, the hospital and barracks, testify to the former
+importance of the town. Within the castle is an artesian well,
+the only water-supply, save that collected in rain tanks, on the
+island. Goree was first occupied by the Dutch, who took possession
+of it early in the 17th century and called it Goeree or Goedereede,
+in memory of the island on their own coast now united
+with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, <i>i.e.</i> a belly, in allusion
+to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken
+in the following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally
+expelled in 1677 by the French under Admiral d&rsquo;Estrées.
+Goree subsequently fell again into the hands of the English,
+but was definitely occupied by France in 1817 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORGE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> strictly the French word for the throat considered
+externally. Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk&rsquo;s crop,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span>
+and thus, with the sense of something greedy or ravenous, to
+food given to a hawk and to the contents of a hawk&rsquo;s crop or
+stomach. It is from this sense that the expression of a person&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;gorge rising at&rdquo; anything in the sense of loathing or disgust
+is derived. &ldquo;Gorge,&rdquo; from analogy with &ldquo;throat,&rdquo; is used
+with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley
+between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or
+bastion; and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman
+Doric column, between the echinus and the astragal. From
+&ldquo;gorge&rdquo; also comes a diminutive &ldquo;gorget,&rdquo; a portion of a
+woman&rsquo;s costume in the middle ages, being a close form of
+wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and also
+that part of the body armour covering the neck and collarbone
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gorget</a></span>). The word &ldquo;gorgeous,&rdquo; of splendid or
+magnificent appearance, comes from the O. Fr. <i>gorgias</i>, with
+the same meaning, and has very doubtfully been connected
+with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a supposed elaborate
+kind.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖRGEI, ARTHUR<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1818-&emsp;&emsp;), Hungarian soldier, was
+born at Toporcz, in Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January
+1818. He came of a Saxon noble family who were converts to
+Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the Bodyguard of Hungarian
+Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military service with a
+course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death of his
+father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the
+study of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the
+family estates in Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary
+War of 1848, Görgei offered his sword to the Hungarian government.
+Entering the Honvéd army with the rank of captain, he
+was employed in the purchase of arms, and soon became major
+and commandant of the national guards north of the Theiss.
+Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from
+crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the
+wealthy Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his
+hands, and Görgei caused him to be arraigned before a court-martial
+on a charge of treason and immediately hanged. After
+various successes over the Croatian forces, of which the most
+remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000 prisoners fell into
+his hands, Görgei was appointed commander of the army of the
+Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgrätz
+across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the
+remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated
+upon Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue
+interference with his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a proclamation
+throwing the blame for the recent want of success
+upon the government, thus virtually revolting against their
+authority. Görgei retired to the Hungarian Erzgebirge and
+conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the
+supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski,
+but the latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna,
+at which action Görgei&rsquo;s corps arrived too late to take an effective
+part, and some time after this the command was again conferred
+upon Görgei. The campaign in the spring of 1849 was brilliantly
+conducted by him, and in a series of engagements, he defeated
+Windischgrätz. In April he won the victories of Gödöllö Izaszeg
+and Nagy Sarló, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle at
+Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking
+the offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps
+have dictated terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was,
+he contented himself with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital,
+in which he desired to re-establish the diet, and after effecting
+this capture he remained inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile,
+at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth had formally proposed the
+dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and Hungary had been
+proclaimed a republic. Görgei had refused the field-marshal&rsquo;s
+bâton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in sympathy
+with the new régime. However, he accepted the portfolio of
+minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in
+the field. The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and
+made common cause with the Austrians; the allies were advancing
+into Hungary on all sides, and Görgei was defeated by
+Haynau at Pered (20th-21st of June). Kossuth, perceiving
+the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being unwilling
+himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and was
+succeeded by Görgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard
+against the various columns of the enemy. Görgei, convinced
+that he could not break through the enemy&rsquo;s lines, surrendered,
+with his army of 20,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the
+Russian general Rüdiger at Vilagos. Görgei was not court-marshaled,
+as were his generals, but kept in confinement at
+Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical work,
+until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary.
+The surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared
+while his generals and many of his officers and men were hanged
+or shot, led, perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason
+by public opinion of his countrymen. After his release he
+played no further part in public life. Even in 1885 an attempt
+which was made by a large number of his old comrades to rehabilitate
+him was not favourably received in Hungary. After
+some years&rsquo; work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrád,
+where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>General Görgei wrote a justification of his operations (<i>Mein
+Leben und Wirken in Ungarn</i> 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an
+anonymous paper under the title <i>Was verdanken wir der Revolution?</i>
+(1875), and a reply to Kossuth&rsquo;s charges (signed &ldquo;Joh.
+Demár&rdquo;) in <i>Budapesti Szemle</i>, 1881, 25-26. Amongst those
+who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Görgei (<i>1848 és
+1849 böl</i>, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (<i>Ein offenes
+Wort in der Sache des Honvéd-Generals Arthur Görgei</i>, Klausenburg,
+1867).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also A. G. Horn, <i>Görgei, Oberkommandant d. ung. Armee</i>
+(Leipzig, 1850); Kinety, <i>Görgei&rsquo;s Life and Work in Hungary</i> (London,
+1853); Szinyei, in <i>Magyár Irók</i> (iii. 1378), Hentaller, <i>Görgei as a
+Statesman</i> (Hungarian); Elemár, <i>Görgei in 1848-1849</i> (Hungarian,
+Budapest, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1566-1647), English colonial
+pioneer in America and the founder of Maine, was born in
+Somersetshire, England, probably in 1566. From youth both
+a soldier and a sailor, he was a prisoner in Spain at the age of
+twenty-one, having been captured by a ship of the Spanish
+Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of troops
+fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing himself
+at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596
+he was commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort
+at Plymouth and captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accompanied
+Essex on the expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted
+him in the attempt to suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland,
+and in 1600 was implicated in Essex&rsquo;s own attempt at rebellion
+in London. In 1603, on the accession of James I., he was
+suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored in the
+same year and continued to serve as &ldquo;governor of the forts
+and island of Plymouth&rdquo; until 1629, when, his garrison having
+been without pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin,
+and all his applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned.
+About 1605 he began to be greatly interested in the New World;
+in 1606 he became a member of the Plymouth Company, and he
+laboured zealously for the founding of the Popham colony at
+the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the Kennebec) river in 1607.
+For several years following the failure of that enterprise in 1608
+he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading and exploring,
+with colonization as the chief end in view. He was largely
+instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the
+Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps
+the most influential member of that body. He was the recipient,
+either solely or jointly, of several grants of territory from it,
+for one of which he received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maine</a></span>). In 1635 he sought to be appointed governor-general
+of all New England, but the English Civil War&mdash;in which he
+espoused the royal cause&mdash;prevented him from ever actually
+holding that office. A short time before his death at Long
+Ashton in 1647 he wrote his <i>Briefe Narration of the Originall
+Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of
+America</i>. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the
+feudal type of colony.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. P. Baxter (ed.), <i>Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of
+Maine</i> (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications),
+the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other
+volumes contain a reprint of the <i>Briefe Narration</i>, Gorges&rsquo;s letters,
+and other documentary material.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORGET<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>gorgete</i>, dim. of <i>gorge</i>, throat), the name
+applied after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour.
+It was generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and
+attached either to the body armour or to the armet. It was
+worn in the 16th and 17th centuries with the half-armour,
+with the plain cuirass, and even occasionally without any
+body armour at all. During these times it gradually became a
+distinctive badge for officers, and as such it survived in several
+armies&mdash;in the form of a small metal plate affixed to the front
+of the collar of the uniform coat&mdash;until after the Napoleonic wars.
+In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort is the
+distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer&rsquo;s
+gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or
+tabs worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches
+of the midshipmen in the Royal Navy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORGIAS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 483-375 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek sophist and rhetorician,
+was a native of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his
+fellow-citizens at the head of an embassy to ask Athenian
+protection against the aggression of the Syracusans. He subsequently
+settled in Athens, and supported himself by the practice
+of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa in
+Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that
+he transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the
+diffusion of the Attic dialect as the language of literary prose.
+He was the author of a lost work <i>On Nature or the Non-existent</i>
+(<span class="grk" title="Peri tou mê ontos ê peri physeôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#956;&#8052; &#8004;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#7974; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>, fragments edited by M. C.
+Valeton, 1876), the substance of which may be gathered from
+the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also from the treatise
+(ascribed to Theophrastus) <i>De Melisso, Xenophane, Gorgia</i>.
+Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue <i>Gorgias</i>.
+The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (<i>The Encomium
+of Helen</i> and <i>The Defence of Palamedes</i>, edited with Antiphon by
+F. Blass in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down
+under his name, is disputed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For his philosophical opinions see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sophists</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scepticism</a></span>.
+See also Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>, Eng. trans. vol. i. bk. iii. chap.
+vii.; Jebb&rsquo;s <i>Attic Orators</i>, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, <i>Die
+attische Beredsamkeit</i>, i. (1887); and article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhetoric</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORGON, GORGONS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Gorgô">&#915;&#959;&#961;&#947;&#974;</span>, <span class="grk" title="Gorgones">&#915;&#959;&#961;&#947;&#972;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>, the &ldquo;terrible,&rdquo;
+or, according to some, the &ldquo;loud-roaring&rdquo;), a figure or figures
+in Greek mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose
+head is represented in the <i>Iliad</i> (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of
+the aegis of Zeus. In the <i>Odyssey</i> (xi. 633) she is a monster of the
+under-world. Hesiod increases the number of Gorgons to three&mdash;Stheno
+(the mighty), Euryale (the far-springer) and Medusa
+(the queen), and makes them the daughters of the sea-god
+Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side of the
+western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod,
+<i>Theog.</i> 274; Herodotus ii. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic
+tradition, reproduced in Euripides (<i>Ion</i> 1002), regarded the
+Gorgon as a monster, produced by Gaea to aid her sons the
+giants against the gods and slain by Athena (the passage is a
+<i>locus classicus</i> on the aegis of Athena).</p>
+
+<p>The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having
+the form of young women; their hair consists of snakes; they
+are round-faced, flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large
+projecting teeth. Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen
+claws and the tusks of boars. Medusa was the only one of the
+three who was mortal; hence Perseus was able to kill her by
+cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted from her neck
+sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The
+head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked
+upon it, was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield;
+according to another account, Perseus buried it in the market-place
+of Argos. The hideously grotesque original type of the
+Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon&rsquo;s head was called, was placed on the
+walls of cities, and on shields and breastplates to terrify an enemy
+(cf. the hideous faces on Chinese soldiers&rsquo; shields), and used
+generally as an amulet, a protection against the evil eye. Heracles
+is said to have obtained a lock of Medusa&rsquo;s hair (which possessed
+the same powers as the head) from Athena and given it to
+Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for the town
+of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to
+Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a
+storm, which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (<i>Golden Bough</i>, i.
+378) gives examples of the superstition that cut hair caused
+storms. According to the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful
+maiden, whose hair had been changed into snakes by Athena,
+the head was represented in works of art with a wonderfully
+handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death. The
+Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this
+conception. Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by
+later ancient writers. According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55)
+they were female warriors living near Lake Tritonis in Libya,
+whose queen was Medusa; according to Alexander of Myndus,
+quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible wild animals
+whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> vi.
+36 [31]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were
+covered with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky
+hair and girdle. Modern authorities have explained them as the
+personification of the waves of the sea or of the barren, unproductive
+coast of Libya; or as the awful darkness of the
+storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is scattered by the
+sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of anthropologists
+that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is
+derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jane E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion</i>
+(1903); W. H. Roscher, <i>Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes</i> (1879);
+J. Six, <i>De Gorgone</i> (1885), on the types of the Gorgon&rsquo;s head; articles
+by Roscher and Furtwängler in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>,
+by G. Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>,
+and by R. Gädechens in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>;
+N. G. Polites (<span class="grk" title="Ho peri tôn Gorgonôn mythos para tô Hellênikô laô">&#8009; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#915;&#959;&#961;&#947;&#972;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#956;&#8166;&#952;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#8048; &#964;&#8183; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8183; &#955;&#945;&#8183;</span>, 1878)
+gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various superstitions
+connected with them, from the modern Greek point of view, which
+regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORGONZOLA,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
+of Milan, from which it is 11 m. E.N.E. by steam tramway.
+Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the centre of the district in which is
+produced the well-known Gorgonzola cheese.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORI,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
+of Tiflis and 49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river
+Kura; altitude, 2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding
+country is very picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and
+a school for Russian and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated
+for its silk and cotton stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed
+the best in Georgia, and the wine is also esteemed. The climate
+is excellent, delightfully cool in summer, owing to the refreshing
+breezes from the mountains, though these are, however, at times
+disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123) by the Georgian
+king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who fled their
+country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the
+fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-1658,
+but destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century.
+There is a church constructed in the 17th century by Capuchin
+missionaries from Rome. Five miles east of Gori is the remarkable
+rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe, which was a fortress in the
+time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and an inhabited city
+in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III. (980-1014).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORILLA<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Pongo</span>), the largest of the man-like apes, and
+a native of West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence
+it extends eastwards across the continent to German East Africa.
+Many naturalists regard the gorilla as best included in the same
+genus as the chimpanzee, in which case it should be known as
+<i>Anthropopithecus gorilla</i>, but by others it is regarded as the
+representative of a genus by itself, when its title will be <i>Gorilla
+savagei</i>, or <i>G. gorilla</i>. That there are local forms of gorilla is
+quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to rank as
+distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long supposed
+that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of
+Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span>
+opinion of some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable
+that the creatures in question were really baboons. The first
+real account of the gorilla appears to be the one given by an
+English sailor, Andrew Battel, who spent some time in the wilds
+of West Africa during and about the year 1590; his account
+being presented in Purchas&rsquo;s <i>Pilgrimage</i>, published in the year
+1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with both
+the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms
+engeco and the latter pongo&mdash;names which ought apparently
+to be adopted for these two species in place of those now in use.
+Between Battel&rsquo;s time and 1846 nothing appears to have been
+heard of the gorilla or pongo, but in that year a missionary at
+the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull of the huge ape;
+and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with two others,
+came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name <i>Gorilla
+savagei</i> was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas
+Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information
+with regard to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed
+the name <i>Troglodytes gorilla</i> in 1847. The first complete skeleton
+of a gorilla sent to Europe was received at the museum of the
+Royal College of Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin
+appears to have reached the British Museum in 1858. Paul B.
+du Chaillu&rsquo;s account (1861) of his journeys in the Gabun
+region popularized the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla.
+Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and attain a
+height of from 5½ ft. to 6½ ft., or perhaps even more. Some of
+the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere gorilla-like
+chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primates</a></span>.
+Among them are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of
+a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb,
+and the great length of the arm, which reaches half-way down
+the shin-bone (tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes
+are overhung by a beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half
+of the middle line of the skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for
+the attachment of the powerful jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or
+canines, are of monstrous size, recalling those of a carnivorous
+animal. The general colour is blackish, with a more or less
+marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders, and
+sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i>, 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths
+of the forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood
+of human settlements when they are attracted by some special
+fruit or succulent plant; the favourite being the fruit of the
+&ldquo;mejom,&rdquo; a tall cane-like plant (perhaps a kind of <i>Amomum</i>)
+which grows abundantly on deserted clearings. At one isolated
+village the natives, who were unarmed, reported that they not
+unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which broke down the
+stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to tear out
+and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another village
+Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the fresh
+tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded
+fruit rinds of the &ldquo;mejoms,&rdquo; as well as the broken stalks of the
+latter, which had been used for beds. On another occasion he
+came across the bed of an old gorilla which had been used only
+the night before, as was proved by a negro woman, who on the
+previous evening had heard the animal breaking and treading
+down the stalks to form its couch. According to native report,
+the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient thickness
+to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting posture,
+with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first case
+Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence
+of three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account
+does not by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfels,
+in which it is stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a
+sitting posture at the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being
+made of a bed), the female and young ones pass the night in a
+nest in the tree several yards above the ground, made by bending
+the boughs together and covering them with twigs and moss.
+Mr Bates&rsquo;s account, as being based on actual inspection of the
+beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and
+snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at
+the slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard
+making his bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas
+killed by natives are believed by Mr Bates to have been encountered
+suddenly in the daytime on the ground or in low trees
+in the outlying clearings. Many natives, even if armed, refuse,
+however, to molest an adult male gorilla, on account of its
+ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr Winwood Reade,
+refused to credit du Chaillu&rsquo;s account of his having killed gorillas,
+and stated that the only instance he knew of one of these animals
+being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr Walter
+Rothschild&rsquo;s museum at Tring) shot by the German trader
+Paschen in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account
+was published in 1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that
+two European traders, apparently in the &ldquo;&rsquo;eighties&rdquo; of the 19th
+century, were in the habit of surrounding and capturing these
+animals as occasion offered.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Fully adult gorillas have never
+been seen alive in captivity&mdash;and perhaps never will be, as the
+creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So long ago as the
+year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only by its
+skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal,
+a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some
+months in Wombwell&rsquo;s travelling menagerie, where it was treated
+as a pet. On its death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton,
+of Walton Hall, by whom the skin was mounted in a grotesque
+manner, and the skeleton given to the Leeds museum. Apparently,
+however, it was not till several years later that the skin
+was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a gorilla; the
+animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a chimpanzee.
+A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society
+in October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals.
+At the time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old,
+and stood 2½ ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather
+older, was acquired in March 1896, having been brought to
+Liverpool from the French Congo. It is described as having
+been thoroughly healthy at the date of its arrival, and of an
+amiable and tractable disposition. Neither survived long. Two
+others were received in the Zoological Society&rsquo;s menagerie in
+1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the
+following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein&rsquo;s
+gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name
+of pongo, and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for
+eighteen months. &ldquo;Pussi,&rdquo; the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological
+Gardens, holds a record for longevity, with over seven years
+of menagerie life. Writing in 1903 Mr W. T. Hornaday stated
+that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny infant, had ever
+landed in the United States; and it lived only five days after
+arrival.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer
+shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of
+the Congo.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORINCHEM<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gorcum</span>, a fortified town of Holland in the
+province of south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede
+at the confluence of the Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht.
+It is connected by the Zederik and Merwede canals with Amsterdam,
+and steamers ply hence in every direction. Pop. (1900)
+11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting old houses, and
+overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the 17th
+century. The principal buildings are the old church of St
+Vincent, containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the
+town hall, a prison, custom-house, barracks and a military
+hospital. The charitable and benevolent institutions are
+numerous, and there are also a library and several learned
+associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and besides
+working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in
+grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery
+being noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town
+on the left bank of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old
+buildings, which are decorated with mosaics.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORING, GEORGE GORING,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lord</span> (1608-1657), English
+Royalist soldier, son of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born
+on the 14th of July 1608. He soon became famous at court
+for his prodigality and dissolute manners. His father-in-law,
+Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post in the Dutch
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span>
+army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed
+by a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England
+early in 1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He
+served in the Scottish war, and already had a considerable
+reputation when he was concerned in the &ldquo;Army Plot.&rdquo; Officers
+of the army stationed at York proposed to petition the king and
+parliament for the maintenance of the royal authority. A
+second party was in favour of more violent measures, and
+Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general,
+proposed to march the army on London and overawe the parliament
+during Strafford&rsquo;s trial. This proposition being rejected
+by his fellow officers, he betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy
+Blount, earl of Newport, who passed on the information indirectly
+to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was thereupon called
+on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended him
+for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his
+comrades induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary
+leaders, who sent him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless
+he declared for the king in August. He surrendered
+Portsmouth to the parliament in September 1642 and went to
+Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to England
+in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of
+Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds
+in March 1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield
+on the capture of the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected
+an exchange. At Marston Moor he commanded the Royalist
+left, and charged with great success, but, allowing his troopers
+to disperse in search of plunder, was routed by Cromwell at the
+close of the battle. In November 1644, on his father&rsquo;s elevation
+to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The
+parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the
+creation of the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as
+Lord Goring and the son as General Goring. In August he had
+been dispatched by Prince Rupert, who recognized his ability,
+to join Charles in the south, and in spite of his dissolute and
+insubordinate character he was appointed to supersede Henry,
+Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great
+Rebellion</a></span>). He secured some successes in the west, and in
+January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied
+Farnham; but want of money compelled him to retreat to
+Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The excesses committed by his
+troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, and his exactions
+made his name hated throughout the west. He had himself
+prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next
+month he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol,
+to send reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of
+Taunton, he obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in
+the month he was summoned with his troops to the relief of the
+king at Oxford. Lord Goring had long been intriguing for an
+independent command, and he now secured from the king what
+was practically supreme authority in the west. It was alleged
+by the earl of Newport that he was willing to transfer his
+allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely that he
+meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and
+occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still
+engaged in desultory operations against Taunton when the
+main campaign of 1645 opened. For the part taken by Goring&rsquo;s
+army in the operations of the Naseby campaign see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great
+Rebellion</a></span>. After the decisive defeat of the king, the army of
+Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a disastrous
+fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further
+serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his
+time in frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained
+leave to quit his disorganized forces and retire to France on the
+ground of health. His father&rsquo;s services secured him the command
+of some English regiments in the Spanish service. He died at
+Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon gives him a very
+unpleasing character, declaring that &ldquo;Goring ... would,
+without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of
+treachery to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and
+in truth wanted nothing but industry (for he had wit, and
+courage, and understanding and ambition, uncontrolled by any
+fear of God or man) to have been as eminent and successful in
+the highest attempt of wickedness as any man in the age he
+lived in or before. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was
+his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that men were
+not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being
+deceived but twice by him.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the life by C. H. Firth in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>;
+Dugdale&rsquo;s <i>Baronage</i>, where there are some doubtful stories of his
+life in Spain; the <i>Clarendon State Papers</i>; Clarendon&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+Great Rebellion</i>; and S. R. Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>History of the Great Civil War</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORKI, MAXIM<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1868-&emsp;&emsp;), the pen-name of the Russian
+novelist Alexei Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-Novgorod
+on the 26th of March 1868. His father was a dyer,
+but he lost both his parents in childhood, and in his ninth year
+was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We find him afterwards in a
+variety of callings, but devouring books of all sorts greedily,
+whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the boot-shop
+and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook
+on board a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth
+year he tried to enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake
+himself again to his drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked
+about <i>kvas</i>, and helped the barefooted tramps and labourers
+at the docks. From these he drew some of his most striking
+pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life generally
+with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery
+he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a
+barrister at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of
+his fortunes, as he found a sympathetic master who helped him.
+He also became acquainted with the novelist Korolenko, who
+assisted him in his literary efforts. His first story was <i>Makar
+Chudra</i>, which was published in the journal <i>Kavkaz</i>. He contributed
+to many periodicals and finally attracted attention by
+his tale called <i>Chelkash</i>, which appeared in <i>Russkoe Bogatsvo</i>
+(&ldquo;Russian wealth&rdquo;). This was followed by a series of tales
+in which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the
+<i>bosniaki</i>, or tramps. He has sometimes described other classes
+of society, tradesmen and the educated classes, but not with
+equal success. There are some vigorous pictures, however,
+of the trading class in his <i>Foma Gordeyev</i>. But his favourite
+type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society, and him he
+describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies
+with him. We get such a type completely in <i>Konovalov</i>. Gorki
+is always preaching that we must have ideals&mdash;something better
+than everyday life, and this view is brought out in his play
+<i>At the Lowest Depths</i>, which had great success at Moscow, but
+was coldly received at St Petersburg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a good criticism of Gorki see <i>Ideas and Realities in Russian
+Literature</i>, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been
+translated into English.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖRLITZ,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Silesia, on the left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden
+on the railway to Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin,
+Zittau and Halle. Pop. (1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The
+Neisse at this point is crossed by a railway bridge 1650 ft. long
+and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Görlitz is one of the handsomest,
+and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000 acres,
+which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest
+towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and
+fine gardens, and although its old walls and towers have now
+been demolished, many of its ancient buildings remain to form
+a picturesque contrast with the signs of modern industry. From
+the hill called Landskrone, about 1500 ft. high, an extensive
+prospect is obtained of the surrounding country. The principal
+buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St Paul,
+dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous
+organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about
+the end of the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and
+choir in pierced work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868,
+with handsome choir stalls and a carved altar dating from 1383;
+and the Roman Catholic church, founded in 1853, in the Roman
+style of architecture, with beautiful glass windows and oil-paintings.
+The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a very valuable
+library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps. There is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span>
+also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other
+buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used
+as a guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in
+the Gothic style erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the
+Kaiser Friedrich museum, the house of the estates of the province
+(Ständehaus), two theatres and the barracks. Near the town
+is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is a model of the
+Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century.
+In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to
+Alexander von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob
+Böhme (1575-1624); a monument has been erected in the town
+in commemoration of the war of 1870-71, and also one to the
+emperor William I. and a statue of Prince Frederick Charles.
+In connexion with the natural history society there is a valuable
+museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large library
+and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of <i>virtu</i>.
+Görlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing
+commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground
+for the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides
+cloth, which forms its staple article of commerce, it has manufactories
+of various linen and woollen wares, machines, railway
+wagons, glass, sago, tobacco, leather, chemicals and tiles.</p>
+
+<p>Görlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at
+the beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was
+then known as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruction
+by fire in 1131 it received the name of Zgorzelice. About
+the end of the 12th century it was strongly fortified, and for a
+short time it was the capital of a duchy of Görlitz. It was
+several times besieged and taken during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War,
+and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years&rsquo; War. In the
+battle which took place near it between the Austrians and
+Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt,
+the general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the
+town, with the greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the
+possession of Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Neumann, <i>Geschichte von Görlitz</i> (1850).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖRRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1776-1848), German
+writer, was born on the 25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His
+father was a man of moderate means, who sent his son to a Latin
+college under the direction of the Roman Catholic clergy. The
+sympathies of the young Görres were from the first strongly
+with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and irreligion
+of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his hatred
+of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted
+on the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to
+one another. He then commenced a republican journal called <i>Das
+rote Blatt</i>, and afterwards <i>Rübezahl</i>, in which he strongly condemned
+the administration of the Rhenish provinces by France.</p>
+
+<p>After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope
+that the Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent
+republic. In 1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of
+which Görres was a member, to Paris to put their case before the
+directory. The embassy reached Paris on the 20th of November
+1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed the supreme
+direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was received
+by him; but the only answer they obtained was &ldquo;that they
+might rely on perfect justice, and that the French government
+would never lose sight of their wants.&rdquo; Görres on his return
+published a tract called <i>Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris</i>, in
+which he reviewed the history of the French Revolution. During
+the thirteen years of Napoleon&rsquo;s dominion Görres lived a retired
+life, devoting himself chiefly to art or science. In 1801 he
+married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years teacher
+at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to Heidelberg,
+where he lectured at the university. As a leading member
+of the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with
+K. Brentano and L. von Arnim the famous <i>Zeitung für Einsiedler</i>
+(subsequently re-named <i>Tröst-Einsamkeit</i>), and in 1807 he
+published <i>Die teutschen Volksbücher</i>. He returned to Coblenz
+in 1808, and again found occupation as a teacher in a secondary
+school, supported by civic funds. He now studied Persian, and
+in two years published a <i>Mythengeschichte der asiatischen Welt</i>,
+which was followed ten years later by <i>Das Heldenbuch von Iran</i>,
+a translation of part of the <i>Shahnama</i>, the epic of Firdousi. In
+1813 he actively took up the cause of national independence,
+and in the following year founded <i>Der rheinische Merkur</i>. The
+intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its
+hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it
+almost instantly a position and influence unique in the history
+of German newspapers. Napoleon himself called it <i>la cinquième
+puissance</i>. The ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with
+a representative government, but under an emperor after the
+fashion of other days,&mdash;for Görres now abandoned his early
+advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon was at Elba,
+Görres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the
+people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many
+Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor.
+He inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815),
+declaring that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded
+back from France.</p>
+
+<p>Stein was glad enough to use the <i>Merkur</i> at the time of the
+meeting of the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expression
+to his hopes. But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Görres
+to remember that he was not to arouse hostility against France,
+but only against Bonaparte. There was also in the <i>Merkur</i> an
+antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression of the desire that
+an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title, and also a
+tendency to pronounced liberalism&mdash;all of which made it most
+distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick
+William III. Görres disregarded warnings sent to him by the
+censorship and continued the paper in all its fierceness. Accordingly
+it was suppressed early in 1816, at the instance of the
+Prussian government; and soon after Görres was dismissed from
+his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his writings
+were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent
+political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed
+Kotzebue&rsquo;s assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad
+were framed, and these were the subject of Görres&rsquo;s celebrated
+pamphlet <i>Teutschland und die Revolution</i> (1820). In this work
+he reviewed the circumstances which had led to the murder of
+Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible horror at the deed
+itself, he urged that it was impossible and undesirable to repress
+the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures.
+The success of the work was very marked, despite its ponderous
+style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and
+orders were issued for the arrest of Görres and the seizure of his
+papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzerland.
+Two more political tracts, <i>Europa und die Revolution</i>
+(1821) and <i>In Sachen der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit</i>
+(1822), also deserve mention.</p>
+
+<p>In Görres&rsquo;s pamphlet <i>Die heilige Allianz und die Völker auf
+dem Kongress zu Verona</i> he asserted that the princes had met
+together to crush the liberties of the people, and that the people
+must look elsewhere for help. The &ldquo;elsewhere&rdquo; was to Rome;
+and from this time Görres became a vehement Ultramontane
+writer. He was summoned to Munich by King Ludwig of Bavaria
+as Professor of History in the university, and there his writing
+enjoyed very great popularity. His <i>Christliche Mystik</i> (1836-1842)
+gave a series of biographies of the saints, together with an
+exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated
+ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion
+was the deposition and imprisonment by the Prussian government
+of the archbishop Clement Wenceslaus, in consequence of
+the refusal of that prelate to sanction in certain instances the
+marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics. Görres in his
+<i>Athanasius</i> (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the church,
+although the liberals of later date who have claimed Görres as
+one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute
+supremacy of Rome. <i>Athanasius</i> went through several editions,
+and originated a long and bitter controversy. In the <i>Historisch-politische
+Blätter</i>, a Munich journal, Görres and his son Guido
+(1805-1852) continually upheld the claims of the church.
+Görres received from the king the order of merit for his services.
+He died on the 29th of January 1848.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Görres&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> (only his political writings) appeared
+in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of <i>Gesammelte
+Briefe</i> were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland,
+<i>Joseph von Görres</i> (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, <i>Görres und seine
+Zeitgenossen</i> (1877), and by the same author, <i>Görres</i>, in the series
+<i>Geisteshelden</i> (1896). A <i>Görres-Gesellschaft</i> was founded in 1876.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1752-1793), French publicist
+and politician, was born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th
+of March 1752, the son of a shoemaker. He established himself
+as a private tutor in Paris, and presently set up a school for the
+army at Versailles, which was attended by commoners as well
+as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short time in the
+Bicêtre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his pupils,
+his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These
+circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical
+sentiment. At the opening of the states-general he began to
+publish the <i>Courrier de Versailles à Paris et de Paris à Versailles</i>,
+in which appeared on the 4th of October 1789 the account of the
+banquet of the royal bodyguard. Gorsas is said to have himself
+read it in public at the Palais Royal, and to have headed one of
+the columns that marched on Versailles. He then changed the
+name of his paper to the <i>Courrier des quatre-vingt-trois départements</i>,
+continuing his incendiary propaganda, which had no
+small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June and
+August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in
+his paper that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national
+conspiracy and that the people exercised a just vengeance on
+the guilty. On the 10th of September 1792 he was elected to
+the Convention for the department of Seine-et-Oise, and on the
+10th of January 1793 was elected one of its secretaries. He sat
+at first with the Mountain, but having been long associated
+with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists
+became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI.
+he dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the
+Mountain, and he voted for the king&rsquo;s detention during the war
+and subsequent banishment. A violent attack on Marat in
+the <i>Courrier</i> led to an armed raid on his printing establishment
+on the 9th of March 1793. The place was sacked, but Gorsas
+escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts being reported to
+the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas, and a
+resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding representatives
+to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd
+of June he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under
+arrest with other members of his party. He escaped to Normandy
+to join Buzot, and after the defeat of the Girondists at
+Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in Brittany. He was imprudent
+enough to return to Paris in the autumn, where he was arrested
+on the 6th of October and guillotined the next day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Moniteur</i>, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793);
+M. Tourneux, <i>Bibl. de l&rsquo;hist. de Paris</i>, 10,291 seq. (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1835-&emsp;&emsp;). English statesman,
+was born at Preston in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock
+Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes on succeeding to the
+family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler from St
+John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a
+fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his
+father&rsquo;s illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where
+he married in 1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at
+that time set up a king of their own in the Waikato district and
+Gorst, who had made friends with the chief Tamihana (William
+Thomson), acted as an intermediary between the Maoris and
+the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of
+schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil commissioner
+in Upper Waikato. Tamihana&rsquo;s influence secured his
+safety in the Maori outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a
+volume of recollections, under the title of <i>New Zealand Revisited:
+Recollections of the Days of my Youth</i>. He then returned to
+England and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1865,
+becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for Hastings
+in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered
+parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed
+to secure re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the
+Conservative defeat of that year he was entrusted by Disraeli
+with the reorganization of the party machinery, and in five years
+of hard work he paved the way for the Conservative success at
+the general election of 1874. At a bye-election in 1875 he re-entered
+parliament as member for Chatham, which he continued
+to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff,
+Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the
+&ldquo;Fourth Party,&rdquo; and he became solicitor-general in the administration
+of 1885-1886 and was knighted. On the formation
+of the second Salisbury administration (1886) he became under-secretary
+for India and in 1891 financial secretary to the
+Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member
+for Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of committees
+in the House of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the
+formation of the third Salisbury administration in 1895 he
+became vice-president of the committee of the council on education
+(until 1902). Sir John Gorst adhered to the principles of
+Tory democracy which he had advocated in the days of the
+fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active interest in the
+housing of the poor, the education and care of their children,
+and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in the
+press. But he was always exceedingly &ldquo;independent&rdquo; in his
+political action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s proposals
+for tariff reform, and lost his seat at Cambridge at the general
+election of 1906 to a tariff reformer. He then withdrew from
+the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose League, of which he
+had been one of the founders, on the ground that it no longer
+represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he contested
+Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.</p>
+
+<p>His elder son, <span class="sc">Sir J. Eldon Gorst</span> (b. 1861), was financial
+adviser to the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when
+he became assistant under-secretary of state for foreign affairs.
+In 1907 he succeeded Lord Cromer as British agent and consul-general
+in Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An account of Sir John Gorst&rsquo;s connexion with Lord Randolph
+Churchill will be found in the <i>Fourth Party</i> (1906), by his younger
+son, Harold E. Gorst.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORTON, SAMUEL<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1600-1677), English sectary and
+founder of the American sect of Gortonites, was born about
+1600 at Gorton, Lancashire. He was first apprenticed to a
+clothier in London, but, fearing persecution for his religious
+convictions, he sailed for Boston, Massachusetts, in 1636. Constantly
+involved in religious disputes, he fled in turn to Plymouth,
+and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport), where he
+was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates.
+In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at
+Shawomet&mdash;now Warwick&mdash;where he was joined by a number
+of his followers; but he quarrelled with the Indians and the
+authorities at Boston sent soldiers to arrest Gorton and six of his
+companions. He served a term of imprisonment for heresy at
+Charlestown, after which he was ejected from the colony.
+In England in 1646 he published the curious tract &ldquo;Simplicities
+Defence against Seven Headed Policy&rdquo; (reprinted in
+1835), giving an account of his grievances against the Massachusetts
+government. In 1648 he returned to New England
+with a letter of protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining
+his former companions at Shawomet, which he named Warwick,
+in honour of the earl, he remained there till his death at the end
+of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the founder of a small
+sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the end of the
+18th century. They had a great contempt for the regular clergy
+and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true
+believers partook of the perfection of God.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his quaint writings are: <i>An Incorruptible Key composed
+of the CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures</i>
+(1647), and <i>Saltmarsh returned from the Dead</i>, with its sequel, <i>An
+Antidote against the Common Plague of the World</i> (1657). See L. G.
+Jones, <i>Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties</i> (Providence,
+1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GORTON,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb
+of Manchester. Pop. (1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufacturing
+district, having cotton mills and iron, engineering and
+chemical works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GORTYNA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gortyn</span>, an important ancient city on the
+southern side of the island of Crete. It stood on the banks
+of the small river Lethaeus (Mitropolipotamo), about three hours
+distant from the sea, with which it communicated by means of
+its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had temples of
+Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the
+famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars;
+and not far from this was another spring, overhung by an evergreen
+plane tree which in popular belief marked the scene of
+the amours of Zeus and Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus,
+the largest and most powerful city of Crete. The two cities
+combined to subdue the rest of the island; but when they had
+gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and the
+history of both towns is from this time little more than a record
+of their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history
+of Greece. Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis
+of the island. Extensive ruins may still be seen at the modern
+village of Hagii Deka, and here was discovered the great inscription
+containing chapters of its ancient laws. Though partly
+ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very interesting monument
+of early Christian architecture, dating from about the 4th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>, and for a full account of the laws see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek
+Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖRTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von Schlitz</span>
+(1668-1719), Holstein statesman, was educated at Jena. He
+entered the Holstein-Gottorp service, and after the death of
+the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles XII.&rsquo;s sister, became very
+influential during the minority of her son Duke Charles Frederick.
+His earlier policy aimed at strengthening Holstein-Gottorp
+at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during Charles
+XII.&rsquo;s stay at Altranstädt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the
+king&rsquo;s attention to the Holstein question, and six years later,
+when the Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the
+Elbe, Görtz rendered him as much assistance as was compatible
+with not openly breaking with Denmark, even going so far
+as to surrender the fortress of Tönning to the Swedes. Görtz
+next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against Sweden
+by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose
+of isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies
+against her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained
+relations between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered,
+however, on the refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his
+German domains by ceding Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous
+plan of procuring the Swedish crown for Duke Charles
+Frederick also came to nought. Görtz first suggested the
+marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna Anne
+of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with
+that object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at
+Stralsund, Görtz was the first to visit him, and emerged from
+his presence chief minister or &ldquo;grand-vizier&rdquo; as the Swedes
+preferred to call the bold and crafty satrap, whose absolute
+devotion to the Swedish king took no account of the intense
+wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Görtz, himself a man of
+uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the
+heroic element in Charles&rsquo;s nature and was determined, if
+possible, to save him from his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary
+influence to the fact that he was the only one of Charles&rsquo;s
+advisers who believed, or pretended to believe, that Sweden
+was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a sufficient
+reserve of power to give support to an energetic diplomacy&mdash;Charles&rsquo;s
+own opinion, in fact. Görtz&rsquo;s position, however,
+was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein
+minister at Charles&rsquo;s court, in reality he was everything in Sweden
+except a Swedish subject&mdash;finance minister, plenipotentiary
+to foreign powers, factotum, and responsible to the king alone,
+though he had not a line of instructions. But he was just the
+man for a hero in extremities, and his whole course of procedure
+was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief financial expedient
+was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by issuing copper
+tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of his
+that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market
+too enormous an amount of this copper money for Görtz to deal
+with. By the end of 1718 it seemed as if Görtz&rsquo;s system could
+not go on much longer, and the hatred of the Swedes towards
+him was so intense and universal that they blamed him for
+Charles XII.&rsquo;s tyranny as well as for his own. Görtz hoped,
+however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden&rsquo;s
+numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means
+of fresh combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great
+power. It must be admitted that, in pursuance of his &ldquo;system,&rdquo;
+Görtz displayed a genius for diplomacy which would have done
+honour to a Metternich or a Talleyrand. He desired peace with
+Russia first of all, and at the congress of Åland even obtained
+relatively favourable terms, only to have them rejected by his
+obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously, Görtz was negotiating
+with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in England; but
+all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of cards on
+the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish
+nation instantly fell upon Görtz. After a trial before a special
+commission which was a parody of justice&mdash;the accused was
+not permitted to have any legal assistance or the use of writing
+materials&mdash;he was condemned to decapitation and promptly
+executed. Perhaps Görtz deserved his fate for &ldquo;unnecessarily
+making himself the tool of an unheard-of despotism,&rdquo; but his
+death was certainly a judicial murder, and some historians even
+regard him as a political martyr.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>Charles XII.</i> (London, 1895), and <i>Scandinavia</i>,
+chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, <i>Freherre Georg
+Heinrich von Görtz</i> (Stockholm, 1868).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖRZ<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Gorizia</i>; Slovene, <i>Gorica</i>), the capital of the
+Austrian crownland of Görz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W.
+of Vienna by rail. Pop (1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians,
+the remainder mostly Slovenes and Germans. It is picturesquely
+situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in a fertile valley, 35 m.
+N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an archbishop and
+possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th century
+and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the
+17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates
+the town, is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the
+counts of Görz, now partly used as barracks. Owing to the
+mildness of its climate Görz has become a favourite winter-resort,
+and has received the name of the Nice of Austria. Its
+mean annual temperature is 55° F.; while the mean winter
+temperature is 38.7° F. It is adorned with several pretty gardens
+with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N.
+of the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza,
+in whose chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836),
+the last Bourbon king, of the duke of Angoulême (d. 1844),
+his son, and of the duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles
+to the north of Görz is the Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-frequented
+place on which stands a pilgrimage church. The
+industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar refining,
+brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of rosoglio.
+There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables,
+early fruit and wine. Görz is mentioned for the first time at
+the beginning of the 11th century, and received its charter as
+a town in 1307. During the middle ages the greater part of
+its population was German.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖRZ AND GRADISCA,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a county and crownland of Austria,
+bounded E. by Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory
+and the Adriatic, W. by Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has
+an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line, though extending for
+25 m., does not present any harbour of importance. It is fringed
+by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most part
+of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries
+Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only
+one accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides,
+except towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian
+lowland, it is surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths
+of its area is occupied by mountains and hills. From the Julian
+Alps, which traverse the province in the north, the country
+descends in successive terraces towards the sea, and may roughly
+be divided into the upper highlands, the lower highlands, the
+hilly district and the lowlands. The principal peaks in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span>
+Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart (8784 ft.),
+the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386 ft.),
+and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or
+Terglou (9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil
+Pass (3811 ft.), through which passes the principal road from
+Carinthia to the Coastland. The southern part of the province
+belongs to the Karst region, and here are situated the famous
+cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where the river Reka
+begins its subterranean course. The principal river of the
+province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues
+a strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches
+the Adriatic. At Görz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea,
+and it is navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the
+name of the Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria,
+the Wippach and the Torre with its tributary the Judrio,
+which forms for a short distance the boundary between Austria
+and Italy. Of special interest not only in itself but for the
+frequent allusions to it in classical literature is the Timavus
+or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short
+course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears,
+according to the well-known description of Virgil (<i>Aen.</i> i. 244)
+to have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths
+and with much noise and commotion, but at present it usually
+issues from only three mouths and flows quiet and still. It
+is strange enough, however, to see the river coming out full
+formed from the rock, and capable at its very source of bearing
+vessels on its bosom. According to a probable hypothesis it
+is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which is
+lost near Sankt Kanzian.</p>
+
+<p>Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupation
+of the population, and the vine is here planted not only
+in regular vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through
+the ordinary fields and carried up the hills in terraces locally
+called <i>ronchi</i>. The rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the
+lowlands, constitutes another great source of revenue, and
+furnishes the material for the only extensive industry of the
+country. The manufacture of silk is carried on at Görz, and in
+and around the village of Haidenschaft. Görz and Gradisca
+had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to
+203 inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about
+two-thirds were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only
+about 2200 Germans. Almost the whole of the population
+(99.6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The local
+diet, of which the archbishop of Görz is a member <i>ex-officio</i>,
+is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5 deputies
+to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the
+province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous municipality,
+Görz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places
+are Cormons (5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699),
+Gradisca (3843) and Aquileia (2319).</p>
+
+<p>Görz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the
+10th century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor
+Otto III. on John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the 11th century
+it became the seat of the Eppenstein family, who frequently
+bore the title of counts of Gorizia; and in the beginning of the
+12th century the countship passed from them to the Lurngau
+family which continued to exist till the year 1500, and acquired
+possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria. On the
+death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to
+the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united
+with it in 1754. The province was occupied by the French in
+1809, but reverted again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district
+of the administrative province of Trieste until 1861, when it
+became a separate crownland under its actual name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> 1st <span class="sc">Viscount</span>
+(1831-1907), British statesman, son of William Henry Göschen,
+a London merchant of German extraction, was born in London
+on the 10th of August 1831. He was educated at Rugby under
+Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he took a first-class
+in classics. He entered his father&rsquo;s firm of Frühling &amp;
+Göschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became
+a director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life
+took place in 1863, when he was returned without opposition
+as member for the city of London in the Liberal interest,
+and this was followed by his re-election, at the head of the poll,
+in the general election of 1865. In November of the same year
+he was appointed vice-president of the Board of Trade and
+paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made chancellor
+of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When
+Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr
+Goschen joined the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board,
+and continued to hold that office until March 1871, when he
+succeeded Mr Childers as first lord of the admiralty. In 1874
+he was elected lord rector of the university of Aberdeen. Being
+sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the British holders of
+Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the conversion of
+the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the
+Khedive.</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question prevented
+him from voting uniformly with his party, and he informed
+his constituents in the city that he would not stand
+again at the forthcoming general election. In 1880 he was
+elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that constituency
+until the general election of 1885, when he was returned for the
+Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension
+of the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s government
+in 1880; declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted
+that of special ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in
+settling the Montenegrin and Greek frontier questions in 1880
+and 1881. He was made an ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882,
+and when Sir Henry Brand was raised to the peerage in 1884,
+the speakership of the House of Commons was offered to him,
+but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 he frequently
+found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as
+regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign
+policy; and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home
+Rule for Ireland, Mr Goschen followed Lord Hartington (afterwards
+duke of Devonshire) and became one of the most active of
+the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and eloquent opposition to
+Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him into greater
+public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his seat for
+Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the resignation
+of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen,
+though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s invitation
+to join his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer.
+Being defeated at Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven
+votes, he was elected for St George&rsquo;s, Hanover Square, on the
+9th of February. His chancellorship of the exchequer during
+the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable by his
+successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National
+Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new
+2¾% Consols became known as &ldquo;Goschens,&rdquo; his name will
+long be connected. Aberdeen University again conferred upon
+him the honour of the lord rectorship in 1888, and he received
+a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh in 1890.
+In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again
+took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House
+of Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating
+power. From 1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the
+admiralty, and in that office he earned the highest reputation
+for his business-like grasp of detail and his statesmanlike outlook
+on the naval policy of the country. He retired in 1900, and was
+raised to the peerage by the title of Viscount Goschen of Hawkhurst,
+Kent. Though retired from active politics he continued
+to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr Chamberlain
+started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen
+was one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist
+side. He died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in
+the title by his son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Conservative
+M.P. for East Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and
+married a daughter of the 1st earl of Cranbrook.</p>
+
+<p>In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest
+interest, his best known, but by no means his only, contribution
+to popular culture being his participation in the University
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span>
+Extension Movement; and his first efforts in parliament were
+devoted to advocating the abolition of religious tests and the
+admission of Dissenters to the universities. His published
+works indicate how ably he combined the wise study of economics
+with a practical instinct for business-like progress, without
+neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to
+his well-known work on <i>The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges</i>,
+he published several financial and political pamphlets and
+addresses on educational and social subjects, among them being
+that on <i>Cultivation of the Imagination</i>, Liverpool, 1877, and that
+on <i>Intellectual Interest</i>, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote <i>The Life
+and Times of Georg Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of
+Leipzig</i> (1903).</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOS-HAWK,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> goose-hawk, the <i>Astur palumbarius</i> of
+ornithologists, and the largest of the short-winged hawks used
+in falconry. Its English name, however, has possibly been
+transferred to this species from one of the long-winged hawks
+or true falcons, since there is no tradition of the gos-hawk, now
+so called, having ever been used in Europe to take geese or other
+large and powerful birds. The genus <i>Astur</i> may be readily
+distinguished from <i>Falco</i> by the smooth edges of its beak,
+its short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail),
+and its long legs and toes&mdash;though these last are stout and comparatively
+shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (<i>Accipiter</i>). In
+plumage the gos-hawk has a general resemblance to the peregrine
+falcon, and it undergoes a corresponding change as it
+advances from youth to maturity&mdash;the young being longitudinally
+streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely barred.
+The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange,
+while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ
+greatly in size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk,
+nowadays very rare in Britain, was once common in England,
+and even towards the end of the 18th century Thornton obtained
+a nestling in Scotland, while Irish gos-hawks were of old highly
+celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird, its disappearance
+may be safely connected with the disappearance of the ancient
+forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry
+and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity.
+In many parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It
+ranges eastward to China and is much valued in India. In
+North America it is represented by a very nearly allied species,
+<i>A. atricapillus</i>, chiefly distinguished by the closer barring of
+the breast. Three or four examples corresponding with this
+form have been obtained in Britain. A good many other species
+of <i>Astur</i> (some of them passing into <i>Accipiter</i>) are found in
+various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be
+mentioned is the <i>A. novae-hollandiae</i> of Australia, which is
+remarkable for its dimorphism&mdash;one form possessing the normal
+dark-coloured plumage of the genus and the other being perfectly
+white, with crimson irides. Some writers hold these two forms
+to be distinct species and call the dark-coloured one <i>A. cinereus</i>
+or <i>A. raii</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSHEN,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between
+Jacob&rsquo;s immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation
+is a difficult problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic,
+or at least non-Egyptian origin, as in Palestine we meet with a
+district (Josh. x. 41) and a city (<i>ib.</i> xv. 51) of the same name.
+The Septuagint reads <span class="grk" title="Gesem Arabias">&#915;&#941;&#963;&#949;&#956; &#7944;&#961;&#945;&#946;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span> in Gen. xlv. 10, and
+xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply <span class="grk" title="Gesem">&#915;&#941;&#963;&#949;&#956;</span>. In xlvi. 28 &ldquo;Goshen ... the
+land of Goshen&rdquo; are translated respectively &ldquo;Heroopolis ...
+the land of Rameses.&rdquo; This represents a late Jewish
+identification. Ptolemy defines &ldquo;Arabia&rdquo; as an Egyptian nome
+on the eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa,
+corresponding to the Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem.
+It is doubtful whether Phacussa be situated at the mounds of
+F&#257;k&#363;s, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh, which suits Strabo&rsquo;s
+description of its locality rather better. The extent of Goshen,
+according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10), included
+Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It
+is indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of
+good pasture, on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible
+vegetables and in fish (Numbers xi. 5).</p>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSHEN,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county,
+Indiana, U.S.A., on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S.
+of Chicago, at an altitude of about 800 ft. Pop. (1890)
+6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910) 8514. Goshen is
+served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis, and
+the Lake Shore &amp; Michigan Southern railways, and is connected
+by electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city
+has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under
+Mennonite control), chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart,
+Ind., in 1895, and removed to Goshen and opened under its
+present name in 1903. The college includes a collegiate department,
+an academy, a Bible school, a normal school, a summer
+school and correspondence courses, and schools of business,
+of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students,
+73 of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in
+a good farming region and is an important lumber market.
+There is a good water-power. Among the city&rsquo;s manufactures
+are wagons and carriages, furniture, wooden-ware, veneering,
+sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber goods,
+flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The
+municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting
+system. Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered
+as a city in 1868.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSLAR,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hanover, romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the
+Oker, at the north foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim
+and 31 m. S.W. from Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817.
+It is surrounded by walls and is of antique appearance. Among
+the noteworthy buildings are the &ldquo;Zwinger,&rdquo; a tower with
+walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque
+style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and
+containing the town archives and a library in which are some
+of Luther&rsquo;s manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing
+many interesting antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the
+hall of the tailors&rsquo; gild and now an inn) with the statues of
+eight of the German emperors; and the Kaiserhaus, the oldest
+secular building in Germany, built by the emperor Henry III.
+before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This was
+restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government,
+and was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German
+history. Other buildings of interest are:&mdash;the small chapel
+which is all that remains since 1820 of the old and famous
+cathedral of St Simon and St Jude founded by Henry III. about
+1040, containing among other relics of the cathedral an old
+altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which formerly
+stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church
+of the former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk,
+of the 12th century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings
+of considerable merit; and the house of the bakers&rsquo; gild now
+an hotel, the birthplace of Marshal Saxe. There are four
+Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue,
+several schools, a natural science museum, containing a collection
+of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of antiquities and a
+number of small foundations. The town has equestrian statues
+of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William
+I. The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the
+sulphur, copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood.
+The town has also been long noted for its beer, and possesses
+some small manufactures and a considerable trade in fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler
+about 920, and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral
+treasures in the neighbourhood were discovered it increased
+rapidly in prosperity. It was often the meeting-place of German
+diets, twenty-three of which are said to have been held here,
+and was frequently the residence of the emperors. About 1350
+it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of the 14th
+century the famous <i>Goslar statutes</i>, a code of laws, which was
+adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was
+unsuccessfully besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War,
+but was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by
+fire. Further conflagrations in 1728 and 1780 gave a severe
+blow to its prosperity. It was a free town till 1802, when it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span>
+came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was joined to
+Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with
+Hanover, re-united to Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Erdmann, <i>Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung
+in Geschichte, Sage und Bild</i> (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, <i>Geschichte
+der vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar</i> (1842-1843); A.
+Wolfstieg, <i>Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar</i> (Berlin, 1885); T. Asche,
+<i>Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar</i> (1892); Neuburg, <i>Goslars Bergbau bis
+1552</i> (Hanover, 1892); and the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar</i>,
+edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the <i>Goslarische Statuten</i>
+see the edition published by Göschen (Berlin, 1840).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop,
+better known under his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius
+Goslicius, was born about 1533. After having studied at Cracow
+and Padua, he entered the church, and was successively appointed
+bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen. Goslicki was an active man
+of business, was held in high estimation by his contemporaries
+and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It was chiefly
+through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to the
+pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establishing
+their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate
+of religious toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October
+1607.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal work is <i>De Optimo senatore</i>, &amp;c. (Venice, 1568).
+There are two English translations published respectively under
+the titles <i>A commonwealth of good counsaile</i>, &amp;c. (1607), and <i>The
+Accomplished Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth</i> (1733).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSLIN,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gauzlinus</span> (d. <i>c.</i> 886), bishop of Paris and defender
+of the city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some
+authorities, the son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according
+to others the natural son of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he
+became a monk, and entered a monastery at Reims, later he
+became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates of his
+time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the
+Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken
+prisoners (858), and he was released only after paying a heavy
+ransom (<i>Prudentii Trecensis episcopi Annales</i>, ann. 858). From
+855 to 867 he held intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly,
+the office of chancellor to Charles the Bald and his successors.
+In 883 or 884 he was elected bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the
+dangers to which the city was to be exposed from the attacks
+of the Northmen, he planned and directed the strengthening
+of the defences, though he also relied for security on the merits
+of the relics of St Germain and St Geneviève. When the attack
+finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him
+and to Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain
+l&rsquo;Auxerrois. The city was attacked on the 26th of November,
+and the struggle for the possession of the bridge (now the Pont-au-Change)
+lasted for two days; but Goslin repaired the destruction
+of the wooden tower overnight, and the Normans were
+obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by storm. The
+siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor Charles
+the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries
+of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or
+killed by a pestilence which raged in the city.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Amaury Duval, <i>L&rsquo;Évêque Gozlin ou le siège de Paris par les
+Normands, chronique du IX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed. <i>ib.</i>
+1835).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (d. 1607), English navigator.
+Nothing is known of his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602,
+in command of the &ldquo;Concord,&rdquo; chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh
+and others, he crossed the Atlantic; coasted from what is now
+Maine to Martha&rsquo;s Vineyard, landing at and naming Cape Cod
+and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving the name
+Martha&rsquo;s Vineyard to the island now called No Man&rsquo;s Land;
+and returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other
+commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard&rsquo;s
+Bay. In London he actively promoted the colonization of
+the regions he had visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir
+Ferdinando Gorges and other influential persons, contributed
+toward securing the grants of the charters to the London and
+Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he was associated
+with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels
+by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia.
+As a member of the council he took an active share in the affairs
+of the colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to introduce
+order, industry and system among the motley array of
+adventurers and idle &ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo; of which the little band was
+composed. He died from swamp fever on the 22nd of August 1607.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Works of John Smith</i> (Arber&rsquo;s Edition, London, 1884);
+and J. M. Brereton, <i>Brief and True Relation of the North Part of
+Virginia</i> (reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of
+Gosnold&rsquo;s voyage of 1602.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSPATRIC<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to
+a family which had connexions with the royal houses both of
+Wessex and Scotland. Before the Conquest he accompanied
+Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and at that time
+was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the
+earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but,
+repenting of his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the
+court of Scotland (1068). He joined the Danish army of invasion
+in the next year; but was afterwards able, from his
+possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms with the conqueror,
+who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace concluded
+in that year with Scotland left him at William&rsquo;s mercy. He
+lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm
+seems to have provided for him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. A. Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877),
+and the <i>English Hist. Review</i>, vol. xix. (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSPEL<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>godspel</i>, <i>i.e.</i> good news, a translation of Lat.
+<i>bona annuntiatio</i>, or <i>evangelium</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="euangelion">&#949;&#8016;&#945;&#947;&#947;&#941;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>; cf. Goth.
+<i>iu spillon</i>, &ldquo;to announce good news,&rdquo; Ulfilas&rsquo; translation of
+the Greek, from <i>iu</i>, that which is good, and <i>spellon</i> to announce),
+primarily the &ldquo;glad tidings&rdquo; announced to the world by Jesus
+Christ. The word thus came to be applied to the whole body of
+doctrine taught by Christ and his disciples, and so to the Christian
+revelation generally (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Christianity</a></span>); by analogy the term
+&ldquo;gospel&rdquo; is also used in other connexions as equivalent to
+&ldquo;authoritative teaching.&rdquo; In a narrower sense each of the
+records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved in the writings
+of the four &ldquo;evangelists&rdquo; is described as a Gospel. The many
+more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted
+by the Christian Church as canonical are known as &ldquo;apocryphal
+gospels&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apocryphal Literature</a></span>). The present article
+is concerned solely with general considerations affecting the
+four canonical Gospels; see for details of each, the articles
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Luke</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Four Gospels.</i>&mdash;The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the
+Gospel that He was the Christ. Those to whom this message
+was first delivered in Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and
+heard Jesus, or had heard much about Him. They did not
+require to be told who He was. But more and more as the work
+of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this
+knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered
+some account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those
+who had followed Him during His life on earth, and all who
+joined themselves to them, must have felt the need of dwelling
+on His precepts, so that these must have been often repeated,
+and also in all probability from an early time grouped together
+according to their subjects, and so taught. For some time,
+probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life
+of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would
+be in accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers
+of the Gospel. Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expectation
+of the speedy return of Christ that they did not feel called
+to make provision for the instruction of subsequent generations.
+The Epistles of the New Testament contain no indications of
+the existence of any written record of the life and teaching
+of Christ. Tradition indicates <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 60-70 as the period when
+written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to be
+made (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew, Gospel of</a></span>).
+This may be accepted as highly probable. We cannot but
+suppose that at a time when the number of the original band
+of disciples of Jesus who survived must have been becoming
+noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in life, the
+importance of writing down that which had been orally delivered
+concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span>
+gather from Luke&rsquo;s preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing
+was undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence
+of this feeling, and that various records had already in consequence
+been made.</p>
+
+<p>But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which
+we actually have them, belong to the number of those earliest
+records? Or, if not, what are the relations in which they
+severally stand to them? These are questions which in modern
+criticism have been greatly debated. With a view to obtaining
+answers to them, it is necessary to consider the reception of the
+Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and compare
+the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied
+in these two ways must be given in the present article, so far
+as it is common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them,
+and in the articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial
+to each.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church.</i>&mdash;The
+question of the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which
+they were regarded during the period extending from the latter
+years of the 1st century to the beginning of the last quarter
+of the 2nd is a difficult one. There is a lack of explicit references
+to the Gospels;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and many of the quotations which may be
+taken from them are not exact. At the same time these facts
+can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various
+circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that
+the habits of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered
+orally should have continued to exert influence even after the
+tradition had been committed to writing. Although documents
+might be known and used, they would not be regarded as the
+authorities for that which was independently remembered, and
+would not, therefore, necessarily be mentioned. Consequently,
+it is not strange that citations of sayings of Christ&mdash;and these
+are the only express citations in writings of the Subapostolic
+Age&mdash;should be made without the source whence they were
+derived being named, and (with a single exception) without
+any clear indication that the source was a document. The
+exception is in the little treatise commonly called the Epistle
+of Barnabas, probably composed about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130, where (c. iv.
+14) the words &ldquo;many are called but few chosen&rdquo; are introduced
+by the formula &ldquo;as it is written.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources
+used we have to rely upon the amount of correspondence with
+our Gospels in the quotations made, and in respect to other
+parallelisms of statement and of expression, in these early
+Christian writers. The correspondence is in the main full and
+true as regards spirit and substance, but it is rarely complete
+in form. The existence of some differences of language may,
+however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various
+forms of the same saying occurring in different documents,
+or remembered from oral tradition and through catechetical
+instruction, would sometimes be purposely combined. Or,
+again, the memory might be confused by this variety, and the
+verification of quotations, especially of brief ones, was difficult,
+not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of books,
+but also because ancient books were not provided with ready
+means of reference to particular passages. On the whole there
+is clearly a presumption that where we have striking expressions
+which are known to us besides only in one of our Gospel-records,
+that particular record has been the source of it. And where
+there are several such coincidences the ground for the supposition
+that the writing in question has been used may become very
+strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less clear in the
+several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the first
+two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our
+first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.</p>
+
+<p>After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect,
+documents were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history;
+but there is still some uncertainty as to the documents upon
+which reliance was placed, and the precise estimation in which
+they were severally held. This is in part at least due to the
+circumstance that nearly all the writings which have remained
+of the Christian literature belonging to the period <i>circa</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and that for the most
+part they give only summaries of the teaching of Christ and of
+the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be understood
+by, and names that would not carry weight with, others
+than Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most important
+of the writings now in question are two by Justin
+Martyr (<i>circa</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 145-160), viz. his <i>Apology</i> and his <i>Dialogue
+with Trypho</i>. In the former of these works he shows plainly
+his intention of adapting his language and reasoning to Gentile,
+and in the latter to Jewish, readers. In both his name for the
+Gospel-records is &ldquo;Memoirs of the Apostles.&rdquo; After a great
+deal of controversy there has come to be very wide agreement
+that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs.
+In the case of the second and third there are indications, though
+slight ones, that he held the view of their composition and
+authorship which was common from the last quarter of the
+century onwards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Luke, Gospel
+of</a></span>), but he has made the largest use of our first Gospel. It is
+also generally allowed that he was acquainted with the fourth
+Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain reserve.
+Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show
+that he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a
+good deal of difference of opinion still as to whether Justin
+reckoned other sources for the Gospel-history besides our
+Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs. In this connexion,
+however, as well as on other grounds, it is a significant fact that
+within twenty years or so after the death of Justin, which probably
+occurred <i>circa</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 160, Tatian, who had been a hearer of
+Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history
+which received the name <i>Diatessaron</i> (&ldquo;through four&rdquo;), in
+the main a compilation from our four Gospels.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had
+attained a position of unique authority throughout the greater
+part of the Church, not different from that which they have
+held since, as is evident from the treatise of Irenaeus <i>Against
+Heresies</i> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180; see esp. iii. i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other
+evidence only a few years later. The struggle against Gnosticism,
+which had been going on during the middle part of the century,
+had compelled the Church both to define her creed and to draw
+a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those
+writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others.
+The effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally
+entertained of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time
+in the formal statements now made it is plainly implied that the
+belief expressed is no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to
+suppose that agreement on this subject between different
+portions of the Church could have manifested itself at this time
+in the spontaneous manner that it does, except as the consequence
+of traditional feelings and convictions, which went back to the
+early part of the century, and which could hardly have arisen
+without good foundation, with respect to the special value of
+these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although
+all that came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship
+cannot be considered proved.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Internal Criticism of the Gospels.</i>&mdash;In the middle of the
+19th century an able school of critics, known as the Tübingen
+school, sought to show from indications in the several Gospels
+that they were composed well on in the 2nd century in the
+interests of various strongly marked parties into which the Church
+was supposed to have been divided by differences in regard to
+the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity. These theories
+are now discredited. It may on the contrary be confidently
+asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the local
+colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span>
+show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the
+circumstances of the 2nd century; and that the character even
+of the Fourth Gospel is not such as to justify its being placed,
+at furthest, much after the beginning of that century.</p>
+
+<p>We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid
+results have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in
+consequence of the large amount of similarity between them
+in contents, arrangement, and even in words and the forms of
+sentences and paragraphs, been called Synoptic Gospels. It
+has long been seen that, to account for this similarity, relations
+of interdependence between them, or of common derivation,
+must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of
+these relations is known as the <i>Synoptic Problem</i>. Reference
+has already been made to the fact that during the greater part
+of the Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now
+some have held that the form of this oral teaching was to a great
+extent a fixed one, and that it was the common source of our
+first three Gospels. This oral theory was for a long time the
+favourite one in England; it was never widely held in Germany,
+and in recent years the majority of English students of the
+Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not satisfactorily
+explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too
+close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus
+accounted for, but even many of the differences between parallel
+contexts are rather such as would arise through the revision
+of a document than through the freedom of oral delivery.</p>
+
+<p>It is now and has for many years been widely held that a
+document which is most nearly represented by the Gospel of
+Mark, or which (as some would say) was virtually identical
+with it, has been used in the composition of our first and third
+Gospels. This source has supplied the Synoptic Outline, and in
+the main also the narratives common to all three. Questions
+connected with the history of this document are treated in the
+article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a considerable amount of matter common to
+Matthew and Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced
+into the Synoptic Outline very differently in those two Gospels,
+which clearly suggests that it existed in a separate form, and
+was independently combined by the first and third evangelists
+with their other document. This common matter has also a
+character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse.
+The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several
+passages so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces
+at least to have been derived immediately or ultimately from
+the same Greek document. In other cases there is more divergence,
+but in some of them this is accounted for by the
+consideration that in Matthew passages from the source now
+in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other
+chief common source before mentioned. There are, however,
+instances in which no such explanation will serve, and it is
+possible that our first and third evangelists may have used
+two documents which were not in all respects identical, but which
+corresponded very closely on the whole. The ultimate source
+of the subject matter in question, or of the most distinctive
+and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic one,
+and in some parts different translations may have been used.</p>
+
+<p>This second source used in the composition of Matthew and
+Luke has frequently been called &ldquo;The Logia&rdquo; in order to signify
+that it was a collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus.
+This name has been suggested by Schleiermacher&rsquo;s interpretation
+of Papias&rsquo; fragment on Matthew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew, Gospel of</a></span>).
+But some have maintained that the source in question also
+contained a good many narratives, and in order to avoid any
+premature assumption as to its contents and character several
+recent critics have named it &ldquo;Q.&rdquo; It may, however, fairly
+be called &ldquo;the Logian document,&rdquo; as a convenient way of
+indicating the character of the greater part of the matter which
+our first and third evangelists have taken from it, and this
+designation is used in the articles on the Gospels of Luke
+and Matthew. The reconstruction of this document has been
+attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its contents
+can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.</p>
+
+<p>3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing
+of the results of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels.
+Their effect is to lead us, especially when engaged in historical
+inquiries, to look beyond our Gospels to their sources, instead
+of treating the testimony of the Gospels severally as independent
+and ultimate. Nevertheless it will still appear that each Gospel
+has its distinct value, both historically and in regard to the
+moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the fruits of
+much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely
+employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each,
+will still prove serviceable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;1. German Books: <i>Introductions to the New
+Testament</i>&mdash;H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans.,
+1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Jülicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng.
+trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, <i>Urchristliche Literaturgeschichte</i>, vol. i.
+(1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels, especially
+the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, <i>Die synoptischen
+Evangelien</i> (1863); Weizsäcker, <i>Untersuchungen über die evangelische
+Geschichte</i> (1864); B. Weiss, <i>Das Marcus-Evangelium und seine
+synoptischen Parallelen</i> (1872); <i>Das Matthäus-Evangelium und seine
+Lucas-Parallelen</i> (1876); H. H. Wendt, <i>Die Lehre Jesu</i> (1886);
+A. Resch, <i>Agrapha</i> (1889); &amp;c.; P. Wernle, <i>Die synoptische Frage</i>
+(1899); W. Soltau, <i>Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr Quellenwert</i>
+(1901); H. J. Holtzmann, <i>Hand-Commentar zum N.T.</i>, vol. i.
+(1889); J. Wellhausen, <i>Das Evangelium Marci</i>, <i>Das Evangelium
+Matthäi</i>, <i>Das Evangelium Lucas</i> (1904), <i>Einleitung in die drei ersten
+Evangelien</i> (1905); A. Harnack, <i>Sprüche und Reden Jesu, die
+zweite Quelle des Matthäus und Lukas</i> (1907).</p>
+
+<p>2. French Books: A. Loisy, <i>Les Évangiles synoptiques</i> (1907-1908).</p>
+
+<p>3. English Books: G. Salmon, <i>Introduction to the New Testament</i>
+(1st ed., 1885; 9th ed., 1904); W. Sanday, <i>Inspiration</i> (Lect. vi.,
+3rd ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, <i>An Introduction to the Study of the
+Gospels</i> (1st ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, <i>The Composition
+of the Four Gospels</i> (1890); J. E. Carpenter, <i>The First Three Gospels,
+their Origin and Relations</i> (1890); A. J. Jolley, <i>The Synoptic Problem</i>
+(1893); J. C. Hawkins, <i>Horae synopticae</i> (1899); W. Alexander,
+<i>Leading Ideas of the Gospels</i> (new ed., 1892); E. A. Abbott, <i>Clue</i>
+(1900); J. A. Robinson, <i>The Study of the Gospels</i> (1902); F. C.
+Burkitt, <i>The Gospel History and its Transmission</i> (1906); G. Salmon,
+<i>The Human Element in the Gospels</i> (1907); V. H. Stanton, <i>The
+Gospels as Historical Documents</i>: Pt. I., <i>The Early Use of the Gospels</i>
+(1903); Pt. II., <i>The Synoptic Gospels</i> (1908).</p>
+
+<p>4. Synopses.&mdash;W. G. Rushbrooke, <i>Synopticon, An Exposition of
+the Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels</i> (1880); A. Wright, <i>The
+Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek</i> (2nd ed., 1903).</p>
+
+<p>See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>, section
+<i>New Testament</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(V. H. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the only two that can be held to be such in the first half
+of the 2nd century, and the doubts whether they refer to our present
+Gospels, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew, Gospel of</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The character of Tatian&rsquo;s <i>Diatessaron</i> has been much disputed
+in the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the
+subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account
+of these may be seen most conveniently in <i>The Diatessaron of Tatian</i>,
+by S. Hemphill; see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tatian</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSPORT,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division
+of Hampshire, England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth
+harbour, 81 m. S.W. from London by the London &amp; Southwestern
+railway. Pop. of urban district of Gosport and Alverstoke
+(1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge connect it
+with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of fortifications,
+consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000 yds.
+to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with
+occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Portsmouth
+harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and
+market hall, and the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of
+William III. To the south at Haslar there is a magnificent
+naval hospital, capable of containing 2000 patients, and adjoining
+it a gunboat slipway and large barracks. To the north is
+the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with brewery, cooperage,
+powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and storehouses
+for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy.</p>
+
+<p>Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was
+originally included in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the
+bishop and monks of Winchester under whom villeins farmed the
+land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up Alverstoke with
+Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to hold them
+until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical commissioners.
+After the confiscation of the bishop&rsquo;s lands in 1641,
+however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to
+George Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration.
+In the 16th century Gosport was &ldquo;a little village of fishermen.&rdquo;
+It was called a borough in 1461, when there are also traces of
+burgage tenure. From 1462 one bailiff was elected annually
+in the borough court, and government by a bailiff continued
+until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth borough
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span>
+under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was annulled
+in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election of
+bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is
+known, although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common
+property in the shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of
+Gosport increased during the 16th and 17th centuries owing to
+its position at the mouth of Portsmouth harbour, and its convenience
+as a victualling station. For this reason also the town
+was particularly prosperous during the American and Peninsular
+Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there for the defence
+of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a garrison town
+under a lord-lieutenant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSS, SIR JOHN<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1800-1880), English composer, was born
+at Fareham, Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He
+was elected a chorister of the Chapel Royal in 1811, and in 1816,
+on the breaking of his voice, became a pupil of Attwood. A
+few early compositions, some for the theatre, exist, and some
+glees were published before 1825. He was appointed organist
+of St Luke&rsquo;s, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became organist of
+St Paul&rsquo;s in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until
+1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the
+London musical world of the time was an influential one, and he
+did much by his teaching and criticism to encourage the study and
+appreciation of good music. In 1876 he was given the degree
+of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though his few orchestral works
+have very small importance, his church music includes some
+fine compositions, such as the anthems &ldquo;O taste and see,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;O Saviour of the world&rdquo; and others. He was the last of the
+great English school of church composers who devoted themselves
+almost exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee
+his is an honoured name, if only on account of his finest work
+in that form, the five-part glee, Ossian&rsquo;s &ldquo;Hymn to the sun.&rdquo;
+He died at Brixton, London, on the 10th of May 1880.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSSAMER,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a fine, thread like and filmy substance spun
+by small spiders, which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse
+bushes, and floating in the air in clear weather; especially in the
+autumn. By transference anything light, unsubstantial or
+flimsy is known as &ldquo;gossamer.&rdquo; A thin gauzy material used
+for trimming and millinery, resembling the &ldquo;chiffon&rdquo; of to-day,
+was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian
+period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very
+light weight.</p>
+
+<p>The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms
+in English, and is apparently taken from <i>gose</i>, goose and
+<i>somere</i>, summer. The Germans have <i>Mädchensommer</i>, maidens&rsquo;
+summer, and <i>Altweibersommer</i>, old women&rsquo;s summer, as well
+as <i>Sommerfäden</i>, summer-threads, as equivalent to the English
+gossamer, the connexion apparently being that gossamer is
+seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St
+Martin&rsquo;s summer) when geese are also in season. Another
+suggestion is that the word is a corruption of <i>gaze à Marie</i>
+(gauze of Mary) through the legend that gossamer was originally
+the threads which fell away from the Virgin&rsquo;s shroud on her
+assumption.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSSE, EDMUND<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;), English poet and critic, was
+born in London on the 21st of September 1849, son of the zoologist
+P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he became an assistant in the department
+of printed books in the British Museum, where he remained
+until he became in 1875 translator to the Board of Trade. In
+1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of Lords. In
+1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at Trinity
+College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much
+grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide
+and appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable
+work in bringing foreign literature home to English readers.
+<i>Northern Studies</i> (1879), a collection of essays on the literature
+of Holland and Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged
+visit to those countries, and was followed by later work in the
+same direction. He translated Ibsen&rsquo;s <i>Hedda Gabler</i> (1891),
+and, with W. Archer, <i>The Master-Builder</i> (1893), and in 1907
+he wrote a life of Ibsen for the &ldquo;Literary Lives&rdquo; series. He
+also edited the English translation of the works of Björnson.
+His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901,
+when he was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf
+of the first class. Mr Gosse&rsquo;s published volumes of verse include
+<i>On Viol and Flute</i> (1873), <i>King Erik</i> (1876), <i>New Poems</i> (1879),
+<i>Firdausi in Exile</i> (1885), <i>In Russet and Silver</i> (1894), <i>Collected
+Poems</i> (1896). <i>Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island</i> (1901),
+an &ldquo;ironic phantasy,&rdquo; the scene of which is laid in the 20th
+century, though the personages are Greek gods, is written in
+prose, with some blank verse. His <i>Seventeenth Century Studies</i>
+(1883), <i>Life of William Congreve</i> (1888), <i>The Jacobean Poets</i>
+(1894), <i>Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of St Paul&rsquo;s</i>
+(1899), <i>Jeremy Taylor</i> (1904, &ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo;), and
+<i>Life of Sir Thomas Browne</i> (1905) form a very considerable
+body of critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He
+also wrote a life of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols.,
+1884); <i>A History of Eighteenth Century Literature</i> (1889); a
+<i>History of Modern English Literature</i> (1897), and vols. iii. and iv.
+of an <i>Illustrated Record of English Literature</i> (1903-1904) undertaken
+in connexion with Dr Richard Garnett. Mr Gosse was
+always a sympathetic student of the younger school of French
+and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being
+collected as <i>French Profiles</i> (1905). <i>Critical Kit-Kats</i> (1896)
+contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences
+of Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann&rsquo;s series
+of &ldquo;Literature of the World&rdquo; and the same publisher&rsquo;s &ldquo;International
+Library.&rdquo; To the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i> he contributed numerous articles, and his services
+as chief literary adviser in the preparation of the 10th and 11th
+editions incidentally testify to the high position held by him
+in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was entertained
+in Paris by the leading <i>littérateurs</i> as a representative of English
+literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously
+<i>Father and Son</i>, an intimate study of his own early family life.
+He married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and
+two daughters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1810-1888), English naturalist,
+was born at Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father,
+Thomas Gosse (1765-1844) being a miniature painter. In his
+youth the family settled at Poole, where Gosse&rsquo;s turn for natural
+history was noticed and encouraged by his aunt, Mrs Bell, the
+mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1792-1880). He had,
+however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827,
+he found himself clerk in a whaler&rsquo;s office at Carbonear, in
+Newfoundland, where he beguiled the tedium of his life by
+observations, chiefly with the microscope. After a brief and
+unsuccessful interlude of farming in Canada, during which he
+wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of Newfoundland,
+he travelled in the United States, was received and noticed
+by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time
+in Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His <i>Canadian
+Naturalist</i> (1840), written on the voyage home, was followed
+in 1843 by his <i>Introduction to Zoology</i>. His first widely popular
+book was <i>The Ocean</i> (1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile
+been teaching in London, was sent by the British Museum to
+collect specimens of natural history in Jamaica. He spent
+nearly two years on that island, and after his return published
+his <i>Birds of Jamaica</i> (1847) and his <i>Naturalist&rsquo;s Sojourn in
+Jamaica</i> (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological
+works for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to
+impair his health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was
+attracted by the forms of marine life so abundant on that shore,
+and in 1853 published <i>A Naturalist&rsquo;s Rambles on the Devonshire
+Coast</i>, accompanied by a description of the marine aquarium
+invented by him, by means of which he succeeded in preserving
+zoophytes and other marine animals of the humbler grades
+alive and in good condition away from the sea. This arrangement
+was more fully set forth and illustrated in his <i>Aquarium</i>
+(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by <i>A Manual of Marine Zoology</i>,
+in two volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings
+after the author&rsquo;s drawings. A volume on the marine fauna
+of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In June of the same year he was
+elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most careful observer, but who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span>
+lacked the philosophical spirit, was now tempted to essay work
+of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two books, <i>Life</i>
+and <i>Omphalos</i>, embodying his speculations on the appearance
+of life on the earth, which he considered to have been instantaneous,
+at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met
+with no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the
+field of observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate.
+Taking up his residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he
+produced from 1858 to 1860 his standard work on sea-anemones,
+the <i>Actinologia Britannica</i>. <i>The Romance of Natural History</i>
+and other popular works followed. In 1865 he abandoned
+authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the cultivation of
+orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his
+attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by
+Dr C. T. Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the
+23rd of August 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSSEC, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1734-1829), French musical
+composer, son of a small farmer, was born at the village of
+Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut, and showing early a taste for
+music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He went to Paris in
+1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor
+of a private band kept by La Popelinière, a wealthy amateur,
+and gradually determined to do something to revive the study
+of instrumental music in France. He had his own first symphony
+performed in 1754, and as conductor to the Prince de Condé&rsquo;s
+orchestra he produced several operas and other compositions
+of his own. He imposed his influence upon French music with
+remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770,
+organized the École de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band
+of the Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed
+(with Méhul and Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de
+Musique when this institution was created in 1795. He was an
+original member of the Institute and a chevalier of the legion
+of honour. Outside France he was but little known, and his
+own numerous compositions, sacred and secular, were thrown
+into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has a
+place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully
+stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at
+Passy on the 16th of February 1829.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Lives</i> by P. Hédouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSSIP<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (from the O. E. <i>godsibb</i>, <i>i.e.</i> God, and <i>sib</i>, akin, standing
+in relation to), originally a god-parent, <i>i.e.</i> one who by taking a
+sponsor&rsquo;s vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship
+to the child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light
+personal or social conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of
+idle tale-bearing. &ldquo;Gossip&rdquo; was early used with the sense of
+a friend or acquaintance, either of the parent of the child
+baptized or of the other god-parents, and thus came to be used,
+with little reference to the position of sponsor, for women friends
+of the mother present at a birth; the transition of meaning
+to an idle chatterer or talker for talking&rsquo;s sake is easy. The
+application to the idle talk of such persons does not appear to
+be an early one.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1773-1858), German
+divine and philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg
+on the 14th of December 1773, and educated at the university
+of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos and others he came under
+the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted by Johann
+Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After taking
+priest&rsquo;s orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811)
+and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought
+about his dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman
+Catholic for the Protestant communion. As minister of the
+Bethlehem church in Berlin (1829-1846) he was conspicuous
+not only for practical and effective preaching, but for the founding
+of schools, asylums and missionary agencies. He died on the
+20th of March 1858.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Lives</i> by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton
+(Berlin, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOSSON, STEPHEN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1554-1624), English satirist, was
+baptized at St George&rsquo;s, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554.
+He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving
+the university in 1576 he went to London. In 1598 Francis
+Meres in his <i>Palladis Tamia</i> mentions him with Sidney, Spenser,
+Abraham Fraunce and others among the &ldquo;best for pastorall,&rdquo;
+but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been an
+actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks
+of <i>Catilines Conspiracies</i> as a &ldquo;Pig of mine own Sowe.&rdquo; To
+this play and some others, on account of their moral intention,
+he extends indulgence in the general condemnation of stage
+plays contained in his <i>Schoole of Abuse, containing a pleasant
+invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters and such like
+Caterpillars of the Commonwealth</i> (1579). The euphuistic style
+of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of learning were
+in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply insincerity.
+Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the disorder
+which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was introducing
+into the social life of London. It was not only by
+extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized.
+Spenser, in his <i>Teares of the Muses</i> (1591), laments the same
+evils, although only in general terms. The tract was dedicated
+to Sir Philip Sidney, who seems not unnaturally to have
+resented being connected with a pamphlet which opened with
+a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser, writing
+to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the
+author &ldquo;was for hys labor scorned.&rdquo; He dedicated, however,
+a second tract, <i>The Ephemerides of Phialo ... and A Short
+Apologie of the Schoole of Abuse</i>, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579.
+Gosson&rsquo;s abuse of poets seems to have had a large share in
+inducing Sidney to write his <i>Apologie for Poetrie</i>, which probably
+dates from 1581. After the publication of the <i>Schoole of Abuse</i>
+Gosson retired into the country, where he acted as tutor to the
+sons of a gentleman (<i>Plays Confuted</i>. &ldquo;To the Reader,&rdquo; 1582).
+Anthony à Wood places this earlier and assigns the termination
+of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the stage,
+which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The
+publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most
+formidable of which was Thomas Lodge&rsquo;s <i>Defence of Playes</i>
+(1580). The players themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson&rsquo;s
+own plays. Gosson replied to his various opponents in 1582
+by his <i>Playes Confuted in Five Actions</i>, dedicated to Sir Francis
+Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was made
+lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was presented
+by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex,
+which he exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph&rsquo;s, Bishopsgate. He
+died on the 13th of February 1624. <i>Pleasant Quippes for Upstart
+New-fangled Gentlewomen</i> (1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also
+ascribed to Gosson.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Schoole of Abuse and Apologie</i> were edited (1868) by Prof. E.
+Arber in his <i>English Reprints</i>. Two poems of Gosson&rsquo;s are included.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOT, FRANÇOIS JULES EDMOND<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1822-1901), French actor,
+was born at Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered
+the Conservatoire in 1841, winning the second prize for comedy
+that year and the first in 1842. After a year of military service
+he made his début at the Comédie Française on the 17th of July
+1844, as Alexis in <i>Les Héritiers</i> and Mascarelles in <i>Les Précieuses
+ridicules</i>. He was immediately admitted <i>pensionnaire</i>, and became
+<i>sociétaire</i> in 1850. By special permission of the emperor
+in 1866 he played at the Odéon in Emile Augier&rsquo;s <i>Contagion</i>.
+His golden jubilee at the Théâtre Français was celebrated in
+1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got
+was a fine representative of the grand style of French acting,
+and was much admired in England as well as in Paris. He
+wrote the libretto of the opera <i>François Villon</i> (1857) and also
+of <i>L&rsquo;Esclave</i> (1874). In 1881 he was decorated with the cross
+of the Legion of Honour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖTA,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener.
+The name, however, is more familiar in its application to the
+canal which affords communication between Gothenburg and
+Stockholm. The river flows out of the southern extremity
+of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat, which it enters
+by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the eastern forming
+the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the port of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span>
+Gothenburg. The Göta river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable
+for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls
+of Trollhättan (<i>q.v.</i>). Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg
+and Hunneberg (royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached
+at Venersborg. Several important ports lie on the north, east
+and south shores (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vener</a></span>). From Sjötorp, midway on the
+eastern shore, the western Göta canal leads S.E. to Karlsborg.
+Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it from the
+Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and lower
+it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and
+Botten to Lake Vetter (<i>q.v.</i>; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to
+Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point,
+and a descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren,
+after which the canal, carried still at a considerable elevation,
+overlooks a rich and beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake
+Roxen with its ruined castle of Stjernarp is next traversed. At
+Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake Glan to the north,
+giving access to the important manufacturing centre of Norrköping.
+Passing Lake Asplången, the canal follows a cut through
+steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town
+of Söderköping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem.
+Vessels plying to Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-fringe
+(<i>skärgård</i>), and then follow the Södertelge canal into
+Lake Mälar. The whole distance from Gothenburg to Stockholm
+is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about 2½ days. The length
+of artificial work on the Göta canal proper is 54 m., and there
+are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse
+weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any
+interest save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea
+of a canal dates from 1516, but the construction was organized
+by Baron von Platten and engineered by Thomas Telford in
+1810-1832. The falls of Trollhättan had already been locked
+successfully in 1800.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTARZES,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goterzes</span>, king of Parthia (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 42-51).
+In an inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> he is
+called <span class="grk" title="Gôtarzês Geopothros">&#915;&#969;&#964;&#940;&#961;&#950;&#951;&#962; &#915;&#949;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#952;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;son of G&#275;w,&rdquo; and seems
+to be designated as &ldquo;satrap of satrap.&rdquo; This inscription
+therefore probably dates from the reign of Artabanus II. (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have belonged. From
+a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription <span class="grk" title="Basileôs
+basileôn Arsanoz uos kekaloumenos Artabavou Gôtepzês">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#969;&#957; &#913;&#961;&#963;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#950; &#965;&#959;&#962; &#954;&#949;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962; &#913;&#961;&#964;&#945;&#946;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#965; &#915;&#969;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#950;&#951;&#962;</span>
+(Wroth, <i>Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia</i>, p. 165; <i>Numism</i>.
+<i>Chron.</i>, 1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are
+wrong), which must be translated &ldquo;king of kings Arsakes,
+named son of Artabanos, Gotarzes,&rdquo; it appears that he was
+adopted by Artabanus. When the troublesome reign of Artabanus
+II. ended in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 39 or 40, he was succeeded by Vardanes,
+probably his son; but against him in 41 rose Gotarzes (the dates
+are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself detested by his
+cruelty&mdash;among many other murders he even slew his brother
+Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 8)&mdash;and Vardanes
+regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and
+gathered an army from the Dahan nomads. The war between
+the two kings was at last ended by a treaty, as both were afraid
+of the conspiracies of their nobles. Gotarzes returned to
+Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was assassinated in 45, Gotarzes
+was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 9 ff.;
+Joseph. <i>Antiq.</i> xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called Kotardes).
+He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, &ldquo;king of
+kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (<i>Epiphanes</i>),
+the friend of the Greeks (<i>Philhellen</i>),&rdquo; without mentioning his
+proper name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury
+induced the hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius
+and fetch from Rome an Arsacid prince Meherdates (<i>i.e.</i> Mithradates),
+who lived there as hostage. He crossed the Euphrates
+in 49, but was beaten and taken prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut
+off his ears (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xii. 10 ff.). Soon after Gotarzes died,
+according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus says that he was
+murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An earlier &ldquo;Arsakes with the name Gotarzes,&rdquo; mentioned on
+some astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in <i>Zeitschr.
+für Assyriologie</i>, vi. 216; Mahler in <i>Wiener Zeitschr. für Kunde des
+Morgenlands</i>, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in
+Babylonia about 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Rawlinson, <i>Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i> ix. 114; Flandin and Coste,
+<i>La Perse ancienne</i>, i. tab. 19; Dittenberger, <i>Orientis Graeci inscr.</i>
+431.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTHA,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the
+residence of the dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant
+situation on the Leine canal, 6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian
+forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on the railway to Bebra-Cassel.
+Pop. (1905) 36,906. It consists of an old inner town and encircling
+suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of Friedenstein, lying
+on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1100 ft. With the exception
+of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are handsome
+and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades
+between the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town&rsquo;s
+attractiveness. To the south of the castle there is an extensive
+and finely adorned park. To the north-west of the town the
+Galberg&mdash;on which there is a public pleasure garden&mdash;and
+to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of over 1300 ft.
+and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein, begun
+by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and
+completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of Grimmenstein.
+It is a huge square building flanked with two wings,
+having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains
+the ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000
+volumes, among which are several rare editions and about
+6900 manuscripts. The picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings,
+the natural history museum, the Chinese museum, and the
+cabinet of art, which includes a collection of Egyptian, Etruscan,
+Roman and German antiquities, are now included in the new
+museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the
+south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are
+the church of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty
+tower, founded in the 12th century, twice burnt down, and
+rebuilt in its present form in 1652; the church of the Augustinian
+convent, with an altar-piece by the painter Simon Jacobs;
+the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life insurance bank;
+the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a winter garden
+and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal legislature;
+the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the 11th century;
+the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a
+girls&rsquo; school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace,
+now used as public offices. The educational establishments
+include a gymnasium (founded in 1524, one of the most famous
+in Germany), two training schools for teachers, conservatoires
+of music and several scientific institutions. Gotha is remarkable
+for its insurance societies and for the support it has given to
+cremation. The crematorium was long regarded as a model
+for such establishments.</p>
+
+<p>Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia,
+its manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great
+reputation, porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical
+and surgical instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps
+and toys. There are also a number of nurseries and market
+gardens. The book trade is represented by about a dozen firms,
+including that of the great geographical house of Justus Perthes,
+founded in 1785.</p>
+
+<p>Gotha (in old chronicles called <i>Gotegewe</i> and later <i>Gotaha</i>)
+existed as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord
+Gothard abbot of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was
+known as a town as early as 1200, about which time it came
+into the possession of the landgraves of Thuringia. On the
+extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession of the
+electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of dukes.
+After the battle of Mühlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein
+was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In
+1567 the town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the
+elector Augustus of Saxony. After the death of John Frederick&rsquo;s
+sons, it came into the possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the
+founder of the line of the dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction
+of this family it was united in 1825 along with the dukedom to
+Coburg.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Gotha und seine Umgebung</i> (Gotha, 1851); Kühne, <i>Beiträge
+zur Geschichte der Entwicklung der socialen Zustände der Stadt
+und des Herzogtums Gotha</i> (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, <i>Les Villes
+de la Thuringe</i> (Paris, 1869), and Beck, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Gotha</i>
+(Gotha, 1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> the early name given to the people
+of the village of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed
+simplicity. But if tradition is to be believed the Gothamites
+were not so very simple. The story is that King John intended
+to live in the neighbourhood, but that the villagers, foreseeing
+ruin as the cost of supporting the court, feigned imbecility when
+the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the latter went they
+saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on this
+report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the
+&ldquo;wise men&rdquo; boasted, &ldquo;we ween there are more fools pass
+through Gotham than remain in it.&rdquo; The &ldquo;foles of Gotham&rdquo;
+are mentioned as early as the 15th century in the <i>Towneley
+Mysteries</i>; and a collection of their &ldquo;jests&rdquo; was published in
+the 16th century under the title <i>Merrie Tales of the Mad Men
+of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke Doctour</i>. The
+&ldquo;A.B.&rdquo; was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde
+(1490?-1549), famous among other things for his wit, but he
+probably had nothing to do with the compilation. As typical
+of the Gothamite folly is usually quoted the story of the villagers
+joining hands round a thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it
+would sing all the year. The localizing of fools is common to
+most countries, and there are many other reputed &ldquo;imbecile&rdquo;
+centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there are the people
+of Coggeshall, Essex, the &ldquo;carles of Austwick,&rdquo; Yorkshire,
+&ldquo;the gowks of Gordon,&rdquo; Berwickshire, and for many centuries
+the charge of folly has been made against &ldquo;silly&rdquo; Suffolk and
+Norfolk (<i>Descriptio Norfolciensium</i> about 12th century, printed
+in Wright&rsquo;s <i>Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems</i>). In Germany
+there are the <i>Schildburgers</i>, in Holland the people of Kampen.
+Among the ancient Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools;
+among the Thracians, Abdera; among the ancient Jews,
+Nazareth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. A. Clouston, <i>Book of Noodles</i> (London, 1888); R. H.
+Cunningham, <i>Amusing Prose Chap-books</i> (1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTHENBURG<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (Swed. <i>Göteborg</i>), a city and seaport of
+Sweden, on the river Göta, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat,
+285 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Göta canal-route.
+Pop. (1900) 130,619. It is the chief town of the district
+(<i>län</i>) of Göteborg och Bohus, and the seat of a bishop. It lies
+on the east or left bank of the river, which is here lined with
+quays on both sides, those on the west belonging to the large
+island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the Göta. On
+this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen
+and Lundby.</p>
+
+<p>The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with
+extensive and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain
+enclosed by low hills. The inner city, including the business
+quarter, is contained almost entirely between the river and the
+Rosenlunds canal, continued in the Vallgraf, the moat of the old
+fortifications; and is crossed by the Storahamn, Östrahamn
+and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by the
+handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Södra Hamngatan.
+The first of these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn,
+where the sea-going passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum
+to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg. The museum, in the old East
+India Company&rsquo;s house, has fine collections in natural history,
+entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and ethnography,
+a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and industrial
+art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and
+contains the town-hail (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are
+statues by B. E. Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin,
+and of Oscar I. by J. P. Molin. Among several churches in
+this quarter of the city is the cathedral (<i>Gustavii Domkyrka</i>),
+a cruciform church founded in 1633 and rebuilt after fires in
+1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house and residence
+of the governor of the <i>län</i>. On the north side, closely adjacent,
+are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Göta canal steamers
+lie, and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs
+Bangård. Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky
+eminence, Lilla Otterhälleberg. The inner city is girdled on
+the south and east by the Kungspark, which contains Molin&rsquo;s
+famous group of statuary, the Belt-bucklers (<i>Bältespännare</i>),
+and by the beautiful gardens of the Horticultural Society
+(<i>Trädgårdsforeningen</i>). These grounds are traversed by the
+broad Nya Allé, a favourite promenade, and beyond them lies
+the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street,
+Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the
+last are the university and the New theatre. At the west end
+of Vasa Street is the city library, the most important in the
+country except the royal library at Stockholm and the university
+libraries at Upsala and Lund. The suburbs are extensive. To
+the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget, with numerous
+factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park, planted with
+oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding views
+of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the
+workmen&rsquo;s quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen.
+All are connected with the city by electric tramways. Six
+railways leave the city from four stations. The principal lines,
+from the Statens and Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhättan,
+and into Norway (Christiania); N.E. between Lakes Vener
+and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun and the north; E. to Borås
+and beyond, and S. by the coast to Helsingborg, &amp;c. From
+the Vestgöta station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E. to Skara
+and the southern shores of Vener, and from Sarö station near
+Slottskog Park a line serves Sarö, a seaside watering-place on
+an island 20 m. S. of Gothenburg.</p>
+
+<p>The city has numerous important educational establishments.
+The university (<i>Högskola</i>) was a private foundation (1891),
+but is governed by a board, the members of which are nominated
+by the state, the town council, Royal Society of Science and
+Literature, directors of the museum, and the staffs of the various
+local colleges. There are several boys&rsquo; schools, a college for
+girls, a scientific college, a commercial college (1826), a school
+of navigation, and Chalmers&rsquo; Polytechnical College, founded
+by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg of
+English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this
+institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital.
+A people&rsquo;s library was founded by members of the family of
+Dickson, several of whom have taken a prominent part in
+philanthropical works in the city. The connexion of the family
+with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert Dickson, a
+native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which
+he was joined in 1807 by his brother James.</p>
+
+<p>In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg
+ranks as second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually
+the principal centre of export trade and port of register; and
+as a manufacturing town it is slightly inferior to Malmö. Its
+principal industrial establishments are mechanical works (both
+in the city and at Lundby), saw-mills, dealing with the timber
+which is brought down the Göta, flour-mills, margarine factories,
+breweries and distilleries, tobacco works, cotton mills, dyeing
+and bleaching works (at Levanten in the vicinity), furniture
+factories, paper and leather works, and shipbuilding yards.
+The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247 of 120,488 tons.
+There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels drawing
+20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels. Gothenburg
+is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants
+for America.</p>
+
+<p>The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and
+returns nine members to the second chamber of the Riksdag
+(parliament).</p>
+
+<p>Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was
+from the first designed to be fortified, a town of the same name
+founded on Hisingen in 1603 having been destroyed by the Danes
+during the Calmar war. From 1621, when it was first chartered,
+it steadily increased, though it suffered greatly in the Danish
+wars of the last half of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th
+centuries, and from several extensive conflagrations (the last
+in 1813), which have destroyed important records of its history.
+The great development of its herring fishery in the latter part
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span>
+of the 18th century gave a new impulse to the city&rsquo;s trade, which
+was kept up by the influence of the &ldquo;Continental System,&rdquo;
+under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial merchandise
+of England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to
+decline, but after its closer connexion with the interior of the
+country by the Göta canal (opened 1832) and Western railway
+it rapidly advanced both in population and trade. Since the
+demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has been defended
+only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of
+the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden&rsquo;s greatest
+sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786-1854) and Johann
+Peter Molin (1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothenburg
+was for a time the residence of the Bourbon family. The
+name of this city is associated with the municipal licensing
+system known as the Gothenburg System (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquor Laws</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Berg, <i>Samlingar till Göteborgs historia</i> (Gothenburg, 1893);
+Lagerberg, <i>Göteborg i äldre och nyare tid</i> (Gothenburg, 1902);
+Fröding, <i>Det forna Göteborg</i> (Stockholm, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTHIC,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the term generally applied to medieval architecture,
+and more especially to that in which the pointed arch appears.
+The style was at one time supposed to have originated with the
+warlike people known as the Goths, some of whom (the East
+Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the eastern portion of Europe,
+and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in the Asturias of
+Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description have
+ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent
+construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading;
+since, however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult
+to change it. The term when first employed was one of reproach,
+as Evelyn (1702) when speaking of the faultless building (<i>i.e.</i>
+classic) says, &ldquo;they were demolished by the Goths or Vandals,
+who introduced their own licentious style now called modern
+or Gothic.&rdquo; The employment of the pointed arch in Syria,
+Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the Mahommedans
+for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries
+before it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable
+to adhere to the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed
+Architecture. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:136px; height:208px" src="images/img272.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">GÖTHITE,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goethite</span>, a  mineral composed of an iron
+hydrate, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system
+and isomorphous with diaspore and manganite (<i>q.v.</i>). It was
+first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was named after the poet
+Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly in habit;
+they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid
+(M in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic
+masses with a radiated fibrous structure also
+occur. The colour varies from yellowish
+or reddish to blackish-brown, and by transmitted
+light it is often blood-red; the streak
+is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific
+gravity, 4.3. The best crystals are the
+brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal
+pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel
+iron mines at Lostwithiel, and the Botallack
+mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety
+occurring as thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known
+as Rubinglimmer or pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="pyrros">&#960;&#965;&#961;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, flame-coloured,
+and <span class="grk" title="sidêros">&#963;&#943;&#948;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the
+same locality is called lepidocrocite (from <span class="grk" title="lepis">&#955;&#949;&#960;&#943;&#962;</span>, scale, and <span class="grk" title="krokis">&#954;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#943;&#962;</span>,
+fibre). Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram
+in Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals
+arranged in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>Göthite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite
+and hematite, and when found in sufficient quantity is mined
+with these as an ore of iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure
+in other minerals. Acicular crystals, resembling rutile in appearance,
+sometimes penetrate crystals of pale-coloured amethyst,
+for instance, at Wolf&rsquo;s Island in Lake Onega in Russia: this
+form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and the
+crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the
+name of &ldquo;Cupid&rsquo;s darts&rdquo; (<i>flèches d&rsquo;amour</i>). The metallic glitter
+of avanturine or sun-stone (<i>q.v.</i>) is due to the enclosed scales
+of göthite and certain other minerals.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTHS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (<i>Gotones</i>, later <i>Gothis</i>), a Teutonic people who in the
+1st century of the Christian era appear to have inhabited the
+middle part of the basin of the Vistula. They were
+probably the easternmost of the Teutonic peoples.
+<span class="sidenote">Early history.</span>
+According to their own traditions as recorded by
+Jordanes, they had come originally from the island Scandza,
+<i>i.e.</i> Skåne or Sweden, under the leadership of a king named
+Berig, and landed first in a region called Gothiscandza. Thence
+they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi (the Holmryge of
+Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood of
+Rügenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them
+and the neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer
+they migrated into Scythia and settled in a district which they
+called Oium. The rest of their early history, as it is given by
+Jordanes following Cassiodorus, is due to an erroneous identification
+of the Goths with the Getae, and ancient Thracian people.</p>
+
+<p>The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden
+has been much discussed by modern authors. The legend was
+not peculiar to the Goths, similar traditions being current among
+the Langobardi, the Burgundians, and apparently several
+other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with truth
+that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from
+the Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of
+these traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly,
+however, many of the royal families may have contained an
+element of Scandinavian blood, a hypothesis which would well
+accord with the social conditions of the migration period, as
+illustrated, <i>e.g.</i>, in <i>Völsunga Saga</i> and in <i>Hervarar Saga ok
+Heiðreks Konungs</i>. In the case of the Goths a connexion with
+Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from archaeological
+evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the coasts
+about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however,
+there was any migration at all, one would rather have expected
+it to have taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin
+of the Goths can hardly be separated from that of the Vandals,
+whom according to Procopius they resembled in language and
+in all other respects. Moreover the Gepidae, another Teutonic
+people, who are said to have formerly inhabited the delta of
+the Vistula, also appear to have been closely connected with
+the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the
+migration from Scandza.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement
+of the early traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the
+Goths go back to the first years of the Christian era, at which
+time they seem to have been subject to the Marcomannic king
+Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman history, however,
+until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which time they
+appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla.
+During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced
+considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the
+lower Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor
+Gordianus is called &ldquo;victor Gothorum&rdquo; by Capitolinus, though
+we have no record of the ground for the claim, and further conflicts
+are recorded with his successors, one of whom, Decius, was slain
+by the Goths in Moesia. According to Jordanes the kings of
+the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha and afterwards
+Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the Anglo-Saxon
+poem <i>Widsith</i>. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay
+tribute to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of
+the Black Sea, and during the next twenty years they frequently
+ravaged the maritime regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian
+is said to have won a victory over them, but the province of
+Dacia had to be given up. In the time of Constantine the Great
+Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the Goths, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 321.
+Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with their
+king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear
+of subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi,
+Austrogothi (Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not
+clear whether these were all distinct.</p>
+
+<p>Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span>
+far to the south and east, it must not be assumed that they had
+evacuated their old lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records
+several traditions of their conflicts with other Teutonic tribes,
+in particular a victory won by Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of
+the Gepidae, and another by Geberic over Visimar, king of the
+Vandals, about the end of Constantine&rsquo;s reign, in consequence
+of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to settle
+in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of
+the Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, Iörmunrekr), whose
+deeds are recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations.
+According to Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii,
+the Venedi, and a number of other tribes who seem to have been
+settled in the southern part of Russia. From Anglo-Saxon
+sources it seems probable that his supremacy reached westwards
+as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and is said to
+have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla)
+in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed.
+Still more famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who
+according to Northern tradition was his wife and was cruelly
+put to death on a false charge of unfaithfulness. An attempt
+to avenge her death was made by her brothers Ammius (Hamðir)
+and Sarus (Sörli) by whom Hermanaric was severely wounded.
+To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits
+are recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom
+we may mention Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others,
+who in <i>Widsith</i> are represented as defending their country against
+the Huns in the forest of the Vistula. Hermanaric committed
+suicide in his distress at an invasion of the Huns about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 370,
+and the portion of the nation called Ostrogoths then came under
+Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained permission to
+cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the nation
+became Christian about this time (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">below</a></span>). The exactions
+of the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which
+ended in the total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople
+in the year 378.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div>
+
+<p>From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths
+parts asunder, to be joined together again only incidentally
+and for a season. The great mass of the East Goths
+stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the
+<span class="sidenote">Later history.</span>
+overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present
+play any important part in the affairs of the Empire. The great
+mass of the West Goths crossed the Danube into the Roman
+provinces, and there played a most important part in various
+characters of alliance and enmity. The great migration was in
+376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful settlers under
+their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have tried
+to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance
+of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the
+great mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern
+were meanwhile thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths
+suffered from the Roman officials, which led first to disputes
+and then to open war. In 378 the Goths won the great battle of
+Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the Great, the successor
+of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the mass of the
+Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as <i>foederati</i>. Many
+of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox
+Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen
+party among the Goths than to the larger part of them who had
+embraced Arian Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Constantinople
+in 381; he was received with high honours, and had
+a solemn funeral when he died. His saying is worth recording,
+as an example of the effect which Roman civilization had on
+the Teutonic mind. &ldquo;The emperor,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;was a god upon
+earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his
+own head.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between
+the West Goths and the Empire. Dissensions arose between
+them and the ministers of Arcadius; the Goths threw off their
+allegiance, and chose Alaric as their king. This was a restoration
+alike of national unity and of national independence. The
+royal title had not been borne by their leaders in the Roman
+service. Alaric&rsquo;s position is quite different from that of several
+Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple rebels. He
+was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or Bold-men,
+a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His whole
+career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands,
+first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths
+are under him an independent people under a national king;
+their independence is in no way interfered with if the Gothic
+king, in a moment of peace, accepts the office and titles of a
+Roman general. But under Alaric the Goths make no lasting
+settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and warfare between
+the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up this whole
+time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths, provinces
+are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root anywhere;
+no Western land as yet becomes <i>Gothia</i>. Alaric&rsquo;s designs of
+settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the
+Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of
+his career his eyes seem fixed on Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the
+second Gothic invasion of that country. In this campaign the
+religious position of the Goths is strongly marked. The Arian
+appeared as an enemy alike to the pagan majority and the
+Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by monks, and his
+chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples (<i>vide</i> G. F.
+Hertzberg, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands</i>, iii. 391). His Italian campaigns
+fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he
+was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho&rsquo;s
+death. In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409,
+410). The second time it suited a momentary policy to set
+up a puppet emperor of his own, and even to accept a military
+commission from him. The third time he sacked the city,
+the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken by an
+army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military
+details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history
+of the Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric&rsquo;s reign marks
+in the history of that nation. It stands between two periods
+of settlement within the Empire and of service under the Empire.
+Under Alaric there is no settlement, and service is quite secondary
+and precarious; after his death in 410 the two begin again in
+new shapes.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian
+invasion of Italy, which, according to one view, again brings
+the East and West Goths together. The great mass of the East
+Goths, as has been already said, became one of the many nations
+which were under vassalage to the Huns; but their relation
+was one merely of vassalage. They remained a distinct people
+under kings of their own, kings of the house of the Amali and of
+the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48). They had to follow the
+lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars
+of their own; and it has been held that among these separate
+East Gothic enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in
+405 by Radagaisus (whom R. Pallmann<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> writes Ratiger, and
+takes him for the chief of the heathen part of the East Goths).
+One chronicler, Prosper, makes this invasion preceded by another
+in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus appear as partners.
+The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence of Goths
+in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that his
+invasion was a national Gothic enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric,
+another era opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the
+end lead to the establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy
+in the West. The position of Ataulphus is well marked by the
+speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He had at one time
+dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning <i>Romania</i>
+into <i>Gothia</i>, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus;
+but he had learned that the world could be governed only by
+the laws of Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms
+for the support of the Roman power. And in the confused and
+contradictory accounts of his actions (for the story in Jordanes
+cannot be reconciled with the accounts in Olympiodorus and
+the chroniclers), we can see something of this principle at work
+throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by barbarian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span>
+invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was
+to win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shiftings
+of allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up
+the position of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia,
+the daughter of the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of
+the union between Goth and Roman, and, had their son Theodosius
+lived, a dynasty might have arisen uniting both claims.
+But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at Barcelona in 415,
+by his murder at the hands of another faction of the Goths.
+The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a
+more settled state of things was established. The Empire received
+again, as the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis
+in Spain, and Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul.
+The &ldquo;second Aquitaine,&rdquo; with the sea-coast from the mouth
+of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire, became the West
+Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths was
+now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not
+yet begin.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows
+a shifting state of relations between the Roman and Gothic
+powers; but, after defeats and successes both ways, the older
+relation of alliance against common enemies was again established.
+At last Goth and Roman had to join together against
+the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the Hun.
+But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of
+their subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for
+Attila against Christendom at Châlons, just as the Servians came
+to fight for Bajazet against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric
+fell in the battle (451). After this momentary meeting, the
+history of the East and West Goths again separates for a while.
+The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at the expense of
+the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi. Under
+Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely
+a Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all
+Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhône, with all Spain,
+except the north-west corner, which was still held by the Suevi.
+Provence alone remained to the Empire. The West Gothic
+kings largely adopted Roman manners and culture; but, as
+they still kept to their original Arian creed, their rule never
+became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They
+stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggressive
+Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion
+of the Frank Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long
+after, the seat of an heretical power, against which the forces
+of northern Gaul marched as on a crusade. In 507 the West
+Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the Frankish arms at Campus
+Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as a great power
+north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a fragment of
+Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing
+to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest
+man in Gothic history.</p>
+
+<p>When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of
+Attila, the East Goths recovered their full independence. They
+now entered into relations with the Empire, and were settled
+on lands in Pannonia. During the greater part of the latter
+half of the 5th century, the East Goths play in south-eastern
+Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played
+in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every
+conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern
+Roman power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them,
+they pass from the East to the West. They are still ruled by
+kings of the house of the Amali, and from that house there now
+steps forward a great figure, famous alike in history and in
+romance, in the person of Theodoric, son of Theodemir. Born
+about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople as a
+hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of
+his life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars
+within the Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another
+Theodoric, son of Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older
+but lesser Theodoric seems to have been the chief, not the king,
+of that branch of the East Goths which had settled within the
+Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the Great, as he is sometimes
+distinguished, is sometimes the friend, sometimes the
+enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed with
+various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but
+in all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It
+was in both characters together that he set out in 488, by commission
+from the emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer.
+By 493 Ravenna was taken; Odoacer was killed by Theodoric&rsquo;s
+own hand; and the East Gothic power was fully established
+over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the north of Italy.
+In this war the history of the East and West Goths begins again
+to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that Theodoric
+was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches
+of the nation were soon brought much more closely together,
+when, through the overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of
+Toulouse, the power of Theodoric was practically extended
+over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the whole of Spain.
+A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II., and, as that
+prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic king
+stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and preserved
+for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish
+dominion. Toulouse passed away to the Frank; but the Goth
+kept Narbonne and its district, the land of Septimania&mdash;the
+land which, as the last part of Gaul held by the Goths, kept
+the name of <i>Gothia</i> for many ages. While Theodoric lived,
+the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own
+dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protectorate
+over the Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have
+practically exercised it, except in the case of the Franks.</p>
+
+<p>The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent
+and far more splendid than it could have been in the time of
+Ermanaric. But it was now of a wholly different character.
+The dominion of Theodoric was not a barbarian but a civilized
+power. His twofold position ran through everything. He was
+at once national king of the Goths, and successor, though without
+any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West. The
+two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived
+side by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its
+own law, by the prince who was, in his two separate characters,
+the common sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric&rsquo;s
+rule is drawn for us in the state papers drawn up in his name
+and in the names of his successors by his Roman minister Cassiodorus.
+The Goths seem to have been thick on the ground in
+northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than
+garrisons. In Theodoric&rsquo;s theory the Goth was the armed protector
+of the peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of
+government, while the Roman consul had the honour. All the
+forms of the Roman administration went on, and the Roman
+polity and Roman culture had great influence on the Goths
+themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations
+in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic
+freedom was necessarily lost. Such a system as that which
+Theodoric established needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It
+broke in pieces after his death.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths
+were again separated. The few instances in which they are
+found acting together after this time are as scattered and
+incidental as they were before. Amalaric succeeded to the
+West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania. Provence
+was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king Athalaric,
+the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha.
+The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy now showed
+itself. The long wars of Justinian&rsquo;s reign (535-555) recovered
+Italy for the Empire, and the Gothic name died out on Italian
+soil. The chance of forming a national state in Italy by the
+union of Roman and Teutonic elements, such as those which
+arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under Lombard
+rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed
+before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war
+of course made the distinction stronger; under the kings who
+were chosen for the purposes of the war national Gothic feeling
+had revived. The Goths were now again, if not a wandering
+people, yet an armed host, no longer the protectors but the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span>
+enemies of the Roman people of Italy. The East Gothic dominion
+and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation
+had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his
+expedition that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders,
+m the eastern provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation
+passed away almost without a trace, while the next Teutonic
+conquerors stamped their name on the two ends of the land,
+one of which keeps it to this day.</p>
+
+<p>The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came
+much nearer to establishing itself as a national power in the
+lands which it took in. But the difference of race and faith
+between the Arian Goths and the Catholic Romans of Gaul and
+Spain influenced the history of the West Gothic kingdom for
+a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic subjects,
+and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks
+were Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became
+Catholics much earlier than the Goths. The African conquests
+of Belisarius gave the Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian
+Vandals, another Catholic neighbour in the form of the restored
+Roman power. The Catholics everywhere preferred either
+Roman, Suevian or Frankish rule to that of the heretical Goths;
+even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem for
+a while to have received a Frankish governor. In some other
+mountain districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained
+their independence, and in 534 a large part of the south of Spain,
+including the great cities of Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New
+Carthage, was, with the good will of its Roman inhabitants,
+reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the coast
+as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire
+was carrying on in Italy against the East Goths was at the same
+moment carried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in
+Italy the whole land was for a while won back, and the Gothic
+power passed away for ever. In Spain the Gothic power outlived
+the Roman power, but it outlived it only by itself becoming
+in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the Gothic
+power as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He
+reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which
+had been parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion
+to his own; he overcame some of the independent districts,
+and won back part of the recovered Roman province in southern
+Spain. He further established the power of the crown over the
+Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow into territorial lords.
+The next reign, that of his son Recared (586-601), was marked
+by a change which took away the great hindrance which had
+thus far stood in the way of any national union between
+Goths and Romans. The king and the greater part of the
+Gothic people embraced the Catholic faith. A vast degree of
+influence now fell into the hands of the Catholic bishops; the
+two nations began to unite; the Goths were gradually romanized
+and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In short, the
+Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to
+be formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the
+Roman mass. The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic
+kingdom. &ldquo;Gothic,&rdquo; not &ldquo;Roman&rdquo; or &ldquo;Spanish,&rdquo; is its
+formal title; only a single late instance of the use of the formula
+&ldquo;regnum Hispaniae&rdquo; is known. In the first half of the 7th
+century that name became for the first time geographically
+applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern
+Spain. The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle
+with the Avars and Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings
+were Catholic, the great objection to their rule on the part of
+the Roman inhabitants was taken away. The Gothic nobility
+still remained a distinct class, and held, along with the Catholic
+prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union with the Catholic
+Church was accompanied by the introduction of the ecclesiastical
+ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to
+elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended
+again to favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow
+up in Spain before the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West
+Gothic crown therefore remained elective till the end. The
+modern Spanish nation is the growth of the long struggle with
+the Mussulmans; but it has a direct connexion with the West
+Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether
+a different place in Spanish memory from that which they hold
+in Italian memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary
+invader and ruler; the Teutonic element in Italy comes from
+other sources. In Spain the Goth supplies an important element
+in the modern nation. And that element has been neither
+forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of
+northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name
+of Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim.
+The name of the people who played so great a part in all southern
+Europe, and who actually ruled over so large a part of it has
+now wholly passed away; but it is in Spain that its historical
+impress is to be looked for.</p>
+
+<p>Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible
+of Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gothic Language</a></span> below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin
+we have the edict of Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F.
+Bluhme in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>; and the books
+of <i>Variae</i> of Cassiodorus may pass as a collection of the state
+papers of Theodoric and his immediate successors. Among the
+West Goths written laws had already been put forth by Euric.
+The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a <i>Breviarium</i> of Roman
+law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West
+Gothic laws dates from the later days of the monarchy, being
+put forth by King Recceswinth about 654. This code gave
+occasion to some well-known comments by Montesquieu and
+Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny (<i>Geschichte des
+römischen Rechts</i>, ii. 65) and various other writers. They are
+printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae, leges</i>, tome i. (1902).
+Of special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already
+so often quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop
+of Seville, a special source of the history of the West Gothic
+kings down to Svinthala (621-631). But all the Latin and
+Greek writers contemporary with the days of Gothic predominance
+make their constant contributions. Not for special facts, but
+for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive than Salvian
+of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work <i>De Gubernatione Dei</i>
+is full of passages contrasting the vices of the Romans with the
+virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In all such
+pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways,
+but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues
+which the Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are
+their chastity, their piety according to their own creed, their
+tolerance towards the Catholics under their rule, and their
+general good treatment of their Roman subjects. He even
+ventures to hope that such good people may be saved, notwithstanding
+their heresy. All this must have had some groundwork
+of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful
+if the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from
+the doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. A. F.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the
+principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her
+Invaders</i> (Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, <i>Geschichte der Westgoten</i>
+(Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, <i>Die Könige der Germanen</i> (1861-1899);
+E. von Wietersheim, <i>Geschichte der Völkerwanderung</i> (1880-1881);
+R. Pallmann, <i>Die Geschichte der Völkerwanderung</i> (Gotha,
+1863-1864); B. Rappaport, <i>Die Einfälle der Goten in das römische
+Reich</i> (Leipzig, 1899), and K. Zeuss, <i>Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme</i>
+(Munich, 1837). Other works which may be consulted are:
+E. Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, edited by J. B.
+Bury (1896-1900); H. H. Milman, <i>History of Latin Christianity</i>
+(1867); J. B. Bury, <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i> (1889);
+P. Villari, <i>Le Invasioni barbariche in Italia</i> (Milan, 1901); and F.
+Martroye, <i>L&rsquo;Occident à l&rsquo;époque byzantine: Goths et Vandales</i> (Paris,
+1903). There is a popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the
+&ldquo;Story of the Nations&rdquo; series (London, 1888). For the laws see the
+<i>Leges</i> in Band I. of the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges</i> (1902).
+A. Helfferich, <i>Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts</i> (Berlin,
+1858); F. Bluhme, <i>Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts</i> (1872); F.
+Dahn, <i>Lex Visigothorum</i>. <i>Westgotische Studien</i> (Würzburg, 1874);
+C. Rinaudo, <i>Leggi dei Visigote, studio</i> (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer,
+&ldquo;Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung&rdquo; in the <i>Neues Archiv
+der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i>. See also the article
+on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theodoric</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Gothic Language.</i>&mdash;Our knowledge of the Gothic language
+is derived almost entirely from the fragments of a translation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
+of the Bible which is believed to have been made by the Arian
+bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d. 383) for the Goths who dwelt on
+the lower Danube. The MSS. which have come down to us
+and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in Italy
+(489-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete,
+together with more or less considerable fragments of the four
+Gospels and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains
+of the Old Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and
+Nehemiah. There is also an incomplete commentary (<i>skeireins</i>)
+on St John&rsquo;s Gospel, a fragment of a calendar, and two charters
+(from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now lost) which contain
+some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written in a special
+character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila. It
+is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which
+indeed most of the letters are obviously derived, and several
+orthographical peculiarities, <i>e.g.</i> the use of <i>ai</i> for <i>e</i> and <i>ei</i> for <i>&#299;</i>
+reflect the Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters,
+however, have been taken over from the Runic and Latin
+alphabets. Apart from the texts mentioned above, the only
+remains of the Gothic language are the proper names and
+occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings,
+together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a
+Salzburg MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions
+on a torque and a spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia)
+and Kovel (Volhynia) respectively. The language itself, as
+might be expected from the date of Wulfila&rsquo;s translation, is
+of a much more archaic type than that of any other Teutonic
+writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest Northern
+inscriptions. This may be seen, <i>e.g.</i> in the better preservation
+of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual
+and the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite
+erroneous, however, to regard the Gothic fragments as representing
+a type of language common to all Teutonic nations in the
+4th century. Indeed the distinctive characteristics of the
+language are very marked, and there is good reason for believing
+that it differed considerably from the various northern and
+western languages, whereas the differences among the latter
+at this time were probably comparatively slight (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic
+Languages</a></span>). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that
+the language of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius
+(<i>Vand.</i> i. 2) states distinctly that the Gothic language was
+spoken not only by the Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the
+Vandals and the Gepidae; and in the former case there is sufficient
+evidence, chiefly from proper names, to prove that his statement
+is not far from the truth. With regard to the Gepidae we have
+less information; but since the Goths, according to Jordanes
+(cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of
+their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages
+were at least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (<i>Vand.</i> i.
+3; <i>Goth.</i> i. 1, iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as
+Gothic nations. The fact that the two former were sprung
+from the north-east of Germany renders it probable that they
+had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though non-Teutonic
+in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the
+migration period. Some modern writers have included in the
+same class the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently
+come from the basin of the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal
+on the whole hardly justifies the supposition that their language
+retained a close affinity with Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language&mdash;using
+the term in its widest sense&mdash;must have spread over the greater
+part of Europe together with the north coast of Africa. It
+disappeared, however, with surprising rapidity. There is no
+evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after the fall of the
+Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is doubtful
+whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic
+conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat
+longer in view of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned
+above. Possibly the information there given was derived from
+southern Hungary or Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae
+were to be found shortly before the Magyar invasion (889).
+According to Walafridus Strabo (<i>de Reb. Eccles.</i> cap. 7) also
+Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th century) in some
+churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth the
+language seems to have survived only among the Goths (<i>Goti
+Tetraxitae</i>) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time
+by Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constantinople
+about the middle of the 16th century. He collected a
+number of words and phrases in use among them which show
+clearly that their language, though not unaffected by Iranian
+influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, <i>Ulfilas</i> (Altenburg and
+Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, <i>Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel</i>
+(Halle, 1875). For other works on the Gothic language see J. Wright,
+<i>A Primer of the Gothic Language</i> (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To the
+references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck, <i>Etymologisches
+Wörterbuch d. got. Sprache</i> (Amsterdam, 2nd ed. 1901); F. Kluge,
+&ldquo;Geschichte d. got. Sprache&rdquo; in H. Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss d. germ. Philologie</i>
+(2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg, <i>Gotisches
+Elementarbuch</i> (Heidelberg, 1897); Th. von Grienberger, <i>Beiträge zur
+Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur</i>, xxi. 185 ff.; L. F. A.
+Wimmer, <i>Die Runenschrift</i> (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff.; G. Stephens,
+<i>Handbook to the Runic Monuments</i> (London, 1884), p. 203; F. Wrede,
+<i>Über die Sprache der Wandalen</i> (Strassburg, 1886). For further
+references see K. Zeuss, <i>Die Deutschen</i>, p. 432 f. (where earlier references
+to the Crimean Goths are also given); F. Kluge, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 515
+ff.; and O. Bremer, <i>ib.</i> vol. iii., p. 822.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. M. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Geschichte der Völkerwanderung</i> (Gotha, 1863-1864).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTLAND,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden,
+lying between 57° and 58° N., and having a length from S.S.W.
+to N.N.E. of 75 m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area
+of 1142 sq. m. The nearest point on the mainland is 50 m.
+from the westernmost point of the island. With the island
+Fårö, off the northern extremity, the Karlsöe, off the west coast,
+and Götska Sandö, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the administrative
+district (<i>län</i>) of Gotland. The island is a level plateau
+of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average
+height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering,
+free-standing columns of limestone (<i>raukar</i>). A few low isolated
+hills rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although
+in parts dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors
+have been largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive
+sand-dunes in the north. As usual in a limestone formation,
+some of the streams have their courses partly below the surface,
+and caverns are not infrequent. Less than half the total area
+is under forest, the extent of which was formerly much greater.
+Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially the first, which
+is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The sugar-beet
+is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works
+on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government
+sheep farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging
+principally to an old native breed, yellow and horned. Some
+lime-burning, cement-making and sea-fishing are carried on.
+The capital of the island is Visby, on the west coast. There are
+over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby N.E. to Tingstäde
+and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to Klintehamn,
+a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn on
+the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic
+attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly
+every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no
+villages remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one
+of the richest commercial centres of the Baltic from the 11th to
+the 14th century, and its prosperity was shared by the whole
+island. It retains ten churches besides the cathedral. The
+massive towers of the village churches are often detached, and
+doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches of Roma,
+Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Lärbo
+may be specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at
+Dalhem near Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect
+distinguished from that of any part of the Swedish mainland.
+Pop. of <i>län</i> (1900) 52,781.</p>
+
+<p>Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was
+christianized by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from
+his exile at Kiev. He dedicated the first church in the island to
+St Peter at Visby. At that time Visby had long been one of
+the most important trading towns in the Baltic, and the chief
+distributing centre of the oriental commerce which came to
+Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
+Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century,
+it became the chief depôt for the produce of the eastern Baltic
+countries, including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony
+(11th century or earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although
+Visby was an independent member of the Hanseatic League,
+the influence of Lübeck was paramount in the city, and half
+its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed,
+Björkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German
+(Hanseatic) foundation, dating principally from the middle
+of the 12th century. However that may be, the importance of
+Visby in the sea trade of the North is conclusively attested by
+the famous code of maritime law which bears its name. This
+<i>Waterrecht dat de Kooplüde en de Schippers gemakt hebben to
+Visby</i> (&ldquo;sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made
+at Visby&rdquo;) was a compilation based upon the Lübeck code,
+the Oléron code and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed
+in Low German in 1505, but in all probability had its origin about
+1240, or not much later (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sea Laws</a></span>). By the middle of the the city was so
+great that, according to an old ballad, &ldquo;the Gotlanders weighed
+out gold with stone weights and played with the choicest jewels.
+The swine ate out of silver troughs, and the women spun with
+distaffs of gold.&rdquo; This fabled wealth was too strong a temptation
+for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In 1361 he
+invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the
+city walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the
+islanders who fell) and plundered the city. From this blow
+it never recovered, its decay being, however, materially helped
+by the fact that for the greater part of the next 150 years it was
+the stronghold of successive freebooters or sea-rovers&mdash;first,
+of the Hanseatic privateers called Vitalienbrödre or Viktualienbrüder,
+who made it their stronghold during the last eight
+years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights, whose
+Grand Master drove out the &ldquo;Victuals Brothers,&rdquo; and kept the
+island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too
+Erik XIII. (the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark
+by his own subjects, established himself in 1437, and for a
+dozen years waged piracy upon Danes and Swedes alike. After
+him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish lords, who down to
+the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates&rsquo; stronghold
+of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Sören Norrby, the last
+supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master&rsquo;s cause
+was lost, waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships
+and others from the same convenient base. But this led to an
+expedition by the men of Lübeck, who partly destroyed Visby
+in 1525. By the peace of Stettin (1570) Gotland was confirmed
+to the Danish crown, to which it had been given by Queen
+Margaret. But at the peace of Brömsebro in 1645 it was at length
+restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for
+the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the
+Danes, and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a
+spirit of independence, and their relations with Sweden were
+curious. The island at one period paid an annual tribute of
+60 marks of silver to Sweden, but it was clearly recognized that
+it was paid by the desire of the Gotlanders, and not enforced
+by Sweden. The pope recognized their independence, and it
+was by their own free will that they came under the spiritual
+charge of the bishop of Linköping. Their local government was
+republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the
+written <i>Gotland Law</i>, which dates not later than the middle of
+the 13th century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the
+measures adopted by this body, and there was no Swedish
+judge or other official in the island. Visby had a system of
+government and rights independent of, and in some measure
+opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems clear that
+there were at one time two separate corporations, for the native
+Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that
+these were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native
+Gotlanders were not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole&mdash;even
+intermarriage was illegal&mdash;but Germans, on account of their
+commercial pre-eminence in the island, were excepted.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. H. Bergman, <i>Gotland&rsquo;s geografi och historia</i> (Stockholm,
+1898) and <i>Gotländska skildringar och minnen</i> (Visby, 1902); A. T.
+Snöbohm, <i>Gotlands land och folk</i> (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler,
+<i>Bidrag till en Gotländsk bibliografi</i> (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hildebrand,
+<i>Visby och dess Minnesmärken</i> (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.);
+A. Björkander, <i>Till Visby Stads Aeldsta Historia</i> (1898), where most
+of the literature dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of
+the author&rsquo;s arguments require criticism. For local government and
+rights see K. Hegel, <i>Städter und Gilden im Mittelalter</i> (book iii. ch.
+iii., Leipzig, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTO ISLANDS<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Goto Retto</span>, <span class="sc">Gotto</span>], a group of islands
+belonging to Japan, lying west of Kiushiu, in 33° N., 129° E.
+The southern of the two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures
+17 m. by 13½; the northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by
+7½. These islands lie almost in the direct route of steamers plying
+between Nagasaki and Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from
+Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped hills command the old castle-town
+of Fukae. The islands are highly cultivated; deer and
+other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain
+streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1746-1797), German poet
+and dramatist, was born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha.
+After the completion of his university career at Göttingen, he
+was appointed second director of the Archive of his native town,
+and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial law
+courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha legation. In
+1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, and
+here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous <i>Göttinger
+Musenalmanach</i>. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where
+he belonged to Goethe&rsquo;s circle of acquaintances. Four years
+later he took up his permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on
+the 18th of March 1797. Gotter was the chief representative of
+French taste in the German literary life of his time. His own
+poetry is elegant and polished, and in great measure free from the
+trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of the earlier generation of
+imitators of French literature; but he was lacking in the imaginative
+depth that characterizes the German poetic temperament.
+His plays, of which <i>Merope</i> (1774), an adaptation in admirable
+blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and <i>Medea</i>
+(1775), a <i>melodrame</i>, are best known, were mostly based on
+French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting
+the formlessness and irregularity of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> drama.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gutter&rsquo;s collected <i>Gedichte</i> appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788;
+a third volume (1802) contains his <i>Literarischer Nachlass</i>. See B.
+Litzmann, <i>Schröder und Gotter</i> (1887), and R. Schlösser, <i>F. W.
+Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> one of the chief German
+poets of the middle ages. The dates of his birth and death
+are alike unknown, but he was the contemporary of Hartmann
+von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von der
+Vogelweide, and his epic <i>Tristan</i> was written about the year
+1210. In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as
+he is entitled <i>Meister</i>, never <i>Herr</i>, by his contemporaries; his
+poem&mdash;the only work that can with any certainty be attributed
+to him&mdash;bears witness to a learned education. The story of
+<i>Tristan</i> had been evolved from its shadowy Celtic origins by the
+French <i>trouvères</i> of the early 12th century, and had already
+found its way into Germany before the close of that century,
+in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It
+was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version
+is based not on that of Chrétien de Troyes, but on that of a
+<i>trouvère</i> Thomas, who seems to have been more popular with
+contemporaries. A comparison of the German epic with the
+French original is, however, impossible, as Chrétien&rsquo;s <i>Tristan</i>
+is entirely lost, and of Thomas&rsquo;s only a few fragments have come
+down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage which Tristan,
+a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal
+(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king&rsquo;s
+bride. On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by
+mistake a love potion, which binds them irrevocably to each other.
+The epic resolves itself into a series of love intrigues in which
+the two lovers ingeniously outwit the trusting king. They are
+ultimately discovered, and Tristan flees to Normandy where
+he marries another Isolde&mdash;&ldquo;Isolde with the white hands&rdquo;&mdash;without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
+being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland. At this
+point Gottfried&rsquo;s narrative breaks off and to learn the close
+of the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time,
+Ulrich von Türheim and Heinrich von Freiberg&mdash;the latter
+much the superior&mdash;who have supplied the conclusion. After
+further love adventures Tristan is fatally wounded by a poisoned
+spear in Normandy; the &ldquo;blond Isolde,&rdquo; as the only person
+who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. The
+ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board,
+a black one if not. Tristan&rsquo;s wife, however, deceives him,
+announcing that the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives,
+she finds her lover dead. Marke at last learns the truth concerning
+the love potion, and has the two lovers buried side by side
+in Kurnewal.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried&rsquo;s independence
+of his French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely
+the narrative of events he found in Thomas. He has, however,
+introduced into the story an astounding fineness of psychological
+motive, which, to judge from a general comparison of the
+Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather than French;
+he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, above
+all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval
+literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing
+and seductive as Gottfried&rsquo;s love-scenes are, they are never
+for a moment disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the
+tragedy is unrolled with an earnestness that admits of no touch
+of humour, and also, it may be added, with a freedom from
+moralizing which was easier to attain in the 13th than in later
+centuries. The mastery of style is no less conspicuous. Gottfried
+had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von Aue, but he
+was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and rhythms
+than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words,
+and indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent
+that proved fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression
+is concerned, Gottfried&rsquo;s <i>Tristan</i> is the masterpiece of the German
+court epic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gottfried&rsquo;s <i>Tristan</i> has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman
+(Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed., Leipzig,1890-1891);
+by W. Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K. Marold
+(1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H.
+Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best
+of all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated
+English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The
+continuation of Ulrich von Türheim will be found in Massman&rsquo;s
+edition; that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited
+by R. Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, &ldquo;Gottfrieds
+von Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle&rdquo; in the <i>Zeit. für deut. Alt.</i>
+xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff.; W. Golther, <i>Die Sage von Tristan und
+Isolde</i> (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, <i>L&rsquo;Originalité de Gottfried de
+Strasbourg dans son poème de Tristan et Isolde</i> (Lille, 1905). K.
+Immermann (<i>q.v.</i>) has written an epic of <i>Tristan und Isolde</i> (1840),
+R. Wagner (<i>q.v.</i>) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, <i>Tristan
+und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖTTINGEN,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Hanover, pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg
+(1200 ft.), in the broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S.
+from Hanover, on the railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057,
+(1905) 34,030. It is traversed by the Leine canal, which separates
+the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from Masch, and is surrounded
+by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees and form an
+agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the town
+are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions
+are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant
+churches of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a
+high tower (290 ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th
+century and restored in 1880, and the numerous university
+buildings, Göttingen possesses few structures of any public
+importance. There are several thriving industries, including,
+besides the various branches of the publishing trade, the manufacture
+of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and other
+scientific instruments.</p>
+
+<p>The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by
+George II. in 1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading
+position, and in 1823 its students numbered 1547. Political
+disturbances, in which both professors and students were implicated,
+lowered the attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion
+in 1837 of the famous seven professors&mdash;<i>Die Göttinger Sieben</i>&mdash;viz.
+the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800-1876);
+the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860);
+the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875);
+the historian, Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the
+physicist, Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists,
+the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863),
+and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),&mdash;for protesting against
+the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the
+liberal constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of
+the university. The events of 1848, on the other hand, told
+somewhat in its favour; and, since the annexation of Hanover in
+1866, it has been carefully fostered by the Prussian government.
+In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529.
+The main university building lies on the Wilhelmsplatz, and,
+adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols, and 5300 MSS.,
+the richest collection of modern literature in Germany. There
+is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological,
+ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable
+being Blumenbach&rsquo;s famous collection of skulls in the
+anatomical institute. There are also a celebrated observatory,
+long under the direction of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884),
+a botanical garden, an agricultural institute and various hospitals,
+all connected with the university. Of the scientific societies
+the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences (<i>Königliche
+Sozietät der Wissenschaften</i>) founded by Albrecht von Haller,
+which is divided into three classes, the physical, the mathematical
+and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 members
+and publishes the well-known <i>Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen</i>.
+There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F.
+Gauss and W. E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Bürger.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs
+in documents of about 950 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The place received municipal
+rights from the German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from
+1286 to 1463 it was the seat of the princely house of Brunswick-Göttingen.
+During the 14th century it held a high place among
+the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it joined the
+Reformation movement, and in the following century it suffered
+considerably in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, being taken by Tilly
+in 1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the
+Saxons in 1632. After a century of decay, it was anew brought
+into importance by the establishment of its university; and a
+marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity
+has again taken place in recent years. Towards the end of the
+18th century Göttingen was the centre of a society of young
+poets of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> period of German literature, known
+as the <i>Göttingen Dichterbund</i> or <i>Hainbund</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>:
+<i>Literature</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Freusdorff, <i>Göttingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart</i> (Göttingen,
+1887); the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Göttingen</i>, edited by G.
+Schmidt, A. Hasselblatt and G. Kästner; Unger, <i>Göttingen und die
+Georgia Augusta</i> (1861); and <i>Göttinger Professoren</i> (Gotha, 1872);
+and O. Mejer, <i>Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Göttingen</i> (1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖTTLING, CARL WILHELM<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1793-1869), German classical
+scholar, was born at Jena on the 19th of January 1793.
+He studied at the universities of Jena and Berlin, took part
+in the war against France in 1814, and finally settled down
+in 1822 as professor at the university of his native town, where
+he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of January
+1869. In his early years Göttling devoted himself to German
+literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: <i>Über das
+Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede</i> (1814) and <i>Nibelungen und
+Gibelinen</i> (1817). The greater part of his life, however, was
+devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucidation
+of Greek authors. The contents of his <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen
+aus dem klassischen Altertum</i> (1851-1863) and <i>Opuscula
+Academica</i> (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate
+the varied nature of his studies. He edited the <span class="grk" title="Technê">&#932;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951;</span> (grammatical
+manual) of Theodosius of Alexandria (1822), Aristotle&rsquo;s
+<i>Politics</i> (1824), and <i>Economics</i> (1830) and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed.
+by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made of his <i>Allgemeine
+Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache</i> (1835), enlarged from a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
+smaller work, which was translated into English (1831) as the
+<i>Elements of Greek Accentuation</i>; and of his <i>Correspondence with
+Goethe</i> (published 1880).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G.
+Lothholz (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the <i>Opuscula
+Academica</i>), and C. Bursian in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, ix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTTSCHALK<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Godescalus</span>, <span class="sc">Gottescale</span>], (<i>c.</i> 808-867 ?),
+German theologian, was born near Mainz, and was devoted
+(<i>oblatus</i>) from infancy by his parents,&mdash;his father was a Saxon,
+Count Bern,&mdash;to the monastic life. He was trained at the
+monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus Maurus, and
+became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrières. In
+June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been
+unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his
+liberty, withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and
+then to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons.
+There he studied St Augustine, with the result that he became an
+enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in
+one point going beyond his master&mdash;Gottschalk believing in a
+predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to
+salvation, while Augustine had contented himself with the
+doctrine of preterition as complementary to the doctrine of election.
+Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained priest,
+without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, <i>chorepiscopus</i> of
+Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy,
+preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered
+into relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard,
+count of Friuli. Driven from Italy through the influence of
+Hrabanus Maurus, now archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two
+violent letters to Notting and Eberhard, he travelled through
+Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but continued preaching and
+writing. In October 848 he presented to the synod at Mainz a
+profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by
+Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted,
+however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never
+again enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over
+to Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his
+monastery at Orbais. The next year at a provincial council at
+Quierzy, presided over by Charles the Bald, he attempted to
+justify his ideas, but was again condemned as a heretic and
+disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood,
+whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in
+the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to
+induce him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend
+his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians
+of France and Germany. A great controversy resulted.
+Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of
+Corbie, Loup of Ferrières and Florus of Lyons wrote in his
+favour. Hincmar wrote <i>De praedestinatione</i> and <i>De una non
+trina deitate</i> against his views, but gained little aid from
+Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority.
+The question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of
+Valence (855) and of Savonnières (859). Finally the pope
+Nicolas I. took up the case, and summoned Hincmar to the
+council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could not or would not
+appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend himself
+before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when
+Hincmar learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him
+the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would
+recant. This Gottschalk refused to do. He died on the 30th of
+October between 866 and 870.</p>
+
+<p>Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a
+violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in
+his ideas as in his conduct. He was less an innovator than a
+reactionary. Of his many works we have only the two professions
+of faith (cf. Migne, <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.),
+and some poems, edited by L. Traube in <i>Monumenta Germaniae
+historica: Poëtae Latini aevi Carolini</i> (t. iii. 707-738). Some
+fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the
+writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of Ferrières.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk,
+much has been written on him. Mention may be made of two
+recent studies, F. Picavet, &ldquo;Les Discussions sur la liberté au temps
+de Gottschalk, de Raban Maur, d&rsquo;Hincmar, et de Jean Scot,&rdquo; in
+<i>Comptes rendus de l&rsquo;acad. des sciences morales et politiques</i> (Paris,
+1896); and A. Freystedt, &ldquo;Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und
+Lehre,&rdquo; in <i>Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i> (1897), vol. xviii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1823-1909), German man of
+letters, was born at Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the
+son of a Prussian artillery officer. He received his early education
+at the gymnasia in Mainz and Coburg, and subsequently at
+Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he entered the university
+of Königsberg as a student of law, but, in consequence of his
+pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The academic
+authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant
+towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he
+eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During
+this period of unrest he issued <i>Lieder der Gegenwart</i> (1842) and
+<i>Zensurflüchtlinge</i> (1843)&mdash;the poetical fruits of his political
+enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree
+of <i>doctor juris</i> in Königsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the
+<i>venia legendi</i>. His political views again stood in the way, and
+forsaking the legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely
+to literature. He met with immediate success, and beginning as
+dramaturge in Königsberg with <i>Der Blinde von Alcala</i> (1846) and
+<i>Lord Byron in Italien</i> (1847) proceeded to Hamburg where he
+occupied a similar position. In 1852 he married Marie, baroness
+von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years lived in Silesia.
+In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen newspaper, but in
+1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in 1877, by the
+king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix &ldquo;von,&rdquo;
+having been previously made a <i>Geheimer Hofrat</i> by the grand duke
+of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the <i>Brockhaus&rsquo;sche
+Blätter für litterarische Unterhaltung</i> and the monthly periodical
+<i>Unsere Zeit</i>. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.</p>
+
+<p>Gottschall&rsquo;s prolific literary productions cover the fields of
+poetry, novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes
+of lyric poetry are <i>Sebastopol</i> (1856), <i>Janus</i> (1873), <i>Bunte Blüten</i>
+(1891). Among his epics, <i>Carlo Zeno</i> (1854), <i>Maja</i> (1864), dealing
+with an episode in the Indian Mutiny, and <i>Merlins Wanderungen</i>
+(1887). The comedy <i>Pitt und Fox</i> (1854), first produced
+on the stage in Breslau, was never surpassed by the other lighter
+pieces of the author, among which may be mentioned <i>Die Welt
+des Schwindels</i> and <i>Der Spion von Rheinsberg</i>. The tragedies,
+<i>Mazeppa</i>, <i>Catharine Howard</i>, <i>Amy Robsart</i> and <i>Der Götze von
+Venedig</i>, were very successful; and the historical novels, <i>Im
+Banne des schwarzen Adlers</i> (1875; 4th ed., 1884), <i>Die Erbschaft
+des Blutes</i> (1881), <i>Die Tochter Rübezahls</i> (1889), and <i>Verkümmerte
+Existenzen</i> (1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a
+critic and historian of literature Gottschall has also done excellent
+work. His <i>Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts</i>
+(1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and <i>Poetik</i> (1858; 6th ed., 1903)
+command the respect of all students of literature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gottschall&rsquo;s collected <i>Dramatische Werke</i> appeared in 12 vols. in
+1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many
+volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography,
+<i>Aus meiner Jugend</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1700-1766), German
+author and critic, was born on the 2nd of February 1700, at
+Judithenkirch near Königsberg, the son of a Lutheran clergyman.
+He studied philosophy and history at the university of his native
+town, but immediately on taking the degree of <i>Magister</i> in 1723,
+fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the Prussian
+military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B.
+Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of &ldquo;Philander von
+der Linde,&rdquo; was a well-known poet and also president of the
+<i>Deutschübende poetische Gesellschaft</i> in Leipzig. Of this society
+Gottsched was elected &ldquo;Senior&rdquo; in 1726, and in the next year
+reorganized it under the title of the <i>Deutsche Gesellschaft</i>. In
+1730 he was appointed extraordinary professor of poetry, and,
+in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics in the
+university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of December 1766.</p>
+
+<p>Gottsched&rsquo;s chief work was his <i>Versuch einer kritischen
+Dichtkunst für die Deutschen</i> (1730), the first systematic treatise
+in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau.
+His <i>Ausführliche Redekunst</i> (1728) and his <i>Grundlegung einer</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
+<i>deutschen Sprachkunst</i> (1748) were of importance for the development
+of German style and the purification of the language.
+He wrote several plays, of which <i>Der sterbende Cato</i> (1732), an
+adaptation of Addison&rsquo;s tragedy and a French play on the same
+theme, was long popular on the stage. In his <i>Deutsche Schaubühne</i>
+(6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations
+from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical
+repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, <i>Nötiger
+Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst</i>
+(1757-1765), is still valuable. He was also the editor of several
+journals devoted to literary criticism. As a critic, Gottsched
+insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws
+of French classicism; he enunciated rules by which the playwright
+must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery
+from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded
+a healthy corrective to the extravagance and want of taste
+which were rampant in the German literature of the time,
+Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he came into conflict with the
+Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (<i>q.v.</i>) and Johann Jakob
+Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison
+and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic
+imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules; they
+pointed to the great English poets, and especially to Milton.
+Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English
+writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry
+must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy
+which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zürich, he was
+inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and
+before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic
+folly.</p>
+
+<p>His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, née Kulmus (1713-1762),
+in some respects her husband&rsquo;s intellectual superior, was an
+author of some reputation. She wrote several popular comedies,
+of which <i>Das Testament</i> is the best, and translated the <i>Spectator</i>
+(9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope&rsquo;s <i>Rape of the Lock</i> (1744) and other
+English and French works. After her death her husband edited
+her <i>Sämtliche kleinere Gedichte</i> with a memoir (1763).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. W. Danzel, <i>Gottsched und seine Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1848); J.
+Crüger, Gottsched, <i>Bodmer, und Breitinger</i> (with selections from their
+writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, <i>Die Poetik Gottscheds und
+der Schweizer</i> (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, <i>Gottscheds Stellung im
+deutschen Bildungsleben</i> (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek,
+<i>Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1897). On
+Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, <i>Frau Gottsched und die bürgerliche
+Komödie</i> (Berlin, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÖTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1721-1781), German poet, was
+born at Worms on the 9th of July 1721. He studied theology
+at Halle (1739-1742), where he became intimate with the poets
+Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz, acted for some years
+as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various other ecclesiastical
+offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of November
+1781. The writings of Götz consist of a number of short lyrics
+and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of
+Anacreon. His original compositions are light, lively and
+sparkling, and are animated rather by French wit than by
+German depth of sentiment. The best known of his poems is
+<i>Die Mädcheninsel</i>, an elegy which met with the warm approval
+of Frederick the Great.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Götz&rsquo;s <i>Vermischte Gedichte</i> were published with biography by
+K. W. Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of
+his poems, dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by
+C. Schüddekopf in the <i>Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19.
+Jahrhunderts</i> (1893). See also <i>Briefe von und an J. N. Götz</i>, edited
+by C. Schüddekopf (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUACHE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a French word adapted from the Ital. <i>guazzo</i>
+(probably in origin connected with &ldquo;wash&rdquo;), meaning literally
+a &ldquo;ford,&rdquo; but used also for a method of painting in opaque
+water-colour. The colours are mixed with or painted in a
+vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true water-colours
+the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface of the
+paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through
+a translucent wash in &ldquo;gouache,&rdquo; these are obtained by white
+or other light colour. &ldquo;Gouache&rdquo; is frequently used in miniature
+painting.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUDA<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Ter Gouwe</span>), a town of Holland, in the province
+of South Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence
+with the Ysel, and a junction station 12½ m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam.
+Pop. (1900) 22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven
+(5½m. N.) on the old Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on
+the Ysel; and there is a regular steamboat service in various
+directions, Amsterdam being reached by the canalized Gouwe;
+Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out in a
+fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by
+numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine
+trees have replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt
+is the largest market-square in Holland. Among the numerous
+churches belonging to various denominations, the first place must
+be given to the Groote Kerk of St John. It was founded in 1485,
+but rebuilt after a fire in 1552, and is remarkable for its dimensions
+(345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), for a large and celebrated organ,
+and a splendid series of over forty stained-glass windows presented
+by cities and princes and executed by various well-known artists,
+including the brothers Dirk (d. <i>c.</i> 1577) and Wouter (d. <i>c.</i> 1590)
+Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see <i>Explanation
+of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &amp;c.</i>, Gouda, 1876,
+reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy
+buildings are the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt
+in 1690, and the weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem
+(1608-1669) and adorned with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers
+(d. <i>c.</i> 1690). The museum of antiquities (1874) contains an
+exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and some pictures and portraits
+by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel (a native of Gouda,
+1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other buildings
+are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for women
+and a music hall.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly
+derived from brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date
+the making of clay tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and,
+although this industry has somewhat declined, the churchwarden
+pipes of Gouda are still well known and largely manufactured.
+In winter-time it is considered a feat to skate hither from
+Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return with
+it in one&rsquo;s mouth without its being broken. The mud from the
+Ysel furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries;
+there are also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a
+yarn factory, an oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit
+and shipping trade is considerable, and as one of the principal
+markets of South Holland, the round, white Gouda cheeses are
+known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. by W. of Gouda
+on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the little
+old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous
+theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater
+contains a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating
+the capture of the town by the Spaniards in 1575 and the
+subsequent sack and massacre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> <span class="correction" title="amended from muscial">musical</span> composer of the 16th century,
+was born about 1510. The French and the Belgians claim him
+as their countryman. In all probability he was born at Besançon,
+for in his edition of the songs of Arcadelt, as well as in the mass
+of 1554, he calls himself &ldquo;natif de Besançon&rdquo; and &ldquo;Claudius
+Godimellus Vescontinus.&rdquo; This discountenances the theory of
+Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his
+early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent
+Latin in which some of his letters were written proves that,
+in addition to his musical knowledge, he also acquired a good
+classical training. It is supposed that he was in Rome in 1540
+at the head of a music-school, and that besides many other
+celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his pupils. About
+the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for Paris,
+where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in
+1555, a musical setting of Horace&rsquo;s Odes. Infinitely more
+important is another collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the
+celebrated French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza
+published in 1565. It is written in four parts, the melody being
+assigned to the tenor. The invention of the melodies was long
+ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely been proved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span>
+to have originated in popular tunes found in the collections of
+this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the French
+Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German
+Lutherans, a German imitation of the French versions of the
+Psalms in the same metres having been published at an early
+date. Although the French version of the Psalms was at first
+used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there is little doubt
+that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel Brenet&rsquo;s
+Biographie (<i>Annales franc-cuntoises</i>, Besançon, 1898, P. Jacquin)
+it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565, Goudimel
+moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather
+to the daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years
+later he fell a victim to religious fanaticism during the St
+Bartholomew massacres at Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of
+August 1572, his death, it is stated, being due to &ldquo;les ennemis
+de la gloire de Dieu et quelques méchants envieux de l&rsquo;honneur
+qu&rsquo;il avait acquis.&rdquo; Masses and motets belonging to his Roman
+period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives
+of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus
+the work entitled <i>Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo
+musico auctore, nunc primum in lucem editae</i>, contains one mass
+by the learned editor himself, the other two being by Claudius
+Sermisy and Jean Maillard respectively. Another collection,
+<i>La Fleur des chansons des deux plus excellens musiciens de nostre
+temps</i>, consists of part songs by Goudimel and Orlando di Lasso.
+Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel&rsquo;s <i>Domine quid
+multiplicati sunt</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUFFIER,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> the name of a great French family, which owned
+the estate of Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. <i>Guillaume
+Gouffier</i>, chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate
+enemy of Jacques C&oelig;ur, obtaining his condemnation and afterwards
+receiving his property (1491). He had a great number
+of children, several of whom played a part in history. Artus,
+seigneur de Boisy (<i>c.</i> 1475-1520) was entrusted with the education
+of the young count of Angoulême (Francis I.), and on the accession
+of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand
+master of the royal household, playing an important part in the
+government; to him was given the task of negotiating the
+treaty of Noyon in 1516; and shortly before his death the king
+raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy to the rank of a duchy,
+that of Roannais, in his favour. <span class="sc">Adrien Gouffier</span> (d. 1523)
+was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France.
+<span class="sc">Guillaume Gouffier</span>, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral.
+of France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bonnivet</a></span>). <span class="sc">Claude Gouffier</span>, son of Artus,
+was created comte de Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy
+(1564).</p>
+
+<p>There were many branches of this family, the chief of them
+being the dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of
+Crèvec&oelig;ur and of Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux,
+and of Espagny. The name of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th
+century by a branch of the house of Choiseul.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUGE, MARTIN<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1360-1444), surnamed <span class="sc">de Charpaigne</span>,
+French chancellor, was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon
+of Bourges, in 1402 he became treasurer to John, duke of Berri,
+and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was arrested by John the
+Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean de Montaigu
+(1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then banished.
+Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he
+became his chancellor, the king&rsquo;s ambassador in Brittany, and a
+member of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415,
+he was transferred from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-Ferrand.
+In May 1418, when the Burgundians re-entered Paris,
+he only escaped death at their hands by taking refuge in the
+Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall into the hands of
+his enemy, the duke de la Trémoille, who imprisoned him in
+the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was
+appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422.
+He endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party
+to the selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but
+had to resign his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres;
+first from March 25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La
+Trémoille had supplanted Richmond. After the fall of La
+Trémoille in 1433 he returned to court, and exercised a powerful
+influence over affairs of state almost till his death, which took
+place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 25th or
+26th of November 1444.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hiver&rsquo;s account in the <i>Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires
+du Centre</i>, p. 267 (1869); and the <i>Nouvelle Biographie générale</i>, vol.
+xxi.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUGE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (adopted from the Fr. <i>gouge</i>, derived from the Late
+Lat. <i>gubia</i> or <i>gulbia</i>, in Ducange <i>gulbium</i>, an implement <i>ad
+hortum excolendum</i>, and also <i>instrumentum ferreum in usu
+fabrorum</i>; according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the word
+is probably of Celtic origin, <i>gylf</i>, a beak, appearing in Welsh,
+and <i>gilb</i>, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool of the chisel type with
+a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or channel in wood,
+stone, &amp;c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in surgery
+for operations involving the excision of portions of bone.
+&ldquo;Gouge&rdquo; is also used as the name of a bookbinder&rsquo;s tool, for
+impressing a curved line on the leather, and for the line so impressed.
+In mining, a &ldquo;gouge&rdquo; is the layer of soft rock or earth
+sometimes found in each side of a vein of coal or ore, which the
+miner can scoop out with his pick, and thus attack the vein more
+easily from the side. The verb &ldquo;to gouge&rdquo; is used in the sense
+of scooping or forcing out.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1779-1869), British
+field-marshal, a descendant of Francis Gough who was made
+bishop of Limerick in 1626, was born at Woodstown, Limerick,
+on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained a commission
+in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th Highlanders
+at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape
+Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1796. His
+next service was in the West Indies, where, with the 87th
+(Royal Irish Fusiliers), he shared in the attack on Porto Rico,
+the capture of Surinam, and the brigand war in St Lucia. In
+1809 he was called to take part in the Peninsular War, and,
+joining the army under Wellington, commanded his regiment as
+major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was
+taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded,
+and had his horse shot under him. For his conduct on this
+occasion he was afterwards promoted lieutenant-colonel, his
+commission, on the recommendation of Wellington, being
+antedated from the day of the duke&rsquo;s despatch. He was thus
+the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services
+performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next
+engaged at the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured
+a French eagle. At the defence of Tarifa the post of danger
+was assigned to him, and he compelled the enemy to raise the
+siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again distinguished himself,
+his regiment captured the baton of Marshal Jourdan. He was
+again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after created a
+knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the
+war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from
+active service. He next took command of a regiment stationed
+in the south of Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties
+of a magistrate during a period of agitation. Gough was promoted
+major-general in 1830. Seven years later he was sent to
+India to take command of the Mysore division of the army.
+But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties which led
+to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic general
+on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed commander-in-chief
+of the British forces in China. This post he held during
+all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements
+and numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he
+at length enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottinger,
+to dictate peace on his own terms. After the conclusion of the
+treaty of Nanking in August 1842 the British forces were withdrawn;
+and before the close of the year Gough, who had been
+made a G.C.B, in the previous year for his services in the capture
+of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843 he
+was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India,
+and in December he took the command in person against the
+Mahrattas, and defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more
+than fifty guns. In 1845 occurred the rupture with the Sikhs,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span>
+who crossed the Sutlej in large numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough
+conducted the operations against them, being well supported
+by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to
+serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of
+Mudki and Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of
+Sobraon, and shortly afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at
+Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh Gough were rewarded by
+his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron
+Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and
+again Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle
+of Chillianwalla being equivocal, he was superseded by the
+home authorities in favour of Sir Charles Napier; before the
+news of the supersession arrived Lord Gough had finally crushed
+the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February 1849). His tactics
+during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered controversy
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sikh Wars</a></span>). Lord Gough now returned to England,
+was raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the
+thanks of both Houses of Parliament. A pension of £2000 per
+annum was granted to him by parliament, and an equal pension
+by the East India Company. He did not again see active service.
+In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards,
+and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to invest Marshal
+Pélissier and other officers with the insignia of the Bath. Honours
+were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was made
+a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who
+did not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor,
+was named a G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field-marshal.
+He was twice married, and left children by both his
+wives. He died on the 2nd of March 1869.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. S. Rait, <i>Lord Gough</i> (1903); and Sir W. Lee Warner, <i>Lord
+Dalhousie</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1817-1886), American
+temperance orator, was born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on
+the 22nd of August 1817. He was educated by his mother,
+a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was sent to the United
+States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years with family
+friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a
+book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in
+1833 his mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell
+in with dissolute companions, and became a confirmed drunkard.
+He lost his position, and for several years supported himself
+as a ballad singer and story-teller in the cheap theatres and
+concert-halls of New York and other eastern cities. Even this
+means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in Worcester,
+Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance
+pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined
+to devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform.
+Gifted with remarkable powers of pathos and of description,
+he was successful from the start, and was soon known and sought
+after throughout the entire country, his appeals, which were
+directly personal and emotional, being attended with extraordinary
+responses. He continued his work until the end of his
+life, made several tours of England, where his American success
+was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy
+on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he
+passed away two days later, on the 18th of February 1886.
+He published an <i>Autobiography</i> (1846); <i>Orations</i> (1854); <i>Temperance
+Addresses</i> (1870); <i>Temperance Lectures</i> (1879); and <i>Sunlight
+and Shadow, or Gleanings from My Life Work</i> (1880).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUGH, RICHARD<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1735-1809), English antiquary, was born
+in London on the 21st of October 1735. His father was a wealthy
+M.P. and director of the East India Company. Gough was a
+precocious child, and at twelve had translated from the French
+a history of the Bible, which his mother printed for private
+circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbé Fleury&rsquo;s work on
+the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an elaborate work
+entitled <i>Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized</i>. In 1752
+he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began
+his work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving
+Cambridge in 1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions
+in various parts of Great Britain. In 1773 he began an edition
+in English of Camden&rsquo;s <i>Britannia</i>, which appeared in 1789.
+Meantime he published, in 1786, the first volume of his splendid
+work, the <i>Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain, applied to
+illustrate the history of families, manners, habits, and arts at the
+different periods from the Norman Conquest to the Seventeenth
+Century</i>. This volume, which contained the first four centuries,
+was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th
+century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared
+in 1799. Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
+of London in 1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director.
+He was elected F.R.S. in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th
+of February 1809. His books and manuscripts relating to
+Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his collections in the
+department of British topography, and a large number of his
+drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were
+bequeathed to the university of Oxford.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the minor works of Gough are <i>An Account of the Bedford
+Missal</i> (in MS.); <i>A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of
+Denmark</i> (1777); <i>History of Pleshy in Essex</i> (1803); <i>An Account of
+the Coins of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria</i> (1804); and &ldquo;History of the
+Society of Antiquaries of London,&rdquo; prefixed to their <i>Archaeologia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1697-1767), French abbé and
+littérateur, was born in Paris on the 19th of October 1697.
+He studied at the College of the Jesuits, and at the Collège
+Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong Jansenist. In
+1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered the
+order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon
+of St Jacques l&rsquo;Hôpital. On account of his extreme Jansenist
+opinions he suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits,
+and several of his works were suppressed at their instigation.
+In his latter years his health began to fail, and he lost his
+eyesight. Poverty compelled him to sell his library, a sacrifice
+which hastened his death, which took place at Paris on the
+1st of February 1767.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He is the author of <i>Supplément au dictionnaire de Moréri</i> (1735),
+and a <i>Nouveau Supplément</i> to a subsequent edition of the work;
+he collaborated in <i>Bibliothèque française, ou histoire littéraire de
+la France</i> (18 vols., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the <i>Vies des saints</i>
+(7 vols., 1730); he also wrote <i>Mémoires historiques et littéraires sur
+le collège royal de France</i> (1758); <i>Histoire des Inquisitions</i> (Paris,
+1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire</i>, of
+which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbé Fabre
+in his continuation of Fleury&rsquo;s <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Mémoires hist. et litt. de l&rsquo;abbé Goujet</i> (1767).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUJON, JEAN<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1520-<i>c.</i> 1566), French sculptor of the
+16th century. Although some evidence has been offered in
+favour of the date 1520 (<i>Archives de l&rsquo;art français</i>, iii. 350),
+the time and place of his birth are still uncertain. The
+first mention of his name occurs in the accounts of the church
+of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in the following
+year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town, where
+he added to the tomb of Cardinal d&rsquo;Amboise a statue of his
+nephew Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved
+portions of the tomb of Louis de Brezé, executed some time after
+1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon was employed by Pierre
+Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre, on the restorations
+of St-Germain l&rsquo;Auxerrois; the building accounts&mdash;some of
+which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de Laborde
+on a piece of parchment binding&mdash;specify as his work, not only
+the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de
+Piété, now lost. In 1547 appeared Martin&rsquo;s French translation
+of Vitruvius, the illustrations of which were due, the translator
+tells us in his &ldquo;Dedication to the King,&rdquo; to Goujon, &ldquo;naguères
+architecte de Monseigneur le Connétable, et maintenant un des
+vôtres.&rdquo; We learn from this statement not only that Goujon
+had been taken into the royal service on the accession of Henry
+II., but also that he had been previously employed under Bullant
+on the château of Écouen. Between 1547 and 1549 he was
+employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot
+for the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the
+16th of June 1549. Lescot&rsquo;s edifice was reconstructed at the
+end of the 18th century by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine
+des Innocents, this being a considerable variation of the original
+design. At the Louvre, Goujon, under the direction of Lescot,
+executed the carvings of the south-west angle of the court, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
+reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the Tribune des Cariatides,
+for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of September 1550.
+Between 1548 and 1554 rose the château d&rsquo;Anet, in the embellishment
+of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme
+in the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building
+accounts of Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a
+vast number of other works of equal importance, destroyed or
+lost in the great Revolution. In 1555 his name appears again
+in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so every succeeding
+year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the course of
+this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal employment
+all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies.
+Goujon has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently
+possible that he was one of the victims of this attack. We should
+therefore probably ascribe the work attributed to him in the
+Hôtel Carnavalet (<i>in situ</i>), together with much else executed
+in various parts of Paris&mdash;but now dispersed or destroyed&mdash;to
+a period intervening between the date of his dismissal from
+the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken
+place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The
+researches of M. Tomaso Sandonnini (see <i>Gazette des Beaux Arts</i>,
+2<span class="sp">e</span> période, vol. xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition,
+long entertained, that Goujon died during the St Bartholomew
+massacre in 1572.</p>
+
+<p><i>List of authentic works of Jean Goujon</i>: Two marble columns
+supporting the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on
+right and left of porch on entering; left-hand gate of the church
+of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for decoration of screen of St Germain
+l&rsquo;Auxerrois (now in Louvre); &ldquo;Victory&rdquo; over chimney-piece
+of Salle des Gardes at Écouen; altar at Chantilly; illustrations
+for Jean Martin&rsquo;s translation of Vitruvius; bas-reliefs and
+sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents; bas-reliefs
+adorning entrance of Hôtel Carnavalet, also series of satyrs&rsquo;
+heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana
+from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at
+Anet; portico of Anet (now in courtyard of École des Beaux
+Arts); bust of Diane de Poiçtiers (now at Versailles); Tribune
+of Caryatides in the Louvre; decoration of &ldquo;Escalier Henri
+II.,&rdquo; Louvre; &oelig;ils de b&oelig;uf and decoration of Henri II. façade,
+Louvre; groups for pediments of façade now placed over
+entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. A. Pottier, <i>&OElig;uvres de Goujon</i> (1844); Reginald Lister,
+<i>Jean Goujon</i> (London, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1766-1795),
+French publicist and statesman, was born at Bourg on the
+13th of April 1766, the son of a postmaster. The boy went
+early to sea, and saw fighting when he was twelve years old;
+in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good his lack
+of education. As procureur-général-syndic of the department
+of Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1792, he had to supply the inhabitants
+with food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and
+tact. In the Convention, which he entered on the death of
+Hérault de Séchelles, he took his seat on the benches of the
+Mountain. He conducted a mission to the armies of the Rhine
+and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and was a consistent
+advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless,
+he was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which
+he denounced in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain
+after his recall to Paris, following on the revolution of the 9th
+Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was one of those who protested
+against the readmission of Louvet and other survivors of the
+Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and, when
+the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May
+20, 1795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance
+with their desires, he proposed the immediate establishment
+of a special commission which should assure the execution of
+the proposed changes and assume the functions of the various
+committees. The failure of the insurrection involved the fall
+of those deputies who had supported the demands of the populace.
+Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi,
+Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under
+arrest by their colleagues, and on their way to the château
+of Taureau in Brittany had a narrow escape from a mob at
+Avranches. They were brought back to Paris for trial before
+a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though no proof
+of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be found&mdash;they
+were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte,
+strangers to one another&mdash;they were condemned. In accordance
+with a pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the staircase
+leading from the court-room with a knife which Goujon
+had successfully concealed. Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy
+succeeded, but the other three merely inflicted wounds which
+did not prevent their being taken immediately to the guillotine.
+With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a party.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Claretie, <i>Les Derniers Montagnards, histoire de l&rsquo;insurrection
+de Prairial an III d&rsquo;après les documents</i> (1867); <i>Défense du représentant
+du peuple Goujon</i> (Paris, no date), with the letters and a hymn
+written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents
+see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1818-1897), English
+churchman, son of Mr Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of
+Leicester, and nephew of the Right Hon. Henry Goulburn,
+chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of Sir Robert Peel
+and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the 11th of
+February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College,
+Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in
+1841 and 1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively.
+For some years he held the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was
+chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of the diocese. In
+1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby, but in 1857
+he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel, Marylebone.
+In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul&rsquo;s, and in
+1859 vicar of St John&rsquo;s, Paddington. In 1866 he was made
+dean of Norwich, and in that office exercised a long and marked
+influence on church life. A strong Conservative and a churchman
+of traditional orthodoxy, he was a keen antagonist of &ldquo;higher
+criticism&rdquo; and of all forms of rationalism. His <i>Thoughts on
+Personal Religion</i> (1862) and <i>The Pursuit of Holiness</i> were
+well received; and he wrote the <i>Life</i> (1892) of his friend Dean
+Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in
+agreement. He resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at
+Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of May 1897.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life</i> by B. Compton (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOULBURN, HENRY<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1784-1856), English statesman, was
+born in London on the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1808 he became member of
+parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was appointed under-secretary
+for home affairs and two and a half years later he was
+made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still retaining
+office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in
+1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April
+1827. Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman,
+his period of office was on the whole a successful one, and in
+1823 he managed to pass the Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In
+January 1828 he was made chancellor of the exchequer under
+the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked Roman
+Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the
+domain of finance Goulburn&rsquo;s chief achievements were to reduce
+the rate of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow
+any one to sell beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete
+change of policy with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving
+office with Wellington in November 1830, Goulburn was home
+secretary under Sir Robert Peel for four months in 1835, and
+when this statesman returned to office in September 1841 he
+became chancellor of the exchequer for the second time. Although
+Peel himself did some of the chancellor&rsquo;s work, Goulburn was
+responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the
+national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended
+in the repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office
+in June 1846. After representing Horsham in the House of
+Commons for over four years Goulburn was successively member
+for St Germans, for West Looe, and for the city of Armagh. In
+May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge University, and he
+retained this seat until his death on the 12th of January 1856
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
+at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel&rsquo;s
+firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son,
+Henry (1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler
+at Cambridge in 1835.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (1878-1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOULBURN,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a city of Argyle county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 134 m. S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway.
+Pop. (1901) 10,618. It lies in a productive agricultural district,
+at an altitude of 2129 ft., and is a place of great importance,
+being the chief depot of the inland trade of the southern part
+of the state. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals.
+Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer, and tanning
+are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and
+Goulburn became a city in 1864.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1805-1866), American
+conchologist, was born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the
+23rd of April 1805, graduated at Harvard College in 1825, and
+took his degree of doctor of medicine in 1830. Thrown from
+boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry, perseverance
+and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue
+his studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself
+to the practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional
+rank and social position. He became president of the Massachusetts
+Medical Society, and was employed in editing the vital
+statistics of the state. As a conchologist his reputation is world-wide,
+and he was one of the pioneers of the science in America.
+His writings fill many pages of the publications of the Boston
+Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p. 197 for a list) and
+other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the <i>Principles
+of Zoology</i> (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the <i>Terrestrial and Air-breathing
+Mollusks</i> (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he
+translated Lamarck&rsquo;s <i>Genera of Shells</i>. The two most important
+monuments to his scientific work, however, are <i>Mollusca and
+Shells</i> (vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition
+(1838-1842) under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by
+the government, and the <i>Report on the Invertebrata</i> published by
+order of the legislature of Massachusetts in 1841. A second
+edition of the latter work was authorized in 1865, and published
+in 1870 after the author&rsquo;s death, which took place at Boston
+on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a corresponding
+member of all the prominent American scientific societies, and
+of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1824-1896), American
+astronomer, a son of Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859),
+principal of the Boston Latin school, was born at Boston, Massachusetts,
+on the 27th of September 1824. Having graduated
+at Harvard College in 1844, he studied mathematics and astronomy
+under C. F. Gauss at Göttingen, and returned to
+America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the
+longitude department of the United States coast survey; he
+developed and organized the service, was one of the first to
+determine longitudes by telegraphic means, and employed the
+Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish longitude-relations between
+Europe and America. The <i>Astronomical Journal</i> was founded
+by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in 1861,
+was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as
+director of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York;
+and published in 1859 a discussion of the places and proper
+motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the
+United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862 actuary to
+the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an
+important volume of <i>Military and Anthropological Statistics</i>.
+He fitted up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.;
+but undertook in 1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic,
+to organize a national observatory at Cordoba; began to observe
+there with four assistants in 1870, and completed in 1874 his
+<i>Uranometria Argentina</i> (published 1879) for which he received
+in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.
+This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), and
+a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations
+of 32,448 stars. Gould&rsquo;s measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd&rsquo;s
+photographs of the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a
+pioneer in the use of the camera as an instrument of precision;
+and he secured at Cordoba 1400 negatives of southern star-clusters,
+the reduction of which occupied the closing years of
+his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge, where
+he died on the 26th of November 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Astronomical Journal</i>, No. 389; <i>Observatory</i>, xx. 70 (same
+notice abridged); <i>Science</i> (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler); <i>Astrophysical
+Journal</i>, v. 50; <i>Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, lvii.
+218.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1844-&emsp;&emsp;), English
+caricaturist and politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd
+of December 1844. Although in early youth he showed great
+love of drawing, he began life in a bank and then joined the
+London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched the
+members and illustrated important events in the financial
+world; many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography
+and published for private circulation. In 1879 he began the
+regular illustration of the Christmas numbers of <i>Truth</i>, and in
+1887 he became a contributor to the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, transferring
+his allegiance to the <i>Westminster Gazette</i> on its foundation
+and subsequently acting as assistant editor. Among his independent
+publications are <i>Who killed Cock Robin?</i> (1897), <i>Tales
+told in the Zoo</i> (1900), two volumes of <i>Froissart&rsquo;s Modern
+Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould</i> (1902 and 1903),
+and <i>Picture Politics</i>&mdash;a periodical reprint of his <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i> cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of
+political warfare in the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently
+grafting his ideas on to subjects taken freely from <i>Uncle Remus</i>,
+<i>Alice in Wonderland</i>, and the works of Dickens and Shakespeare,
+Sir F. C. Gould used these literary vehicles with extraordinary
+dexterity and point, but with a satire that was not unkind and
+with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and cynicism
+were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOULD, JAY<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1836-1892), American financier, was born in
+Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836.
+He was brought up on his father&rsquo;s farm, studied at Hobart
+Academy, and though he left school in his sixteenth year, devoted
+himself assiduously thereafter to private study, chiefly of mathematics
+and surveying, at the same time keeping books for a
+blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his
+father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a
+surveyor in preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware
+counties in New York, of Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio,
+and of Oakland county in Michigan, and of a projected
+railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An ardent
+anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote <i>A History of
+Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing
+a Sketch of the Early Settlements in the County, and A History
+of the Late Anti-Rent Difficulties in Delaware</i> (Roxbury, 1856).
+He then engaged in the lumber and tanning business in western
+New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. In
+1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her father,
+Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer
+&amp; Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very
+bad condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he
+bought and reorganized the Rutland &amp; Washington railway,
+from which he ultimately realized a large profit. In 1859 he
+removed to New York City, where he became a broker in railway
+stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president of the Erie railway, of
+which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr. (<i>q.v.</i>), had gained
+control in July of that year. The management of the road under
+his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of fraudulent
+stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English bondholders,
+and Gould was forced out of the company in March
+1872 and compelled to restore securities valued at about
+$7,500,000. It was during his control of the Erie that he and
+Fisk entered into a league with the Tweed Ring, they admitted
+Tweed to the directorate of the Erie, and Tweed in turn arranged
+favourable legislation for them at Albany. With Tweed, Gould
+was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould was the
+chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000
+bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
+attempt to &ldquo;corner&rdquo; the market, his hope being that, with the
+advance in price of gold, wheat would advance to such a price
+that western farmers would sell, and there would be a consequent
+great movement of breadstuffs from West to East, which would
+result in increased freight business for the Erie road. His
+speculations in gold, during which he attempted through President
+Grant&rsquo;s brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the president
+and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the panic
+of &ldquo;Black Friday,&rdquo; on the 24th of September 1869, when the
+price of gold fell from 162 to 135.</p>
+
+<p>Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in
+1883 he withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the
+stock of the Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolidations,
+reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines,
+the &ldquo;Gould System&rdquo; of railways in the south-western states.
+In 1880 he was in virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about
+one-ninth of the railway mileage of the United States at that
+time. Besides, he obtained a controlling interest in the Western
+Union Telegraph Company, and after 1881 in the elevated
+railways in New York City, and was intimately connected with
+many of the largest railway financial operations in the United
+States for the twenty years following 1868. He died of consumption
+and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his
+fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of
+this he left to his own family.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">George Jay Gould</span> (b. 1864), was prominent
+also as an owner and manager of railways, and became president
+of the Little Rock &amp; Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis,
+Iron Mountain &amp; Southern railway (1893), the International
+&amp; Great Northern railway (1893), the Missouri Pacific railway
+(1893), the Texas &amp; Pacific railway (1893), and the Manhattan
+Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and
+director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was
+under his control that the Wabash system became transcontinental
+and secured an Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was
+he who brought about a friendly alliance between the Gould
+and the Rockefeller interests.</p>
+
+<p>The eldest daughter, <span class="sc">Helen Miller Gould</span> (b. 1868), became
+widely known as a philanthropist, and particularly for her
+generous gifts to American army hospitals in the war with Spain
+in 1898 and for her many contributions to New York University,
+to which she gave $250,000 for a library in 1895 and $100,000
+for a Hall of Fame in 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1818-1893), French composer,
+was born in Paris on the 17th of June 1818, the son of
+F. L. Gounod, a talented painter. He entered the Paris Conservatoire
+in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halévy and Lesueur,
+and won the &ldquo;Grand Prix de Rome&rdquo; in 1839. While residing
+in the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study
+of sacred music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach.
+In 1843 he went to Vienna, where a &ldquo;requiem&rdquo; of his composition
+was performed. On his return to Paris he tried in vain to
+find a publisher for some songs he had written in Rome. Having
+become organist to the chapel of the &ldquo;Missions Étrangères,&rdquo;
+he turned his thoughts and mind to religious music. At that
+time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy
+orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane
+matters when, through the intervention of Madame Viardot,
+the celebrated singer, he received a commission to compose an
+opera on a text by Émile Augier for the Académie Nationale
+de Musique. <i>Sapho</i>, the work in question, was produced in
+1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least sufficed to
+bring the composer&rsquo;s name to the fore. Some critics appeared
+to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the
+style of dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer,
+who was also a musical critic, attributed to Gounod the wish
+to revive the system of musical declamation invented by Gluck.
+The fact was that <i>Sapho</i> differed in some respects from the
+operatic works of the period, and was to a certain extent in
+advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris Opéra
+in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the
+original score, not altogether to its advantage, and <i>Sapho</i> once
+more failed to attract the public. Gounod&rsquo;s second dramatic
+attempt was again in connexion with a classical subject, and
+consisted in some choruses written for <i>Ulysse</i>, a tragedy by
+Ponsard, played at the Théâtre Français in 1852, when the
+orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The composer&rsquo;s next
+opera, <i>La Nonne sanglante</i>, given at the Paris Opéra in 1854,
+was a failure.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Faust</i> had for years exercised a strong fascination
+over Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic
+account. The performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on
+the same subject delayed the production of his opera for a time.
+In the meanwhile he wrote in a few months the music for an
+operatic version of Molière&rsquo;s comedy, <i>Le Médecin malgré lui</i>,
+which was produced at the Théâtre Lyrique in 1858. Berlioz well
+described this charming little work when he wrote of it, &ldquo;Everything
+is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this &lsquo;opéra comique&rsquo;; there is
+nothing superfluous and nothing wanting.&rdquo; The first performance
+of <i>Faust</i> took place at the Théâtre Lyrique on the 19th
+of March 1859. Goethe&rsquo;s masterpiece had already been utilized
+for operatic purposes by various composers, the most celebrated
+of whom was Spohr. The subject had also inspired Schumann,
+Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a few, and the enormous
+success of Gounod&rsquo;s opera did not deter Boito from writing his
+<i>Mefistofele</i>. <i>Faust</i> is without doubt the most popular French
+opera of the second half of the 19th century. Its success has been
+universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in
+the land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type
+of modern French opera. At the time of its production in Paris
+it was scarcely appreciated according to its merits. Its style
+was too novel, and its luscious harmonies did not altogether
+suit the palates of those dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini
+as the incarnation of music. Times have indeed changed, and
+French composers have followed the road opened by Gounod,
+and have further developed the form of the lyrical drama,
+adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their
+national temperament. Although in its original version <i>Faust</i>
+contained spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces
+according to custom, yet it differed greatly from the operas of
+the past. Gounod had not studied the works of German masters
+such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in vain, and although
+his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be denied that
+much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic sentimentality
+which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music
+such as his had previously been produced by any French composer.
+Auber was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions
+with absolute <i>insouciance</i>, teeming with melodious ideas, but
+lacking depth. Berlioz, a musical Titan, wrestled against fate
+with a superhuman energy, and, Jove-like, subjugated his
+hearers with his thunderbolts. It was, however, reserved for
+Gounod to introduce <i>la note tendre</i>, to sing the tender passion
+in accents soft and languorous. The musical language employed
+in <i>Faust</i> was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be
+adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms
+thereby becoming hackneyed. Gounod&rsquo;s opera was given in
+London in 1863, when its success, at first doubtful, became
+enormous, and it was heard concurrently at Covent Garden
+and Her Majesty&rsquo;s theatres. Since then it has never lost its
+popularity.</p>
+
+<p>Although the success of <i>Faust</i> in Paris was at first not so
+great as might have been expected, yet it gradually increased
+and set the seal on Gounod&rsquo;s fame. The fortunate composer
+now experienced no difficulty in finding an outlet for his works,
+and the succeeding decade is a specially important one in his
+career. The opera from his pen which came after Faust was
+<i>Philémon et Baucis</i>, a setting of the mythological tale in which
+the composer followed the traditions of the Opéra Comique,
+employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the individuality
+of his own style. This work was produced at the
+Théâtre Lyrique in 1860. It has repeatedly been heard in
+London. <i>La Reine de Saba</i>, a four-act opera, produced at the
+Grand Opéra on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether
+a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
+with success, although the score contains some of Gounod&rsquo;s
+choicest inspirations, notably the well-known air, &ldquo;Lend me
+your aid.&rdquo; <i>La Reine de Saba</i> was adapted for the English stage
+under the name of <i>Irene</i>. The non-success of this work proved
+a great disappointment to Gounod, who, however, set to work
+again, and this time with better results, <i>Mireille</i>, the fruit of his
+labours, being given for the first time at the Théâtre Lyrique
+on the 19th of March 1864. Founded upon the <i>Mireio</i> of the
+Provençal poet Mistral, <i>Mireille</i> contains much charming and
+characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against
+its success, and although several revivals have taken place and
+various modifications and alterations have been made in the score,
+yet <i>Mireille</i> has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain
+portions of this opera have, however, been popularized in the
+concert-room. <i>La Colombe</i>, a little opera in two acts without pretension,
+deserves mention here. It was originally heard at Baden
+in 1860, and subsequently at the Opéra Comique. A suavely
+melodious <i>entr&rsquo;acte</i> from this little work has survived and been
+repeatedly performed.</p>
+
+<p>Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his <i>Faust</i>,
+Gounod now sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and
+turned his attention to <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. Here, indeed, was a
+subject particularly well calculated to appeal to a composer
+who had so eminently qualified himself to be considered the
+musician of the tender passion. The operatic version of the
+Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the Théâtre Lyrique on
+the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as being the
+composer&rsquo;s second best opera. Some people have even placed
+it on the same level as <i>Faust</i>, but this verdict has not found
+general acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed
+his opinion of the relative value of the two operas enigmatically
+by saying, &ldquo;<i>Faust</i> is the oldest, but I was younger; <i>Roméo</i>
+is the youngest, but I was older.&rdquo; The luscious strains wedded
+to the love scenes, if at times somewhat cloying, are generally
+in accord with the situations, often irresistibly fascinating,
+while always absolutely individual. The success of <i>Roméo</i>
+in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually this work
+was transferred to the Grand Opéra, after having for some time
+formed part of the répertoire of the Opéra Comique. In London
+it was not until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de
+Reszke that this opera obtained any real hold upon the English
+public.</p>
+
+<p>After having so successfully sought for inspiration from
+Molière, Goethe and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another
+famous dramatist, and selected Pierre Corneille&rsquo;s <i>Polyeucte</i>
+as the subject of his next opera. Some years were, however,
+to elapse before this work was given to the public. The Franco-German
+War had broken out, and Gounod was compelled to
+take refuge in London, where he composed the &ldquo;biblical elegy&rdquo;
+<i>Gallia</i> for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During
+his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a
+number of songs to English words, many of which have attained
+an enduring popularity, such as &ldquo;Maid of Athens,&rdquo; &ldquo;There
+is a green hill far away,&rdquo; &ldquo;Oh that we two were maying,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The fountain mingles with the river.&rdquo; His sojourn in London
+was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in lawsuits
+with publishers. On Gounod&rsquo;s return to Paris he hurriedly
+set to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny&rsquo;s <i>Cinq-Mars</i>,
+which was given at the Opéra Comique on the 5th of April 1877
+(and in London in 1900), without obtaining much success.
+<i>Polyeucte</i>, his much-cherished work, appeared at the Grand
+Opéra the following year on the 7th of October, and did not meet
+with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more fortunate with
+<i>Le Tribut de Zamora</i>, his last opera, which, given on the same
+stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his
+later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt
+to keep up with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to
+assert itself in another field&mdash;that of sacred music. His friend
+Camille Saint-Saëns, in a volume entitled <i>Portraits et Souvenirs</i>,
+writes:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to
+accumulate masses and motetts; but it was at the commencement
+of his career, in the <i>Messe de Sainte Cécile</i>, and at the end, in the
+oratorios <i>The Redemption and Mors et vita</i>, that he rose highest.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Saint-Saëns, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three
+above-mentioned works will survive all the master&rsquo;s operas.
+Among the many masses composed by Gounod at the outset
+of his career, the best is the <i>Messe de Sainte Cécile</i>, written in
+1855. He also wrote the <i>Messe du Sacré C&oelig;ur</i> (1876) and the
+<i>Messe à la mémoire de Jeanne d&rsquo;Arc</i> (1887). This last work
+offers certain peculiarities, being written for solos, chorus,
+organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In style
+it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. <i>The Redemption</i>, which
+seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain,
+was produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was
+styled a sacred trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria.
+The score is prefixed by a commentary written by the composer,
+in which the scope of the oratorio is explained. It cannot be
+said that Gounod has altogether risen to the magnitude of his
+task. The music of <i>The Redemption</i> bears the unmistakable
+imprint of the composer&rsquo;s hand, and contains many beautiful
+thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from
+monotony. <i>Mors et vita</i>, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope
+Leo XIII., was also produced for the first time in Birmingham
+at the Festival of 1885. This work is divided into three parts,
+&ldquo;Mors,&rdquo; &ldquo;Judicium,&rdquo; &ldquo;Vita.&rdquo; The first consists of a Requiem,
+the second depicts the Judgment, the third Eternal Life.
+Although quite equal, if not superior to <i>The Redemption</i>, <i>Mors
+et vita</i> has not obtained similar success.</p>
+
+<p>Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it
+would occupy too much space to attempt even an incomplete
+catalogue of his compositions. Besides the works already
+mentioned may be named two symphonies which were played
+during the &rsquo;fifties, but have long since fallen into neglect.
+Symphonic music was not Gounod&rsquo;s forte, and the French master
+evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further attempts
+in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas <i>Les
+Deux Reines</i> and <i>Jeanne d&rsquo;Arc</i> must not be forgotten. He also
+attempted to set Molière&rsquo;s comedy, <i>Georges Dandin</i>, to music,
+keeping to the original prose. This work has never been brought
+out. Gounod composed a large number of songs, many of which
+are very beautiful. One of the vocal pieces that have contributed
+most to his popularity is the celebrated <i>Meditation on
+the First Prelude of Bach</i>, more widely known as the <i>Ave Maria</i>.
+The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach was original,
+and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment was
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>Gounod died at St Cloud on the 18th of October 1893. His
+influence on French music was immense, though during the
+last years of the 19th century it was rather counterbalanced
+by that of Wagner. Whatever may be the verdict of posterity,
+it is unlikely that the quality of individuality will be denied
+to Gounod. To be the composer of <i>Faust</i> is alone a sufficient
+title to lasting fame.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. He.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:279px; height:439px" src="images/img287.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">Photographed from specimens in the British
+Museum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Group of Gourds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd, <i>Lagenaria vulgaris</i>.</p>
+<p>6. Giant gourd, <i>Cucurbita maxima</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">GOURD,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a name given to various plants of the order <i>Cucurbitaceae</i>,
+especially those belonging to the genus <i>Cucurbita</i>,
+monoecious trailing herbs of annual duration, with long succulent
+stems furnished with tendrils, and large, rough, palmately-lobed
+leaves; the flowers are generally large and of a bright yellow
+or orange colour, the barren ones with the stamens united;
+the fertile are followed by the large succulent fruit that gives
+the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties of
+<i>Cucurbita</i> are under cultivation in tropical and temperate
+climates, especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely
+difficult to refer them to definite specific groups, on account of
+the facility with which they hybridize; while it is very doubtful
+whether any of the original forms now exist in the wild state.
+Charles Naudin, who made a careful and interesting series of
+observations upon this genus, came to the conclusion that all
+varieties known in European gardens might be referred to six
+original species; probably three, or at most four, have furnished
+the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the specific
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span>
+names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most important
+of the gourds, from an economic point of view, is perhaps
+<i>C. maxima</i>, the <i>Potiron Jaune</i> of the French, the red and yellow
+gourd of British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which
+is remarkable for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat
+rough rind varies from white to bright yellow, while in some kinds
+it remains green; the fleshy interior is of a deep yellow or
+orange tint. This valuable gourd is grown extensively in southern
+Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia Minor it yields, at some
+periods of the year, an important article of diet to the people;
+immense quantities are sold in the markets of Constantinople,
+where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a white rind
+are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow
+kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of 240 &#8468;. It
+grows well in Central Europe and the United States, while in
+the south of England it will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection
+in hot summers. The yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous
+varieties yields a considerable amount of nutriment, and is the
+more valuable as the fruit can be kept, even in warm climates, for
+a long time. In France and in the East it is much used in soups
+and ragouts, while simply boiled it forms a substitute for other
+table vegetables; the taste has been compared to that of a young
+carrot. In some countries the larger kinds are employed as
+cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large quantity
+of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of
+the poppy and olive. The &ldquo;mammoth&rdquo; gourds of English and
+American gardeners (known in America as squashes) belong
+to this species. The pumpkin (summer squash of America)
+is <i>Cucurbita Pepo</i>. Some of the varieties of <i>C. maxima</i> and
+Pepo contain a considerable quantity of sugar, amounting in
+the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5%, and in the hot plains of Hungary
+efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial
+source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds
+may be given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green
+vegetable when boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety
+(<i>ovifera</i>) of <i>C. Pepo</i>. Many smaller gourds are cultivated in
+India and other hot climates, and some have been introduced
+into English gardens, rather for the beauty of their fruit and
+foliage than for their esculent
+qualities. Among these
+is <i>C. Pepo</i> var. <i>aurantia</i>,
+the orange gourd, bearing a
+spheroidal fruit, like a large
+orange in form and colour;
+in Britain it is generally
+too bitter to be palatable,
+though applied to culinary
+purposes in Turkey and the
+Levant. <i>C. Pepo</i> var. <i>pyriformis</i>
+and var. <i>verrucosa</i>,
+the warted gourds, are
+likewise occasionally eaten,
+especially in the immature
+state; and <i>C. moschata</i>
+(musk melon) is very extensively
+cultivated throughout
+India by the natives, the
+yellow flesh being cooked
+and eaten.</p>
+
+<p>The bottle-gourds are
+placed in a separate genus,
+<i>Lagenaria</i>, chiefly differing
+from <i>Cucurbita</i> in the anthers
+being free instead of
+adherent. The bottle-gourd
+properly so-called, <i>L. vulgaris</i>,
+is a climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and
+beautiful white flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1-5) first begins
+to grow in the form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens
+towards the extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask
+with a narrow neck and large rounded bulb; it sometimes
+attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe, the pulp is removed from
+the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving water standing
+in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle: or the
+lower part is cut off and cleared out, forming a basin-like vessel
+applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash (<i>Crescentia</i>)
+of the West Indies: the smaller varieties, divided lengthwise,
+form spoons. The ripe fruit is apt to be bitter and cathartic,
+but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When
+about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and
+minced meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &amp;c., and then boiled,
+forming a favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated
+snake-gourds of India and China (<i>Trichosanthes</i>) are used in
+curries and stews.</p>
+
+<p>All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic
+principle <i>colocynthin</i>, and in many varieties of <i>Cucurbita</i> and the
+allied genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to
+render them unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of
+several species therefore possess some anthelmintic properties;
+those of the common pumpkin are frequently administered
+in America as a vermifuge.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history,
+and the esculent species have become so modified by culture
+that the original plants from which they have descended can
+no longer be traced. The abundance of varieties in India would
+seem to indicate that part of Asia as the birthplace of the present
+edible forms; but some appear to have been cultivated in all
+the hotter regions of that continent, and in North Africa, from
+the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar with at least
+certain kinds of <i>Cucurbita</i>, and with the bottle-gourd. <i>Cucurbita
+Pepo</i>, the source of many of the American forms, is probably
+a native of that continent.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Most of the annual gourds may be grown successfully in Britain.
+They are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted out
+in rich soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm.
+The more ornamental kinds may be trained over trellis-work, a
+favourite mode of displaying them in the East; but the situation
+must be sheltered and sunny. Even <i>Lagenaria</i> will sometimes produce
+fine fruit when so treated in the southern counties.</p>
+
+<p>For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr
+J. W. Odell, &ldquo;Gourds and Cucurbits,&rdquo; in <i>Journ. Royal Hort. Soc.</i>
+xxix. 450 (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOURGAUD, GASPAR,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1783-1852), French soldier,
+was born at Versailles on the 14th of September 1783; his father
+was a musician of the royal chapel. At school he showed talent
+in mathematical studies and accordingly entered the artillery.
+In 1802 he became junior lieutenant, and thereafter served
+with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being wounded at
+Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808,
+but returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly
+all the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809. In 1811
+he was chosen to inspect and report on the fortifications of
+Danzig. Thereafter he became one of the ordnance officers
+attached to the emperor, whom he followed closely through
+the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to enter
+the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder
+which might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon.
+For his services in this campaign he received the title of baron,
+and became first ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813
+in Saxony he further evinced his courage and prowess, especially
+at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in the first battle of 1814,
+near to Brienne, that he rendered the most signal service by
+killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who were riding
+furiously towards Napoleon&rsquo;s tent. Wounded at the battle of
+Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to share in several of the
+conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at
+Laon and Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of
+Louis XVIII. in the summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause
+of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (1815), was named general
+and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and fought at Waterloo.</p>
+
+<p>After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815)
+Gourgaud retired with him and a few other companions to
+Rochefort. It was to him that Napoleon entrusted the letter
+of appeal to the prince regent for an asylum in England. Gourgaud
+set off in H.M.S. &ldquo;Slaney,&rdquo; but was not allowed to land
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span>
+in England. He determined to share Napoleon&rsquo;s exile and
+sailed with him on H.M.S. &ldquo;Northumberland&rdquo; to St Helena.
+The ship&rsquo;s secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining
+account of some of Gourgaud&rsquo;s gasconnades at table. His
+extreme sensitiveness and vanity soon brought him into collision
+with Las Cases and Montholon at Longwood. The former he
+styles in his journal a &ldquo;Jesuit&rdquo; and a scribbler who went thither
+in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior in rank,
+the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel,
+for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring
+of the life at Longwood and the many slights which he suffered
+from Napoleon, he desired to depart, but before he could sail
+he spent two months with Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account
+of him throws much light on his character, as also on the &ldquo;policy&rdquo;
+adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In England he was gained
+over by members of the Opposition and thereafter made common
+cause with O&rsquo;Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe,
+for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jackson.
+He soon published his <i>Campagne de 1815</i>, in the preparation
+of which he had had some help from Napoleon; but Gourgaud&rsquo;s
+<i>Journal de Ste-Hélène</i> was not destined to be published till
+the year 1899. Entering the arena of letters, he wrote, or collaborated
+in, two well-known critiques. The first was a censure of
+Count P. de Ségur&rsquo;s work on the campaign of 1812, with the
+result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him.
+He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s <i>Life of Napoleon</i>.
+He returned to active service in the army in 1830; and in 1840
+proceeded with others to St Helena to bring back the remains
+of Napoleon to France. He became a deputy to the Legislative
+Assembly in 1849; he died in 1852.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gourgaud&rsquo;s works are <i>La Campagne de 1815</i> (London and Paris,
+1818); <i>Napoléon et la Grande Armée en Russie; examen critique de
+l&rsquo;ouvrage de M. le comte P. de Ségur</i> (Paris, 1824); <i>Réfutation de la
+vie de Napoléon par Sir Walter Scott</i> (Paris, 1827). He collaborated
+with Montholon in the work entitled <i>Mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire
+de France sous Napoléon</i> (Paris, 1822-1823), and with Belliard and
+others in the work entitled <i>Bourrienne et ses erreurs</i> (2 vols., Paris,
+1830); but his most important work is the <i>Journal inédit de Ste-Hélène</i>
+(2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naïf and life-like
+record of the life at Longwood. See, too, <i>Notes and Reminiscences of
+a Staff Officer</i>, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904), and the bibliography
+to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lowe, Sir Hudson</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1828-1901),
+Russian general, was born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the
+15th of November 1828. He was educated in the imperial
+corps of pages, entered the hussars of the imperial bodyguard
+as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857, adjutant
+to the emperor in 1860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th
+Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the
+emperor&rsquo;s suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the
+grenadier regiment, and in 1873 the 1st brigade, 2nd division,
+of the cavalry of the guard. Although he took part in the
+Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his claim to distinction
+is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877. He led the van
+of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July, crossed
+the Balkans by the Hain Bogaz pass, debouching near Hainkioi,
+and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani,
+Maglish and Kazanlyk; on the 18th of July he attacked Shipka,
+which was evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus
+within sixteen days of crossing the Danube Gourko had secured
+three Balkan passes and created a panic at Constantinople.
+He then made a series of successful reconnaissances of the
+Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places, occupied Stara
+Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni Zagra),
+checked the advance of Suleiman&rsquo;s army, and returned again
+over the Balkans. In October he was appointed commander of
+the allied cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication
+to Orkhanie with a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik,
+Telische and Vratza, and, in the middle of November, Orkhanie
+itself. Plevna was isolated, and after its fall in December
+Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the Balkans to
+the fertile valley beyond, totally defeated Suleiman, and occupied
+Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the
+end of January 1878 stopping further operations (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-Turkish
+Wars</a></span>). Gourko was made a count, and decorated
+with the 2nd class of St George and other orders. In 1879-1880
+he was governor of St Petersburg, and from 1883 to 1894 governor-general
+of Poland. He died on the 29th of January 1901.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOURMET,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a French term for one who takes a refined and
+critical, or even merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking
+and the delights of the table. The word has not the disparaging
+sense attached to the Fr. <i>gourmand</i>, to whom the practical
+pleasure of good eating is the chief end. The O. Fr. <i>groumet</i>
+or <i>gromet</i> meant a servant, or shop-boy, especially one employed
+in a wine-seller&rsquo;s shop, hence an expert taster of wines, from
+which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of
+gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the
+English &ldquo;groom&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). The origin of <i>gourmand</i> is unknown.
+In English, in the form &ldquo;grummet,&rdquo; the word was early applied
+to a cabin or ship&rsquo;s boy. Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged
+to carry one &ldquo;grummet&rdquo;; thus in a charter of 1229 (quoted
+in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>) it is laid down <i>servitia inde
+debita Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi. homines,
+cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUROCK,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrewshire,
+Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde,
+3¼ m. W. by N. of Greenock by the Caledonian railway. Pop.
+(1901) 5261. It is partly situated on a fine bay affording good
+anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to by the numerous
+yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway from
+Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> m.
+long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel
+to the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland
+coast and the Crinan Canal. The eminence called Barrhill
+(480 ft. high) divides the town into two parts, the eastern known
+as Kempoch, the western as Ashton. Near Kempoch point is
+a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high, called &ldquo;Granny Kempoch,&rdquo;
+which the superstitious of other days regarded as possessing
+influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in 1662, of
+certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as witches.
+Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls,
+recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that
+Gourock was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were
+cured. There is tramway communication with Greenock and
+Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there stands on the shore the familiar
+beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a burgh of barony in 1694.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1625-1703), French adventurer,
+was born at La Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen
+he entered the house of La Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in
+1646 became secretary to François de la Rochefoucauld, author
+of the <i>Maximes</i>. Resourceful and quick-witted, he rendered
+services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues with
+the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations
+he made the acquaintance of Condé, whom he wished to help
+to escape from the château of Vincennes; of Mazarin, for whom
+he negotiated the reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas
+Fouquet. After the Fronde he engaged in financial affairs,
+thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he farmed the <i>taille</i> in Guienne.
+He bought depreciated <i>rentes</i> and had them raised to their
+nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts from the
+financiers for his protection, being Fouquet&rsquo;s confidant in many
+operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he
+accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his
+unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king.
+He was involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was
+condemned to death for peculation and embezzlement of public
+funds; but escaping, was executed in effigy. He sent a valet
+one night to take the effigy down from the gallows in the court
+of the Palais de Justice, and then fled the country. He remained
+five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from the
+amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers.
+Having returned secretly to France, he entered the service of
+Condé, who, unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever
+manager to put his affairs in order. In this way he was able to
+reappear at court, to assist at the campaigns of the war with
+Holland, and to offer himself for all the delicate negotiations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span>
+for his master or the king. He received diplomatic missions in
+Germany, in Holland, and especially in Spain, though it was
+only in 1694, that he was freed from the condemnation pronounced
+against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696
+he fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his
+secretary, in four months and a half, his <i>Mémoires</i>, an important
+source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors,
+introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals
+of a financier of the age of Fouquet, and throw light on certain
+points of the diplomatic history. They were first published in
+1724.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and appendix,
+by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, 2 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUT,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a
+constitutional disorder which manifests itself by inflammation
+of the joints, with sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and
+also by morbid changes in various important organs. The
+term gout, which was first used about the end of the 13th
+century, is derived through the Fr. <i>goutte</i> from the Lat. <i>gutta</i>,
+a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of the dropping
+of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The
+disease was known and described by the ancient Greek physicians
+under various terms, which, however, appear to have been
+applied by them alike to rheumatism and gout. The general
+term <i>arthritis</i> (<span class="grk" title="arthron">&#7940;&#961;&#952;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, a joint) was employed when many joints
+were the seat of inflammation; while in those instances where
+the disease was limited to one part the terms used bore reference
+to such locality; hence <i>podagra</i> (<span class="grk" title="podagra">&#960;&#959;&#948;&#940;&#947;&#961;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="pous">&#960;&#959;&#973;&#962;</span>, the foot,
+and <span class="grk" title="hagra">&#7941;&#947;&#961;&#945;</span>, a seizure), <i>chiragra</i> (<span class="grk" title="cheir">&#967;&#949;&#943;&#961;</span>, the hand), <i>gonagra</i> (<span class="grk" title="gonu">&#947;&#972;&#957;&#965;</span>,
+the knee), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Hippocrates in his <i>Aphorisms</i> speaks of gout as occurring
+most commonly in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact
+that women are less liable to it than men. He also gives directions
+as to treatment. Celsus gives a similar account of the disease.
+Galen regarded gout as an unnatural accumulation of humours
+in a part, and the chalk-stones as the concretions of these, and
+he attributed the disease to over-indulgence and luxury. Gout
+is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, and Seneca, in his
+95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the Roman
+ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and
+debauchery. Lucian, in his <i>Tragopodagra</i>, gives an amusing
+account of the remedies employed for the cure of gout.</p>
+
+<p>In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the attention
+of physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount
+of suffering which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English
+physician of the 17th century, wrote an important treatise on
+the subject, and his description of the gouty paroxysm, all the
+more vivid from his having himself been afflicted with the disease
+for thirty-four years, is still quoted by writers as the most
+graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology of gout.
+Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting
+itself in various ways, divided the disease into <i>regular gout</i>,
+which affects the joints only, and <i>irregular gout</i>, where the gouty
+disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety
+he subdivided into <i>atonic gout</i>, where the most prominent
+symptoms are throughout referable to the stomach and alimentary
+canal; <i>retrocedent gout</i>, where the inflammatory attack
+suddenly disappears from an affected joint and serious disturbance
+takes place in some internal organ, generally the stomach
+or heart; and <i>misplaced gout</i>, where from the first the disease
+does not appear externally, but reveals itself by an inflammatory
+attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most
+eminent authorities on gout, adopted a division somewhat
+similar to, though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, <i>regular
+gout</i>, which affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic,
+and <i>irregular gout</i>, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing
+the functions of various organs.</p>
+
+<p>It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without
+any previous warning; but, while this is true in many instances,
+the reverse is probably as frequently the case, and the premonitory
+symptoms, especially in those who have previously
+suffered from the disease, may be sufficiently precise to indicate
+the impending seizure. Among the more common of these
+may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive organs,
+with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after
+eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver.
+A remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes
+observed. This symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves,
+who connected it with irritation in the urinary organs, which
+also is present as one of the premonitory indications of the
+gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance also present
+themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme irritability
+of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that of
+numbness and coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may
+persist for many days and then undergo amelioration immediately
+before the impending paroxysm. On the night of the attack
+the patient retires to rest apparently well, but about two or three
+o&rsquo;clock in the morning awakes with a painful feeling in the foot,
+most commonly in the ball of the great toe, but it may be in
+the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With the pain there often
+occurs a distinct shivering followed by feverishness. The pain
+soon becomes of the most agonizing character: in the words
+of Sydenham, &ldquo;now it is a violent stretching and tearing of the
+ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and
+tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part
+affected that it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor
+the jar of a person walking in the room.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen
+and of a deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glistening,
+and the surrounding veins are more or less distended. After
+a few hours there is a remission of the pain, slight perspiration
+takes place, and the patient may fall asleep. The pain may
+continue moderate during the day but returns as night advances,
+and the patient goes through a similar experience of suffering
+to that of the previous night, followed with a like abatement
+towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with
+greater or less severity during the continuance of the attack,
+which generally lasts for a week or ten days. As the symptoms
+decline the swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate,
+but the skin over it pits on pressure for a time, and with this
+there is often associated slight desquamation of the cuticle.
+During the attacks there is much constitutional disturbance.
+The patient is restless and extremely irritable, and suffers from
+cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia, thirst and constipation.
+The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a copious deposit,
+consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of the
+symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect
+the other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack
+is over the patient feels quite well and fancies himself better
+than he had been for a long time before; hence the once popular
+notion that a fit of the gout was capable of removing all other
+ailments. Any such idea, however, is sadly belied in the experience
+of most sufferers from this disease. It is rare that the
+first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to occur within
+a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded off.
+The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold
+on the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences
+the same joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflammation
+suffer again, but in course of time others become implicated,
+until in advanced cases scarcely any articulation
+escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic. It is to be noticed
+that when gout assumes this form the frequently recurring attacks
+are usually attended with less pain than the earlier ones, but
+their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the disturbance
+of various important organs, especially the stomach, liver,
+kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take
+place in the joints from the formation of the so-called chalk-stones
+or tophi. These deposits, which are highly characteristic
+of gout, appear at first to take place in the form of a semifluid
+material, consisting for the most part of urate of soda, which
+gradually becomes more dense, and ultimately quite hard.
+When any quantity of this is deposited in the structures of a
+joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as deposits appear
+to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion with every
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
+attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parts is apt
+to be the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course,
+on the amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem
+to be in no necessary relation to the severity of the attack, being
+in some cases even of chronic gout so slight as to be barely
+appreciable externally, but on the other hand occasionally
+causing great enlargement of the joints, and fixing them in a
+flexed or extended position which renders them entirely useless.
+Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme
+case of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French
+carrots with their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the
+stalks. Any of the joints may be thus affected, but most
+commonly those of the hands and feet. The deposits take place
+in other structures besides those of joints, such as along the course
+of tendons, underneath the skin and periosteum, in the sclerotic
+coat of the eye, and especially on the cartilages of the external
+ear. When largely deposited in joints an abscess sometimes
+forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is exposed. Sir
+Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient
+when playing at cards was accustomed to chalk the score of the
+game upon the table with his gouty knuckles.</p>
+
+<p>The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is less easy
+than that form above described, where the disease gives abundant
+external evidence of its presence; but that other parts than
+joints suffer from gouty attacks is beyond question. The diagnosis
+may often be made in cases where in an attack of ordinary
+gout the disease suddenly leaves the affected joints and some
+new series of symptoms arises. It has been often observed when
+cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the pain and
+inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and
+alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs
+supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed
+by Cullen retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more
+especially if the disease again returns to the joints. Further,
+the gouty nature of some long-continued internal or cutaneous
+disorder may be rendered apparent by its disappearance on the
+outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints. Gout, when of long
+standing, is often found associated with degenerative changes in
+the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the kidneys,
+which are apt to assume the contracted granular condition
+characteristic of one of the forms of Bright&rsquo;s disease. A variety
+of urinary calculus&mdash;the uric acid&mdash;formed by concretions of
+this substance in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence
+in connexion with gout; hence the well-known association of
+this disease and gravel.</p>
+
+<p>The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metabolic
+Diseases</a></span>. Many points, however, still remain unexplained.
+As remarked by Trousseau, &ldquo;the production in excess of uric
+acid and urates is a pathological phenomenon inherent like all
+others in the disease; and like all the others it is dominated
+by a specific cause, which we know only by its effects, and which
+we term the gouty diathesis.&rdquo; This subject of diathesis (habit,
+or organic predisposition of individuals), which is regarded as an
+essential element in the pathology of gout, naturally suggests
+the question as to whether, besides being inherited, such a
+peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a consideration
+of the causes which are recognized as influential in favouring
+the occurrence of this disease.</p>
+
+<p>It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary,
+fully more than half the number of cases being, according to
+Sir C. Scudamore and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is
+no less certain that there are habits and modes of life the observance
+of which may induce the disease even where no hereditary
+tendencies can be traced, and the avoidance of which may, on
+the other hand, go far towards weakening or neutralizing the
+influence of inherited liability. Gout is said to affect the sedentary
+more readily than the active. If, however, inadequate exercise
+be combined with a luxurious manner of living, with habitual
+over-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially
+in alcoholic beverages, then undoubtedly the chief factors in the
+production of the disease are present.</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written upon the relative influence of various
+forms of alcoholic drinks in promoting the development of gout.
+It is generally stated that fermented are more injurious than
+distilled liquors, and that, in particular, the stronger wines,
+such as port, sherry and madeira, are much more potent in their
+gout-producing action than the lighter class of wines, such as
+hock, moselle, &amp;c., while malt liquors are fully as hurtful as strong
+wines. It seems quite as probable, however, that over-indulgence
+in any form of alcohol, when associated with the other conditions
+already adverted to, will have very much the same effect in
+developing gout. The comparative absence of gout in countries
+where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland, is
+cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging
+that disease; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there
+is on the whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other
+pleasures of the table, which in no degree less than alcohol are
+chargeable with inducing the gouty habit. Gout is not a common
+disease among the poor and labouring classes, and when it does
+occur may often be connected even in them with errors in living.
+It is not very rare to meet gout in butlers, coachmen, &amp;c., who
+are apt to live luxuriously while leading comparatively easy lives.</p>
+
+<p>Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who
+observe the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses
+are in the direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual.
+Many of the great names in history in all times have had their
+existence embittered by this malady, and have died from its
+effects. The influence of hereditary tendency may often be
+traced in such instances, and is doubtless called into activity
+by the depressing consequences of over-work. It may, notwithstanding,
+be affirmed as generally true that those who lead regular
+lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food and alcoholic
+drinks, or still better abstain from the latter altogether, are
+less likely to be the victims of gout even where an undoubted
+inherited tendency exists.</p>
+
+<p>Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years
+of life, the greatest number of cases in one decennial period being
+between the ages of thirty and forty, next between twenty and
+thirty, and thirdly between forty and fifty. It may occasionally
+affect very young persons; such cases are generally regarded as
+hereditary, but, so far as diet is concerned, it has to be remembered
+that their home life has probably been a predisposing cause.
+After middle life gout rarely appears for the first time. Women
+are much less the subjects of gout than men, apparently from
+their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of course, that
+of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and doubtless
+also from the differing circumstances of their physical constitution.
+It most frequently appears in females after the cessation
+of the menses. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning,
+such as plumbers, painters, &amp;c., are apt to suffer from gout;
+and it would seem that impregnation of the system with this
+metal markedly interferes with the uric acid excreting function
+of the kidneys.</p>
+
+<p>Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to
+the disease. Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue,
+and irritation or injuries of particular joints will often precipitate
+the gouty paroxysm.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety
+of opinion has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the
+numerous quaint nostrums detailed by Lucian to the &ldquo;expectant&rdquo;
+or do-nothing system recommended by Sydenham. But gout,
+although, as has been shown, a malady of a most severe and
+intractable character, may nevertheless be successfully dealt
+with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures. The
+general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated.
+During the acute attack the affected part should be kept at
+perfect rest, and have applied to it warm opiate fomentations
+or poultices, or, what answers quite as well, be enveloped in
+cotton wool covered in with oil silk. The diet of the patient
+should be light, without animal food or stimulants. The administration
+of some simple laxative will be of service, as well as the
+free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the bicarbonate or acetate
+of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for the relief
+of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
+action on the disease. This drug (<i>Colchicum autumnale</i>), which
+is believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients,
+has proved of such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as
+observed by Dr Garrod, &ldquo;we may safely assert that colchicum
+possesses as specific a control over the gouty inflammation as
+cinchona barks or their alkaloids over intermittent fever.&rdquo;
+It is usually administered in the form of the wine in doses of
+10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the acetous
+extract (gr. ½-gr. i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the
+pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is unnecessary
+to have recourse to opiates; but its action requires
+to be carefully watched by the physician from its well-known
+nauseating and depressing consequences, which, should they
+appear, render the suspension of the drug necessary. Otherwise
+the remedy may be continued in gradually diminishing doses
+for some days after the disappearance of the gouty inflammation.
+Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular form
+by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment
+above mentioned, the use of frictions and mustard applications
+to the joints is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance
+there. When gout has become chronic, colchicum, although of
+less service than in acute gout, is yet valuable, particularly
+when the inflammatory attacks recur. More benefit, however,
+appears to be derived from potassium iodide, guaiacum, the
+alkalis potash and lithia, and from the administration of aspirin
+and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective
+local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha
+bandage. Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from
+its solvent action upon the urates. It is usually administered
+in the form of the carbonate (gr. v., freely diluted).</p>
+
+<p>The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals
+of the gouty attacks are of the highest importance. These
+bear reference for the most part to the habits and mode of life
+of the patient. Restriction must be laid upon the amount and
+quality of the food, and equally, or still more, upon the alcoholic
+stimulants. &ldquo;The instances,&rdquo; says Sir Thomas Watson, &ldquo;are
+not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves, who,
+being warned by one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward
+resolutely abstained from rich living and from wine and strong
+drinks of all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence
+and self-denial by complete immunity from any return of the
+disease, or upon whom, at any rate, its future assaults have been
+few and feeble.&rdquo; The same eminent authority adds: &ldquo;I am
+sure it is worth any <i>young</i> man&rsquo;s while, who has had the gout,
+to become a teetotaller.&rdquo; By those more advanced in life
+who, from long continued habit, are unable entirely to relinquish
+the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must
+be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form of
+walking or riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives,
+is of great advantage, and all over-work, either physical or mental,
+should be avoided. <i>Fatiguez la bête, et reposez la tête</i> is the maxim
+of an experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d&rsquo;Estrées of Contrexéville).
+Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such
+directions, even by those who feel their importance, is too often
+rendered difficult or impossible by circumstances of occupation
+and otherwise, and at most only an approximation can be made.
+Certain mineral waters and baths (such as those of Vichy,
+Royat, Contrexéville, &amp;c.) are of undoubted value in cases of
+gout and arthritis. The particular place must in each case be
+determined by the physician, and special caution must be
+observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons
+whose gout is complicated by organic disease of any kind.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dr Alexander Haig&rsquo;s &ldquo;uric acid free diet&rdquo; has found many adherents.
+His view as regards the pathology is that in gouty persons
+the blood is less alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to
+hold in solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints.
+Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs),
+and by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing substances,
+he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and
+containing 24 oz. of breadstuffs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings)
+together with 24 oz. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans,
+lentils, mushrooms and asparagus); 8 oz. of the breadstuffs may be
+replaced by 21 oz. of milk or 2 oz. of cheese, butter and oil being taken
+as required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet.</p>
+
+<p>Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently been put forward
+by Professor A. Robin of the Hôpital Beaujon, who says serious
+mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats
+and take light food, fish, eggs, &amp;c. The common object in view is the
+diminished output of uric acid. This output is chiefly obtained from
+food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, <i>i.e.</i> young white
+meats, eggs, &amp;c. Consequently the gouty subject ought to restrict
+himself to the consumption of red meat, beef and mutton, and leave
+out of his dietary all white meat and internal organs. He should
+take little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats.
+Vegetarian diet he regards as a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they
+tend to weaken the patient. To prevent the formation of uric acid
+Robin prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUTHIÈRE, PIERRE<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1740-1806), French metal worker,
+was born at Troyes and went to Paris at an early age as the
+pupil of Martin Cour. During his brilliant career he executed
+a vast quantity of metal work of the utmost variety, the best of
+which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals in that great art
+period. It was long believed that he received many commissions
+for furniture from the court of Louis XVI., and especially from
+Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for
+the queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthière can, however, well
+bear this loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics
+ultimately be justified who believe that many of the furniture
+mounts attributed to him were from the hand of Thomire. But
+if he did not work for the court he unquestionably produced
+many of the most splendid belongings of the duc d&rsquo;Aumont,
+the duchesse de Mazarin and Mme du Barry. Indeed the
+custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about
+the financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more
+than any other man for the fame of her château of Louveciennes.
+When the collection of the duc d&rsquo;Aumont was sold by auction
+in Paris in 1782 so many objects mounted by Gouthière were
+bought for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette that it is not
+difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that they were actually
+made for the court. The duc&rsquo;s sale catalogue is, however, in
+existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices
+realized. The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthière.
+The precious lacquer cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra,
+the tables and cabinets in marquetry, the columns and vases
+in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles, the porcelains of China
+and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by him. More
+than fifty of these pieces bore Gouthière&rsquo;s signature. The duc
+d&rsquo;Aumont&rsquo;s cabinet represented the high-water mark of the
+chaser&rsquo;s art, and the great prices which were paid for Gouthière&rsquo;s
+work at this sale are the most conclusive criterion of the value
+set upon his achievement in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette
+paid 12,000 livres for a red jasper bowl or <i>brûle-parfums</i> mounted
+by him, which was then already famous. Curiously enough
+it commanded only one-tenth of that price at the Fournier sale
+in 1831; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford bought
+it at the prince de Beauvais&rsquo;s sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It
+is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and
+most representative gathering of Gouthière&rsquo;s undoubted work.
+The mounts of gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show
+satyrs&rsquo; heads, from which hang festoons of vine leaves, while
+within the feet a serpent is coiled to spring. A smaller cup is one
+of the treasures of the Louvre. There too is a bronze clock,
+signed by &ldquo;Gouthière, <i>cizileur et doreur du Roy à Paris</i>,&rdquo; dated
+1771, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing the Rhône
+and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the
+city of Avignon. Not all of Gouthière&rsquo;s work is of the highest
+quality, and much of what he executed was from the designs
+of others. At his best his delicacy, refinement and finish are
+exceedingly delightful&mdash;in his great moments he ranks with
+the highest alike as artist and as craftsman. The tone of soft
+dead gold which is found on some of his mounts he is believed
+to have invented, but indeed the gilding of all his superlative
+work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone is
+admirably seen in the bronzes and candelabra which he executed
+for the chimney-piece of Marie Antoinette&rsquo;s boudoir at Fontainebleau.
+He continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame
+du Barry until the Revolution, and then the guillotine came for
+her and absolute ruin for him. When her property was seized
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span>
+she owed him 756,000 livres, of which he never received a sol,
+despite repeated applications to the administrators. &ldquo;<i>Réduit
+à solliciter une place à l&rsquo;hospice, il mourut dans la misère.</i>&rdquo; So
+it was stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons against du Barry&rsquo;s
+heirs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1764-1830),
+French marshal, was born at Toul on the 13th of April 1764.
+At the age of eighteen he went to Rome with the view of prosecuting
+the study of painting, but although he continued his
+artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he never definitely
+adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was chosen
+a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of
+General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course
+of two years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he
+commanded the centre division of Moreau&rsquo;s army in the campaign
+of the Rhine, and by coolness and sagacity greatly aided him
+in the celebrated retreat from Bavaria to the Rhine. In 1798
+he succeeded Masséna in the command of the army of Italy.
+In the following year he commanded the left wing of Jourdan&rsquo;s
+army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Masséna,
+he joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished
+himself in face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat
+of Novi. When Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command
+of the army of the Rhine, Gouvion St-Cyr was named his principal
+lieutenant, and on the 9th of May gained a victory over General
+Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on good terms with
+his commander and retired to France after the first operations
+of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command
+the army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named
+grand officer of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace
+was shortly afterwards concluded with Portugal, he succeeded
+Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at Madrid. In 1803 he was
+appointed to the command of an army corps in Italy, in 1805
+he served with distinction under Masséna, and in 1806 was
+engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in
+the Prussian and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which
+year he was made a count, he commanded an army corps in
+Catalonia; but, not wishing to comply with certain orders
+he received from Paris (for which see Oman, <i>Peninsular War</i>,
+vol. iii.), he resigned his command and remained in disgrace
+till 1811. He was still a general of division, having been excluded
+from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing
+to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the
+Empire. On the opening of the Russian campaign he received
+command of an army corps, and on the 18th of August 1812
+obtained a victory over the Russians at Polotsk, in recognition
+of which he was created a marshal of France. He received a
+severe wound in one of the actions during the general retreat.
+St-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden (August
+26-27, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the Allies
+after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on the 11th of
+November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On
+the restoration of the Bourbons he was created a peer of France,
+and in July 1815 was appointed war minister, but resigned his
+office in the November following. In June 1817 he was appointed
+minister of marine, and in September following again resumed
+the duties of war minister, which he continued to discharge
+till November 1819. During this time he effected many reforms,
+particularly in respect of measures tending to make the army
+a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himself
+also to safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire,
+organized the general staff and revised the code of military law
+and the pension regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817.
+He died at Hyères (Var) on the 17th of March 1830. Gouvion
+St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained better opportunities of
+acquiring distinction had he shown himself more blindly devoted
+to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the high
+compliment of referring to his &ldquo;military genius,&rdquo; and entrusted
+him with independent commands in secondary theatres of war.
+It is doubtful, however, if he possessed energy commensurate
+with his skill, and in Napoleon&rsquo;s modern conception of war,
+as three parts moral to one technical, there was more need for
+the services of a bold leader of troops whose &ldquo;doctrine&rdquo;&mdash;to
+use the modern phrase&mdash;predisposed him to self-sacrificing and
+vigorous action, than for a <i>savant</i> in the art of war of the type of
+St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot, did
+justice to his &ldquo;commanding talents,&rdquo; but remarked the indolence
+which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind
+that had passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without
+attaining the simplicity of genius.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He was the author of the following works, all of the highest
+value: <i>Journal des opérations de l&rsquo;armée de Catalogne en 1808 et
+1809</i> (Paris, 1821); <i>Mémoires sur les campagnes des armées de Rhin
+et de Rhin-et-Moselle de 1794 à 1797</i> (Paris, 1829); and <i>Mémoires
+pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire militaire sous le Directoire, le Consulat, et
+l&rsquo;Empire</i> (1831).</p>
+
+<p>See Gay de Vernon&rsquo;s <i>Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr</i> (1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOVAN,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland.
+It lies on the south bank of the Clyde in actual contact with
+Glasgow, and in a parish of the same name which includes a large
+part of the city on both sides of the river. Pop. (1891) 61,589;
+(1901) 76,532. Govan remained little more than a village till
+1860, when the growth of shipbuilding and allied trades gave
+its development an enormous impetus. Among its public buildings
+are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital,
+Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder
+Park (40 acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue
+of John Elder (1824-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband
+of the donor. A statue of Sir William Pearce (1833-1888),
+another well-known Govan shipbuilder, once M.P. for the burgh,
+stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board opened in
+1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow
+gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow
+corporation; but it has an electric light installation of its own,
+and performs all other municipal functions quite independently
+of the city, annexation to which it has always strenuously
+resisted. Prince&rsquo;s Dock lies within its bounds and the shipbuilding
+yards have turned out many famous ironclads and
+liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match-making,
+silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube-making,
+weaving, and the manufacture of locomotives and
+electrical apparatus. The town forms the greater part of the
+Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member to
+parliament.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOVERNMENT<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>governement</i>, mod. <i>gouvernement</i>,
+O. Fr. <i>governer</i>, mod. <i>gouverner</i>, from Lat. <i>gubernare</i>, to steer a
+ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="kubernan">&#954;&#965;&#946;&#949;&#961;&#957;&#8118;&#957;</span>), in its widest sense, the
+ruling power in a political society. In every society of men there
+is a determinate body (whether consisting of one individual
+or a few or many individuals) whose commands the rest of the
+community are bound to obey. This sovereign body is what in
+more popular phrase is termed the government of the country,
+and the varieties which may exist in its constitution are known
+as forms of government. For the opposite theory of a community
+with &ldquo;no government,&rdquo; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anarchism</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>How did government come into existence? Various answers
+to this question have at times been given, which may be distinguished
+broadly into three classes. The first class would
+comprehend the legendary accounts which nations have given
+in primitive times of their own forms of government. These
+are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The
+government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon,
+Moses, Numa and Alfred in like manner shaped the government
+of their respective nations. There was no curiosity about the
+institutions of other nations&mdash;about the origin of governments
+in general; and each nation was perfectly ready to accept the
+traditional <span class="grk" title="nomothetai">&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#952;&#941;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span> of any other.</p>
+
+<p>The second may be called the logical or metaphysical account
+of the origin of government. It contained no overt reference
+to any particular form of government, whatever its covert
+references may have been. It answered the question, how
+government in general came into existence; and it answered
+it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The phenomenon
+to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted
+government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
+without them. The characteristic feature of this kind of speculation
+is that it reflects how contemporary men would behave
+if all government were removed, and infers that men must have
+behaved so before government came into existence. Society
+without government resolves itself into a number of individuals
+each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days before
+government, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to see
+how this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views
+of the nature of the supposed original state. With Hobbes,
+it is a state of war, and government is the result of an agreement
+among men to keep the peace. With Locke, it is a state of
+liberty and equality,&mdash;it is not a state of war; it is governed
+by its own law,&mdash;the law of nature, which is the same thing
+as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an end
+by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their
+natural liberty and submit themselves to one supreme government.
+In the words of Locke, &ldquo;Men being by nature all free,
+equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate
+and subjected to the political power of another without his own
+consent. The only way whereby any one divests himself of his
+natural liberty, and puts on the <i>bonds of civil society</i>, is by agreeing
+with other men to join and unite into a community&rdquo; (<i>On
+Civil Government</i>, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his theory
+as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his
+demonstration of the baselessness of Sir R. Filmer&rsquo;s speculations
+with the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the
+foundation of his own. But in general the various forms of the
+hypothesis eliminate the question of time altogether. The
+original contract from which government sprang is likewise the
+subsisting contract on which civil society continues to be based.
+The historical weakness of the theory was probably always
+recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively demonstrated
+by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on
+the principles of government.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;social compact&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rousseau</a></span>) is the most famous
+of the metaphysical explanations of government. It has had
+the largest history, the widest influence and the most complete
+development. To the same class belong the various forms of
+the theory that governments exist by divine appointment.
+Of all that has been written about the divine right of kings, a
+great deal must be set down to the mere flatteries of courtiers
+and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men
+are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been
+appointed by God. Like the social compact, the theory of
+divine appointment avoided the question of historical fact.</p>
+
+<p>The application of the historical method to the phenomena
+of society has changed the aspect of the question and robbed it
+of its political interest. The student of the history of society has
+no formula to express the law by which government is born. All
+that he can do is to trace governmental forms through various
+stages of social development. The more complex and the larger
+the society, the more distinct is the separation between the
+governing part and the rest, and the more elaborate is the
+subdivision of functions in the government. The primitive
+type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general. At the same
+time, his way of life differs little from that of his followers and
+subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing
+greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times.
+Increase of bulk brings with it a more complex social organization.
+War tends to develop the strength of the governmental organization;
+peace relaxes it. All societies of men exhibit the germs
+of government; but there would appear to be races of men so
+low that they cannot be said to live together in society at all.
+Modern investigations have illustrated very fully the importance
+of the family (<i>q.v.</i>) in primitive societies, and the belief in a
+common descent has much to do with the social cohesion of a
+tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a
+household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot
+affirm that political government has its origin in family government,
+or that there may not have been states of society in
+which government of some sort existed while the family did
+not.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Forms of Government</p>
+
+<p><i>Three Standard Forms.</i>&mdash;Political writers from the time of
+Aristotle have been singularly unanimous in their classification
+of the forms of government. There are three ways in which
+states may be governed. They may be governed by one man,
+or by a number of men, small in proportion to the whole number
+of men in the state, or by a number large in proportion to the
+whole number of men in the state. The government may be
+a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms
+are used by John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very
+nearly the same sense. The determining quality in governments
+in both writers, and it may safely be said in all intermediate
+writers, is the numerical relation between the constituent
+members of the government and the population of the state.
+There were, of course, enormous differences between the state-systems
+present to the mind of the Greek philosopher and the
+English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent
+states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern Europe.
+The unit of government in the one case was a city, in the other
+a nation. This difference is of itself enough to invalidate all
+generalization founded on the common terminology. But on
+one point there is a complete parallel between the politics of
+Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek cities were to
+the rest of the world very much what European nations and
+European colonies are to the rest of the world now. They were
+the only communities in which the governed visibly took some
+share in the work of government. Outside the European system,
+as outside the Greek system, we have only the stereotyped
+uniformity of despotism, whether savage or civilized. The
+question of forms of government, therefore, belongs characteristically
+to the European races. The virtues and defects of
+monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and
+defects manifested by the historical governments of Europe.
+The generality of the language used by political writers must
+not blind us to the fact that they are thinking only of a comparatively
+small portion of mankind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Greek Politics.</i>&mdash;Aristotle divides governments according to
+two principles. In all states the governing power seeks either
+its own advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and
+the government is bad or good accordingly. In all states the
+governing power is one man, or a few men or many men. Hence
+six varieties of government, three of which are bad and three
+good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved form,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the
+depraved form (Tyranny).</p>
+
+<p>The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to
+the depraved form (Oligarchy).</p>
+
+<p>The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds
+to the depraved form (Democracy).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act
+unjustly where their own interests are concerned. The worst
+of the depraved forms is tyranny, the next oligarchy and the
+least bad democracy.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Each of the three leading types exhibits
+a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we have the heroic,
+the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the Lacedemonian
+(hereditary generalship, <span class="grk" title="stratêgia">&#963;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#951;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span>), and absolute monarchy.
+So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding varieties.
+The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly
+agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for
+political affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy
+is that in which a considerable number of small proprietors
+have the power; here, too, the laws prevail. The worst
+democracy consists of a larger citizen class having leisure for
+politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small number of
+very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is
+reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which
+as much as possible is left to the laws, and as little as possible
+to the will of the governor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Politics</i> of Aristotle, from which these principles are
+taken, presents a striking picture of the variety and activity
+of political life in the free communities of Greece. The king and
+council of heroic times had disappeared, and self-government
+in some form or other was the general rule. It is to be noticed,
+however, that the governments of Greece were essentially
+unstable. The political philosophers could lay down the law
+of development by which one form of government gives birth
+to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to
+the consideration of the causes of revolutions. The dread of
+tyranny was kept alive by the facility with which an over-powerful
+and unscrupulous citizen could seize the whole machinery
+of government. Communities oscillated between some form of
+oligarchy and some form of democracy. The security of each
+was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of the opposing
+factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that exuberant
+variety of form and expression which characterizes all the intellectual
+products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent
+progress. Then there was no approximation to a national
+government, even of the federal type. The varying confederacies
+and hegemonies are the nearest approach to anything of the kind.
+What kind of national government would ultimately have arisen
+if Greece had not been crushed it is needless to conjecture;
+the true interest of Greek politics lies in the fact that the free
+citizens were, in the strictest sense of the word, self-governed.
+Each citizen took his turn at the common business of the state.
+He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time
+in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship
+in Athens was a liberal education, such as it never can be made
+under any representative system.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Government of Rome.</i>&mdash;During the whole period of freedom
+the government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal
+self-government. Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his
+own person in the comitia of the centuries or the tribes. The
+administrative powers of government were, however, in the hands
+of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from the holders of high
+public office. The senate represented capacity and experience
+rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument
+the city government of Rome could never have made the conquest
+of the world. The gradual extension of the citizenship to other
+Italians changed the character of Roman government. The
+distant citizens could not come to the voting booths; the device
+of representation was not discovered; and the comitia fell into
+the power of the town voters. In the last stage of the Roman
+republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of
+a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect
+of leaving to the people of London or Paris the supreme control
+of the British empire or of France,&mdash;irresistible temptation,
+inevitable corruption. The rabble of the capital learn to live
+on the rest of the empire.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The favour of the effeminate masters
+of the world is purchased by <i>panem et circenses</i>. That capable
+officers and victorious armies should long be content to serve
+such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of generals placed
+itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of them made
+himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus and Tiberius,
+the Roman people became habituated to a new form of government,
+which is best described by the name of Caesarism. The
+outward forms of republican government remained, but one
+man united in his own person all the leading offices, and used
+them to give a seemingly legal title to what was essentially
+military despotism. There is no more interesting constitutional
+study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the growth
+of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect
+of Tiberius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as
+the English constitution of the present day. The master of the
+world posed as the humble servant of a menial senate. Deprecating
+the outward symbols of sovereignty, he was satisfied with
+the modest powers of a consul or a tribunus plebis. The reign
+of Tiberius, little capable as he was by personal character of
+captivating the favour of the multitude, did more for imperialism
+than was done by his more famous predecessors. Henceforward
+free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the
+military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the
+character imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an
+elective not an hereditary king. The real foundation of his
+power was the army, and the army in course of time openly
+assumed the right of nominating the sovereign. The characteristic
+weakness of the Roman empire was the uncertainty of the
+succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the lifetime of the
+emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were
+elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force
+of arms could decide the question between them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Governments.</i>&mdash;<i>Feudalism.</i>&mdash;The Roman empire bequeathed
+to modern Europe the theory of universal dominion.
+The nationalities which grew up after its fall arranged themselves
+on the basis of territorial sovereignty. Leaving out of account
+the free municipalities of the middle ages, the problem of government
+had now to be solved, not for small urban communities,
+but for large territorial nations. The medieval form of government
+was feudal. One common type pervaded all the relations
+of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation between
+lord and vassal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>). The bond between them
+was the tenure of land. In England there had been, before
+the Norman Conquest, an approximation to a feudal system.
+In the earlier English constitution, the most striking features
+were the power of the witan, and the common property of the
+nation in a large portion of the soil. The steady development
+of the power of the king kept pace with the aggregation of the
+English tribes under one king. The conception that the land
+belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception
+that everything belonged primarily to the king.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The Norman
+Conquest imposed on England the already highly developed
+feudalism of France, and out of this feudalism the free governments
+of modern Europe have grown. One or two of the leading
+steps in this process may be indicated here. The first, and
+perhaps the most important, was the device of representation.
+For an account of its origin, and for instances of its use in England
+before its application to politics, we must be content to refer
+to Stubbs&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. ii. The problem of combining
+a large area of sovereignty with some degree of self-government,
+which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths,
+was henceforward solved. From that time some form of representation
+has been deemed essential to every constitution
+professing, however remotely, to be free.</p>
+
+<p>The connexion between representation and the feudal system
+of estates must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the
+king a limited right to military service and to certain aids, both
+of which were utterly inadequate to meet the expenses of the
+government, especially in time of war. The king therefore
+had to get contributions from his people, and he consulted
+them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply
+the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed
+out that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king
+and the order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of
+inchoate estates or sub-estates of the realm. The right of representation
+was thus in its origin a right to consent to taxation.
+The pure theory of feudalism had from the beginning been
+broken by William the Conqueror causing all free-holders to
+take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The institution of
+parliaments, and the association of the king&rsquo;s smaller
+tenants <i>in capite</i> with other commoners, still further removed the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span>
+government from the purely feudal type in which the mesne lord
+stands between the inferior vassal and the king.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parliamentary Government.</i>&mdash;<i>The English System.</i>&mdash;The right
+of the commons to share the power of the king and lords in
+legislation, the exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes,
+the disappearance of the clergy as a separate order, were all
+important steps in the movement towards popular government.
+The extinction of the old feudal nobility in the dynastic wars of
+the 15th century simplified the question by leaving the crown
+face to face with parliament. The immediate result was no
+doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably
+never stood higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and
+Elizabeth; but even these powerful monarchs were studious
+in their regard for parliamentary conventionalities. After a
+long period of speculative controversy and civil war, the settlement
+of 1688 established limited monarchy as the government
+of England. Since that time the external form of government
+has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes,
+the constitution of William III. might be taken for the same
+system as that which still exists. The silent changes have,
+however, been enormous. The most striking of these, and that
+which has produced the most salient features of the English
+system, is the growth of cabinet government. Intimately connected
+with this is the rise of the two great historical parties of
+English politics. The normal state of government in England
+is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for
+the time, the stronger of the two. Before the Revolution the
+king&rsquo;s ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even
+after the Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating,
+and each individual minister was bound to the others only by
+the tie of common service to the king. Under the Hanoverian
+sovereigns the ministry became consolidated, the position of
+the cabinet became definite, and its dependence on parliament,
+and more particularly on the House of Commons, was established.
+Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the other,
+and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done
+in the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics
+has divided parliament into the representatives of two parties,
+and the party in opposition has been steadied by the consciousness
+that it, too, has constitutional functions of high importance,
+because at any moment it may be called to provide a ministry.
+Criticism is sobered by being made responsible. Along with
+this movement went the withdrawal of the personal action of
+the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to veto a
+bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne.
+No ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834.
+Whatever the power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably
+limited to his personal influence over his ministers. And it
+must be remembered that since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers
+have become, in practice, responsible ultimately, not to parliament,
+but to the House of Commons. Apart, therefore, from
+democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we find that the
+House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the centre
+of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been
+enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions
+of the government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional
+writers, such as Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a
+wonderful compound of the three standard forms,&mdash;monarchy,
+aristocracy and democracy. Each has its place, and each acts
+as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the question
+&ldquo;Whether the British government inclines more to absolute
+monarchy or to a republic,&rdquo; decides in favour of the former
+alternative. &ldquo;The tide has run long and with some rapidity
+to the side of popular government, and is just beginning to
+turn toward monarchy.&rdquo; And he gives it as his own opinion
+that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death, the true
+euthanasia of the British constitution. These views of the
+English government in the 18th century may be contrasted
+with Bagehot&rsquo;s sketch of the modern government as a working
+instrument.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Leading Features of Parliamentary Government.</i>&mdash;The parliamentary
+government developed by England out of feudal
+materials has been deliberately accepted as the type of constitutional
+government all over the world. Its leading features are
+popular representation more or less extensive, a bicameral
+legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated ministry. In connexion
+with all of these, numberless questions of the highest practical
+importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which would
+surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to
+a few very general considerations.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Two Chambers.</i>&mdash;First, as to the double chamber. This,
+which is perhaps more accidental than any other portion of
+the British system, has been the most widely imitated. In most
+European countries, in the British colonies, in the United
+States Congress, and in the separate states of the Union,<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> there
+are two houses of legislature. This result has been brought
+about partly by natural imitation of the accepted type of free
+government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber
+will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the
+elements of the British original cannot be reproduced to order
+under different conditions. There have, indeed, been a few
+attempts to imitate the special character of hereditary nobility
+attaching to the British House of Lords. In some countries,
+where the feudal tradition is still strong (<i>e.g.</i> Prussia, Austria,
+Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper chambers has
+survived as truly representative of actual social and economic
+relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain
+(<i>e.g.</i> in France after the Revolution) the attempt to establish
+an hereditary peerage on the British model has always failed.
+For the peculiar solidarity between the British nobility and the
+general mass of the people, the outcome of special conditions
+and tendencies, is a result beyond the power of constitution-makers
+to attain. The British system too, after its own way,
+has for a long period worked without any serious collision
+between the Houses,&mdash;the standing and obvious danger of the
+bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess
+the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not&mdash;in fact
+they often do not&mdash;possess the confidence of the House of Lords.
+It is only in legislation that the Lower House really shares its
+powers with the Upper; and (apart from any such change in
+the constitution as was suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman)
+the constitution possesses, in the unlimited power
+of nominating peers, a well-understood last resource should
+the House of Lords persist in refusing important measures
+demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United
+Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies
+with the people (the electorate), and the House of Lords
+recognizes the principle that it must accept a measure when the
+popular will has been clearly expressed. In all but measures
+of first-class importance, however, the House of Lords is a real
+second chamber, and in these there is little danger of a collision
+between the Houses. There is the widest possible difference
+between the British and any other second chamber. In the
+United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal
+representation of states) is the more important of the two
+Houses, and the only one whose control of the executive can be
+compared to that exercised by the British House of Commons.</p>
+
+<p>The real strength of popular government in England lies in
+the ultimate supremacy of the House of Commons. That
+supremacy had been acquired, perhaps to its full extent, before
+the extension of the suffrage made the constituencies democratic.
+Foreign imitators, it may be observed, have been more ready to
+accept a wide basis of representation than to confer real power
+on the representative body. In all the monarchical countries
+of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be,
+the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won.
+Where the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no
+reason for guarding it against abuse. The independence of the
+executive in the United States brings that country, from one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span>
+point of view, more near to the state system of the continent
+of Europe than to that of the United Kingdom. The people
+make a more complete surrender of power to the government
+(State or Federal) than is done in England.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cabinet Government.</i>&mdash;The peculiar functions of the English
+cabinet are not easily matched in any foreign system. They are
+a mystery even to most educated Englishmen. The cabinet
+(<i>q.v.</i>) is much more than a body consisting of chiefs of departments.
+It is the inner council of the empire, the arbiter of
+national policy, foreign or domestic, the sovereign in commission.
+The whole power of the House of Commons is concentrated in
+its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in the
+legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not
+fixed even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its
+proceedings. The relations of an individual minister to the
+cabinet, and of the cabinet to its head and creator, the premier,
+are things known only to the initiated. With the doubtful
+exception of France, no other system of government presents
+us with anything like its equivalent. In the United States,
+as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers
+surrounding the chief of the state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Change of Power in the English System.</i>&mdash;One of the most
+difficult problems of government is how to provide for the
+devolution of political power, and perhaps no other question
+is so generally and justly applied as the test of a working constitution.
+If the transmission works smoothly, the constitution,
+whatever may be its other defects, may at least be pronounced
+stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the contrivances
+which this problem has suggested to political societies. Here,
+as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale.
+When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law
+of succession fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled
+to succeed, assassination becomes almost a necessary measure
+of precaution. The prince whom chance or intrigue has promoted
+to the throne of a father or an uncle must make himself
+safe from his relatives and competitors. Hence the scenes
+which shock the European conscience when &ldquo;Amurath an
+Amurath succeeds.&rdquo; The strong monarchical governments
+of Europe have been saved from this evil by an indisputable
+law of succession, which marks out from his infancy the next
+successor to the throne. The king names his ministers, and the
+law names the king. In popular or constitutional governments
+far more elaborate precautions are required. It is one of the real
+merits of the English constitution that it has solved this
+problem&mdash;in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion&mdash;but with perfect
+success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and
+down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended
+all the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the
+real change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The constitutional
+practice of the 19th century settled, beyond the
+reach of controversy, the occasions on which a ministry is bound
+to retire. It must resign or dissolve when it is defeated<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> in the
+House of Commons, and if after a dissolution it is beaten again,
+it must resign without alternative. It may resign if it thinks its
+majority in the House of Commons not sufficiently large. The
+dormant functions of the crown now come into existence. It
+receives back political power from the old ministry in order to
+transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to be formed,
+and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established
+practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recommending
+the king to consult him; and that successor must be
+the recognized leader of his successful rivals. All this is a
+matter of custom, not of law; and it is doubtful if any two
+authorities could agree in describing the custom in language
+of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any one
+he pleases, and charge him with the formation of a government;
+but the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to
+the recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an
+individual. It is certain that the intervention of the crown
+facilitates the transfer of power from one party to another, by
+giving it the appearance of a mere change of servants. The
+real disturbance is that caused by the appeal to the electors.
+A general election is always a struggle between the great political
+parties for the possession of the powers of government. It
+may be noted that modern practice goes far to establish the rule
+that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once
+without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons.</p>
+
+<p>The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the will
+of the House of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House
+of Commons itself is dependent on the will of the ministry. In
+the last result both depend on the will of the constituencies,
+as expressed at the general election. There is no fixity in either
+direction in the tenure of a ministry. It may be challenged at
+any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and beaten. And
+that there should be a ministry and a House of Commons in
+harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is
+rendered all but impossible by the law and the practice as to
+the duration of parliaments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Change of Power in the United States.</i>&mdash;The United States
+offers a very different solution of the problem. The American
+president is at once king and prime minister; and there is no
+titular superior to act as a conduit-pipe between him and his
+successor. His crown is rigidly fixed; he can be removed only
+by the difficult method of impeachment. No hostile vote
+on matters of legislation can affect his position. But the end of
+his term is known from the first day of his government; and
+almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country
+are shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a
+change of government in America means a considerable change
+in the administrative staff (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civil Service</a></span>). The commotion
+caused by a presidential election in the United States
+is thus infinitely greater and more prolonged than that caused
+by a general election in England. A change of power in England
+affects comparatively few personal interests, and absorbs the
+attention of the country for a comparatively short space of time.
+In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared
+for, and when it comes it involves the personal fortunes of large
+numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more
+democratic than the American, in the sense that the popular
+will can more speedily be brought to bear upon the government.</p>
+
+<p><i>Change of Power in France.</i>&mdash;The established practice of
+England and America may be compared with the constitutionalism
+of France. Here the problem presents different conditions.
+The head of the state is neither a premier of the English, nor
+a president of the American type. He is served by a prime
+minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry, hold office
+on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds
+office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like
+the others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet
+to cabinet is concerned, he discharges the functions of an English
+king. But the transmission of power between himself and his
+successor is protected by no constitutional devices whatever,
+and experience would seem to show that no such devices are
+really necessary. Other European countries professing constitutional
+government appear to follow the English practice.
+The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly fair to
+compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that,
+while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same
+persons are generally re-elected.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Relation between Government and Laws.</i>&mdash;It might be
+supposed that, if any general proposition could be established
+about government, it would be one establishing some constant
+relation between the form of a government and the character
+of the laws which it enforces. The technical language of the
+English school of jurists is certainly of a kind to encourage such
+a supposition. The entire body of law in force in a country
+at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of the
+governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit
+of this jurisprudence than the following:&mdash;&ldquo;The real legislator
+is not he by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose
+will it continues to be law.&rdquo; The whole of the vast repertory
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
+of rules which make up the law of England&mdash;the rules of practice
+in the courts, the local customs of a county or a manor, the
+principles formulated by the sagacity of generations of judges,
+equally with the statutes for the year, are conceived of by the
+school of Austin as created by the will of the sovereign and the
+two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would now
+satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place
+to examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition,
+but the statement we have made carries on its face a demonstration
+of its own falsity in fact. There is probably no government
+in the world of which it could be said that it might change at
+will the substantive laws of the country and still remain a
+government. However well it may suit the purposes of analytical
+jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by sovereign to
+subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition, and that
+the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society, anything
+but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of
+a particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliberate
+will of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has
+illustrated this point by the case of the great tax-gathering
+empires of the east, in which the absolute master of millions
+of men never dreams of making anything in the nature of a law
+at all. This view is no doubt as strange to the English statesman
+as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous work of government
+in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For a
+large portion of the year the attention of the whole people is
+bent on the operations of a body of men who are constantly
+engaged in making new laws. It is natural, therefore, to think
+of law as a factitious thing, made and unmade by the people
+who happen for the time being to constitute parliament. It is
+forgotten how small a proportion the laws actually devised by
+parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the land. No
+European country has undergone so many changes in the form
+of government as France. It is surprising how little effect these
+political revolutions have had on the body of French law.
+The change from empire to republic is not marked by greater
+legislative effects than the change from a Conservative to a
+Liberal ministry in England would be.</p>
+
+<p>These reflections should make us cautious in accepting any
+general proposition about forms of government and the spirit
+of their laws. We must remember, also, that the classification
+of governments according to the numerical proportion between
+governors and governed supplies but a small basis for generalization.
+What parallel can be drawn between a small town, in which
+half the population are slaves, and every freeman has a direct
+voice in the government, and a great modern state, in which
+there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign
+powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates
+and representatives? Propositions as vague as those of Montesquieu
+may indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility.
+But to take any leading head of positive law, and to say that
+monarchies treat it in one way, aristocracies and democracies
+in another, is a different matter.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Sphere of Government</p>
+
+<p>The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government
+in a civilized community shapes itself into the threefold functions
+of legislation, judicature and administration. The two first
+are perfectly well-defined, and the last includes all the kinds
+of state action not included in the other two. It is with reference
+to legislation and administration that the line of permissible
+state-action requires to be drawn. There is no doubt about the
+province of the judicature, and that function of government
+may therefore be dismissed with a very few observations.</p>
+
+<p>The complete separation of the three functions marks a
+high point of social organization. In simple societies the same
+officers discharge all the duties which we divide between the
+legislator, the administrator and the judge. The acts themselves
+are not consciously recognized as being of different kinds.
+The evolution of all the parts of a highly complex government
+from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the history
+of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modern
+government, however little they may resemble each other now,
+can be followed back without a break to their common origin.
+Parliament, the cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law,
+all carry us back to the same <i>nidus</i> in the council of the feudal
+king.</p>
+
+<p><i>Judicature.</i>&mdash;The business of judicature, requiring as it does
+the possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge,
+is generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a
+separate and independent class of functionaries. In England
+the appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains
+in theory the connexion between the supreme legislative and the
+supreme judicial functions. In some states of the American Union
+certain judicial functions of the upper house were for a time maintained
+after the example of the English constitution as it existed
+when the states were founded. In England there is also still
+a considerable amount of judicial work in which the people takes
+its share. The inferior magistracies, except in populous places,
+are in the hands of private persons. And by the jury system
+the ascertainment of fact has been committed in very large
+measure to persons selected indiscriminately from the mass
+of the people, subject to a small property qualification. But
+the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons
+whom the law has jealously fenced off from external interference
+and control. The independence of the bench distinguishes the
+English system from every other. It was established in principle
+as a barrier against monarchical power, and hence has become
+one of the traditional ensigns of popular government. In many
+of the American states the spirit of democracy has demanded
+the subjection of the judiciary to popular control. The judges
+are elected directly by the people, and hold office for a short
+term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the responsible
+executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses.
+At the same time the constitution of the United States has
+assigned to the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique
+position. The supreme court is the guardian of the constitution
+(as are the state courts of the constitution of the states: see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>). It has to judge whether a measure passed
+by the legislative powers is not void by reason of being unconstitutional,
+and it may therefore have to veto the deliberate
+resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It
+is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been
+completely justified by its success.</p>
+
+<p><i>Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration.</i>&mdash;The
+question of the limits of state action does not arise with
+reference to the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a
+duty which the sovereign power must of absolute necessity
+take upon itself. But to what conduct of the citizens the laws
+shall extend is the most perplexing of all political questions.
+The correlative question with regard to the executive would
+be what works of public convenience should the state undertake
+through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere
+of government may be stated in these two questions: What
+should the state do for its citizens? and How far should the
+state interfere with the action of its citizens? These questions
+are the direct outcome of modern popular government; they
+are equally unknown to the small democracies of ancient times
+and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly ancient
+political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions,
+has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of
+government. The conception that the power of the state can
+be and ought to be limited belongs to the times of &ldquo;government
+by discussion,&rdquo; to use Bagehot&rsquo;s expression,&mdash;to the time when
+the sovereign number is divided by class interests, and when
+the action of the majority has to be carried out in the face of
+strong minorities, capable of making themselves heard. Aristotle
+does indeed dwell on one aspect of the question. He would
+limit the action of the government in the sense of leaving as little
+as possible to the personal will of the governors, whether one
+or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that the
+sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by
+general principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign
+to ancient philosophy. The state is conceived as acting like
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
+a just man, and justice in the state is the same thing as justice
+in the individual. The Greek institutions which the philosophers
+are unanimous in commending are precisely those which the most
+state-ridden nations of modern times would agree in repudiating.
+The exhaustive discussion of all political measures, which for
+over two centuries has been a fixed habit of English public life,
+has of itself established the principle that there are assignable
+limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever have
+been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or
+less vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from
+the interference of the law. Phrases like &ldquo;the liberty of the
+subject,&rdquo; the &ldquo;sanctity of private property,&rdquo; &ldquo;an Englishman&rsquo;s
+house is his castle,&rdquo; &ldquo;the rights of conscience,&rdquo; are the commonplaces
+of political discussion, and tell the state, &ldquo;Thus far shalt
+thou go and no further.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The two contrasting policies are those of <i>laissez-faire</i> (let
+alone) and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism,
+the one a policy of non-interference with the free play of social
+forces, the other of their regulation for the benefit of the community.
+The <i>laissez-faire</i> theory was prominently upheld by
+John Stuart Mill, whose essay on <i>Liberty</i>, together with the
+concluding chapters of his treatise on <i>Political Economy</i>, gives
+a tolerably complete view of the principles of government.
+There is a general presumption against the interference of government,
+which is only to be overcome by very strong evidence
+of necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective
+than voluntary action. The necessary duties of government
+are so burdensome, that to increase them destroys its efficiency.
+Its powers are already so great that individual freedom is
+constantly in danger. As a general rule, nothing which can be
+done by the voluntary agency of individuals should be left to
+the state. Each man is the best judge of his own interests.
+But, on the other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to
+be useful or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary
+agency, or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot
+be considered capable of judging of the quality supplied, then
+Mill would allow the state to interpose. Thus the education
+of children, and even of adults, would fairly come within the
+province of the state. Mill even goes so far as to admit that,
+where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the establishment
+of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to labourers
+as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account of
+the refusal of individuals to co-operate, government may justifiably
+compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire
+to see some control exercised by the government over the operations
+of those voluntary associations which, consisting of large
+numbers of shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the
+hands of one or a few persons. In short, Mill&rsquo;s general rule
+against state action admits of many important exceptions,
+founded on no principle less vague than that of public expediency.
+The essay on <i>Liberty</i> is mainly concerned with freedom of
+individual character, and its arguments apply to control exercised,
+not only by the state, but by society in the form of public opinion.
+The leading principle is that of Humboldt, &ldquo;the absolute and
+essential importance of human development in its richest
+diversity.&rdquo; Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion
+and morals from the action, direct and indirect, of the state.
+Mill, as we have seen, conceives education to be within the province
+of the state, but he would confine its action to compelling
+parents to educate their children.</p>
+
+<p>The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however,
+is Herbert Spencer. In his <i>Social Statics</i>, published in 1850,
+he holds it to be the essential duty of government to <i>protect</i>&mdash;to
+maintain men&rsquo;s rights to life, to personal liberty and to
+property; and the theory that the government ought to undertake
+other offices besides that of protector he regards as an
+untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest exercise
+of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others.
+This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the
+duty and the only duty of the state to enforce. If the state
+goes beyond this duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an
+aggressor. Thus all state regulations of commerce, all religious
+establishments, all government relief of the poor, all state
+systems of education and of sanitary superintendence, even
+the state currency and the post-office, stand condemned, not
+only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as involving
+violations of man&rsquo;s natural liberty.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of
+political practice than of political theory. In some cases state
+interference has been abolished or greatly limited. These cases
+are mainly two&mdash;in matters of opinion (especially religious
+opinion), and in matters of contract.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a
+formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles
+as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England, Church of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Establishment</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oath</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Catholic Church</a></span>, &amp;c., and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Partnership</a></span>, &amp;c. In other cases the state has interfered for the
+protection and assistance of definite classes of persons. For example,
+the education and protection of children (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, Law Relating
+to</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Technical Education</a></span>); the regulation
+of factory labour and dangerous employment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Labour Legislation</a></span>);
+improved conditions of health (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Housing</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Public Health, Law of</a></span>, &amp;c.); coercion for moral purposes
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bet and Betting</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminal Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquor Laws</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lotteries</a></span>, &amp;c.). Under numerous other headings
+in this work the evolution of existing forms of government is discussed;
+see also the bibliographical note to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constitution
+and Constitutional Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that
+any one of the depraved forms is better than any other.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or permanent
+conquests; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to
+another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source
+of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (<i>Essays</i>, part i. 3, <i>That
+Politics may be reduced to a Science</i>), &ldquo;free governments are the most
+ruinous and oppressive for their provinces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to
+have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the
+peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only
+on this view, <i>e.g.</i> the curious distinction between wrecks come to
+land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was
+no doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every
+ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right
+held of the crown by a vassal.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Bagehot&rsquo;s <i>English Constitution</i>; or, for a more recent
+analysis, Sidney Low&rsquo;s <i>Governance of England</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For an account of the double chamber system in the state legislatures
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>: <i>Constitution and Government</i>, and also
+S. G. Fisher, <i>The Evolution of the Constitution</i> (Philadelphia, 1897).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> A government &ldquo;defeat&rdquo; may, of course, not really represent a
+hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government
+has obtained a reversal of the vote and has <i>not</i> resigned.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOVERNOR<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>gouverneur</i>, from <i>gouverner</i>, O. Fr.
+<i>governer</i>, Lat. <i>gubernare</i>, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in
+general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically,
+an official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &amp;c.
+In British colonies or dependencies the representative of the
+crown is termed a governor. Colonial governors are classed
+as governors-general, governors and lieutenant-governors,
+according to the status of the colony or group of colonies over
+which they preside. Their powers vary according to the position
+which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority
+of the crown. In the United States (<i>q.v.</i>) the official at the
+head of every state government is called a governor.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOW, NIEL<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parentage,
+famous as a violinist and player of reels, but more so for
+the part he played in preserving the old melodies of Scotland.
+His compositions, and those of his four sons, Nathaniel, the
+most famous (1763-1831), William (1751-1791), Andrew (1760-1803),
+and John (1764-1826), formed the &ldquo;Gow Collection,&rdquo;
+comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a
+valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most important
+of Niel&rsquo;s sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as
+the author of the well-known &ldquo;Caller Herrin,&rdquo; taken from the
+fishwives&rsquo; cry, a tune to which words were afterwards written
+by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel&rsquo;s son, <span class="sc">Niel Gow</span> junior (1795-1823),
+was the author of the famous songs &ldquo;Flora Macdonald&rsquo;s Lament&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Cam&rsquo; ye by Athol.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOWER, JOHN<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced
+age in 1408, so that he may be presumed to have been born
+about 1330. He belonged to a good Kentish family, but the
+suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the poet is to be identified
+with a John Gower who was at one time possessed of the manor
+of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no evidence
+that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was undoubtedly
+possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner
+of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk.
+In a document of 1382 he is called an &ldquo;Esquier de Kent,&rdquo; and
+he was certainly not in holy orders. That he was acquainted
+with Chaucer we know, first because Chaucer in leaving England
+for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and another to represent
+him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer addressed his
+<i>Troilus and Criseide</i> to Gower and Strode (whom he addresses
+as &ldquo;moral Gower&rdquo; and &ldquo;philosophical Strode&rdquo;) for criticism
+and correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition
+of Gower&rsquo;s <i>Confessio amantis</i>, &ldquo;And gret wel Chaucer whan ye
+mete,&rdquo; &amp;c. There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion,
+based partly on the subsequent omission of these lines and
+partly on the humorous reference of Chaucer to Gower&rsquo;s <i>Confessio
+amantis</i> in the introduction to the <i>Man of Law&rsquo;s Tale</i>, that the
+friendship was broken by a quarrel. From his Latin poem
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
+<i>Vox clamantis</i> we know that he was deeply and painfully
+interested in the peasants&rsquo; rising of 1381; and by the alterations
+which the author made in successive revisions of this work
+we can trace a gradually increasing sense of disappointment in
+the youthful king, whom he at first acquits of all responsibility
+for the state of the kingdom on account of his tender age. That
+he became personally known to the king we learn from his
+own statement in the first edition of the <i>Confessio amantis</i>,
+where he says that he met the king upon the river, was invited
+to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which followed
+received the suggestion which led him to write his principal
+English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the
+later revisions of the <i>Confessio amantis</i>, that he was a great
+admirer of the king&rsquo;s brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster,
+afterwards Henry IV., whom he came eventually to regard as a
+possible saviour of society from the misgovernment of Richard II.
+We have a record that in 1393 he received a collar from his
+favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that the
+effigy upon Gower&rsquo;s tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the
+swan badge which was used by Henry.</p>
+
+<p>The first edition of the <i>Confessio amantis</i> is dated 1390, and
+this contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication
+to the then earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry
+became the sole object of the dedication, is of the year 1393.
+Gower&rsquo;s political opinions are still more strongly expressed in
+the <i>Cronica tripartita</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the
+special licence granted by the bishop of Winchester for the
+celebration of this marriage in John Gower&rsquo;s private oratory
+we gather that he was then living in lodgings assigned to him
+within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps also that he
+was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is probable
+that this was not his first marriage, for there are indications
+in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when
+that was written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408,
+and his death took place very soon after this. He had been
+blind for some years before his death. A magnificent tomb
+with a recumbent effigy was erected over his grave in the chapel
+of St John the Baptist within the church of the priory, now
+St Saviour&rsquo;s, Southwark, and this is still to be seen, though not
+quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on the
+tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a
+considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely
+to the rebuilding of the church.</p>
+
+<p>The effigy on Gower&rsquo;s tomb rests its head upon a pile of three
+folio volumes entitled <i>Speculum meditantis</i>, <i>Vox clamantis</i>
+and <i>Confessio amantis</i>. These are his three principal works.
+The first of these was long supposed to have perished, but a copy
+of it was discovered in the year 1895 under the title <i>Mirour
+de l&rsquo;omme</i>. It is a French poem of about 30,000 lines in twelve-line
+stanzas, and under the form of an allegory of the human soul
+describes the seven deadly sins and their opposing virtues, and
+then the various estates of man and the vices incident to each,
+concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin Mary, and
+with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God
+and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part,
+but shows considerable command over the language and a great
+facility in metrical expression.</p>
+
+<p>Gower&rsquo;s next work was the <i>Vox clamantis</i> in Latin elegiac
+verse, in which the author takes occasion from the peasants&rsquo;
+insurrection of 1381 to deal again with the faults of the various
+classes of society. In the earlier portion the insurrection itself
+is described in a rather vivid manner, though under the form
+of an allegory: the remainder contains much the same material
+as we have already seen in that part of the French poem where
+the classes of society are described. Gower&rsquo;s Latin verse is
+very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book
+he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam,
+Peter de Riga and others.</p>
+
+<p>Gower&rsquo;s chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests
+upon his English work, the <i>Confessio amantis</i>, in which he
+displays in his native language a real gift as a story-teller. He
+is himself the lover of his poem, in spite of his advancing years,
+and he makes his confession to Genius, the priest of Venus,
+under the usual headings supplied by the seven deadly sins.
+These with their several branches are successively described,
+and the nature of them illustrated by tales, which are directed
+to the illustration both of the general nature of the sin, and of the
+particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he receives
+at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of
+Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious,
+and there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application
+of moral ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress.
+The tales are drawn from very various sources and are often
+extremely well told. The metre is the short couplet, and it is
+extremely smooth and regular. The great fault of the <i>Confessio
+amantis</i> is the extent of its digressions, especially in the fifth
+and seventh books.</p>
+
+<p>Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades
+on the virtue of the married state (<i>Traitié pour essampler les
+amantz mariés</i>), and after the accession of Henry IV. he produced
+the <i>Cronica tripartita</i>, a partisan account in Latin leonine
+hexameters of the events of the last twelve years of the reign
+of Richard II. About the same time he addressed an English
+poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (<i>In Praise of Peace</i>),
+and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades (<i>Cinkante
+Balades</i>), which deal with the conventional topics of love, but
+are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several
+occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his
+life.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had considerable
+literary powers; and though not a man of genius, and by
+no means to be compared with Chaucer, yet he did good service
+in helping to establish the standard literary language, which at
+the end of the 14th century took the place of the Middle English
+dialects. The <i>Confessio amantis</i> was long regarded as a classic
+of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were often mentioned
+side by side as the fathers of English poetry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of Gower&rsquo;s works in four volumes, edited by
+G. C. Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume containing
+the French works, the second and third the English, and the
+fourth the Latin, with a biography. Before this the <i>Confessio
+amantis</i> had been published in the following editions: Caxton (1483);
+Berthelette (1532 and 1554); Chalmers, <i>British Poets</i> (1810); Reinhold
+Pauli (1857); H. Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series
+of French ballades and the <i>Praise of Peace</i> were printed for the
+Roxburghe Club in 1818, and the <i>Vox clamantis</i> and <i>Cronica
+tripartita</i> were edited by H. O. Coxe for the Roxburghe Club in
+1850. The <i>Cronica tripartita</i>, the <i>Praise of Peace</i> and some of the
+minor Latin poems were printed in Wright&rsquo;s <i>Political Poems</i> (Rolls
+series, 14). The <i>Praise of Peace</i> appeared in the early folio editions
+of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr Skeat in his <i>Chaucerian
+and other Pieces</i>. Reference may be made to Todd&rsquo;s <i>Illustrations of
+the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer</i>; the article (by Sir
+H. Nicolas) in the <i>Retrospective Review</i> for 1828; <i>Observations on the
+Language of Chaucer and Gower</i>, by F. J. Child; H. Morley&rsquo;s English
+Writers, iv.; Ten Brink&rsquo;s <i>History of Early English Literature</i>, ii.; and
+Courthope&rsquo;s <i>History of English Poetry</i>, i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. C. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOWER<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan,
+lying between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between
+Breconshire and the sea, its length from the Breconshire border
+to Worm&rsquo;s Head being 28 m., and its breadth about 8 m. It
+corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower (in Welsh <i>Gwyr</i>)
+which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other commotes
+stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the
+principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the
+country to the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by
+its continued inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural
+deaneries, West and East Gower, being in the archdeaconry
+of Carmarthen. What is meant by Gower in modern popular
+usage, however, is only the peninsular part or &ldquo;English Gower&rdquo;
+(that is the Welsh <i>Bro-wyr</i>, as distinct from <i>Gwyr</i> proper),
+roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying
+mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their
+immense deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are
+far scantier, those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span>
+being the most important. In the Roman period the river Tawe,
+or the great morass between it and the Neath, probably formed
+the boundary between the Silures and the Goidelic population
+to the west. The latter, reinforced perhaps from Ireland,
+continued to be the dominant race in Gower till their conquest
+or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of Cunedda
+who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries
+later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of
+their more or less temporary occupation in such place-names
+as Burry Holms, Worms Head and Swansea, and probably
+also in some cliff earthworks. About the year 1100 the conquest
+of Gower was undertaken by Henry de Newburgh, first earl of
+Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de Londres and others.
+His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the marches
+and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled
+for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving
+the Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically
+undisturbed. These invaders were probably reinforced a little
+later by a small detachment of the larger colony of Flemings
+which settled in south Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which
+in some cases developed into castles, were built for the protection
+of the various manors into which the district was parcelled out,
+the castles of Swansea and Loughor being ascribed to the earl
+of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de Londres.
+These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during
+the 12th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in
+1113, by his son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting
+in concert with Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last
+Prince Llewelyn in 1257. With the Norman conquest the feudal
+system was introduced, and the manors were held <i>in capite</i>
+of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard of the castle of Swansea,
+the <i>caput baroniae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>About 1189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family
+to the crown and was granted in 1203 by King John to William
+de Braose, in whose family it remained for over 120 years except
+for three short intervals when it was held for a second time by
+King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the Great (1216-1223),
+and the Despensers (<i>c.</i> 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh and
+English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of
+their treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from
+King John, who also visited the town of Swansea in 1210 and
+in 1215 granted its merchants liberal privileges. In 1283
+a number of de Braose&rsquo;s tenants&mdash;unquestionably Welshmen&mdash;left
+Gower for the royal lordship of Carmarthen, declaring that
+they would live under the king rather than under a lord marcher.
+In the following year the king visited de Braose at Oystermouth
+Castle, which seems to have been made the lord&rsquo;s chief residence,
+after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later
+on the king&rsquo;s officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen
+repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavouring
+to reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with
+semi-regal jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of
+the new county. De Braose resisted the claim and organized the
+English part of his lordship on the lines of a county palatine,
+with its own <i>comitatus</i> and chancery held in Swansea Castle,
+the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by himself. The
+inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown against
+their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king,
+who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into
+their alleged grievances, but in the following year the de Braose
+of the time, probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both
+to the burgesses of Swansea and to the English and Welsh
+inhabitants of his &ldquo;county&rdquo; of English Gower. He was the
+last lord seignior to live within the seigniory, which passed from
+him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray. Other troubles befell
+the de Braose barons and their successors in title, for their right
+to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps, representatives
+of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation
+carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps
+being actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was
+given in their favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted
+to the Mowbrays and was held by them until the 4th duke of
+Norfolk exchanged it in 1489, for lands in England, with William
+Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The latter&rsquo;s granddaughter brought
+it to her husband Charles Somerset, who in 1506 was granted
+her father&rsquo;s subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow, Raglan and
+Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present
+lord, the duke of Beaufort.</p>
+
+<p>Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by
+its inclusion in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then reorganized;
+its chancery, which from about the beginning of
+the 14th century had been located at Oystermouth Castle, came
+to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535 and 1542 purported
+to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords marchers as
+conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded as
+private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance,
+the seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till
+1858, when it was abolished by act of parliament, the appointment
+of coroner for Gower is still vested in him, all writs are
+executed by the lord&rsquo;s officers instead of by the officers of the
+sheriff for the county, and the lord&rsquo;s rights to the foreshore,
+treasure trove, felon&rsquo;s goods and wrecks are undiminished.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south
+and south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this
+part that was declared by Professor Freeman to be &ldquo;more Teutonic
+than Kent itself.&rdquo; The seaside fringe lying between this
+area and the town of Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west
+of the peninsula, also became anglicized at a comparatively
+early date, though the place-names and the names of the inhabitants
+are still mainly Welsh. The present line of demarcation
+between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea
+in a W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It
+has remained practically the same for several centuries, and is
+likely to continue so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern
+outcrop of the coal measures, the industrial population to
+the north being Welsh-speaking, the agriculturists to the south
+being English. In 1901 the Gower rural district (which includes
+the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of Llanrhidian, with about
+three-sevenths of the total population) had 64.5% of the population
+above three years of age that spoke English only, 5.2%
+that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as compared
+with 17% speaking English only, 17.7% speaking Welsh only
+and the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7%
+speaking English only, 55.2% speaking Welsh only and the rest
+bilinguals in the Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts
+constituting Welsh Gower.</p>
+
+<p>More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed
+common land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is
+apparently capable of cultivation. Besides the demesne manors
+of the lord seignior, six in number, there are some twelve mesne
+manors and fees belonging to the Penrice estate, and nearly
+twenty more belonging to various other owners. The tenure is
+customary freehold, though in some cases described as copyhold,
+and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is by
+borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller
+in size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales,
+and agriculture is still in a backward state.</p>
+
+<p>In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of
+Goire as the island home of the dead, a view which probably
+sprang up among the Celts of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula
+would appear as an island. It is also surmised by Sir John Rhys
+that Malory&rsquo;s Brandegore (<i>i.e.</i> Brân of Gower) represents the
+Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, <i>Arthurian Legend</i>, 160,
+329 et seq.). On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula,
+is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur&rsquo;s Stone.
+The unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty
+by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower
+was a favourite burial-place in early British times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Rev. J. D. Davies, <i>A History of West Gower</i> (4 vols., 1877-1894);
+Col. W. Ll-Morgan, <i>An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower</i>
+(1899); an article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled
+&ldquo;Anglia Trans-Walliana&rdquo; in the <i>Saturday Review</i> for May 20,
+1876; &ldquo;The Signory of Gower&rdquo; by G. T. Clark in <i>Archaeologia
+Cambrensis</i> for 1893-1894; <i>The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey</i>, ed. by
+Baker and Grant-Francis (1861-1870).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. Ll. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GOWN,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly
+worn by either sex but now generally for that worn by women.
+While &ldquo;dress&rdquo; is the usual English word, except in such combinations
+as &ldquo;tea-gown,&rdquo; &ldquo;dressing-gown&rdquo; and the like, where
+the original loose flowing nature of the &ldquo;gown&rdquo; is referred to,
+&ldquo;gown&rdquo; is the common American word. &ldquo;Gown&rdquo; comes from
+the O. Fr. <i>goune</i> or <i>gonne</i>. The word appears in various Romanic
+languages, cf. Ital. <i>gonna</i>. The medieval Lat. <i>gunna</i> is used of
+a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually
+adopted, but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from
+the English. Outside the ordinary use of the word, &ldquo;gown&rdquo;
+is the name for the distinctive robes worn by holders of particular
+offices or by members of particular professions or of universities,
+&amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Robes</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Earl of</span> (<i>c.</i> 1577-1600),
+Scottish conspirator, was the second son of William, 4th Lord
+Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie (cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea,
+daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord Methven. The Ruthven
+family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had owned extensive
+estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven peerage
+dated from the year 1488. The 1st earl of Gowrie (? 1541-1584),
+and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (<i>c.</i> 1520-1566), had
+both been concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and
+both took an active part on the side of the Kirk in the constant
+intrigues and factions among the Scottish nobility of the period.
+The former had been the custodian of Mary, queen of Scots,
+during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where, according to
+the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions; he
+had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the &ldquo;raid of
+Ruthven&rdquo; when King James VI. was treacherously seized
+while a guest at the castle of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under
+restraint for several months while the earl remained at the head
+of the government. Though pardoned for this conspiracy he
+continued to plot against the king in conjunction with the earls
+of Mar and Angus; and he was executed for high treason on
+the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession
+on which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise
+of pardon from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of
+Gowrie, only survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates,
+which had been forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586.</p>
+
+<p>When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom
+while still a child, he inherited along with his vast estates family
+traditions of treason and intrigue. There was also a popular
+belief, though without foundation, that there was Tudor blood
+in his veins; and Burnet afterwards asserted that Gowrie
+stood next in succession to the crown of England after King
+James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him, the
+young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming
+preachers, who procured his election in 1592 as provost of
+Perth, a post that was almost hereditary in the Ruthven family.
+He received an excellent education at the grammar school of
+Perth and the university of Edinburgh, where he was in the
+summer of 1593, about the time when his mother, and his sister
+the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing himself sword
+in hand into the king&rsquo;s bedchamber in Holyrood Palace. A
+few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in
+offering to serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile
+to the Scottish king; and it is probable that he had also relations
+with the rebellious Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already
+deeply engaged in treasonable conspiracy when, in August
+1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor, William Rhynd, to
+study at the university of Padua. On his way home in 1599
+he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer
+Theodore Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the
+English ambassador, who reported him to Cecil as devoted to
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s service, and a nobleman &ldquo;of whom there may be
+exceeding use made.&rdquo; In Paris he may also at this time have
+had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London
+he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her
+ministers.</p>
+
+<p>These circumstances owe their importance to the light they
+throw on the obscurity of the celebrated &ldquo;Gowrie conspiracy,&rdquo;
+which resulted in the slaughter of the earl and his brother by
+attendants of King James at Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks
+<span class="sidenote">The Gowrie conspiracy.</span>
+after Gowrie&rsquo;s return to Scotland in May 1600. This
+event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history.
+The mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in
+any of the alternative hypotheses suggested to account
+for the unquestionable facts of the occurrence; the discrepancies
+in the evidence produced at the time; the apparent lack of
+forethought or plan on the part of the chief actors, whichever
+hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless folly of their
+actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive, whoever
+the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery
+that have been suggested are three in number: first, that
+Gowrie and his brother had concocted a plot to murder, or
+more probably to kidnap King James, and that they lured him
+to Gowrie House for this purpose; secondly, that James paid
+a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the intention, which he
+carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and thirdly,
+that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl
+following high words between the king and the earl, or his
+brother. To understand the relative probabilities of these
+hypotheses regard must be had to the condition of Scotland in
+the year 1600 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Here it can only be
+recalled that plots to capture the person of the sovereign for the
+purpose of coercing his actions were of frequent occurrence,
+more than one of which had been successful, and in several of
+which the Ruthven family had themselves taken an active
+part; that the relations between England and Scotland were
+at this time more than usually strained, and that the young
+earl of Gowrie was reckoned in London among the adherents
+of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at variance with
+James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of their
+cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him
+to Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be
+James&rsquo;s rival for the succession to the English crown. Moreover,
+as regards the question of motive it is to be observed, on the
+one hand, that the Ruthvens believed Gowrie&rsquo;s father to have
+been treacherously done to death, and his widow insulted by
+the king&rsquo;s favourite minister; while, on the other, James was
+indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of Gowrie&rsquo;s estate,
+and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his brother, Alexander
+Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although
+the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance
+connected with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined
+by historians of the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted
+that the mystery has been entirely dispelled; but, while it is
+improbable that complete certainty will ever be arrived at as
+to whether the guilt lay with James or with the Ruthven brothers,
+the most modern research in the light of materials inaccessible
+or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly to the
+conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and
+his brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution,
+it follows that King James was innocent of the blood of the
+Ruthvens; and it raises the presumption that his own account
+of the occurrence was, in spite of the glaring improbabilities
+which it involved, substantially true.</p>
+
+<p>The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in
+outline, as follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose
+early to hunt in the neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about
+14 m. from Perth. Just as he was setting forth in company
+with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir Thomas Erskine
+and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known
+as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of
+Gowrie, who had ridden from Perth that morning to inform
+the king that he had met on the previous day a man in possession
+of a pitcher full of foreign gold coins, whom he had secretly
+locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven urged the king
+to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to take
+possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave
+credit to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins
+was one of the numerous Catholic agents at that time moving
+about Scotland in disguise. Without giving a positive reply to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span>
+Alexander Ruthven, James started to hunt; but later in the
+morning he called Ruthven to him and said he would ride to
+Perth when the hunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a
+servant, Henderson, by whom he had been accompanied from
+Perth in the early morning, to tell Gowrie that the king was coming
+to Gowrie House. This messenger gave the information to
+Gowrie about ten o&rsquo;clock in the morning. Meanwhile Alexander
+Ruthven was urging the king to lose no time, requesting him
+to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and to bring to
+Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a
+train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about
+one o&rsquo;clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for
+a mile or so to announce the king&rsquo;s approach. But notwithstanding
+Henderson&rsquo;s warning some three hours earlier, Gowrie had
+made no preparations for the king&rsquo;s entertainment, thus giving
+the impression of having been taken by surprise. After a
+meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour, James,
+forbidding his retainers to follow him, went with Alexander
+Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers
+and two doors, both of which Ruthven locked behind them,
+into a turret-room at the angle of the house, with windows
+looking on the courtyard and the street. Here James expected
+to find the mysterious prisoner with the foreign gold. He found
+instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was none other
+than Gowrie&rsquo;s servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven immediately
+put on his hat, and drawing Henderson&rsquo;s dagger, presented
+it to the king&rsquo;s breast with threats of instant death if James
+opened a window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven
+to the execution of his father, the 1st earl of Gowrie, drew
+from James a reproof of Ruthven&rsquo;s ingratitude for various
+benefits conferred on his family. Ruthven then uncovered his
+head, declaring that James&rsquo;s life should be safe if he remained
+quiet; then, committing the king to the custody of Henderson,
+he left the turret&mdash;ostensibly to consult Gowrie&mdash;and locked the
+door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned
+Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the
+purpose for which he had been placed in the turret; he also
+at James&rsquo;s request opened one of the windows, and was about
+to open the other when Ruthven returned. Whether or not
+Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain. But Gowrie had
+meantime spread the report below that the king had taken horse
+and had ridden away; and the royal retinue were seeking
+their horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret,
+attempted to bind James&rsquo;s hands; a struggle ensued, in the
+course of which the king was seen at the window by some of his
+followers below in the street, who also heard him cry &ldquo;treason&rdquo;
+and call for help to the earl of Mar. Gowrie affected not to hear
+these cries, but kept asking what was the matter. Lennox,
+Mar and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the main
+<span class="sidenote">The slaughter of the Ruthvens.</span>
+staircase to the king&rsquo;s help, but were stopped by the
+locked door, which they spent some time in trying
+to batter down. John Ramsay (afterwards earl of
+Holdernesse), noticing a small dark stairway leading
+directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it
+and found the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing
+his dagger, Ramsay wounded Ruthven, who was then pushed
+down the stairway by the king. Sir Thomas Erskine, summoned
+by Ramsay, now followed up the small stairs with Dr
+Hugh Herries, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven
+despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the courtyard
+with his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother&rsquo;s
+body, rushed up the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed
+by Cranstoun and others of his retainers; and in the melée
+Gowrie was killed. Some commotion was caused in the town by
+the noise of these proceedings; but it quickly subsided, though
+the king did not deem it safe to return to Falkland for some
+hours.</p>
+
+<p>The tragedy caused intense excitement throughout Scotland,
+and the investigation of the circumstances was followed with
+much interest in England also, where all the details were reported
+to Elizabeth&rsquo;s ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose
+influence in Scotland was too extensive for the king to neglect,
+were only with the greatest difficulty persuaded to accept
+James&rsquo;s account of the occurrence, although he voluntarily
+submitted himself to cross-examination by one of their number.
+Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no doubt
+by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented
+the story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to cover his own design
+to extirpate the Ruthven family. James gave some colour to
+this belief, which has not been entirely abandoned, by the relentless
+severity with which he pursued the two younger, and
+unquestionably innocent, brothers of the earl. Great efforts
+were made by the government to prove the complicity of others
+in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert
+Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been
+privy to the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters
+produced by a notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been
+written by Logan to Gowrie and others. These letters, which
+are still in existence, were in fact forged by Sprot in imitation
+of Logan&rsquo;s handwriting; but the researches of Andrew Lang
+<span class="sidenote">The Sprot forgeries.</span>
+have shown cause for suspecting that the most important
+of them was either copied by Sprot from a
+genuine original by Logan, or that it embodied the
+substance of such a letter. If this be correct, it would
+appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan&rsquo;s
+impregnable fortress on the coast of Berwickshire, was part
+of the plot; and it supplies, at all events, an additional
+piece of evidence to prove the genuineness of the Gowrie
+conspiracy.</p>
+
+<p>Gowrie&rsquo;s two younger brothers, William and Patrick Ruthven,
+fled to England; and after the accession of James to the English
+throne William escaped abroad, but Patrick was taken and
+imprisoned for nineteen years in the Tower of London. Released
+in 1622, Patrick Ruthven resided first at Cambridge and afterwards
+in Somersetshire, being granted a small pension by the
+crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford, widow of the 1st
+Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a daughter, Mary;
+the latter entered the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and
+married the famous painter van Dyck, who painted several
+portraits of her. Patrick died in poverty in a cell in the King&rsquo;s
+Bench in 1652, being buried as &ldquo;Lord Ruthven.&rdquo; His son,
+Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in 1656, in
+which, after reciting that the parliament of Scotland in 1641
+had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, he prayed
+that his &ldquo;extreme poverty&rdquo; might be relieved by the bounty
+of the Protector.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Andrew Lang, <i>James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery</i> (London,
+1902), and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, <i>Criminal
+Trials in Scotland</i> (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1833); David Moysie, <i>Memoirs
+of the Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603</i> (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A.
+Barbé, <i>The Tragedy of Gowrie House</i> (London, 1887); Andrew
+Bisset, <i>Essays on Historical Truth</i> (London, 1871); David Calderwood,
+<i>History of the Kirk of Scotland</i> (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849);
+P. F. Tytler, <i>History of Scotland</i> (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1828-1843);
+John Hill Burton, <i>History of Scotland</i> (7 vols., Edinburgh,
+1867-1870). W. A. Craigie has edited as <i>Skotlands Rimur</i> some
+Icelandic ballads relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also
+printed the Danish translation of the official account of the conspiracy,
+which was published at Copenhagen in 1601.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOWRIE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a belt of fertile alluvial land (<i>Scotice</i>, &ldquo;carse&rdquo;)
+of Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the
+Firth of Tay, it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends
+from the eastern boundaries of Perth city to the confines of
+Dundee. It measures 15 m. in length, its breadth from the river
+towards the base of the Sidlaw Hills varying from 2 to 4 m.
+Probably it is a raised beach, submerged until a comparatively
+recent period. Although it contained much bog land and stagnant
+water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained and
+cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in
+Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its
+castles and mansions, almost wholly residential, among which
+may be mentioned Kinfauns Castle, Inchyra House, Pitfour
+Castle, Errol Park, Megginch Castle, dating from 1575; Fingask
+Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in the 15th century and occupied
+by James VI. in 1617; Rossie Priory, the seat of Lord Kinnaird;
+and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of Kinghorne.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GOYA,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a river town and port of Corrientes, Argentine Republic,
+the commercial centre of the south-western departments of the
+province and chief town of a department of the same name,
+on a <i>riacho</i> or side channel of the Paraná about 5 m. from the
+main channel and about 120 m. S. of the city of Corrientes.
+Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built on low ground which
+is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but its streets
+are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is good.
+Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a
+national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood
+are chiefly pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and
+oranges. Goya had an export of crudely-made cheese long before
+the modern cheese factories of the Argentine Republic came into
+existence. The place dates from 1807, and had its origin, it is
+said, in the trade established there by a ship captain and his
+wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied passing vessels with beef.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOYANNA,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goiana</span>, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of
+the state of Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernambuco.
+Pop.(1890) 15,436. It is built on a fertile plain between
+the rivers Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim near their junction
+to form the Goyanna river, and is 15 m. from the coast. It is
+surrounded by, and is the commercial centre for, one of the
+richest agricultural districts of the state, which produces sugar,
+rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor oil. The
+Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the
+city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna
+is one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the
+Dutch from 1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches,
+an orphans&rsquo; asylum, hospital and some small industries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1746-1828), Spanish
+painter, was born in 1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese
+village near Saragossa. At an early age he commenced his
+artistic career under the direction of José Luzan Martinez, who
+had studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It is clear that
+the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by
+diligent study of the best Italian masters did not much influence
+his erratic pupil. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold,
+capricious, headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent
+part on more than one occasion in those rival religious processions
+at Saragossa which often ended in unseemly frays; and his
+friends were led in consequence to despatch him in his nineteenth
+year to Madrid, where, prior to his departure for Rome, his mode
+of life appears to have been anything but that of a quiet orderly
+citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with a voice, he
+sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the capital,
+with whom he seems to have been a very general favourite.</p>
+
+<p>Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandalizing
+by his mode of life the sedate court officials, he did not receive&mdash;perhaps
+did not seek&mdash;the usual honorarium accorded to those
+students who visited Rome for the purpose of study. Finding
+<span class="correction" title="amended from in">it</span> convenient to retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to
+visit Rome at his own cost; and being without resources he joined
+a &ldquo;quadrilla&rdquo; of bull-fighters, passing from town to town until
+he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next hear of
+him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt.
+In 1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition
+initiated by the academy of Parma, styling himself &ldquo;pupil to
+Bayeu, painter to the king of Spain.&rdquo; Compelled to quit Rome
+somewhat suddenly, he appears again in Madrid in 1775, the
+husband of Bayeu&rsquo;s daughter, and father of a son. About this
+time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos,
+no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre
+works. On returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases
+for the tapestry factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king
+took much interest. Between 1776 and 1780 he appears to have
+supplied thirty examples, receiving about £1200 for them.
+Soon after the revolution of 1868, an official was appointed to
+take an inventory of all works of art belonging to the nation,
+and in one of the cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered
+forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected
+(see <i>Los Tapices de Goya; por Cruzado Villaamil, Madrid</i>, 1870).</p>
+
+<p>His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs,
+the king&rsquo;s painter, and royal favour naturally followed. His
+career now becomes intimately connected with the court life
+of his time. He was commissioned by the king to design a
+series of frescoes for the church of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid,
+and he also produced works for Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo.
+Ecclesiastical art was not his forte, and although he cannot
+be said to have failed in any of his work, his fame was not
+enhanced by his religious subjects.</p>
+
+<p>In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled: his portraits
+are evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained
+flattery. He worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid
+painted, amongst many others, the portraits of four sovereigns
+of Spain&mdash;Charles III. and IV., Ferdinand VII. and &ldquo;King
+Joseph.&rdquo; The duke of Wellington also sat to him; but on his
+making some remark which raised the artist&rsquo;s choler, Goya
+seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There
+are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in the British
+Museum, the other in a private collection. One of his best
+portraits is that of the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva.
+He now became the spoiled child of fortune, and acquired, at
+any rate externally, much of the polish of court manners. He
+still worked industriously upon his own lines, and, while there
+is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his portraits,
+the stern individuality is always preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Including the designs for tapestry, Goya&rsquo;s genre works are
+numerous and varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-like
+&ldquo;Al Fresco Breakfast,&rdquo; &ldquo;Romeria de San Isidro,&rdquo; to the
+&ldquo;Curate feeding the Devil&rsquo;s Lamp,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Meson del Gallo,&rdquo;
+and the painfully realistic massacre of the &ldquo;Dos de Mayo&rdquo;
+(1808). Goya&rsquo;s versatility is proverbial; in his hands the
+pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his
+crayon sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and
+character, slight but full of meaning. He was in his thirty-second
+year when he commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose
+influence may, however, be traced in his work at an earlier date.
+A careful examination of some of the drawings made for these
+etchings indicates a steadiness of purpose not usually discovered
+in Goya&rsquo;s craft as draughtsman. He is much more widely known
+by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must be
+sought in public and private collections, principally in Spain,
+while the former are known and prized in every capital of Europe.
+The etched collections by which Goya is best known include
+&ldquo;Los Caprichos,&rdquo; which have a satirical meaning known only to
+the few; they are bold, weird and full of force. &ldquo;Los Proverbios&rdquo;
+are also supposed to have some hidden intention. &ldquo;Los
+Desastres de la Guerra&rdquo; may fairly claim to depict Spain during
+the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently
+at home; he was a skilled master of the barbarous art, and no
+doubt every sketch is true to nature, and from life.</p>
+
+<p>Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter
+years to escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at
+Bordeaux on the 16th of April 1828, and a monument has been
+erected there over his remains. From the deaths of Velasquez
+and Murillo to the advent of Fortuny, Goya&rsquo;s name is the only
+important one found in the history of Spanish art.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the lives by Paul Lefort (1877), and Yriarte (1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOYÁZ,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Grosso
+and Pará on the W., Maranhão, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the
+E., and Minas Geraes and Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1890)
+227,572; (1900) 255,284, including many half-civilized Indians
+and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq. m. The outline of
+the state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin edge
+extending northward between and up to the junction of the
+rivers Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly
+15° of latitude. The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian
+plateau region, but its surface is much broken towards the N.
+by the deeply eroded valleys of the Araguaya and Upper
+Tocantins rivers and their tributaries. The general slope of
+the plateau is toward the N., and the drainage of the state is
+chiefly through the above-named rivers&mdash;the principal tributaries
+of the Araguaya being the Grande and Vermelho, and of the
+Upper Tocantins, the Manoel Alves Grande, Somno, Paranan
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>
+and Maranhão. A considerable part of southern Goyáz, however,
+slopes southward and the drainage is through numerous small
+streams flowing into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the
+Paraná. The general elevation of the plateau is estimated to
+be about 2700 ft., and the highest elevation was reported in
+1892 to be the Serra dos Pyreneos (5250 ft.). Crossing the
+state N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains,
+of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rita and Santa Martha ranges
+form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great.
+The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby
+arboreal growth called <i>caatingas</i>, but the streams are generally
+bordered with forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards
+the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character of the
+Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described
+as temperate, but it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions
+are tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation
+of the soil is limited to local needs, except in the production of
+tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The open
+campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported.
+Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more
+than two centuries, but the output has never been large and no
+very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have been
+found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable
+export of quartz crystal, commercially known as &ldquo;Brazilian
+pebbles,&rdquo; used in optical work. Although the northern and
+southern extremities of Goyáz lie within two great river systems&mdash;the
+Tocantins and Paraná&mdash;the upper courses of which are
+navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only
+outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the
+railway termini of São Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the
+extension of railways from both of those states, one entering
+Goyáz by way of Catalão, near the southern boundary, and the
+other at some point further N.</p>
+
+<p>The capital of the state is <span class="sc">Goyáz</span>, or Villa-Boa de Goyáz, a
+mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya
+rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop.
+(1890) 6807. Gold was discovered here in 1682 by Bartholomeu
+Bueno, the first European explorer of this region, and the
+settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which is
+still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren,
+rocky mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the
+heat is most oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly
+cold. Goyáz is the see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and
+possesses a small cathedral and some churches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1596-1656), Dutch
+painter, was born at Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned
+painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married
+in 1618 and settled at the Hague about 1631. He was one of
+the first to emancipate himself from the traditions of minute
+imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and Savery.
+Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those
+painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with
+considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He
+formed Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention
+from Rembrandt, and bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter
+de Molyn, Coelenbier, Saftleven, van der Kabel and even
+Berghem. His life at the Hague for twenty-five years was very
+prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be president of his gild. A
+friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der Helst, he sat
+to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter Margaret
+married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder
+Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the
+Hague. He died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and
+houses to the amount of 15,000 florins.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school
+to the other. He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh;
+he then passed through the workshops of de Man, Klok and
+de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive step and joined Esaias
+van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier pictures, some
+of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show
+the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is
+minute. Details of branching and foliage are given, and the
+figures are important in relation to the distances. After 1625
+these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in
+landscapes of cool tints varying from grey green to pearl or brown
+and yellow dun is the principal object which van Goyen holds
+in view, and he succeeds admirably in light skies with drifting
+misty cloud, and downs with cottages and scanty shrubbery
+or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of foliage he now works
+in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of sepia or
+Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or lucidity.
+Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate light
+and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most
+pleasing views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with
+shipping near the banks, he sometimes has the strength if not
+the colour of Albert Cuyp. The defect of his work is chiefly
+want of solidity. But even this had its charm for van Goyen&rsquo;s
+contemporaries, and some time elapsed before Cuyp, who
+imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to
+the foliage of foreground trees.</p>
+
+<p>Van Goyen&rsquo;s pictures are comparatively rare in English collections,
+but his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly
+at the Louvre, and in Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and
+Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works were exhibited together
+at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once or twice,
+van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland
+and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views
+of Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts.
+But he was also fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did
+not neglect Arnheim or Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is
+a view of the Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality, and
+now in the town collection of that city. Most of his panels
+represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the Maese. But
+he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea
+at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict
+the calm inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more
+than a curling breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often
+painted winter scenes, with ice and skaters and sledges, in the
+style familiar to Isaac van Ostade. There are numerous varieties
+of these subjects in the master&rsquo;s works from 1621 to 1653. One
+historical picture has been assigned to van Goyen&mdash;the &ldquo;Embarkation
+of Charles II.&rdquo; in the Bute collection. But this canvas
+was executed after van Goyen&rsquo;s death. When he tried this
+form of art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he
+produced little in partnership with his contemporaries, and we
+can only except the &ldquo;Watering-place&rdquo; in the gallery of Vienna,
+where the landscape is enlivened with horses and cattle by
+Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, who was his son-in-law,
+only painted figures for one of his pictures, and it is probable
+that this piece was completed after van Goyen&rsquo;s death. More
+than 250 of van Goyen&rsquo;s pictures are known and accessible.
+Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist
+without the full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter
+whose hand it is easier to trace without the help of these
+adjuncts. An etcher, but a poor one, van Goyen has only
+bequeathed to us two very rare plates.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOZLAN, LÉON<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1806-1866), French novelist and play-writer,
+was born on the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles.
+When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large
+fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and
+Léon, before completing his education, had to go to sea in order
+to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to
+run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Méry,
+who was then making himself famous by his political satires,
+introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlan&rsquo;s brilliant
+articles in the <i>Figaro</i> did much harm to the already tottering
+government of Charles X. His first novel was <i>Les Mémoires
+d&rsquo;un apothicaire</i> (1828), and this was followed by numberless
+others, among which may be mentioned <i>Washington Levert
+et Socrate Leblanc</i> (1838), <i>Le Notaire de Chantilly</i> (1836), <i>Aristide
+Froissart</i> (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his
+productions), <i>Les Nuits du Père Lachaise</i> (1846), <i>Le Tapis vert</i>
+(1855), <i>La Folle du logis</i> (1857), <i>Les Émotions de Polydore Marasquin</i>
+(1857), &amp;c. His best-known works for the theatre
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span>
+are&mdash;<i>La Pluie et le beau temps</i> (1861), and <i>Une Tempête dans un
+verre d&rsquo;eau</i> (1850), two curtain-raisers which have kept the
+stage; <i>Le Lion empaillé</i> (1848), <i>La Queue du chien d&rsquo;Alcibiade</i>
+(1849), <i>Louise de Nanteuil</i> (1854), <i>Le Gâteau des reines</i> (1855),
+<i>Les Paniers de la comtesse</i> (1852); and he adapted several of
+his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a romantic
+and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions
+of his country entitled <i>Les Châteaux de France</i> (2 vols., 1844),
+originally published (1836) as <i>Les Tourelles</i>, which has some
+archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (<i>Balzac
+chez lui</i>, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of
+Honour in 1846, and in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan
+died on the 14th of September 1866, in Paris.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also P. Audebrand, <i>Léon Gozlan</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOZO<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gozzo</span>), an island of the Maltese group in the Mediterranean
+Sea, second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3¼ m.
+from the nearest point of Malta, is of oval form, 8¾ m. in length
+and 4½ m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m.
+Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901,
+5057) stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster
+of steep conical hills, 3½ m. from the port of Migiarro Bay,
+on the south-east shore, below Fort Chambray. The character
+of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated population
+in 1907 was 21,911.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOZZI, CARLO,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1722-1806), Italian dramatist,
+was descended from an old Venetian family, and was born at
+Venice in March 1722. Compelled by the embarrassed condition
+of his father&rsquo;s affairs to procure the means of self-support, he,
+at the age of sixteen, joined the army in Dalmatia; but three
+years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he soon made
+a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the Granelleschi
+society, to which the publication of several satirical
+pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally
+devoted to conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims,
+and was especially zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature
+pure and untainted by foreign influences. The displacement
+of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of Pietro Chiari (1700-1788)
+and Goldoni, founded on French models, threatened defeat
+to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the rescue by
+publishing a satirical poem, <i>Tartana degli influssi per l&rsquo; anno
+bisestile</i>, and in 1761 by his comedy, <i>Fiaba dell&rsquo; amore delle tre
+melarancie</i>, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets,
+founded on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained
+the services of the Sacchi company of players, who, on account
+of the popularity of the comedies of Chiari and Goldoni&mdash;which
+afforded no scope for the display of their peculiar talents&mdash;had
+been left without employment; and as their satirical powers
+were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play met with
+extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the
+audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical
+element, which he had merely used as a convenient medium
+for his satirical purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic
+pieces based on fairy tales, which for a period obtained great
+popularity, but after the breaking up of the Sacchi company
+were completely disregarded. They have, however, obtained
+high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de Staël and Sismondi;
+and one of them, <i>Re Turandote</i>, was translated by
+Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production
+of tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced;
+but as this innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had
+recourse to the Spanish drama, from which he obtained models
+for various pieces, which, however, met with only equivocal
+success. He died on the 4th of April 1806.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected works were published under his own superintendence,
+at Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works,
+translated into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in
+1795. See Gozzi&rsquo;s work, <i>Memorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gozzi</i>
+(3 vols., Venice, 1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset
+(1848), and into English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, <i>Über
+Gozzis dramatische Poesie</i> (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, <i>Vita di Gasp.
+Gozzi</i> (1821); &ldquo;Charles Gozzi,&rdquo; by Paul de Musset, in the <i>Revue
+des deux mondes</i> for 15th November 1844; Magrini, <i>Carlo Gozzi
+e la fiabe: saggi storici, biografici, e critici</i> (Cremona, 1876), and the
+same author&rsquo;s book on Gozzi&rsquo;s life and times (Benevento, 1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOZZI, GASPARO,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1713-1786), eldest brother of
+Carlo Gozzi, was born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739
+he married the poetess Luise Bergalli, and she undertook the
+management of the theatre of Sant&rsquo; Angelo, Venice, he supplying
+the performers with dramas chiefly translated from the French.
+The speculation proved unfortunate, but meantime he had
+attained a high reputation for his contributions to the <i>Gazzetta
+Veneta</i>, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest
+critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a
+considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in
+1774 he was appointed to reorganize the university system at
+Padua. He died at Padua on the 26th of December 1786.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal writings are <i>Osservatore Veneto periodico</i> (1761), on
+the model of the English <i>Spectator</i>, and distinguished by its high
+moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; <i>Lettere famigliari</i>
+(1755), a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on subjects
+of general interest; <i>Sermoni</i>, poems in blank verse after the manner
+of Horace; <i>Il Mondo morale</i> (1760), a personification of human
+passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian; and <i>Giudizio
+degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante</i> (1755), a defence
+of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli. He also translated
+various works from the French and English, including Marmontel&rsquo;s
+<i>Tales</i> and Pope&rsquo;s <i>Essay on Criticism</i>. His collected works
+were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes, and several
+editions have appeared since.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GOZZOLI, BENOZZO,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> Italian painter, was born in Florence
+in 1424, or perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career
+assisted Fra Angelico, whom he followed to Rome and worked
+with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed in Santa Maria in
+Aracoeli a fresco of &ldquo;St Anthony and Two Angels.&rdquo; In 1449
+he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria.
+In S. Fortunate, near Montefalco, he painted a &ldquo;Madonna and
+Child with Saints and Angels,&rdquo; and three other works. One of
+these, the altar-piece representing &ldquo;St Thomas receiving the
+Girdle of the Virgin,&rdquo; is now in the Lateran Museum, and
+shows the affinity of Gozzoli&rsquo;s early style to Angelico&rsquo;s. He
+next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco, Montefalco,
+filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the life
+of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante,
+Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and
+is still marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there
+with a more distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church,
+in the chapel of St Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin
+and Saints, the Crucifixion and other subjects. He remained
+at Montefalco (with an interval at Viterbo) probably till 1456,
+employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he went to Perugia,
+and painted in a church a &ldquo;Virgin and Saints,&rdquo; now in the local
+academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the headquarters
+of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished
+his important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the
+&ldquo;Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem,&rdquo; and, in the tribune of
+this chapel, a composition of &ldquo;Angels in a Paradise.&rdquo; His
+picture in the National Gallery, London, a &ldquo;Virgin and Child
+with Saints,&rdquo; 1461, belongs also to the period of his Florentine
+sojourn. Another small picture in the same gallery, the &ldquo;Rape
+of Helen,&rdquo; is of dubious authenticity. In 1464 Gozzoli left
+Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive
+works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St
+Sebastian protecting the City from the Plague of this same
+year, 1464; over the entire choir of the church, a triple course
+of scenes from the legends of St Augustine, from the time of
+his entering the school of Tegaste on to his burial, seventeen
+chief subjects, with some accessories; in the Pieve di S.
+Gimignano, the &ldquo;Martyrdom of Sebastian,&rdquo; and other subjects,
+and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his
+style combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original
+elements, and he received co-operation from Giusto d&rsquo;Andrea.
+He stayed in this city till 1467, and then began, in the Campo
+Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast series of mural paintings
+with which his name is specially identified. There are twenty-four
+subjects from the Old Testament, from the &ldquo;Invention of
+Wine by Noah&rdquo; to the &ldquo;Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon.&rdquo;
+He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten
+ducats each&mdash;a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span>
+£100 at the present day. It appears, however, that this contract
+was not strictly adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was
+only three pictures in two years. Perhaps the great multitude
+of figures and accessories was accepted as a set-off against the
+slower rate of production. By January 1470 he had executed
+the fresco of &ldquo;Noah and his Family,&rdquo;&mdash;followed by the &ldquo;Curse
+of Ham,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Building of the Tower of Babel&rdquo; (which contains
+portraits of Cosmo de&rsquo; Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and
+others), the &ldquo;Destruction of Sodom,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Victory of Abraham,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;Marriages of Rebecca and of Rachel,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Life of Moses,&rdquo;
+&amp;c. In the Cappella Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo
+Santo, he painted also an &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi,&rdquo; wherein
+appears a portrait of himself. All this enormous mass of work,
+in which Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi Macchiavelli,
+was performed, in addition to several other pictures during his
+stay in Pisa (we need only specify the &ldquo;Glory of St Thomas
+Aquinas,&rdquo; now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to
+1485. This is the latest date which can with certainty be
+assigned to any work from his hand, although he is known to
+have been alive up to 1498. In 1478 the Pisan authorities had
+given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb in the Campo
+Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and houses
+and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have been
+worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico.</p>
+
+<p>The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contemporaries
+either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently
+attractive by its sense of what is rich, winning, lively and
+abundant in the aspects of men and things. His landscapes,
+thronged with birds and quadrupeds, especially dogs, are more
+varied, circumstantial and alluring than those of any predecessor;
+his compositions are crowded with figures, more characteristically
+true when happily and gracefully occupied than when the demands
+of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or turmoil
+of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive. Gozzoli&rsquo;s
+genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than
+vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable
+imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations,
+and in the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings.
+In fresco-painting he used the methods of tempera, and the decay
+of his works has been severe in proportion. Of his untiring
+industry the recital of his labours and the number of works
+produced are the most forcible attestation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Vasari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authorities,
+can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate
+<i>Life</i> of him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes&rsquo;s Art
+library.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAAFF REINET,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail
+N.W. by N. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, of whom
+4055 were whites. The town lies 2463 ft. above the sea and is
+built on the banks of the Sunday river, which rises a little farther
+north on the southern slopes of the Sneeuwberg, and here
+ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is a handsome
+stone building with seating accommodation for 1500 people. The
+college is an educational centre of some importance; it was
+rebuilt in 1906. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for
+agricultural produce, the district being noted for its mohair
+industry, its orchards and vineyards.</p>
+
+<p>The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named
+after the then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff,
+and his wife. In 1795 the burghers, smarting under the exactions
+of the Dutch East India Company proclaimed a republic.
+Similar action was taken by the burghers of Swellendam. Before
+the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive measures
+against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to capitulate
+to the British. The burghers having endeavoured, unsuccessfully,
+to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay surrendered to
+Colonel (afterwards General Sir) J. O. Vandeleur. In January
+1799 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1795,
+again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo
+and nineteen others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle.
+After trial, Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced
+to death and others to banishment. The sentences were not
+carried out and the prisoners were released, March 1803, on the
+retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In 1801 there had been
+another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the conciliatory
+measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape)
+peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican
+government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished
+large numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a
+strong Dutch centre.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. C. Voight, <i>Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in
+South Africa 1795-1845</i>, vol. i. (London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1801-1836), German
+dramatist, was born at Detmold on the 11th of December 1801.
+Entering the university of Leipzig in 1819 as a student of law,
+he continued the reckless habits which he had begun at Detmold,
+and neglected his studies. Being introduced into literary
+circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote
+the drama <i>Herzog Theodor von Gothland</i> (1822). This, though
+showing considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and
+is morally repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the
+young author, pointed out its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe
+himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed to Berlin University, and in
+1824 passed his advocate&rsquo;s examination. He now settled in his
+native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a <i>Militärauditeur</i>.
+In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken
+habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his
+wife, visited Düsseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl
+Immermann. After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned
+to Detmold, where, as a result of his excesses, he died on the 12th
+of September 1836.</p>
+
+<p>Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain
+fine passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely
+reflect his own life and character, and are characterized by
+cynicism and indelicacy. Their construction also is defective
+and little suited to the requirements of the stage. The boldly
+conceived <i>Don Juan und Faust</i> (1829) and the historical dramas
+<i>Friedrich Barbarossa</i> (1829), <i>Heinrich VI.</i> (1830), and <i>Napoleon
+oder die Hundert Tage</i> (1831), the last of which places the battle
+of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best works. Among others
+are the unfinished tragedies <i>Marius and Sulla</i> (continued by
+Erich Korn, Berlin, 1890); and <i>Hannibal</i> (1835, supplemented
+and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1901); and the patriotic
+<i>Hermannsschlacht</i> or the battle between Arminius and Varus
+(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by E.
+Duller, 1838).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Grabbe&rsquo;s works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols.,
+1875), and E. Grisebach (4 vols., 1902). For further notices of his
+life, see K. Ziegler, <i>Grabbes Leben und Charakter</i> (1855); O.
+Blumenthal, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis Grabbes</i> (1875); C. A. Piper,
+<i>Grabbe</i> (1898), and A. Ploch, <i>Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Literatur</i>
+(1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRABE, JOHN ERNEST<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1666-1711), Anglican divine, was
+born on the 10th of July 1666, at Königsberg, where his father,
+Martin Sylvester Grabe, was professor of theology and history.
+In his theological studies Grabe succeeded in persuading himself
+of the schismatical character of the Reformation, and accordingly
+he presented to the consistory of Samland in Prussia a memorial
+in which he compared the position of the evangelical Protestant
+churches with that of the Novatians and other ancient schismatics.
+He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a
+commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written
+argument and called his attention to the English Church as
+apparently possessing that apostolic succession and manifesting
+that fidelity to ancient institutions which he desired. He
+came to England, settled in Oxford, was ordained in 1700, and
+became chaplain of Christ Church. His inclination was towards
+the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours to which the
+remainder of his life was devoted were rewarded with an Oxford
+degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November
+1711, and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward
+Harley, earl of Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried
+in St Pancras Church, London.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Some account of Grabe&rsquo;s life is given in R. Nelson&rsquo;s <i>Life of George
+Bull</i>, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet
+against W. Whiston&rsquo;s <i>Collection of Testimonies against the True</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span>
+<i>Deity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost</i>. His works, which show him
+to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in
+critical acumen, include a <i>Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum</i>
+(1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries
+of the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of
+the second. A second edition of this work was published in 1714.
+He brought out an edition of Justin Martyr&rsquo;s <i>Apologia prima</i> (1700),
+of Irenaeus, <i>Adversus omnes haereses</i> (1702), of the Septuagint,
+and of Bishop Bull&rsquo;s Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septuagint
+was based on the <i>Codex Alexandrinus</i>; it appeared in 4 volumes
+(1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George
+Wigan.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRACCHUS,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family
+of the Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives
+were the famous tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius
+Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and (5) below, usually called simply
+&ldquo;the Gracchi.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span>, consul in 238 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+carried on successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers,
+and, at the conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war,
+was in command of the fleet which at the invitation of the
+insurgents took possession of the island of Sardinia.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span>, probably the son of
+(1), distinguished himself during the second Punic war. Consul
+in 215, he defeated the Capuans who had entered into an alliance
+with Hannibal, and in 214 gained a signal success over Hanno
+near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the <i>volones</i> (slave-volunteers),
+to whom he had promised freedom in the event of victory. In
+213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried on the war
+in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward
+to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed
+into the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank,
+who had formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected
+with Gracchus himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell
+fighting bravely; his body was sent to Hannibal, who accorded
+him a splendid burial.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span> (<i>c.</i> 210-151 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+father of the tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter
+of the elder Scipio Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius
+Sempronius Gracchus who was tribune in 189. Although a
+determined political opponent of the two Scipios (Asiaticus
+and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on their behalf
+when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the king
+of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission
+sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes
+II. of Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule
+aedileship (182) he celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale
+that the burdens imposed upon the Italian and extra-Italian
+communities led to the official interference of the senate. In
+181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain, and, after gaining
+signal successes in the field, applied himself to the pacification
+of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic
+attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the
+land had rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177,
+he was occupied in putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought
+back so many prisoners that <i>Sardi venales</i> (Sardinians for sale)
+became a proverbial expression for a drug in the market. In
+169 Gracchus was censor, and both he and his colleague (C.
+Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves determined opponents
+of the capitalists. They deeply offended the equestrian order
+by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts under
+the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently
+enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes,
+which completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In
+165 and 161 he went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes,
+with whom he established friendly relations. Amongst the
+places visited by him was Rhodes, where he delivered a speech
+in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he was again
+consul.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span> (163-133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), son of
+(3), was the elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother
+were brought up by their mother Cornelia, assisted by the
+rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene and the Stoic Blossius of
+Cumae. In 147 he served under his brother-in-law the younger
+Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war, and was the first
+to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When quaestor
+in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to
+Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved
+from annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom
+alone the Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the
+memory of his father. The senate refused to ratify the agreement;
+Mancinus was handed over to the enemy as a sign that
+it was annulled, and only personal popularity saved Tiberius
+himself from punishment. In 133 he was tribune, and championed
+the impoverished farmer class and the lower orders.
+His proposals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrarian Laws</a></span>) met with violent opposition,
+and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally,
+secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who
+had been persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate
+put every obstacle in the way of the three commissioners appointed
+to carry out the provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in
+view of the bitter enmity he had aroused, saw that it was necessary
+to strengthen his hold on the popular favour. The legacy to
+the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of Attalus III.
+of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the
+money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided,
+for the purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to
+whom assignments of land had been made under the new law.
+He is also said to have brought forward measures for shortening
+the period of military service, for extending the right of appeal
+from the <i>judices</i> to the people, for abolishing the exclusive
+privilege of the senators to act as jurymen, and even for admitting
+the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen his position
+further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as tribune for the
+following year. The senate declared that it was illegal to hold
+this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this
+objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people,
+he appeared in mourning, and appealed for protection for his
+wife and children, and whenever he left his house he was accompanied
+by a bodyguard of 3000 men, chiefly consisting of the
+city rabble. The meeting of the tribes for the election of tribunes
+broke up in disorder on two successive days, without any result
+being attained, although on both occasions the first divisions
+voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate that
+he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head
+with his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal
+to the consul P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death
+at once having failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola
+was acting treacherously towards the state, and called upon
+those who agreed with him to take up arms and follow him.
+During the riot that followed, Tiberius attempted to escape,
+but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol and was beaten to death
+with the end of a bench. At night his body, with those of 300
+others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly
+assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a
+commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius,
+many of whom were banished and others put to death. Even
+the moderate Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica
+was justified in his action; and it was reported that Scipio,
+when he heard at Numantia of his brother-in-law&rsquo;s death,
+repeated the line of Homer&mdash;&ldquo;So perish all who do the like
+again.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 58; Appian, <i>Bell. civ.</i> i. 9-17; Plutarch, <i>Tiberius
+Gracchus</i>; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Gaius Sempronius Gracchus</span> (153-121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), younger
+brother of (4), was a man of greater abilities, bolder and more
+passionate, although possessed of considerable powers of self-control,
+and a vigorous and impressive orator. When twenty
+years of age he was appointed one of the commissioners to
+carry out the distribution of land under the provisions of his
+brother&rsquo;s agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius&rsquo;s death, Gaius
+was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but
+probably returned to Rome in the following year (132). In
+131 he supported the bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of
+which was to make it legal for a tribune to offer himself as candidate
+for the office in two consecutive years, and thus to remove
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span>
+one of the chief obstacles that had hampered Tiberius. The bill
+was then rejected, but appears to have subsequently passed in
+a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected without any
+disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal,
+and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For
+the next few years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion
+pointed him out as the man to avenge his brother&rsquo;s death and
+carry out his plans, and the aristocratic party, warned by the
+example of Tiberius, were anxious to keep him away from Rome.
+In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius Orestes as
+quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made
+himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the
+command of Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to
+remain there in his capacity of quaestor. But he returned to
+Rome without the permission of the senate, and, when called
+to account by the censors, defended himself so successfully
+that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The disappointed
+aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of being
+implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways unsuccessfully
+endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then
+decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became
+a candidate for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined
+opposition of the aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123,
+although only fourth on the list. The legislative proposals<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+brought forward by him had for their object:&mdash;the punishment
+of his brother&rsquo;s enemies; the relief of distress and the
+attachment to himself of the city populace; the diminution
+of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the <i>equites</i>;
+the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and
+provincials.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in
+a matter affecting his life or political status unless the people had
+previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius
+Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the
+adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate
+who had been deprived of office by decree of the people should be
+incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against
+M. Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate
+through Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was withdrawn
+at the earnest request of Cornelia.</p>
+
+<p>He revived his brother&rsquo;s agrarian law, which, although it
+had not been repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his <i>Lex
+Frumentaria</i> every citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain
+amount of corn at about half the usual price; as the distribution
+only applied to those living in the capital, the natural result was
+that the poorer country citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the
+number of Gaius&rsquo;s supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to
+serve in the army before the commencement of his eighteenth year,
+and his military outfit was to be supplied by the state, instead of
+being deducted from his pay. Gaius also proposed the establishment
+of colonies in Italy (at Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the
+site of Carthage 6000 colonists to found the new city of Junonia,
+the inhabitants of which were to possess the rights of Roman
+citizens; this was the first attempt at over-sea colonization. A new
+system of roads was constructed which afforded easier access to
+Rome. Having thus gained over the city proletariat, in order
+to secure a majority in the comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with
+the system of voting in the comitia centuriata, whereby the five
+property classes in each tribe gave their votes one after another,
+and introduced promiscuous voting in an order fixed by lot.</p>
+
+<p>The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of particular
+offences (the most important of which was that dealing
+with the trial of provincial magistrates for extortion, <i>de repetundis</i>)
+were in future to be chosen from the equites (<i>q.v.</i>), not as hitherto
+from the senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be
+let out by the censors to Roman <i>publicani</i> (who belonged to the
+equestrian order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of
+collecting them. It is obvious that this afforded the equites extensive
+opportunities for money-making and extortion, while the
+alteration in the appointment of the judices gave them the same
+practical immunity and perpetuated the old abuses, with the difference
+that it was no longer senators, but equites, who could look
+forward with confidence to being leniently dealt with by men
+belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected that this moneyed
+aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate against Tiberius,
+would now support him against it. It was enacted that the provinces
+to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined before,
+instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves had to
+settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of them
+would take.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity,
+and during the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered
+the absolute ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second
+time for the year 122. To this period is probably to be assigned
+his proposal that the franchise should be given to all the Latin
+communities and that the status of the Latins should be conferred
+upon the Italian allies. In 125 M. Fulvius Flaccus had
+brought forward a similar measure, but he was got out of the way
+by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This proposal,
+more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally opposed
+by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius&rsquo;s popularity
+amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the
+prospect of an increase in the number of Roman citizens. The
+senate put up M. Livius Drusus to outbid him, and his absence
+from Rome while superintending the organization of the newly-founded
+colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken advantage of by
+his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he found his
+popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship
+for the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected
+consul. The latter at once decided to propose the abandonment
+of the new colony, which was to occupy the site cursed by
+Scipio, while its foundation had been attended by unmistakable
+manifestations of the wrath of the gods. On the day when the
+matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named Antyllius, who
+had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to death.
+This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was
+declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with
+dictatorial powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their
+position in the temple of Diana on the Aventine, offered little
+resistance to the attack ordered by Opimius. Gaius managed
+to escape across the Tiber, where his dead body was found on
+the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side of that
+of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself.
+The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple
+of Concord erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath
+the inscription recording the occasion on which the temple had
+been built some one during the night wrote the words: &ldquo;The
+work of Discord makes the temple of Concord.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 60; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 21;
+Plutarch, <i>Gaius Gracchus</i>; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3,
+xi. 10. For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, <i>Hist.
+of Rome</i> (Eng. trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, <i>Geschichte
+Roms während des Verfalles der Republik</i> (1881); A. H. J. Greenidge,
+<i>History of Rome</i> (1904); E. Meyer, <i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
+der Gracchen</i> (1894); G. E. Underhill, Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Gracchi</i>
+(1892); W. Warde Fowler in <i>English Historical Review</i> (1905),
+pp. 209 and 417; Long, <i>Decline of the Roman Republic</i>, chs. 10-13,
+17-19, containing a careful examination of the ancient authorities;
+G. F. Hertzberg in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>;
+C. W. Oman, <i>Seven Roman Statesmen of the later Republic</i> (1902);
+T. Lau, <i>Die Gracchen und ihre Zeit</i> (1854). The exhaustive monograph
+by C. W. Nitzsch, <i>Die Gracchen und ihre nächsten Vorgänger</i>
+(1847), also contains an account of the other members of the family,
+with full references to ancient authorities in the notes.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological
+order, nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his
+second tribuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i>,
+1905. pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed
+to add a certain number of <i>equites</i> to the senate, thereby increasing
+it to 900, but the plan was never carried out.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), English cricketer,
+was born at Downend, Gloucestershire, on the 18th of July
+1848. He found himself in an atmosphere charged with cricket,
+his father (Henry Mills Grace) and his uncle (Alfred Pocock)
+being as enthusiastic over the game as his elder brothers, Henry,
+Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace the family
+name first became famous. A younger brother, George Frederick,
+also added to the cricket reputation of the family. &ldquo;W. G.&rdquo;
+witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years
+old, the occasion being a game between W. Clarke&rsquo;s All-England
+Eleven and twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was
+endowed by nature with a splendid physique as well as with
+powers of self-restraint and determination. At the acme of his
+career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in., being powerfully proportioned,
+loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker, and very moderate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span>
+in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the year round,
+shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the
+cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds.
+over 20 hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted
+as proof of his stamina that on the 30th of July 1866 he scored
+224 not out for England <i>v.</i> Surrey, and two days later won a
+race in the National and Olympian Association meeting at the
+Crystal Palace. The title of &ldquo;champion&rdquo; was well earned by
+one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was actively
+engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was
+invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the
+Players, and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to
+play for the mother country. As late as 1899 he played in the
+first of the five international contests; in 1900 he played against
+the players at the Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he
+scored nearly 1300 runs in first-class cricket, made 100 runs and
+over on three different occasions and could claim an average
+of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs were achieved
+when only the very best cricket grounds received serious attention;
+when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher
+standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two
+brothers, E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made
+Gloucestershire in one season a first-class county; and it was
+he who first enabled the amateurs of England to meet the paid
+players on equal terms and to beat them. There was hardly a
+&ldquo;record&rdquo; connected with the game which did not stand to his
+credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England, in his
+earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later
+times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine
+thrower, fast runner and safe &ldquo;catch.&rdquo; As a bowler he was
+long in the first flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times
+adopting a slower and more tricky style, frequently very effective.
+By profession he was a medical man. In later years he became
+secretary and manager of the London County Cricket Club.
+He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day, and one of his sons
+played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was the
+recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to
+£1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a
+cheque at Lord&rsquo;s ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd
+of July 1879; the second, collected by the M.C.C., the county
+of Gloucestershire, the <i>Daily Telegraph</i> and the <i>Sportsman</i>,
+amounted to about £10,000, and was presented to him in 1896.
+He visited Australia in 1873-1874 (captain), and in 1891-1892
+with Lord Sheffield&rsquo;s Eleven (captain); the United States and
+Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald&rsquo;s team.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863, when, being only
+fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven
+and the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores
+which first made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz.
+170 and 56 not out for the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen
+of Sussex. It was in 1865 that he first took an active part in first-class
+cricket, being then 6 ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight,
+and playing twice for the Gentlemen <i>v.</i> the Players, but his selection
+was mainly due to his bowling powers, the best exposition of which
+was his aggregate of 13 wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of
+the South <i>v.</i> the Players of the South. His highest score was 400
+not out, made in July 1876 against twenty-two of Grimsby; but
+on three occasions he was twice dismissed without scoring in matches
+against odds, a fate that never befell him in important cricket.
+In first-class matches his highest score was 344, made for the M.C.C.
+v. Kent at Canterbury, in August 1876; two days later he made
+177 for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Notts, and two days after this 318 not
+out for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Yorkshire, the two last-named opposing
+counties being possessed of exceptionally strong bowling; thus in
+three consecutive innings Grace scored 839 runs, and was only got
+out twice. His 344 was the third highest individual score made in
+a big match in England up to the end of 1901. He also scored 301
+for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Sussex at Bristol, in August 1896. He made
+over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable perhaps being in
+1871, when he performed the feat twice, each time in benefit matches,
+and each time in the second innings, having been each time got out
+in the first over of the first innings. He scored over 100 runs on
+121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at Bristol for
+Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Somersetshire in 1895. He made every figure
+from 0 to 100, on one occasion &ldquo;closing&rdquo; the innings when he had
+made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits.
+In 1871 he made ten &ldquo;centuries,&rdquo; ranging from 268 to 116. In the
+matches between the Gentlemen and Players he scored &ldquo;three
+figures&rdquo; fifteen times, and at every place where these matches have
+been played. He made over 100 in each of his &ldquo;first appearances&rdquo;
+at Oxford and Cambridge. Three times he made over 100 in each
+innings of the same match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v.
+North of the Thames, 130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887,
+for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton,
+in 1888, for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869,
+playing at the Oval for the Gentlemen of the South <i>v.</i> the Players
+of the South, Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first
+wicket, Grace scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and
+Scotton put on 170 runs for the first wicket of England <i>v.</i> Australia;
+this occurred at the Oval in August, and Grace&rsquo;s total score was
+170. In consecutive innings against the Players from 1871 to 1873
+he scored 217, 77 and 112, 117, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored
+over 100 in a big match in Australia, nor did he ever make 200 at
+Lord&rsquo;s, his highest being 196 for the M.C.C. <i>v.</i> Cambridge University
+in 1894. His highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876),
+2346 (1895), 2139 (1873), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored
+three successive centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873,
+1874 and 1876. Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1895, he
+was batting, bowling or fielding during the whole time the game
+was in progress, his scores being 257 and 73 not out. He scored
+over 1000 runs and took over 100 wickets in seven different seasons,
+viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129 wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 192
+wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124 wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, 179
+wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153 wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs,
+118 wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122 wickets. He never captured
+200 wickets in a season, his highest record being 192 in 1875. Playing
+against Oxford University in 1886, he took all the wickets in
+the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he not only made
+his hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in the month
+of May alone, his chief scores in that month being 103, 288, 256, 73
+and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made during
+that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not out, his aggregate
+for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of 118
+was made against the Players (at Lord&rsquo;s), the chief bowlers being
+Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his
+partner, A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making
+151 before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This
+may fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1898
+the match between Gentlemen <i>v.</i> Players was, as a special compliment,
+arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birthday,
+and he celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out,
+though handicapped by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty-six
+different seasons he scored over 1000 runs, in three of these
+years being the only man to do so and five times being one out of
+two.</p>
+
+<p>During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored
+nearly 51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took
+more than 2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per
+wicket. He made his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his
+highest average (78) in 1871; his average for the decade 1868-1877
+was 57 runs. His style as a batsman was more commanding than
+graceful, but as to its soundness and efficacy there were never
+two opinions; the severest criticism ever passed upon his powers
+was to the effect that he did not play slow bowling quite as well
+as fast.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. J. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRACE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Fr. <i>grâce</i>, Lat. <i>gratia</i>, from <i>gratus</i>, beloved, pleasing;
+formed from the root <i>cra-</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="chas-">&#967;&#945;&#963;</span>- cf. <span class="grk" title="chairô, charma, charis">&#967;&#945;&#943;&#961;&#969;, &#967;&#940;&#961;&#956;&#945;, &#967;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#962;</span>),
+a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting the
+idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others
+or that which one shows to others. The <i>New English Dictionary</i>
+groups the meanings of the word under three main heads:
+(1) Pleasing quality, gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3)
+gratitude, thanks.</p>
+
+<p>It is in the second general sense of &ldquo;favour bestowed&rdquo; that
+the word has its most important connotations. In this sense
+it means something given by superior authority as a concession
+made of favour and goodwill, not as an obligation or of right.
+Thus, a concession may be made by a sovereign or other public
+authority &ldquo;by way of grace.&rdquo; Previous to the Revolution of
+1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known in
+constitutional law as &ldquo;Graces.&rdquo; &ldquo;Letters of Grace&rdquo; (<i>gratiae,
+gratiosa rescripta</i>) is the name given to papal rescripts granting
+special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In
+the language of the universities the word still survives in a
+shadow of this sense. The word &ldquo;grace&rdquo; was originally a
+dispensation granted by the congregation of the university,
+or by one of the faculties, from some statutable conditions required
+for a degree. In the English universities these conditions
+ceased to be enforced, and the &ldquo;grace&rdquo; thus became an essential
+preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the
+meaning of (<i>a</i>) the licence granted by congregation to take a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+degree, (<i>b</i>) other decrees of the governing body (originally dispensations
+from statutes), all such degrees being called &ldquo;graces&rdquo;
+at Cambridge, (<i>c</i>) the permission which a candidate for a degree
+must obtain from his college or hall.</p>
+
+<p>To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses
+of the word in such phrases as &ldquo;do me this grace,&rdquo; &ldquo;to be in
+some one&rsquo;s good graces&rdquo; and certain meanings of &ldquo;the grace of
+God.&rdquo; The style &ldquo;by the grace of God,&rdquo; borne by the king of
+Great Britain and Ireland among other sovereigns, though,
+as implying the principle of &ldquo;legitimacy,&rdquo; it has been since the
+Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the addition
+of &ldquo;and the will of the people,&rdquo; means in effect no more than the
+&ldquo;by Divine Providence,&rdquo; which is the style borne by archbishops.
+To the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the
+phrases implying the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling
+certain obligations, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;a fortnight&rsquo;s grace.&rdquo; In law the &ldquo;days
+of grace&rdquo; are the period allowed for the payment of a bill of
+exchange, after the term for which it has been drawn (in England
+three days), or for the payment of an insurance premium, &amp;c.
+In religious language the &ldquo;Day of Grace&rdquo; is the period still
+open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of clemency
+or mercy, too, &ldquo;grace&rdquo; is still, though rarely used: &ldquo;an Act
+of Grace&rdquo; is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted
+by act of parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative
+of the great, &ldquo;Your Grace,&rdquo; &ldquo;His Grace,&rdquo; &amp;c., became dutiful
+paraphrases for the simple &ldquo;you&rdquo; and &ldquo;he.&rdquo; Formerly used
+in the royal address (&ldquo;the King&rsquo;s Grace,&rdquo; &amp;c.), the style is in
+England now confined to dukes and archbishops, though the
+style of &ldquo;his most gracious majesty&rdquo; is still used. In Germany
+the equivalent, <i>Euer Gnaden</i>, is the style of princes who are not
+<i>Durchlaucht</i> (<i>i.e.</i> Serene Highness), and is often used as a polite
+address to any superior.</p>
+
+<p>In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the
+word is used in several of the above senses, &ldquo;grace&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="charis">&#967;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#962;</span>)
+has special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous,
+unmerited activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners,
+and the Divine influence operating in man for his regeneration
+and sanctification. Those thus regenerated and sanctified are
+said to be in a &ldquo;state of grace.&rdquo; In the New Testament grace
+is the forgiving mercy of God, as opposed to any human merit
+(Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &amp;c.); it is applied also to
+certain gifts of God freely bestowed, <i>e.g.</i> miracles, tongues, &amp;c.
+(Rom. xv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Eph. iii. 8, &amp;c.), to the Christian
+virtues, gifts of God also, <i>e.g.</i> charity, holiness, &amp;c. (2 Cor.
+viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally,
+as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; 1 Pet. v. 12,
+&amp;c.); connected with this is the use of the term &ldquo;year of grace&rdquo;
+for a year of the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;grace&rdquo; is the central subject of three great
+theological controversies: (1) that of the nature of human
+depravity and regeneration (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pelagius</a></span>), (2) that of the
+relation between grace and free-will (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calvin, John</a></span>, and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arminius, Jacobus</a></span>), (3) that of the &ldquo;means of grace&rdquo; between
+Catholics and Protestants, <i>i.e.</i> whether the efficacy of the
+sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is <i>ex opere operato</i>
+or dependent on the faith of the recipient.</p>
+
+<p>In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed,
+&ldquo;grace&rdquo; survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or
+after meals. The word was originally used in the plural, and
+&ldquo;to do, give, render, yield graces&rdquo; was said, in the general
+sense of the French <i>rendre grâces</i> or Latin <i>gratias agere</i>, of any
+giving thanks. The close, and finally exclusive, association
+of the phrase &ldquo;to say grace&rdquo; with thanksgiving at meals was
+possibly due to the formula &ldquo;Gratias Deo agamus&rdquo; (&ldquo;let us
+give thanks to God&rdquo;) with which the ceremony began in monastic
+refectories. The custom of saying grace, which obtained in
+pre-Christian times among the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and
+was adopted universally by Christian peoples, is probably less
+widespread in private houses than it used to be. It is, however,
+still maintained at public dinners and also in schools, colleges
+and institutions generally. Such graces are generally in Latin
+and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;Laus
+Deo,&rdquo; &ldquo;Benedictus benedicat,&rdquo; and sometimes, as at the
+Oxford and Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In
+some countries grace has sunk to a polite formula; in Germany,
+<i>e.g.</i> it is usual before and after meals to bow to one&rsquo;s neighbours
+and say &ldquo;Gesegnete Malzeit!&rdquo; (May your meal be blessed),
+a phrase often reduced in practice to &ldquo;Malzeit&rdquo; simply.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRACES, THE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Charites">&#935;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>Gratiae</i>), in Greek mythology,
+the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in
+moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to
+a number or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the
+<i>Iliad</i> one Charis is the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised
+wife of Sleep, while the plural Charites often occurs. The Charites
+are usually described as three in number&mdash;Aglaia (brightness),
+Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia (bloom)&mdash;daughters of Zeus
+and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), or of Helios
+and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta
+(noise) and Phaënna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and
+Hegemone (queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with
+whom they live on Mount Olympus, and the companions of
+Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, and of Hermes,
+the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm is an indispensable
+adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist is indicated
+by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient
+seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest
+images, in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up
+in their temple. Their worship was said to have been instituted
+by Eteocles, whose three daughters fell into a well while dancing
+in their honour. At Orchomenus nightly dances took place,
+and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by musical contests,
+was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated without
+music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while sacrificing
+to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son
+Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the
+Eumenides; at Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane,
+were held at the entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo,
+Hegemone and Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, that young
+Athenians, on first receiving their spear and shield, took the
+oath to defend their country. In works of art the Charites were
+represented in early times as beautiful maidens of slender form,
+hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery;
+later, the conception predominated of three naked figures
+gracefully intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the
+rose and musical instruments. In Rome the Graces were
+never the objects of special religious reverence, but were described
+and represented by poets and artists in accordance with Greek
+models.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. H. Krause, <i>Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen</i> (1871),
+and the articles by Stoll and Furtwängler in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der
+Mythologie</i>, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire
+des antiquités</i>, with the bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRACIÁN Y MORALES, BALTASAR<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1601-1658), Spanish
+prose writer, was born at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of
+January 1601. Little is known of his personal history except
+that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of Jesus, and that
+ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at Tarazona,
+where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal
+works are <i>El Héroe</i> (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic
+phrases the qualities of the ideal man; the <i>Arte de ingenio,
+tratado de la Agudeza</i> (1642), republished six years afterwards
+under the title of <i>Agudeza, y arte de ingenio</i> (1648), a system
+of rhetoric in which the principles of <i>conceptismo</i> as opposed
+to culteranismo are inculcated; <i>El Discreto</i> (1645), a delineation
+of the typical courtier; <i>El Oráculo manual y arte de prudencia</i>
+(1647), a system of rules for the conduct of life; and <i>El Criticón</i>
+(1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical allegory of human
+existence. The only publication which bears Gracián&rsquo;s name is
+<i>El Comulgatorio</i> (1655); his more important books were issued
+under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracián (possibly a brother
+of the writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones.
+Gracián was punished for publishing without his superior&rsquo;s
+permission <i>El Criticón</i> (in which Defoe is alleged to have found
+the germ of <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>); but no objection was taken to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span>
+its substance. He has been excessively praised by Schopenhauer,
+whose appreciation of the author induced him to translate the
+<i>Oráculo manual</i>, and he has been unduly depreciated by Ticknor
+and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his
+systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Karl Borinski, <i>Baltasar Gracián und die Hoflitteratur in
+Deutschland</i> (Halle, 1894); Benedetto Croce, <i>I Trattatisti italiani del
+&ldquo;concettismo&rdquo; e Baltasar Gracián</i> (Napoli, 1899); Narciso José
+Liñán y Heredia, <i>Baltasar Gracián</i> (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer
+and Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the <i>Oráculo manual</i>
+into German and English.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRACKLE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Gracculus</i> or <i>Graculus</i>), a word much used in
+ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to
+members of the families <i>Sturnidae</i> belonging to the Old World
+and <i>Icteridae</i> belonging to the New. Of the former those to which
+it has been most commonly applied are the species known as
+mynas, mainas, and minors of India and the adjacent countries,
+and especially the <i>Gracula religiosa</i> of Linnaeus, who, according
+to Jerdon and others, was probably led to confer this epithet
+upon it by confounding it with the <i>Sturnus</i> or <i>Acridotheres
+tristis</i>,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to Ram Deo,
+one of their deities, while the true <i>Gracula religiosa</i> does not
+seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in.
+in length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple
+and green reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the
+quill-feathers of the wings. The bill is orange and the legs
+yellow, but the bird&rsquo;s most characteristic feature is afforded
+by the curious wattles of bright yellow, which, beginning behind
+the eyes, run backwards in form of a lappet on each side, and then
+return in a narrow stripe to the top of the head. Beneath each
+eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This species is
+common in southern India, and is represented farther to the
+north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by
+cognate forms. They are all frugivorous, and, being easily
+tamed and learning to pronounce words very distinctly, are
+favourite cage-birds.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:423px" src="images/img311.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><i>Gracula religiosa.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In America the name Grackle has been applied to several
+species of the genera <i>Scolecophagus</i> and <i>Quiscalus</i>, though these
+are more commonly called in the United States and Canada
+&ldquo;blackbirds,&rdquo; and some of them &ldquo;boat-tails.&rdquo; They all belong
+to the family <i>Icteridae</i>. The best known of these are the rusty
+grackle, <i>S. ferrugineus</i>, which is found in almost the whole of
+North America, and <i>Q. purpureus</i>, the purple grackle or crow-blackbird,
+of more limited range, for though abundant in most
+parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear
+on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer&rsquo;s or the blue-headed
+grackle, <i>S. cyanocephalus</i>, which has a more western range, not
+occurring to the eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth
+species, <i>Q. major</i>, inhabits the Atlantic States as far north as
+North Carolina. All these birds are of exceedingly omnivorous
+habit, and though destroying large numbers of pernicious
+insects are in many places held in bad repute from the mischief
+they do to the corn-crops.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By some writers the birds of the genera <i>Acridotheres</i> and <i>Temenuchus</i>
+are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of <i>Gracula</i>
+are called &ldquo;hill mynas&rdquo; by way of distinction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For a valuable monograph on the various species of <i>Gracula</i> and
+its allies see Professor Schlegel&rsquo;s &ldquo;Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het
+Geschlacht Beo&rsquo;&rdquo; (<i>Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde</i> i. 1-9).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRADISCA,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a town of Austria, in the province of Görz and
+Gradisca, 10 m. S.W. of Görz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly
+Italians. It is situated on the right bank of the Isonzo and was
+formerly a strongly fortified place. Its principal industry is silk
+spinning. Gradisca originally formed part of the margraviate
+of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of Aquileia in 1028,
+and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca was
+fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to
+the emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory,
+including Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected
+into a separate countship in favour of Johann Anton von
+Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On the extinction of his line
+in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was completely incorporated
+with Görz in 1754. The name was revived by the
+constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Görz
+and Gradisca.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRADO,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo;
+11 m. W. by N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a
+left-hand tributary of the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grado
+is built in the midst of a mountainous, well-wooded and fertile
+region. It has some trade in timber, live stock, cider and
+agricultural produce. The nearest railway station is that of the
+Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and small-arms
+factory, 5 m. S.E.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRADUAL<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>gradualis</i>, of or belonging to steps or
+degrees; <i>gradus</i>, step), advancing or taking place by degrees
+or step by step; hence used of a slow progress or a gentle declivity
+or slope, opposed to steep or precipitous. As a substantive,
+&ldquo;gradual&rdquo; (Med. Lat. <i>graduale</i> or <i>gradale</i>) is used of
+a service book or antiphonal of the Roman Catholic Church
+containing certain antiphons, called &ldquo;graduals,&rdquo; sung at the
+service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle.
+This antiphon received the name either because it was sung
+on the steps of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the
+steps of the ambo for the reading or singing of the Gospel. For
+the so-called Gradual Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv., the &ldquo;songs of
+degrees,&rdquo; LXX. <span class="grk" title="ôdê ana bathmôn">&#8096;&#948;&#8052; &#7936;&#957;&#8048; &#946;&#945;&#952;&#956;&#8182;&#957;</span>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psalms, Book of</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRADUATE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>graduare</i>, to admit to an academical
+degree, <i>gradus</i>), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the
+academical sense intransitively, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;to take or proceed to a
+university degree,&rdquo; and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of,
+or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of
+&ldquo;to confer or admit to a degree&rdquo; is, however, still preserved in
+America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to
+university degrees, but is used also of those successfully completing
+a course of study at any educational establishment.
+As a substantive, a &ldquo;graduate&rdquo; (Med. Lat. <i>graduatus</i>) is one
+who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have
+matriculated at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are
+known as &ldquo;undergraduates.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;student,&rdquo; used of
+undergraduates <i>e.g.</i> in Scottish universities, is never applied
+generally to those of the English and Irish universities. At
+Oxford the only &ldquo;students&rdquo; are the &ldquo;senior students&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+fellows) and &ldquo;junior students&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> undergraduates on the
+foundation, or &ldquo;scholars&rdquo;) of Christ Church. The verb &ldquo;to
+graduate&rdquo; is also used of dividing anything into degrees or parts
+in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Graduation</a></span> below. It may also mean &ldquo;to arrange in
+gradations&rdquo; or &ldquo;to adjust or apportion according to a given
+scale.&rdquo; Thus by &ldquo;a graduated income-tax&rdquo; is meant the
+system by which the percentage paid differs according to the
+amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GRADUATION<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Graduate</a></span>), the art of dividing straight
+scales, circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required
+number of equal parts. It is the most important and difficult
+part of the work of the mathematical instrument maker, and is
+required in the construction of most physical, astronomical,
+nautical and surveying instruments.</p>
+
+<p>The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the
+teeth of their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was
+confined to them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in
+its performance was required. This only arose when astronomy
+began to be seriously studied, and the exact position of the
+heavenly bodies to be determined, which created the necessity
+for strictly accurate means of measuring linear and angular
+magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art which
+required special talents and training, and the best artists gave
+great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments.
+Of these may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John
+Bird (1709-1776), John Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden
+(1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward Troughton (1753-1835),
+William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross.</p>
+
+<p>The first graduated instrument must have been done by the
+hand and eye alone, whether it was in the form of a straight-edge
+with equal divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but,
+once in the possession of one such divided instrument, it was a
+comparatively easy matter to employ it as a standard. Hence
+graduation divides itself into two distinct branches, <i>original
+graduation</i> and <i>copying</i>, which latter may be done either by the
+hand or by a machine called a dividing engine. Graduation
+may therefore be treated under the three heads of <i>original
+graduation</i>, <i>copying</i> and <i>machine graduation</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Original Graduation.</i>&mdash;In regard to the graduation of straight
+scales elementary geometry provides the means of dividing
+a straight line into any number of equal parts by the method
+of continual bisection; but the practical realization of the
+geometrical construction is so difficult as to render the method
+untrustworthy. This method, which employs the common
+diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius,
+which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read
+to minutes&mdash;a result, according to Thomson and Tait (<i>Nat.
+Phil.</i>), &ldquo;giving no greater accuracy than is now attainable by
+the pocket sextants of Troughton and Simms, the radius of
+whose arc is little more than an inch.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the
+method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection
+the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as
+possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked
+off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks
+coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as
+will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is
+carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The
+same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on
+in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8, 16,
+&amp;c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of stepping
+the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately as possible,
+by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off, by successive
+steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any error at starting
+will be multiplied at each division by the number of that division.
+Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being put either
+back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch guided by a
+magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as the dots,
+when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably large and
+shapeless.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle
+as the graduation of straight lines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was
+graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Observatory
+in 1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96.85 and
+95.8 in. respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On
+the inner of these the arc of 90° was to be divided into degrees and
+12th parts of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided
+into 96 equal parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for
+adopting the latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the
+divisions could be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in
+Graham&rsquo;s opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate
+method, and would thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the
+divisions of the outer arc. With the same distance on the beam-compass
+as was used to describe the inner arc, laid off from 0°,
+the point 60° was at once determined. With the points 0° and 60°
+as centres successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very
+nearly bisecting the arc of 60°, two slight marks were made on the
+arc; the distance between these marks was divided by the hand
+aided by a lens, and this gave the point 30°. The chord of 60°
+laid off from the point 30° gave the point 90°, and the quadrant
+was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts was
+similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving
+18 parts of 5° each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the
+12th parts of which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as
+before. The outer arc was divided by continual bisection alone,
+and a table was constructed by which the readings of the one arc
+could be converted into those of the other. After the dots indicating
+the required divisions were obtained, either straight strokes
+all directed towards the centre were drawn through them by the
+dividing knife, or sometimes small arcs were drawn through them
+by the beam-compass having its fixed point somewhere on the line
+which was a tangent to the quadrantal arc at the point where a
+division was to be marked.</p>
+
+<p>The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in
+1767. His quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided
+into degrees and 12th parts of a degree. He employed the method
+of continual bisection aided by chords taken from an exact scale of
+equal parts, which could read to .001 of an inch, and which he had
+previously graduated by continual bisections. With the beam-compass
+an arc of radius 95.938 in. was first drawn. From this
+radius the chords of 30°, 15°, 10° 20&prime;, 4° 40&prime; and 42° 40&prime; were computed,
+and each of them by means of the scale of equal parts laid
+off on a separate beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off
+from 0° gave the point 60°; by the chord of 30° the arc of 60° was
+bisected; from the point 30° the radius laid off gave the point 90°;
+the chord of 15° laid off backwards from 90° gave the point 75°;
+from 75° was laid off forwards the chord of 10° 20&prime;; and from 90°
+was laid off backwards the chord of 4° 40&prime;; and these were found to
+coincide in the point 85° 20&prime;. Now 85° 20&prime; being = 5&prime; × 1024 =
+5&prime; × 2<span class="sp">10</span>, the final divisions of 85° 20&prime; were found by continual bisections.
+For the remainder of the quadrant beyond 85° 20&rsquo;,
+containing 56 divisions of 5&prime; each, the chord of 64 such divisions
+was laid off from the point 85° 40&prime;, and the corresponding arc
+divided by continual bisections as before. There was thus a severe
+check upon the accuracy of the points already found, viz. 15°, 30°,
+60°, 75°, 90°, which, however, were found to coincide with the
+corresponding points obtained by continual bisections. The short
+lines through the dots were drawn in the way already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers
+John and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a
+means of graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without
+the aid of such a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His
+method was as follows: The radius of the quadrant laid off from
+0° gave the point 60°. This arc bisected and the half laid off from
+60° gave the point 90°. The arc between 60° and 90° bisected gave
+75°; the arc between 75° and 90° bisected gave the point 82° 30&rsquo;,
+and the arc between 82° 30&prime; and 90° bisected gave the point 86° 15&rsquo;.
+Further, the arc between 82° 30&prime; and 86° 15&prime; trisected, and two-thirds
+of it taken beyond 82° 30&prime;, gave the point 85°, while the arc
+between 85° and 86° 15&prime; also trisected, and one-third part laid off
+beyond 85°, gave the point 85° 25&prime;. Lastly, the arc between 85°
+and 85° 25&prime; being quinquesected, and four-fifths taken beyond 85°,
+gave 85° 20&prime;, which as before is = 5&prime; × 2<span class="sp">10</span>, and so can be finally
+divided by continual bisection.</p>
+
+<p>The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Troughton
+is fully described in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1809, as
+employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The
+circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and
+outer edges. A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it
+revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round
+the outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots,
+was attached to a frame-work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly,
+along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of frictional
+contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after having been
+properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as possible into
+16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the frame carrying
+the roller was moved once round along the circle, the points of
+contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were accurately observed
+by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of which
+(which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near its
+edge, which was to receive the divisions and the other viewed the
+roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked
+with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256
+very nearly equal parts.</p>
+
+<p>The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the
+errors of these dots, which are called <i>apparent</i> errors, in consequence
+of the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition
+that its neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two microscopes
+(which we shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires
+and micrometer adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided
+into 100 divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite
+direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires
+respectively bisected the dots 0 and 128, which were supposed to
+be diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way
+round on its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+and, should dot 0 be found to coincide with B, then the two dots
+were 180° apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coincided
+with dot 0, and the number of divisions of the micrometer
+head noted. Half this number gave clearly the error of dot 128,
+and it was tabulated + or &minus; according as the arcual distance between
+0 and 128 was found to exceed or fall short of the remaining part
+of the circumference. The microscope B was now shifted, A remaining
+opposite dot 0 as before, till its wire bisected dot 64, and,
+by giving the circle one quarter of a turn on its axis, the difference
+of the arcs between dots 0 and 64 and between 64 and 128 was
+obtained. The half of this difference gave the apparent error of
+dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper sign. With the microscope
+A still in the same position the error of dot 192 was obtained,
+and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the errors of dots 32,
+96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In this way the
+apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.</p>
+
+<p>From this table of apparent errors a table of <i>real</i> errors was
+drawn up by employing the following formula:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">½ (x<span class="su">a</span> + x<span class="su">c</span>) + z = the real error of dot b,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where x<span class="su">a</span> is the real error of dot a, x<span class="su">c</span> the real error of dot c, and z
+the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got
+the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives
+the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots.</p>
+
+<p>The last part of Troughton&rsquo;s process was to employ them to cut
+the final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5&prime; each.
+Now the mean interval between any two dots is 360°/256 = 5&prime; × 16<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>,
+and hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into
+16<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a
+subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and
+had a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable
+as to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis,
+and rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional
+adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow
+of its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting
+the roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to
+the mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must
+pass over 16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle represented
+by 360° × 16/256 = 22° 30&prime;. This interval was therefore
+divided by 16<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was
+laid off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each
+equal to 1° 20&prime;; and, to provide for the necessary <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>ths of a division,
+there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the 16
+equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts.
+A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on
+the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions,
+just as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle.
+Before the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was
+brought under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle
+indicated by H, which also coincided with the dot 0. The frame
+was then slipped along the circle by the slow screw motion provided
+for the purpose, till the first sector-division, by the action of the
+roller, was brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the
+circle at the point indicated by H. That the marks thus obtained
+are 5&prime; apart is evident when we reflect that the distance between
+them must be <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>th of a division on the section which by construction
+is 1° 20&prime;. In this way the first 16 divisions were cut; but before
+cutting the 17th it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires
+of H to the real error of dot 1, as indicated by the table, and bring
+back the sector, not to zero, but to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>th short of zero. Starting
+from this position the divisions between dots 1 and 2 were filled in,
+and then H was adjusted to the real error of dot 2, and the sector
+brought back to its proper division before commencing the third
+course. Proceeding in this manner through the whole circle, the
+microscope H was finally found with its wire at zero, and the sector
+with its 16th division under its microscope indicating that the
+circle had been accurately divided.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Copying.</i>&mdash;In graduation by copying the pattern must be
+either an accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately
+divided circle, commonly called a <i>dividing plate</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided,
+usually called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their
+upper faces in the same plane. The dividing square, which closely
+resembles an ordinary joiner&rsquo;s square, is then laid across both,
+and the point of the dividing knife dropped into the zero division
+of the pattern. The square is now moved up close to the point
+of the knife; and, while it is held firmly in this position by the
+left hand, the first division on the work is made by drawing the
+knife along the edge of the square with the right hand.</p>
+
+<p>It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale
+are either greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet
+this case, and still use the same pattern, the work must be fixed
+at a certain angle of inclination with the pattern. This angle
+is found in the following way. Take the exact ratio of a division
+on the pattern to the required division on the scale. Call this
+ratio &alpha;. Then, if the required divisions are longer than those
+of the pattern, the angle is cos<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> &alpha;, but, if shorter, the angle is
+sec<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> &alpha;. In the former case two operations are required before
+the divisions are cut: first, the square is laid on the pattern,
+and the corresponding divisions merely notched very faintly
+on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the square is applied
+to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite each faint
+notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is
+sec<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> &alpha;, the
+dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions cut
+when the edge of the square coincides with the end of each
+division on the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This
+is a circular plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully
+graduated near its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has
+a steel pin fixed in its centre, and at right angles to its plane.
+For guiding the dividing knife an instrument called an index
+is employed. This is a straight bar of thin steel of length equal
+to the radius of the plate. A piece of metal, having a <b>V</b> notch
+with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one end of the bar in
+such a position that the vertex of the notch is exactly in a line
+with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the index is
+laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the
+straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The
+work to be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed
+by two clamps in a position exactly concentric with it. The
+index is now laid on, with its edge coinciding with any required
+division on the dividing plate, and the corresponding division
+on the work is cut by drawing the dividing knife along the
+straight edge of the index.</p>
+
+<p><i>Machine Graduation.</i>&mdash;The first dividing engine was probably
+that of Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly
+used by him for cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was
+followed shortly after by an engine devised by the duc de
+Chaulnes; but the first notable engine was that made by Ramsden,
+of which an account was published by the Board of Longitude
+in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of £300,
+and a further sum of £315 was given to him on condition that he
+would divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other
+makers. The essential principles of Ramsden&rsquo;s machine have
+been repeated in almost all succeeding engines for dividing
+circles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ramsden&rsquo;s machine consisted of a large brass prate 45 in. in diameter,
+carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge
+of the plate was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent
+screw worked, by means of which the plate could be made to turn
+through any required angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved
+the plate through 1°, and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">60</span>th of a turn through <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">360</span>th of a degree.
+On the axis of the tangent screw was placed a cylinder having a
+spiral groove cut on its surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60
+teeth was attached to this cylinder, and was so arranged that, when
+the cylinder moved in one direction, it carried the tangent screw
+with it, and so turned the plate, but when it moved in the opposite
+direction, it left the tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary.
+Round the spiral groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound,
+one end of which was attached to a treadle and the other to a counterpoise
+weight. When the treadle was depressed the tangent screw
+turned round, and when the pressure was removed it returned, in
+obedience to the weight, to its former position without affecting
+the screw. Provision was also made whereby certain stops could be
+placed in the way of the screw, which only allowed it the requisite
+amount of turning. The work to be divided was firmly fixed on the
+plate, and made concentric with it. The divisions were cut, while
+the screw was stationary, by means of a dividing knife attached to
+a swing frame, which allowed it to have only a radial motion. In
+this way the artist could divide very rapidly by alternately depressing
+the treadle and working the dividing knife.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ramsden also constructed a linear dividing engine on essentially
+the same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular
+plate with its notches stretched out into a straight line and made
+movable in a straight slot, the screw, treadle, &amp;c., remaining
+as before, we get a very good idea of the linear engine.</p>
+
+<p>In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing
+engine, of which the plate was smaller than in Ramsden&rsquo;s, and
+which differed considerably in simplifying matters of detail.
+The plate was originally divided by Troughton&rsquo;s own method,
+already described, and the divisions so obtained were employed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+to ratch the edge of the plate for receiving the tangent screw
+with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (<i>Trans. Soc. Arts</i>, 1830-1831)
+constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably
+from those of Ramsden and Troughton.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The essential point of difference is that, in Ross&rsquo;s engine, the
+tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an
+independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is
+only to stop the plate after it has passed through the required
+angular interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated.
+Round the circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which
+just look as if the circumference had been divided into as many
+deep and somewhat peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through
+each of these teeth a hole is bored parallel to the plane of the plate
+and also to a tangent to its circumference. Into these holes are
+screwed steel screws with capstan heads and flat ends. The tangent
+screw consists only of a single turn of a large square thread which
+works in the teeth or notches of the plate. This thread is pierced
+by 90 equally distant holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw,
+and at the same distance from it. Into each of these holes is inserted
+a steel screw exactly similar to those in the teeth, but with
+its end rounded. It is the rounded and flat ends of these sets of
+screws coming together that stop the engine plate at the desired
+position, and the exact point can be nicely adjusted by suitably
+turning the screws.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:485px; height:474px" src="images/img314.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Dividing Engine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A description is given of a dividing engine made by William
+Simms in the <i>Memoirs of the Astronomical Society</i>, 1843. Simms
+became convinced that to copy upon smaller circles the divisions
+which had been put upon a large plate with very great accuracy
+was not only more expeditious but more exact than original
+graduation. His machine involved essentially the same principle
+as Troughton&rsquo;s. The accompanying figure is taken by
+permission.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal
+cast in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5&rsquo; divisions&mdash;one very
+faint on an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun-metal.
+These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the
+plan of Edward Troughton. One very great improvement in this
+engine is that the axis B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this
+hollow is to receive the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it
+can be fixed flat to the plate by the clamps E, without having first
+to be detached from the axis and other parts to which it has already
+been carefully fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting,
+which can hardly be done without some error. D is the tangent
+screw, and F the frame carrying it, which turns on carefully polished
+steel pivots. The screw is pressed against the edge of the plate
+by a spiral spring acting under the end of the lever G, and by screwing
+the lever down the screw can be altogether removed from contact
+with the plate. The edge of the plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which
+were cut opposite the original division by a circular cutter attached
+to the screw frame. H is the spiral barrel round which the catgut
+band is wound, one end of which is attached to the crank L on the
+end of the axis J and the other to a counterpoise weight not seen.
+On the other end of J is another crank inclined to L and carrying a
+band and counterpoise weight seen at K. The object of this weight
+is to balance the former and give steadiness to the motion. On the
+axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which move the rod I, which,
+by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to the box N, gives
+motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an eccentric for moving
+the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying the cutter. Between
+the eccentric and the point of the screw P is an undulating
+plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting apparatus
+is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be elevated or
+depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting apparatus
+can be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit circles
+of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R, and
+the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope
+joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand
+or by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in
+or out of gear at once by a handle seen at S.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mention may be made of Donkin&rsquo;s linear dividing engine,
+in which a compensating arrangement is employed whereby
+great accuracy is obtained notwithstanding the inequalities of
+the screw used to advance the cutting tool. Dividing engines
+have also been made by Reichenbach, Repsold and others in
+Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other astronomical
+instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts
+&amp; Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the <i>Monthly Not. R. A. S.</i>,
+January 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References</span>.&mdash;Bird, <i>Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments</i>
+(London, 1767); Duc de Chaulnes, <i>Nouvelle Méthode pour diviser
+les instruments de mathématique et d&rsquo;astronomie</i> (1768); Ramsden,
+<i>Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments</i>
+(London, 1777); Troughton&rsquo;s memoir, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (1809); <i>Memoirs
+of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35.
+See also J. E. Watkins, &ldquo;On the Ramsden Machine,&rdquo; <i>Smithsonian
+Rep.</i> (1890), p. 721; and L. Ambronn, <i>Astronomische Instrumentenkunde</i>
+(1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Bl.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRADUS<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gradus ad Parnassum</span> (a step to Parnassus),
+a Latin (or Greek) dictionary, in which the quantities of the
+vowels of the words are marked. Synonyms, epithets and
+poetical expressions and extracts are also included under the
+more important headings, the whole being intended as an aid
+for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. The first
+Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler
+(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus
+by C. D. Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and
+H. G. Wintle (1890); Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby
+(1815), bishop of Durham.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAETZ, HEINRICH<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish
+historian of modern times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died
+at Munich in 1891. He received a desultory education, and
+was largely self-taught. An important stage in his development
+was the period of three years that he spent at Oldenburg as
+assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened orthodoxy
+was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz
+proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau
+was then becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the
+leader of Jewish reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger&rsquo;s
+attitude, and though he subsequently took radical views of the
+Bible and tradition (which made him an opponent of Hirsch),
+Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform. He contended for
+freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for freedom
+of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the
+rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years
+he supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute
+by his published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the
+fourth volume of his history of the Jews made him famous. This
+fourth volume (the first to be published) dealt with the Talmud.
+It was a brilliant resuscitation of the past. Graetz&rsquo;s skill in
+piecing together detached fragments of information, his vast
+learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were equalled by
+his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book
+of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and
+Graetz won at a bound the position he still occupies as recognized
+master of Jewish history. His <i>Geschichte der Juden</i>,
+begun in 1853, was completed in 1875; new editions of the
+several volumes were frequent. The work has been translated
+into many languages; it appeared in English in five volumes
+in 1891-1895. The <i>History</i> is defective in its lack of objectivity;
+Graetz&rsquo;s judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular he
+lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+of genius. Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv.
+Graetz was appointed on the staff of the new Breslau Seminary,
+of which the first director was Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the
+remainder of his life in this office; in 1869 he was created professor
+by the government, and also lectured at the Breslau
+University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a biblical
+critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the
+date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books.
+His critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief contribution
+to biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor
+Bacher edited Graetz&rsquo;s <i>Emendationes</i> to many parts of the
+Hebrew scriptures.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full bibliography of Graetz&rsquo;s works is given in the <i>Jewish
+Quarterly Review</i>, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found
+there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the &ldquo;index&rdquo; volume
+of the <i>History</i> in the American re-issue of the English translation
+in six volumes (Philadelphia, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAEVIUS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (properly <span class="sc">Gräve</span> or <span class="sc">Greffe</span>), <b>JOHANN GEORG</b>
+(1632-1703). German classical scholar and critic, was born at
+Naumburg, Saxony, on the 29th of January 1632. He was
+originally intended for the law, but having made the acquaintance
+of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer, under his
+influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He completed
+his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the
+Protestant theologians A. Morus and D. Blondel at Amsterdam.
+During his residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel&rsquo;s influence
+he abandoned Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church;
+and in 1656 he was called by the elector of Brandenburg to
+the chair of rhetoric in the university of Duisburg. Two years
+afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he was chosen
+to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was translated
+to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the chair
+of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January 11th, 1703)
+that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high
+reputation as a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded
+by pupils, many of them of distinguished rank, from all parts
+of the civilized world. He was honoured with special recognition
+by Louis XIV., and was a particular favourite of William III.
+of England, who made him historiographer royal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His two most important works are the <i>Thesaurus antiquitatum
+Romanarum</i> (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the <i>Thesaurus antiquitatum
+et historiarum Italiae</i> published after his death, and
+continued by the elder Burmann (1704-1725). His editions of the
+classics, although they marked a distinct advance in scholarship,
+arc now for the most part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667),
+Lucian, <i>Pseudosophista</i> (1668), Justin, <i>Historiae Philippicae</i> (1669),
+Suetonius (1672), Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and
+several of the works of Cicero (his best production). He also edited
+many of the writings of contemporary scholars. The <i>Oratio funebris</i>
+by P. Burmann (1703) contains an exhaustive list of the works
+of this scholar; see also P. H. Külb in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine
+Encyklopädie</i>, and J. E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, ii.
+(1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAF, ARTURO<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), Italian poet, of German extraction,
+was born at Athens. He was educated at Naples
+University and became a lecturer on Italian literature in Rome,
+till in 1882 he was appointed professor at Turin. He was one
+of the founders of the <i>Giornale della letteratura italiana</i>, and his
+publications include valuable prose criticism; but he is best
+known as a poet. His various volumes of verse&mdash;<i>Poesie e
+novelle</i> (1874), <i>Dopo il tramonto versi</i> (1893), &amp;c.&mdash;give him a
+high place among the recent lyrical writers of his country.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAF, KARL HEINRICH<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1815-1869), German Old Testament
+scholar and orientalist, was born at Mülhausen in Alsace
+on the 28th of February 1815. He studied Biblical exegesis
+and oriental languages at the university of Strassburg under
+E. Reuss, and, after holding various teaching posts, was made
+instructor in French and Hebrew at the Landesschule of Meissen,
+receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He died on the 16th of
+July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old Testament
+criticism. In his principal work, <i>Die geschichtlichen Bücher
+des Alten Testaments</i> (1866), he sought to show that the priestly
+legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin
+than the book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the
+accepted view, that the Elohistic narratives formed part of the
+<i>Grundschrift</i> and therefore belonged to the oldest portions of
+the Pentateuch. The reasons urged against the contention that
+the priestly legislation and the Elohistic narratives were separated
+by a space of 500 years were so strong as to induce Graf,
+in an essay, &ldquo;Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs,&rdquo;
+published shortly before his death, to regard the whole <i>Grundschrift</i>
+as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch.
+The idea had already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since
+Graf was the first to introduce it into Germany, the theory,
+as developed by Julius Wellhausen, has been called the Graf-Wellhausen
+hypothesis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Graf also wrote, <i>Der Segen Moses Deut. 33</i> (1857) and <i>Der Prophet
+Jeremia erklärt</i> (1862). See T. K. Cheyne, <i>Founders of Old Testament
+Criticism</i> (1893); and Otto Pfleiderer&rsquo;s book translated into English
+by J. F. Smith as <i>Development of Theology</i> (1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÄFE, ALBRECHT VON<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1828-1870), German oculist, son
+of Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd
+of May 1828. At an early age he manifested a preference for the
+study of mathematics, but this was gradually superseded by an
+interest in natural science, which led him ultimately to the study
+of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at Berlin, Vienna,
+Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and devoting
+special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice
+as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution
+for the treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many
+similar ones in Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was
+appointed teacher of ophthalmology in Berlin university; in
+1858 he became extraordinary professor, and in 1866 ordinary
+professor. Gräfe contributed largely to the progress of the
+science of ophthalmology, especially by the establishment in
+1855 of his <i>Archiv für Ophthalmologie</i>, in which he had Ferdinand
+Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as collaborators.
+Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his method
+of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He
+was also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves
+and brain. He died at Berlin on the 20th of July 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Gräfe</i> (Halle, 1870)
+by his cousin, Alfred Gräfe (1830-1899), also a distinguished ophthalmologist,
+and the author of <i>Das Sehen der Schielenden</i> (Wiesbaden,
+1897); and E. Michaelis, <i>Albrecht von Gräfe. Sein Leben und
+Wirken</i> (Berlin, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFE, HEINRICH<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1802-1868), German educationist, was
+born at Buttstädt in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802.
+He studied mathematics and theology at Jena, and in 1823
+obtained a curacy in the town church of Weimar. He was
+transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825; in 1840
+he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science
+of education (Pädagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he
+became head of the <i>Bürgerschule</i> (middle class school) in Cassel.
+After reorganizing the schools of the town, he became director
+of the new <i>Realschule</i> in 1843; and, devoting himself to the
+interests of educational reform in electoral Hesse, he became
+in 1849 a member of the school commission, and also entered
+the house of representatives, where he made himself somewhat
+formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated
+in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular
+minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission,
+he was condemned to three years&rsquo; imprisonment, a sentence
+afterwards reduced to one of twelve months. On his release he
+withdrew to Geneva, where he engaged in educational work
+till 1855, when he was appointed director of the school of industry
+at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of July 1868.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional
+papers on educational subjects, he wrote <i>Das Rechisverhältnis der
+Volksschule von innen und aussen</i> (1829); <i>Die Schulreform</i> (1834);
+<i>Schule und Unterricht</i> (1839); <i>Allgemeine Pädagogik</i> (1845); <i>Die
+deutsche Volksschule</i> (1847). Together with Naumann, he also edited
+the <i>Archiv für das praktische Volksschulwesen</i> (1828-1835).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÄFE, KARL FERDINAND VON<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1787-1840), German
+surgeon, was born at Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He
+studied medicine at Halle and Leipzig, and after obtaining
+licence from the Leipzig university, he was in 1807 appointed
+private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. In
+1811 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
+clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was superintendent
+of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded
+in 1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed
+physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a
+director of the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-Chirurgical
+Academy. He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840
+at Hanover, whither he had been called to operate on the eyes
+of the crown prince. Gräfe did much to advance the practice
+of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment of wounds.
+He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was chiefly
+due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted
+students from all parts of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are his principal works: <i>Normen für die Ablösung
+grosser Gliedmassen</i> (Berlin, 1812); <i>Rhinoplastik</i> (1818); <i>Neue Beiträge
+zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen</i> (1821);
+<i>Die epidemisch-kontagiöse Augenblennorrhoë Ägyptens in den
+europäischen Befreiungsheeren</i> (1824); and <i>Jahresberichte über das
+klinisch-chirurgisch-augenärztliche Institut der Universität zu Berlin</i>
+(1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the <i>Journal
+für Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde</i>. See E. Michaelis, <i>Karl Ferdinand
+von Gräfe in seiner 30 jährigen Wirken für Staat und Wissenschaft</i>
+(Berlin, 1840).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFFITO<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span>, plural <i>graffiti</i>, the Italian word meaning &ldquo;scribbling&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;scratchings&rdquo; (<i>graffiare</i>, to scribble, Gr. <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>),
+adopted by archaeologists as a general term for the casual
+writings, rude drawings and markings on ancient buildings,
+in distinction from the more formal or deliberate writings known
+as &ldquo;inscriptions.&rdquo; These &ldquo;graffiti,&rdquo; either scratched on stone
+or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a nail, or, more rarely,
+written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found in great abundance,
+<i>e.g.</i> on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The best-known
+&ldquo;graffiti&rdquo; are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and elsewhere
+in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci
+(<i>Graffiti di Pompei</i>, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra (&ldquo;Graffiti di
+Roma&rdquo; in <i>Bolletino della commissione municipale archaeologica</i>,
+Rome, 1893; see also <i>Corp. Ins. Lat.</i> iv., Berlin, 1871).
+The subject matter of these scribblings is much the same as
+that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys, street idlers
+and the casual &ldquo;tripper.&rdquo; The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote out
+lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for
+memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, &ldquo;sportsmen&rdquo;
+scribbled the names of horses they had been &ldquo;tipped,&rdquo;
+and wrote those of their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse
+is frequent, and rude caricatures are found, such as that of one
+Peregrinus with an enormous nose, or of Naso or Nasso with
+hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes up his election address
+and appeals to the <i>pilicrepi</i> or ball-players for their votes for
+him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for lovers in dejection
+or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius appear
+to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt
+the nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome
+near the <i>Porta Portuensis</i> has been found an inscription begging
+people not to scribble (<i>scariphare</i>) on the walls.</p>
+
+<p>Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to
+the philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the
+various alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasionally
+guide the archaeologist to the date of the building on which
+they appear, but they are chiefly valuable for the light they
+throw on the everyday life of the &ldquo;man in the street&rdquo; of the
+period, and for the intimate details of customs and institutions
+which no literature or formal inscriptions can give. The graffiti
+dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in this respect
+particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of
+the <i>secutor</i> caught in the net of the <i>retiarius</i> and lying entirely
+at his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents
+of these shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci,
+<i>op. cit.</i>, Pls. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, <i>Pompeii in Leben und Kunst</i>, 2nd
+ed., 1908, ch. xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome,
+near the church of S. Crisogono, was discovered the guardhouse
+(<i>excubitorium</i>) of the seventh cohort of the city police (<i>vigiles</i>),
+the walls being covered by the scribblings of the guards, illustrating
+in detail the daily routine, the hardships and dangers, and
+the feelings of the men towards their officers (W. Henzen,
+&ldquo;L&rsquo; Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili&rdquo; in <i>Bull. Inst.</i>
+1867, and <i>Annali Inst.</i>, 1874; see also R. Lanciani, <i>Ancient
+Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries</i>, 230, and <i>Ruins and
+Excavations of Ancient Rome</i>, 1897, 548). The most famous
+graffito yet discovered is that generally accepted as representing
+a caricature of Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the
+Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine in 1857, and now preserved
+in the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romano. Deeply
+scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad in the short <i>tunica</i>
+with one hand upraised in salutation to another figure, with
+the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a cross;
+beneath is written in rude Greek letters &ldquo;Anaxamenos worships
+(his) god.&rdquo; It has been suggested that this represents an
+adherent of some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal-headed
+deities of Egypt (see Ferd. Becker, <i>Das Spottcrucifix
+der römischen Kaiserpaläste</i>, Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, <i>Das
+Spottcrucifix vom Palatin</i>, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1872; and
+Visconti and Lanciani, <i>Guida del Palatino</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti,
+in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, October 1859, vol. cx.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. We.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFLY, CHARLES<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1862-&emsp;&emsp;), American sculptor, was
+born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December
+1862. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy
+of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri M. Chapu and Jean
+Dampt, and the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. He received an
+Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his &ldquo;Mauvais
+Présage,&rdquo; now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal
+at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893,
+Atlanta, 1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor,
+Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he
+became instructor in sculpture at the Pennsylvania Academy
+of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at the Drexel Institute,
+Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the National
+Academy of Design in 1905. His better-known works include:
+&ldquo;General Reynolds,&rdquo; Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; &ldquo;Fountain
+of Man&rdquo; (made for the Pan-American Exposition at
+Buffalo); &ldquo;From Generation to Generation&rdquo;; &ldquo;Symbol of
+Life&rdquo;; &ldquo;Vulture of War,&rdquo; and many portrait busts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÄFRATH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach,
+14 m. E. of Düsseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop.
+(1905) 9030. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical
+churches, and there was an abbey here from 1185 to 1803. The
+principal industries are iron and steel, while weaving is carried
+on in the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFT<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (a modified form of the earlier &ldquo;graff,&rdquo; through
+the French from the Late Lat. <i>graphium</i>, a stylus or pencil),
+a small branch, shoot or &ldquo;scion,&rdquo; transferred from one plant or
+tree to another, the &ldquo;stock,&rdquo; and inserted in it so that the two
+unite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span>). The name was adopted from the
+resemblance in shape of the &ldquo;graft&rdquo; to a pencil. The transfer
+of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another part
+of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows
+is also known as &ldquo;grafting,&rdquo; and is frequently practised in
+modern surgery. The word is applied, in carpentry, to an
+attachment of the ends of timbers, and, as a nautical term, to
+the &ldquo;whipping&rdquo; or &ldquo;pointing&rdquo; of a rope&rsquo;s end with fine twine
+to prevent unravelling. &ldquo;Graft&rdquo; is used as a slang term, in
+England, for a &ldquo;piece of hard work.&rdquo; In American usage
+Webster&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i> (ed. 1904) defines the word as &ldquo;the act of
+any one, especially an official or public employé, by which he
+procures money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position;
+also the surreptitious gain thus procured.&rdquo; It is thus a word
+embracing blackmail and illicit commission. The origin of the
+English use of the word is probably an obsolete word &ldquo;graft,&rdquo;
+a portion of earth thrown up by a spade, from the Teutonic root
+meaning &ldquo;to dig,&rdquo; seen in German <i>graben</i>, and English &ldquo;grave.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON, DUKES OF.<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> The English dukes of Grafton are
+descended from <span class="sc">Henry Fitzroy</span> (1663-1690), the natural son
+of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers (countess of Castlemaine and
+duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was married to the daughter
+and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created earl of Euston;
+in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span>
+up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg
+in 1684. At James II.&rsquo;s coronation he was lord high constable.
+In the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the
+royal troops in Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill
+(duke of Marlborough), and joined William of Orange against
+the king. He died of a wound received at the storming of Cork,
+while leading William&rsquo;s forces, being succeeded as 2nd duke
+by his son Charles (1682-1757).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Augustus Henry Fitzroy</span>, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811),
+one of the leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the
+2nd duke, and was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He
+first became known in politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in
+1765 he was secretary of state under the marquis of Rockingham;
+but he retired next year, and Pitt (becoming earl of Chatham)
+formed a ministry in which Grafton was first lord of the treasury
+(1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham&rsquo;s illness
+at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective
+leader, but political differences and the attacks of &ldquo;Junius&rdquo;
+led to his resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy
+seal in Lord North&rsquo;s ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being
+in favour of conciliatory action towards the American colonists.
+In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 he was again lord privy
+seal. In later years he was a prominent Unitarian.</p>
+
+<p>Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous
+other children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitzroy
+(1764-1829), whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858),
+governor of New South Wales, and Robert Fitzroy (<i>q.v.</i>), the
+hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th duke&rsquo;s son, who
+succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th dukes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The 3rd duke left in manuscript a <i>Memoir</i> of his public career,
+of which extracts have been printed in Stanhope&rsquo;s <i>History</i>, Walpole&rsquo;s
+<i>Memories of George III.</i> (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell&rsquo;s <i>Lives
+of the Chancellors</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON, RICHARD<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (d. 1572). English printer and chronicler,
+was probably born about 1513. He received the freedom
+of the Grocers&rsquo; Company in 1534. Miles Coverdale&rsquo;s version
+of the Bible had first been printed in 1535. Grafton was early
+brought into touch with the leaders of religious reform, and in
+1537 he undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch,
+to produce a modified version of Coverdale&rsquo;s text, generally
+known as Matthew&rsquo;s Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris
+to reprint Coverdale&rsquo;s revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch
+and he began to print the folio known as the Great Bible by
+special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from the French government.
+Suddenly, however, the work was officially stopped and
+the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell eventually
+bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed
+in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under
+his direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton
+and Whitchurch secured the exclusive right of printing church
+service books, and on the accession of Edward VI. he was
+appointed king&rsquo;s printer, an office which he retained throughout
+the reign. In this capacity he produced <i>The Booke of the Common
+Praier and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and other Rites
+and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche of
+Englande</i> (1549 fol.), and <i>Actes of Parliament</i> (1552 and 1553).
+In 1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey&rsquo;s proclamation and signed
+himself the queen&rsquo;s printer. For this he was imprisoned for a
+short time, and he seems thereafter to have retired from active
+business. His historical works include a continuation (1543)
+of Hardyng&rsquo;s Chronicle from the beginning of the reign of Edward
+IV. down to Grafton&rsquo;s own times. He is said to have taken
+considerable liberties with the original, and may practically be
+regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in 1548
+Edward Hall&rsquo;s <i>Union of the ... Families of Lancastre and
+Yorke</i>, adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After
+he retired from the printing business he published <i>An Abridgement
+of the Chronicles of England</i> (1562), <i>Manuell of the Chronicles
+of England</i> (1565), <i>Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the
+Affayres of England</i> (1568). In these books he chiefly adapted
+the work of his predecessors, but in some cases he gives detailed
+accounts of contemporary events. His name frequently appears
+in the records of St Bartholomew&rsquo;s and Christ&rsquo;s hospitals, and
+in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King Edward&rsquo;s
+foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the
+City in Parliament, and in 1562-1563 he sat for Coventry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A.
+Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers&rsquo; Company, with the title
+<i>Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &amp;c.</i>, in continuation
+of <i>Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton</i> (1895). His
+<i>Chronicle at large</i> was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a city of Clarence county, New South Wales,
+lying on both sides of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m.
+from its mouth, 342 m. N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901)
+4174, South Grafton, 976. The two sections, North Grafton
+and South Grafton, form separate municipalities. The river
+is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate
+burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The
+entrance to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton
+is the seat of the Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton and Armidale,
+and of a Roman Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which
+have fine cathedrals. Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are
+important industries, and there are several sugar-mills in the
+neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also, are bred for the
+Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and fruits are
+also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney.
+There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &amp;c. The city became a
+municipality in 1859.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county,
+Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052; (1910) 5705. It is
+served by the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford, and the
+Boston &amp; Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines.
+The township contains several villages (including Grafton, North
+Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville); the
+principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The
+villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many
+summer residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public
+library. There is ample water power from the Blackstone
+river and its tributaries, and among the manufactures of Grafton
+are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &amp;c. Within what is now
+Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of Hassanamesit.
+John Eliot, the &ldquo;apostle to the Indians,&rdquo; visited it soon after
+1651, and organized the third of his bands of &ldquo;praying Indians&rdquo;
+there; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of
+the kind in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massachusetts
+General Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive
+use, a tract of about 4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole
+proprietors until 1718, when they sold a small farm to Elisha
+Johnson, the first permanent white settler in the neighbourhood.
+In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro, Sudbury, Concord and
+Stowe, with the permission of the General Court, bought from the
+Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to establish forty
+English families on the tract within three years, and to maintain
+a church and school of which the Indians should have free use.
+The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour
+of the 2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded
+Indians died about 1825.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West
+Virginia, U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of
+Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign-born
+and 162 negroes; (1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions
+of the Baltimore &amp; Ohio railway, which maintains extensive car
+shops here. The city is about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It has
+a small national cemetery, and about 4 m. W., at Pruntytown,
+is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is situated near
+large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among its
+manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window
+glass and pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill
+products. The first settlement was made about 1852, and
+Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and chartered as a city in
+1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city were increased
+by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900, 796),
+of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, SIR GERALD<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1831-1899), British general, was
+born on the 27th of June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span>
+educated at Dresden and Woolwich Academy, and entered the
+Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with distinction through
+the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the battles of
+the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches
+before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for
+gallantry at the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism
+on numerous occasions. He also received the Legion of Honour,
+and was promoted to a brevet majority. In the China War of
+1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho and Tang-ku, the
+storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely wounded,
+and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and C.B.).
+Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties
+until 1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works
+for barracks at the war office, a position he held until his promotion
+to major-general in 1881. In command of the advanced
+force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the brunt of the fighting, was
+present at the action of Magfar, commanded at the first battle
+of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his brigade at
+Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received the
+K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the
+expedition to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful
+battles of El Teb and Tamai. On his return home he received
+the thanks of parliament and was made a lieutenant-general
+for distinguished service in the field. In 1885 he commanded
+the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin and
+Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the
+expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.).
+In 1896 he was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant
+Royal Engineers. He died on the 17th of December 1899.
+He published in 1875 a translation of Goetze&rsquo;s <i>Operations of
+the German Engineers in 1870-1871</i>, and in 1887 <i>Last Words
+with Gordon</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> Bart. (1792-1861),
+British statesman, son of a baronet, was born at Naworth,
+Cumberland, on the 1st of June 1792, and was educated at
+Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university,
+while making the &ldquo;grand tour&rdquo; abroad, he became private
+secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England
+in 1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the
+Whig interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820.
+In 1824 he succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered
+parliament as representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon
+exchanged for the county of Cumberland. In the same year
+he published a pamphlet entitled &ldquo;Corn and Currency,&rdquo; which
+brought him into prominence as a man of advanced Liberal
+opinions; and he became one of the most energetic advocates
+in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl
+Grey&rsquo;s administration he received the post of first lord of the
+admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he
+sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dissensions
+on the Irish Church question led to his withdrawal
+from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately to his joining the
+Conservative party. Rejected by his former constituents in
+1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 for
+Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert
+Peel as secretary of state for the home department, a post he
+retained until 1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable
+odium in Scotland, by his unconciliating policy on the church
+question prior to the &ldquo;disruption&rdquo; of 1843; and in 1844 the
+detention and opening of letters at the post-office by his warrant
+raised a storm of public indignation, which was hardly allayed
+by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of
+investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but in
+the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen&rsquo;s cabinet as first lord
+of the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short
+time in the Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of
+a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian
+war ultimately led to his withdrawal from official life. He
+continued as a private member to exercise a considerable influence
+on parliamentary opinion. He died at Netherby,
+Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life</i>, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, SYLVESTER<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1794-1851), American dietarian,
+was born in Suffield, Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst
+College, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1826,
+but he seems to have preached but little. He became an ardent
+advocate of temperance reform and of vegetarianism, having
+persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause of abnormal
+cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he died
+at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 11th of September
+1851. His name is now remembered because of his advocacy
+of unbolted (Graham) flour, and as the originator of &ldquo;Graham
+bread.&rdquo; But his reform was much broader than this. He urged,
+primarily, physiological education, and in his <i>Science of Human
+Life</i> (1836; republished, with biographical memoir, 1858)
+furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had
+carefully planned a complete regimen including many details
+besides a strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding
+House was opened in New York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath
+Nicholson, who published <i>Nature&rsquo;s Own Book</i> (2nd ed., 1835)
+giving Graham&rsquo;s rules for boarders; and in Boston a Graham
+House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American
+Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly
+called <i>The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to
+illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science of
+human life as taught by Sylvester Graham</i>, edited by David Campbell.
+Graham wrote <i>Essay on Cholera</i> (1832); <i>The Esculapian Tablets
+of the Nineteenth Century</i> (1834); <i>Lectures to Young Men on Chastity</i>
+(2nd ed., 1837); and <i>Bread and Bread Making</i>; and projected a
+work designed to show that his system was not counter to the
+Holy Scriptures.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, THOMAS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1805-1869), British chemist, born at
+Glasgow on the 20th of December 1805, was the son of a merchant
+of that city. In 1819 he entered the university of Glasgow with
+the intention of becoming a minister of the Established Church.
+But under the influence of Thomas Thomson (1773-1852),
+the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste for experimental
+science and especially for molecular physics, a subject which
+formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After
+graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of
+Professor T. C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow
+gave lessons in mathematics, and subsequently chemistry,
+until the year 1829, when he was appointed lecturer in the
+Mechanics&rsquo; Institute. In 1830 he succeeded Dr Andrew Ure
+(1778-1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian Institution,
+and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was
+transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College,
+London. There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir
+John Herschel as Master of the Mint, a post he held until his
+death on the 16th of September 1869. The onerous duties
+his work at the Mint entailed severely tried his energies, and
+in quitting a purely scientific career he was subjected to the
+cares of official life, for which he was not fitted by temperament.
+The researches, however, which he conducted between 1861
+and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he engaged.
+Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836,
+and a corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847,
+while Oxford made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part
+in the foundation of the London Chemical and the Cavendish
+societies, and served as first president of both, in 1841 and 1846.
+Towards the close of his life the presidency of the Royal Society
+was offered him, but his failing health caused him to decline
+the honour.</p>
+
+<p>Graham&rsquo;s work is remarkable at once for its originality and
+for the simplicity of the methods employed obtaining most
+important results. He communicated papers to the Philosophical
+Society of Glasgow before the work of that society was recorded
+in <i>Transactions</i>, but his first published paper, &ldquo;On the Absorption
+of Gases by Liquids,&rdquo; appeared in the <i>Annals of Philosophy</i>
+for 1826. The subject with which his name is most prominently
+associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first paper on this
+subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment
+had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of
+gases. &ldquo;Fruitful as the miscibility of gases  has been in interesting
+speculations, the experimental information we possess
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span>
+on the subject amounts to little more than the well-established
+fact that gases of a different nature when brought into contact
+do not arrange themselves according to their density, but they
+spontaneously diffuse through each other so as to remain in an
+intimate state of mixture for any length of time.&rdquo; For the
+fissured jar of J. W. Döbereiner he substituted a glass tube
+closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple appliance
+he developed the law now known by his name &ldquo;that
+the diffusion rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their
+density.&rdquo; (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>.) He further studied the passage
+of gases by transpiration through fine tubes, and by effusion
+through a minute hole in a platinum disk, and was enabled to show
+that gas may enter a vacuum in three different ways: (1) by the
+molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of which a gas penetrates
+through the pores of a disk of compressed graphite; (2)
+by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a platinum
+disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being
+similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is
+usually carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity
+many thousand times as great as is demonstrable by the latter;
+and (3) by the peculiar rate of passage due to transpiration through
+fine tubes, in which the ratios appear to be in direct relation with
+no other known property of the same gases&mdash;thus hydrogen has
+exactly double the transpiration rate of nitrogen, the relation of
+those gases as to density being as 1 : 14. He subsequently
+examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions of india-rubber,
+unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as
+palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa
+neither by diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue
+of a selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the
+gases in contact with them. By this means (&ldquo;atmolysis&rdquo;) he
+was enabled partially to separate oxygen from air.</p>
+
+<p>His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine
+the spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the
+experiments he divided bodies into two classes&mdash;crystalloids,
+such as common salt, and colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type&mdash;the
+former having high and the latter low diffusibility. He
+also proved that the process of liquid diffusion causes partial
+decomposition of certain chemical compounds, the potassium
+sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium
+sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt.
+He also extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids,
+adopting the method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poiseuille.
+He found that dilution with water does not effect proportionate
+alteration in the transpiration velocities of different
+liquids, and a certain determinable degree of dilution retards
+the transpiration velocity.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to Graham&rsquo;s more purely chemical work, in 1833
+he showed that phosphoric anhydride and water form three
+distinct acids, and he thus established the existence of polybasic
+acids, in each of which one or more equivalents of hydrogen are
+replaceable by certain metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acid</a></span>). In 1835 he published
+the results of an examination of the properties of water of crystallization
+as a constituent of salts. Not the least interesting
+part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain definite salts with
+alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of alcoholates
+was given. A brief paper entitled &ldquo;Speculative Ideas on the
+Constitution of Matter&rdquo; (1863) possesses special interest in connexion
+with work done since his death, because in it he expressed
+the view that the various kinds of matter now recognized
+as different elementary substances may possess one and the same
+ultimate or atomic molecule in different conditions of movement.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Graham&rsquo;s <i>Elements of Chemistry</i>, first published in 1833, went
+through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled
+under J. Otto&rsquo;s direction. His <i>Chemical and Physical Researches</i>
+were collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and
+printed &ldquo;for presentation only&rdquo; at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith
+contributing to the volume a valuable preface and analysis of its
+contents. See also T. E. Thorpe, <i>Essays in Historical Chemistry</i>
+(1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAHAME, JAMES<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in
+Glasgow on the 22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful
+lawyer. After completing his literary course at Glasgow university,
+Grahame went in 1784 to Edinburgh, where he qualified
+as writer to the signet, and subsequently for the Scottish bar,
+of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his preferences
+had always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four
+he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton,
+Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works
+include a dramatic poem, <i>Mary Queen of Scots</i> (1801), <i>The
+Sabbath</i> (1804), <i>British Georgics</i> (1804), <i>The Birds of Scotland</i>
+(1806), and <i>Poems on the Abolition of the Slave Trade</i> (1810).
+His principal work, <i>The Sabbath</i>, a sacred and descriptive poem
+in blank verse, is characterized by devotional feeling and by
+happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In the notes to his poems
+he expresses enlightened views on popular education, the criminal
+law and other public questions. He was emphatically a friend
+of humanity&mdash;a philanthropist as well as a poet. He died in
+Glasgow on the 14th of September 1811.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM&rsquo;S DYKE<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Sheugh</span> = trench), a local name for the
+Roman fortified frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road,
+which ran across the narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth
+to the Clyde (about 36 m.), and formed from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140 till about
+185 the northern frontier of Roman Britain. The name is
+locally explained as recording a victorious assault on the defences
+by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been connected
+with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term <i>groma</i>.
+But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke
+(Fordun, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1385), it is the same as the term Grim&rsquo;s Ditch which
+occurs several times in England in connexion with early ramparts&mdash;for
+example, near Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between
+Berkhampstead (Herts) and Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems
+to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might be credited with the
+wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short periods of time.
+By antiquaries the Graham&rsquo;s Dyke is usually styled the Wall
+of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus
+Pius, in whose reign it was constructed. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>:
+<i>Roman</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM&rsquo;S TOWN,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a city of South Africa, the administrative
+centre for the eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail
+N.E. of Port Elizabeth and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred.
+Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom 7283 were whites and 1837 were
+electors. The town is built in a basin of the grassy hills forming
+the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above sea-level. It is a
+pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy climate,
+and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The
+streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the
+High Street are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St
+George, built from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemoration
+Chapel, the chief place of worship of the Wesleyans, erected
+by the British emigrants of 1820. The Roman Catholic cathedral
+of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the left of the High Street.
+The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a square clock tower
+built on arches over the pavement. Graham&rsquo;s Town is one
+of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides
+the public schools and the Rhodes University College (which
+in 1904 took over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St
+Andrew&rsquo;s College), scholastic institutions are maintained by
+religious bodies. The town possesses two large hospitals, which
+receive patients from all parts of South Africa, and the government
+bacteriological institute. It is the centre of trade for an
+extensive pastoral and agricultural district. Owing to the sour
+quality of the herbage in the surrounding <i>zuurveld</i>, stock-breeding
+and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent replaced
+by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham&rsquo;s Town is the
+most important entrepôt. Dairy farming is much practised in
+the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters
+of the British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape
+Colony from the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after
+Colonel John Graham (1778-1821), then commanding the forces.
+(Graham had commanded the light infantry battalion at the
+taking of the Cape by the British in the action of the 6th of
+January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in Italy and
+Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span>
+made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham&rsquo;s Town, and 10,000
+men attacked it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which
+numbered not more than 320 men, infantry and artillery, under
+Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards General Sir) Thomas Willshire. In
+1822 the town was chosen as the headquarters of the 4000
+British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony in 1820. It
+has maintained its position as the most important inland town
+of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape
+parliament met in Graham&rsquo;s Town, the only instance of the
+legislature sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed
+by a municipality. The rateable value in 1906 was £891,536
+and the rate levied 2½d. in the pound.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Sheffield, <i>The Story of the Settlement ...</i> (2nd ed.,
+Graham&rsquo;s Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, <i>British South Africa ... with
+notices of some of the British Settlers of 1820</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAIL, THE HOLY,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> the famous talisman of Arthurian
+romance, the object of quest on the part of the knights of the
+Round Table. It is mainly, if not wholly, known to English
+readers through the medium of Malory&rsquo;s translation of the
+French <i>Quête du Saint Graal</i>, where it is the cup or chalice of the
+Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the wounds
+of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved.
+Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these
+texts an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature
+and origin of the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to
+determine the precise value of these differing versions.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Broadly
+speaking the Grail romances have been divided into two main
+classes: (1) those dealing with the search for the Grail, the
+<i>Quest</i>, and (2) those relating to its early history. These latter
+appear to be dependent on the former, for whereas we may
+have a <i>Quest</i> romance without any insistence on the previous
+history of the Grail, that history is never found without some
+allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its
+successful termination. The <i>Quest</i> versions again fall into three
+distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero
+who is respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most
+important and interesting group is that connected with Perceval,
+and he was regarded as the original Grail hero, Gawain being,
+as it were, his understudy. Recent discoveries, however, point
+to a different conclusion, and indicate that the <i>Gawain</i> stories
+represent an early tradition, and that we must seek in them
+rather than in the <i>Perceval</i> versions for indications as to the
+ultimate origin of the Grail.</p>
+
+<p>The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will
+be seen from the following summary.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Gawain</span>, included in the continuation to Chrétien&rsquo;s <i>Perceval</i>
+by Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman,
+who is probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus
+Cambrensis, and considerably earlier than Chrétien de Troyes.
+Here the Grail is a food-providing, self-acting talisman, the precise
+nature of which is not specified; it is designated as the
+&ldquo;rich&rdquo; Grail, and serves the king and his court <i>sans serjant
+et sans seneschal</i>, the butlers providing the guests with wine.
+In another version, given at an earlier point of the same continuation,
+but apparently deriving from a later source, the
+Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called
+the &ldquo;holy&rdquo; Grail, but no details as to its history or character
+are given. In a third version, that of <i>Diu Crône</i>, a long and confused
+romance, the origin of which has not been determined,
+the Grail appears as a reliquary, in which the Host is presented
+to the king, who once a year partakes alike of it and of the blood
+which flows from the lance. Another account is given in the
+prose <i>Lancelot</i>, but here Gawain has been deposed from his
+post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be expected from the
+treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit ends
+in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with
+the atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the
+<i>Quête</i>, and is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These
+are the <i>Gawain</i> versions.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Perceval.</span>&mdash;The most important <i>Perceval</i> text is the
+<i>Conte del Grael</i>, or <i>Perceval le Galois</i> of Chrétien de Troyes.
+Here the Grail is wrought of gold richly set with precious stones;
+it is carried in solemn procession, and the light issuing from it
+extinguishes that of the candles. What it is is not explained,
+but inasmuch as it is the vehicle in which is conveyed the Host
+on which the father of the Fisher king depends for nutriment,
+it seems not improbable that here, as in <i>Diu Crône</i>, it is to be
+understood as a reliquary. In the <i>Parzival</i> of Wolfram von
+Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with that
+of Chrétien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a precious
+stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the guardianship
+of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a
+body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and
+youth preserving talisman&mdash;no man may die within eight days
+of beholding it, and the maiden who bears it retains perennial
+youth&mdash;and an oracle choosing its own servants, and indicating
+whom the Grail king shall wed. The sole link with the Christian
+tradition is the statement that its virtue is renewed every Good
+Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven. The discrepancy
+between this and the other Grail romances is most startling.</p>
+
+<p>In the short prose romance known as the &ldquo;Didot&rdquo; <i>Perceval</i>
+we have, for the first time, the whole history of the relic logically
+set forth. The <i>Perceval</i> forms the third and concluding section of
+a group of short romances, the two preceding being the <i>Joseph
+of Arimathea</i> and the <i>Merlin</i>. In the first we have the precise
+history of the Grail, how it was the dish of the Last Supper,
+confided by our Lord to the care of Joseph, whom he miraculously
+visited in the prison to which he had been committed by the
+Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his brother-in-law
+Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the final
+winner and guardian of the relic. The <i>Merlin</i> forms the connecting
+thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and
+the chivalric atmosphere of Arthur&rsquo;s court; and finally, in the
+<i>Perceval</i>, the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned
+by Merlin of the quest which awaits him and which he achieves
+after various adventures.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Perlesvaus</i> the Grail is the same, but the working out of
+the scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea,
+Josephe, is introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar
+to that used so effectively in the <i>Parzival</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Galahad.</span>&mdash;The <i>Quête du Saint Graal</i>, the only romance
+of which Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion
+of the <i>Lancelot</i> development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot,
+as lover of Guinevere, could not be permitted to achieve so
+spiritual an emprise, yet as leading knight of Arthur&rsquo;s court it
+was impossible to allow him to be surpassed by another. Hence
+the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by the Grail king&rsquo;s
+daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the quest,
+foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his
+father&rsquo;s fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-winner,
+could not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail,
+the chalice of the Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the
+<i>Gawain</i> stories, self-acting and food-supplying.</p>
+
+<p>The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and
+the early history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and dealing
+only with the early history, is the <i>Grand Saint Graal</i>, a work
+of interminable length, based upon the <i>Joseph of Arimathea</i>,
+which has undergone numerous revisions and amplifications:
+its precise relation to the <i>Lancelot</i>, with which it has now much
+matter in common, is not easy to determine.</p>
+
+<p>To be classed also under the head of early history are certain
+interpolations in the MSS. of the <i>Perceval</i>, where we find the
+<i>Joseph</i> tradition, but in a somewhat different form, <i>e.g.</i> he is
+said to have caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of receiving
+the holy blood. With this account is also connected the
+legend of the <i>Volto Santo</i> of Lucca, a crucifix said to have been
+carved by Nicodemus. In the conclusion to Chrétien&rsquo;s poem,
+composed by Manessier some fifty years later, the Grail is said
+to have <i>followed</i> Joseph to Britain, how, is not explained.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span>
+Another continuation by Gerbert, interpolated between those of
+Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought
+to Britain by Perceval&rsquo;s mother in the companionship of Joseph.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that with the exception of the <i>Grand Saint
+Graal</i>, which has now been practically converted into an introduction
+to the <i>Quête</i>, no two versions agree with each other; indeed,
+with the exception of the oldest <i>Gawain-Grail</i> visit, that due to
+Bleheris, they do not agree with themselves, but all show,
+more or less, the influence of different and discordant versions.
+Why should the vessel of the Last Supper, jealously guarded at
+Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur&rsquo;s court independently? Why
+does a sacred relic provide purely material food? What connexion
+can there be between a precious stone, a <i>baetylus</i>, as Dr Hagen
+has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such
+questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems,
+and to construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so
+far the difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would
+admit of the practically simultaneous existence of apparently
+contradictory features. At one time considered as an introduction
+from the East, the theory of the Grail as an Oriental talisman
+has now been discarded, and the expert opinion of the day may
+be said to fall into two groups: (1) those who hold the Grail
+to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel which has
+accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained, acquired
+certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on the
+contrary, that the Grail is <i>aborigine</i> folk-lore and Celtic, and
+that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather
+than an essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth
+in the work of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of
+Mr Alfred Nutt, the two constituting the only <i>travaux d&rsquo;ensemble</i>
+which have yet appeared on the subject. It now seems probable
+that both are in a measure correct, and that the ultimate solution
+will be recognized to lie in a blending of two originally independent
+streams of tradition. The researches of Professor
+Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in England have
+amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on popular
+thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation
+worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called
+mysteries of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature
+and progression of the seasons were symbolized under the figure
+of the death and resuscitation of the god. These rites are found
+all over the world, and in his monumental work, <i>The Golden
+Bough</i>, Dr Frazer has traced a host of extant beliefs and practices
+to this source. The earliest form of the Grail story, the <i>Gawain</i>-Bleheris
+version, exhibits a marked affinity with the characteristic
+features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we have a castle
+on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of which is
+never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted
+country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the
+dead man, and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester
+asks the meaning of the marvels he beholds (the two features
+of the weeping women and the wasted land being retained in
+versions where they have no significance); finally the mysterious
+food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common feast&mdash;one
+and all of these features may be explained as survivals of the
+Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key
+to the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature
+myth: Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero;
+Dr Lewis Mott has pointed out the correspondence between the
+so-called Round Table sites and the ritual of nature worship; but
+it is only with the discovery of the existence of Bleheris as reputed
+authority for Arthurian tradition, and the consequent recognition
+that the Grail story connected with his name is the earliest
+form of the legend, that we have secured a solid basis for such
+theories.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research
+has again aided us&mdash;we know now that a legend similar in all
+respects to the Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely
+current at least a century before our earliest Grail texts. The
+story with Nicodemus as protagonist is told of the <i>Saint-Sang</i>
+relic at Fécamp; and, as stated already, a similar origin is
+ascribed to the <i>Volto Santo</i> at Lucca. In this latter case the
+legend professes to date from the 8th century, and scholars who
+have examined the texts in their present form consider that there
+may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable
+that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form,
+existed long anterior to any extant text, and there is no improbability
+in holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries
+which had assumed the form of a popular folk-tale, became
+finally Christianized by combination with an equally popular
+ecclesiastical legend, the point of contact being the vessel of the
+common ritual feast. Nor can there be much doubt that in this
+process of combination the Fécamp legend played an important
+rôle. The best and fullest of the <i>Perceval</i> MSS. refer to a book
+written at Fécamp as source for certain <i>Perceval</i> adventures.
+What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that
+certain special Fécamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail
+procession of the <i>Parzival</i>, it seems most probable that it was a
+<i>Perceval</i>-Grail story. The relations between the famous Benedictine
+abbey and the English court both before and after the
+Conquest were of an intimate character. Legends of the part
+played by Joseph of Arimathea in the conversion of Britain are
+closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks of which foundation
+showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary activity,
+and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the
+present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glastonbury
+elaborating ideas borrowed from Fécamp. This much is
+certain, that between the <i>Saint-Sang</i> of Fécamp, the <i>Volto Santo</i>
+of Lucca, and the Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link,
+the precise nature of which has yet to be determined. The two
+former were popular objects of pilgrimage; was the third
+originally intended to serve the same purpose by attracting
+attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of the Grail,
+Joseph of Arimathea?</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin
+edition of the <i>Perceval</i>, which, however, only gives the Bleheris
+version; the second visit is found in the best and most complete
+MSS., such as 12,576 and 12,577 (<i>Fonds français</i>) of the Paris library.
+<i>Diu Crône</i>, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852). vol. vi. of <i>Arthurian
+Romances</i> (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, <i>Diu Crône</i>
+and <i>Prose Lancelot</i> visits.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Conte del Graal</i>, or <i>Perceval</i>, is only accessible in the edition
+of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which this
+has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and untrustworthy
+text. <i>Parzival</i>, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been
+frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877),
+in <i>Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters</i>, contains full notes and a
+glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K.
+Lachmann (1891), Leitzmann (1902-1903) and E. Martin (1903).
+There are modern German translations by Simrock (very close to
+the original) and Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with
+notes and appendices by J. L. Weston. &ldquo;Didot&rdquo; <i>Perceval</i>, ed.
+Hucher, <i>Le Saint Graal</i> (1875-1878), vol. i. <i>Perlesvaus</i> was printed
+by Potvin, under the title of <i>Perceval le Gallois</i>, in vol. i. of the
+edition above referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS.
+was published with translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols.,
+1876-1892). Under the title of <i>The High History of the Holy Grail</i>
+a fine version was published by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple
+Classics (2 vols., 1898). The <i>Grand Saint Graal</i> was published by
+Hucher as given above; this edition includes the <i>Joseph of Arimathea</i>.
+A 15th century metrical English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich,
+was printed by Dr Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club 1861-1863;
+a new edition was undertaken for the Early English Text Society.
+<i>Quête du Saint Graal</i> can best be studied in Malory&rsquo;s somewhat
+abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the <i>Morte Arthur</i>. It
+has also been printed by Dr Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club,
+from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these texts is,
+however, very good, and the student who can decipher old Dutch
+would do well to read it in the metrical translation published by
+Joenckbloet, <i>Roman van Lanceloet</i>, as the original here was considerably
+fuller.</p>
+
+<p>For general treatment of the subject see <i>Legend of Sir Perceval</i>,
+by J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906); <i>Studies on the
+Legend of the Holy Grail</i>, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise
+treatment of the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of <i>Popular
+Studies</i> (1902); Professor Birch-Hirschfeld&rsquo;s <i>Die Sage vom Gral</i>
+(1877). The late Professor Heinzel&rsquo;s <i>Die alt-französischen Gral-Romane</i>
+contains a mass of valuable matter, but is very confused
+and ill-arranged. For the Fécamp legend see Leroux de Lincey&rsquo;s
+<i>Essai sur l&rsquo;abbaye de Fescamp</i> (1840); for the <i>Volto Santo</i> and
+kindred legends, Ernest von Dobschütz, <i>Christus-Bilder</i> (Leipzig,
+1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. L. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The etymology of the O. Fr. <i>graal</i> or <i>greal</i>, of which &ldquo;grail&rdquo;
+is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original,
+<i>gradale</i> or <i>grasale</i>, a flat dish or platter, has generally been taken to
+represent a diminutive <i>cratella</i> of <i>crater</i>, bowl, or a lost <i>cratale</i>,
+formed from the same word (see W. W. Skeat, Preface to <i>Joseph
+of Arimathie</i>, Early Eng. Text Soc).&mdash;<span class="sc">Ed.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GRAIN<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (derived through the French from Lat. <i>granum</i>, seed,
+from an Aryan root meaning &ldquo;to wear down,&rdquo; which also appears
+in the common Teutonic word &ldquo;corn&rdquo;), a word particularly
+applied to the seed, in botanical language the &ldquo;fruit,&rdquo; of cereals,
+and hence applied, as a collective term to cereal plants generally,
+to which, in English, the term &ldquo;corn&rdquo; is also applied (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grain Trade</a></span>). Apart from this, the chief meaning, the word
+is used of the malt refuse of brewing and distilling, and of many
+hard rounded small particles, resembling the seeds of plants,
+such as &ldquo;grains&rdquo; of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, &amp;c. &ldquo;Grain&rdquo;
+is also the name of the smallest unit of weight, both in the
+United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its origin
+is supposed to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and
+gathered from the middle of the ear. The troy grain = 1/5760
+of a &#8468;, the avoirdupois grain = 1/7000 of a &#8468;. In diamond
+weighing the grain = ¼ of the carat, = .7925 of the troy
+grain. The word &ldquo;grains&rdquo; was early used, as also in French,
+of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the
+berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cochineal</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kermes</a></span>). From the Fr. <i>en graine</i>, literally in
+dye, comes the French verb <i>engrainer</i>, Eng. &ldquo;engrain&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;ingrain,&rdquo; meaning to dye in any fast colour. From the further
+use of &ldquo;grain&rdquo; for the texture of substances, such as wood,
+meat, &amp;c., &ldquo;engrained&rdquo; or &ldquo;ingrained&rdquo; means ineradicable,
+impregnated, dyed through and through. The &ldquo;grain&rdquo; of
+leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the hair has
+been removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different
+kinds of woods is known as &ldquo;graining&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Painter-Work</a></span>).
+&ldquo;Grain,&rdquo; or more commonly in the plural &ldquo;grains,&rdquo; construed
+as a singular, is the name of an instrument with two or more
+barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This word is Scandinavian
+in origin, and is connected with Dan. <i>green</i>, Swed. <i>gren</i>, branch,
+and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the prongs of a fork,
+&amp;c. It is not connected with &ldquo;groin,&rdquo; the inguinal parts of the
+body, which in its earliest forms appears as <i>grynde</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAINS OF PARADISE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">Guinea Grains</span>, or <span class="sc">Melegueta
+Pepper</span> (Ger. <i>Paradieskörner</i>, Fr. <i>graines de Paradis</i>, <i>maniguette</i>),
+the seeds of <i>Amomum Melegueta</i>, a reed-like plant of the
+natural order <i>Zingiberaceae</i>. It is a native of tropical western
+Africa, and of Prince&rsquo;s and St Thomas&rsquo;s islands in the Gulf of
+Guinea, is cultivated in other tropical countries, and may with
+ease be grown in hothouses in temperate climates. The plant
+has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth, nearly sessile,
+narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves; large, white, pale
+pink or purplish flowers; and an ovate-oblong fruit, ensheathed
+in bracts, which is of a scarlet colour when fresh, and reaches
+under cultivation a length of 5 in. The seeds are contained in
+the acid pulp of the fruit, are commonly wedge-shaped and
+bluntly angular, are about 1¼ lines in diameter and have a glossy
+dark-brown husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous
+caruncle at the base and a white kernel. They contain, according
+to Flückiger and Hanbury, 0.3% of a faintly yellowish
+neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not acrid taste, and
+a specific gravity at 15.5° C of 0.825, and giving on analysis the
+formula C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O, or C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span> + C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O; also 5.83% of an
+intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin.</p>
+
+<p>Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British pharmacopoeias,
+and in the 13th and succeeding centuries were used
+as a drug and a spice, the wine known as hippocras being
+flavoured with them and with ginger and cinnamon. In 1629
+they were employed among the ingredients of the twenty-four
+herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the city of
+Norwich, ordained to be carried to court by the lord of the
+manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, <i>Chem. of Common
+Life</i>, p. 355, 1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought
+overland from West Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the
+Barbary states, to be shipped for Italy. They are now exported
+almost exclusively from the Gold Coast. Grains of paradise are
+to some extent used illegally to give a fictitious strength to malt
+liquors, gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III. c. 58, no brewer or
+dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use grains of paradise,
+under a penalty of £200 for each offence; and no druggist shall
+sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of £500. They are,
+however, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and are
+much esteemed as a spice by the natives of Guinea.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bentley and Trimen, <i>Medicinal Plants</i>, tab. 268; Lanessan,
+<i>Hist. des Drogues</i>, pp. 456-460 (1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAIN TRADE.<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> The complexity of the conditions of life
+in the 20th century may be well illustrated from the grain trade
+of the world. The ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represents,
+for example, produce of nearly every country in the world
+outside the tropics.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a
+wild state it is practically unknown. It is alleged to have been
+found growing wild between the Euphrates and the
+Tigris; but the discovery has never been authenticated,
+<span class="sidenote">General considerations.</span>
+and, unless the plant be sedulously cared for, the species
+dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern
+experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Garton
+Brothers have evolved the most extraordinary &ldquo;sports,&rdquo; showing,
+it is claimed, that the plant has probably passed through stages
+of which until the present day there had been no conception.
+The tales that grains of wheat found in the cerements of Egyptian
+mummies have been planted and come to maturity are no longer
+credited, for the vital principle in the wheat berry is extremely
+evanescent; indeed, it is doubtful whether wheat twenty years
+old is capable of reproduction. The Garton artificial fertilization
+experiments have shown endless deviations from the ordinary
+type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk
+to big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless.
+It is conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a
+degenerate form of something much finer which flourished
+thousands of years ago, and that possibly it may be restored
+to its pristine excellence, yielding an increase twice or thrice
+as large as it now does, thus postponing to a distant period the
+famine doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his presidential
+address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well repays
+careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled
+Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincolnshire
+farm, the former with its average yield of 8 bushels, the
+latter with its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality,
+as regards the quantity and flavour of the flour from a fine
+sample of British wheat, such as is on sale at almost every
+agricultural show in Great Britain, with the produce of an
+Egyptian or Syrian field; the difference is so great as to cause
+one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species.</p>
+
+<p>It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in
+Great Britain is made from wheat grown in the following countries
+in the proportions named:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb f80">U.S.A.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">U.K.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Russia.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Argentina.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">British<br />India.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Canada.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Rumania-<br />Bulgaria.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Australia.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Other<br />Countries.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb" colspan="9">Or expressed in percentages as follows:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>For details connected with grain and its handling see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corn Laws</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Granaries</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baking</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wheat</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food-stuff.
+Rice, which shares with millet the distinction of being
+the principal food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings,
+is not grown nearly as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the
+white races. Wheat grows as far south as Patagonia, and as
+far north as the edge of the Arctic Circle; it flourishes throughout
+Europe, and across the whole of northern Asia and in Japan;
+it is cultivated in Persia, and raised largely in India, as far south
+as the Nizam&rsquo;s dominions. It is grown over nearly the whole of
+North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop was raised
+in the autumn of 1898 as far north as the mission at Fort
+Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 62°&mdash;or
+less than 200 m. south of the latitude of Dawson City&mdash;the
+period between seed-time and harvest having been ninety-one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span>
+days. In Africa it was an article of commerce in the days of
+Jacob, whose son Joseph may be said to have run the first and
+only successful &ldquo;corner&rdquo; in wheat. For many centuries
+Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat
+from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison on one of his
+shipwrecks, as was also, in all probability, that of the &ldquo;ship of
+Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux,&rdquo; named in the
+same narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated
+that the Sudan if properly settled would be capable of feeding
+the whole of Europe. Along the north coast of Africa are areas
+which, if properly irrigated, as was done in the days of Carthage,
+could produce enough wheat to feed half of the Caucasian race.
+For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area of 400,000 sq. m.,
+or three times the extent of Great Britain and Ireland, according
+to the opinion of a British consul, could raise millions of acres of
+wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high plateaus of South
+Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambezi. Land is being extensively
+put under wheat in the pampas of South America and
+in the prairies of Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level
+the volume of the world&rsquo;s crop would be trebled, another fact
+which Sir William Crookes seems to have overlooked. The
+experiments of the late Sir J. B. Lawes in Hertfordshire have
+proved that the natural fruitfulness of the wheat plant can be
+increased threefold by the application of the proper fertilizer.
+The results of these experiments will be found in a compendium
+issued from the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station.</p>
+
+<p>It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest
+number of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a
+miller&rsquo;s standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness
+and strength of the flour are with him important considerations,
+too often overlooked by the farmer when buying his seed.
+Nevertheless it is the deficient quantity of the wheat raised in
+the British Islands, and not the quality of the grain, which has
+been the cause of so much anxiety to economists and statesmen.</p>
+
+<p>Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion
+that arable land in Great Britain would always command a
+substantial rent of at least 30s. per acre. His figures
+were based on the assumption that wheat was imported
+<span class="sidenote">Freight rates.</span>
+duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage from
+abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of
+good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 30s.
+per ton. But freights had come down by 1900 to half the rates
+predicated by Caird; indeed, during a portion of the interval they
+ruled very close to zero, as far as steamer freights from America
+were concerned. In 1900 an all-round freight rate for wheat
+might be taken at 15s. <i>per ton</i> (a ton representing approximately
+the produce of an acre of good wheat land in England), say from
+10s. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 30s. for Pacific
+American and Australian; about midway between these two
+extremes we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk
+coming at about the 15s. rate. Inferior land bearing less than
+4½ quarters per acre would not be protected to the same extent,
+and moreover, seeing that a portion of the British wheat crop
+has to stand a charge as heavy for land carriage across a county
+as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an ocean,
+the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make
+out. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges
+for the railway and other transportation services issued by the
+Division of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A.
+(Miscellaneous series, Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable
+reference book. From its pages are culled the following facts
+relating to the changes in the rates of freight up to the year
+1897.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In Table 3 the average rates per ton per mile in cents
+are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate for
+that year was 4.523 cents per ton per mile, since when a great
+and almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897,
+the latest year given, the rate had declined to .870 of a cent per
+ton per mile. The railway which shows the greatest fall is the
+Chesapeake &amp; Ohio, for the charge has fallen from over 7 cents
+in 1862 and 1863 to .419 of a cent in 1897, whereas the Erie rates
+have fallen only from 1.948 in 1852 to .609 in 1897. Putting
+the rates of the twelve returning railways together, we find the
+average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was 3.006 cents per
+ton per mile, and that in 1896-1897 the average rate had fallen
+to .797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large
+compared with the smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates
+on grain, we find (in Table 23) a record for the forty years 1858-1897
+of the charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via
+all rail from 1858, and via lake and rail since 1868, the authority
+being the secretary of the Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858
+to 1862 the rate varied between 42.37 and 34.80 cents per bushel
+for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the average rate in the
+quinquennium being 38.43. In the five years immediately prior
+to the time at which Sir J. Caird expressed the opinion that the
+cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the British
+grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York
+was 17.76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was
+13.17 cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the
+table, had fallen to 12.50 and 7.42 respectively. The rates have
+been as follows in quinquennial periods, via all rail:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">1858-<br />1862.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1863-<br />1867.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1868-<br />1872.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1873-<br />1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1878-<br />1882.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1883-<br />1887.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1888-<br />1892.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1893-<br />1897.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">38.43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31.42</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">27.91</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21.29</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.77</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.67</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.52</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.88</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny, and eight
+bushels to the quarter, the above would appear in English
+currency as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1858-<br />1862.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1863-<br />1867.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1868-<br />1872.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1873-<br />1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1878-<br />1882.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1883-<br />1887.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1888-<br />1892.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1893-<br />1897.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc bb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc bb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1</td> <td class="tcc bb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcc bb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10½</td> <td class="tcc bb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcc bb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Another table (No. 38) shows the average rates from Chicago
+to New York by lakes, canal and river. These in their quinquennial
+periods are given for the season as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>In Cents per Bushel of</i> 60 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">1857-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1893-1897.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">22.15</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.47</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.92</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>In Shillings and Pence per Quarter of</i> 480 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1857-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1893-1897.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcc bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>In Shillings and Pence per Ton of</i> 2240 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1857-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1893-1897.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This latter mode is the cheapest by which grain can be carried
+to the eastern seaboard from the American prairies, and it can
+now be done at a cost of 7s. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has
+to be added before the grain can be delivered free on the quay
+at Liverpool. A rate from New York to Liverpool of 2½d.
+per bushel, or 7s. 10d. per ton, a low rate, reached in Dec. 1900,
+is yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to leave a profit; indeed,
+there have frequently been times when the rate was as low as 1d.
+per bushel, or 3s. 1d. per ton; and in periods of great trade
+depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as
+ballast, being paid for by the ship-owner. Another route worked
+more cheaply than formerly is that by river, from the centre of
+the winter wheat belt, say at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence
+by steamer to Liverpool. The river rate has fallen below five
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span>
+cents per bushel, or 7s. per ton, 2240 &#8468;. In Table No. 71 the
+cost of transportation is compared year by year with the export
+price of the two leading cereals in the States as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Wheat and Corn&mdash;Export Prices and Transportation Rates compared.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb f80" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80" colspan="3">Wheat.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80" colspan="3">Corn.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb f80">Export<br />Price per<br />Bushel.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb f80">Rate, Chicago<br />to New York<br />by Lake<br />and Canal,<br />per Bushel.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb f80">Number<br />of Bushels<br />carried<br />for Price<br />of One<br />Bushel.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb f80">Export<br />Price per<br />Bushel.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb f80">Rate, Chicago<br />to New York<br />by Lake<br />and Canal,<br />per Bushel.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb f80">Number<br />of Bushels<br />carried<br />for Price<br />of One<br />Bushel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cents.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cents.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1867</td> <td class="tcr rb">$0.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.95</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.77</td> <td class="tcr rb">$0.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1868</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">.84.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1869</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.05</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.20</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">.72.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">.80.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.78</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.84</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1871</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">.67.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.53</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1872</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">.61.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1873</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.15</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">.54.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1874</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.29</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">.64.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.29</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.73</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1875</td> <td class="tcr rb">.97</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.90</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">.73.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1876</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.63</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">.60.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1877</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.76</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">.56.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1879</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">.47.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.43</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.52</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">.54.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.14</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.26</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">.66.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.37</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">.68.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.93</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">.61.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.87</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">.54.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.04</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">.87</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">.49.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcr rb">.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.51</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">.47.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">.90</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.06</td> <td class="tcr rb">.47.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.16</td> <td class="tcr rb">.41.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">.57.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.71</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.93</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">.53 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">.67</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.44</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.09</td> <td class="tcr rb">.46 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">.53 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">.38 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.94</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.75</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.35</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17.24</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.31 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.79</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.18</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly
+increased output from Canada&mdash;the cost of transport from that
+country to England being much the same as from the United
+States. So much improved is the position of the farmer in North
+America compared with what it was about 1870, that the transport
+companies in 1901 carried 17¼ bushels of his grain to the
+seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas in
+1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the
+service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if
+he had improved his position; for he has to send his wheat to
+greater distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers
+or their removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen
+only to a very small extent; again the farmer&rsquo;s wheat is worth
+only half of what it was formerly; it may be said that the British
+farmer has to give up one bushel in nine to the railway company
+for the purpose of transportation, whereas in the &rsquo;seventies he
+gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has been said to prove
+that the advantage of position claimed for the British farmer
+by Caird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the Kansas
+or Minnesota farmer&rsquo;s wheat does not have to pay for carriage
+to Liverpool more than 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per ton in excess of the
+rate paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does
+not go very far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes
+and rates and taxes.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods
+requires consideration if a proper understanding of the working
+of the foreign grain trade is to be obtained. Only a very small
+proportion of the decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due
+to cheapened transport rates; for while the mileage rate has
+been falling, the length of haulage has been extending, until
+in 1900 the principal wheat fields of America were 2000 m.
+farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case in 1870,
+and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate
+of 50 to 75%, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly as much
+to have its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did
+then. The difference in the cost of the operation is shown in
+the following tabular statement, both the cost in the aggregate
+on a year&rsquo;s imports and the cost per quarter:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p class="pt1"><i>Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the
+United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year
+1900, together with the average rate of freight.</i></p></div>
+
+<p class="center">1900.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Countries of Origin.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Quantities.<br />Qrs. 480 &#8468;</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Ocean Freight<br />to United<br />Kingdom.<br />Per 480 &#8468;.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Total Cost<br />of Ocean<br />Carriage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. &emsp; d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Atlantic America</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,171,100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,257,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">569,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pacific America</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,389,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">8 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcr rb">966,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,877,100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">176,400</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentina and Uruguay</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,322,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">4 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,045,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bulgaria and Rumelia</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">India</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">4 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">389,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile</td> <td class="tcr rb">600</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">462,700</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">438,700</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">883,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">6 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcr rb">284,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minor Countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">225,100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">23,190,800</td> <td class="tcc allb">Average 3s. 6d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">£4,036,500</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year
+1872, the most remote year for which similar facts are available,
+it will be found that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean
+carriage has not much decreased.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p class="pt1"><i>Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the
+United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year
+1872, together with the average rate of freight.</i></p></div>
+
+<p class="center">1872.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Countries of Origin.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Quantities.<br />Qrs.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Ocean Freight<br />to United<br />Kingdom.<br />Per qr.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Total Cost<br />of Carriage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. &emsp; d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,678,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">8 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,563,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,030,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">6 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">659,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">910,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">660,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">536,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">4 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">490,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">7 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile</td> <td class="tcr rb">330,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">12 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcr rb">198,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">195,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">7 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scandinavia</td> <td class="tcr rb">160,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total, Chief Countries</td> <td class="tcr allb">9,519,000</td> <td class="tcc allb">Average 6s. 5d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">£3,040,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>N.B.&mdash;A trifling quantity of Californian and Australian wheat
+was imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade
+records do not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot
+be given. The freight in that year from those countries averaged
+about 13s. per quarter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The exact difference between the average freight for the years
+1872 and 1900 amounts to about 2s. 11d. per quarter (480 &#8468;),
+a trifle in comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat
+during the same years.</p>
+
+<p>The following data bearing upon the subject, for selected
+periods, are partly taken from the <i>Corn Trade Year-Book</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">United Kingdom<br />Annual Imports.<br />Wheat and Flour.<br />Qrs.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Ocean Freight<br />to United<br />ingdom.<br />Per qr.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Aggregate Cost<br />of Carriage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">s. &emsp; d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1872</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;9,469,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">6 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,040,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,850,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">7 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,420,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">16,229,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,041,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,197,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,825,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,431,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,258,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">23,196,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4,036,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span></p>
+
+<p>In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years,
+from 1871 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 56s. per quarter
+(or 7s. per bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. 5d.
+per quarter, whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28s.
+(or 3s. 6d. per bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was
+3s. 6d. per quarter; the ocean transport companies carried eight
+bushels of wheat across the seas in 1901 for the value of one
+bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in 1872.</p>
+
+<p>The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean
+freight is to be explained by the greater length of the present
+ocean voyage, which now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of
+Europe&rsquo;s importation of white wheat from the Pacific Coast of
+the United States and Australia, in contrast with the short
+voyage from the Black Sea or across the English Channel or
+German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this phase
+of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the
+error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price
+of wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable
+to the lessened cost of transport.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt1 center sc">Wheat Prices</p>
+
+<p>The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year
+of English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T.
+Smith, Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905:</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Price per Quarter</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s. &emsp; d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s. &emsp; d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s. &emsp; d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s. &emsp; d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">s. &emsp; d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1656</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1706</td> <td class="tcc rb2">23 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1756</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1806</td> <td class="tcc rb2">79 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1856</td> <td class="tcc rb">69 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1657</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1707</td> <td class="tcc rb2">25 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1757</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1807</td> <td class="tcc rb2">75 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1857</td> <td class="tcc rb">56 &emsp; 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1658</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1708</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1758</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1808</td> <td class="tcc rb2">84 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1858</td> <td class="tcc rb">44 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1659</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1709</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1759</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1809</td> <td class="tcc rb2">97 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1859</td> <td class="tcc rb">43 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1660</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1710</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1760</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1810</td> <td class="tcc rb2">106 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">53 &emsp; 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1661</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1711</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1761</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1811</td> <td class="tcc rb2">95 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861</td> <td class="tcc rb">55 &emsp; 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1662</td> <td class="tcc rb2">65 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1712</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1762</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1812</td> <td class="tcc rb2">126 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862</td> <td class="tcc rb">55 &emsp; 5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1663</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1713</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1763</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1813</td> <td class="tcc rb2">109 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1863</td> <td class="tcc rb">44 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1664</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1714</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1764</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1814</td> <td class="tcc rb2">74 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1864</td> <td class="tcc rb">40 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1665</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1715</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1765</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1815</td> <td class="tcc rb2">65 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcc rb">41 &ensp; 10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1666</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1716</td> <td class="tcc rb2">42 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1766</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1816</td> <td class="tcc rb2">78 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1866</td> <td class="tcc rb">49 &ensp; 11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1667</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1717</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1767</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1817</td> <td class="tcc rb2">96 &ensp; 11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1867</td> <td class="tcc rb">64 &emsp; 5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1668</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1718</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1768</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1818</td> <td class="tcc rb2">86 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1868</td> <td class="tcc rb">63 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1669</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1719</td> <td class="tcc rb2">31 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1769</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1819</td> <td class="tcc rb2">74 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1869</td> <td class="tcc rb">48 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1670</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1720</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1770</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1820</td> <td class="tcc rb2">67 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">46 &ensp; 11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1671</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1721</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1771</td> <td class="tcc rb2">47 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1821</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1871</td> <td class="tcc rb">56 &emsp; 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1672</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1722</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1772</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1822</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1872</td> <td class="tcc rb">57 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1673</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1723</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1773</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1823</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1873</td> <td class="tcc rb">58 &emsp; 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1674</td> <td class="tcc rb2">61 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1724</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1774</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1824</td> <td class="tcc rb2">63 &ensp; 11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">55 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1675</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1725</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1775</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1825</td> <td class="tcc rb2">68 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">45 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1676</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1726</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1776</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1826</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1876</td> <td class="tcc rb">46 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1677</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1727</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1777</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1827</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1877</td> <td class="tcc rb">56 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1678</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1728</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1778</td> <td class="tcc rb2">42 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1828</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1878</td> <td class="tcc rb">46 &emsp; 5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1679</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1729</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1779</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1829</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1879</td> <td class="tcc rb">43 &ensp; 10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1680</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1730</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1780</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1830</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">44 &emsp; 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1681</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1731</td> <td class="tcc rb2">29 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1781</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1831</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">45 &emsp; 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1682</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1732</td> <td class="tcc rb2">23 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1782</td> <td class="tcc rb2">47 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1832</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">45 &emsp; 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1683</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1733</td> <td class="tcc rb2">25 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1783</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1833</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52 &ensp; 11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">41 &emsp; 7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1684</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1734</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1784</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1834</td> <td class="tcc rb2">46 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">35 &emsp; 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1685</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1735</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1785</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1835</td> <td class="tcc rb2">49 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">32 &ensp; 10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1686</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1736</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1786</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1836</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">31 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1687</td> <td class="tcc rb2">22 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1737</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1787</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1837</td> <td class="tcc rb2">55 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">32 &emsp; 6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1688</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1738</td> <td class="tcc rb2">31 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1788</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1838</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">31 &ensp; 10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1689</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1739</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1789</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1839</td> <td class="tcc rb2">70 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">29 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1690</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1740</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1790</td> <td class="tcc rb2">54 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1840</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">31 &ensp; 11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1691</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1741</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1791</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1841</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">37 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1692</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1742</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1792</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1842</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">30 &emsp; 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1693</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1743</td> <td class="tcc rb2">22 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1793</td> <td class="tcc rb2">49 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1843</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">26 &emsp; 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1694</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1744</td> <td class="tcc rb2">22 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1794</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1844</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">22 &ensp; 10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1695</td> <td class="tcc rb2">47 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1745</td> <td class="tcc rb2">24 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcc rb2">75 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1845</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">23 &emsp; 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1696</td> <td class="tcc rb2">63 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1746</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1796</td> <td class="tcc rb2">78 &emsp; 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1846</td> <td class="tcc rb2">54 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">26 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1697</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1747</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &ensp; 11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1797</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1847</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">30 &emsp; 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1698</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1748</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1798</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1848</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">34 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1699</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1749</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1799</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1849</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">25 &emsp; 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1700</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1750</td> <td class="tcc rb2">28 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcc rb2">113 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">26 &ensp; 11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1701</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1751</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td> <td class="tcc rb2">119 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1851</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38 &emsp; 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">26 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1702</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1752</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37 &emsp; 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1802</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1852</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">28 &emsp; 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1703</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1753</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1853</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">26 &emsp; 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1704</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41 &emsp; 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1754</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1804</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62 &emsp; 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1854</td> <td class="tcc rb2">72 &emsp; 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">28 &emsp; 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1705</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1755</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30 &emsp; 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1805</td> <td class="tcc rb2">89 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1855</td> <td class="tcc rb2">74 &emsp; 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">29 &emsp; 8</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm lb tb bb cl f80">Average<br />50<br />years</td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">42 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">36 &emsp; 0</td> <td class="tb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">51 &emsp; 9</td> <td class="tb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">65 &ensp; 10</td> <td class="tb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm rb tb bb">*42 &emsp; 7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="10">* Average for 46 years only.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat
+may be, it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of
+rail or ocean freights. Incidental charges are lower than they
+were in 1870; handling charges, brokers&rsquo; commissions and
+insurance premiums have been in many instances reduced, but
+all these economies when combined only amount to about 2s.
+per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the
+rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive
+at an aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third
+of the actual difference between the average price of wheat
+in 1872 and 1900. To what the remaining difference was due
+it is difficult to say with certitude; there are some who argue
+that the tendency of prices to fall is inherent, and that the
+constant whittling away of intermediaries&rsquo; profits is sufficient
+explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained that the
+phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German
+government in demonetizing silver in 1872.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Valuable information will also be found in Bulletin No. 38
+(1905), &ldquo;Crop Export Movement and Port Facilities on the Atlantic
+and Gulf Coasts&rdquo;; in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), &ldquo;Cost of Hauling
+Crops from Farms to Shipping Points&rdquo;; and in Bulletin No. 69
+(1908), &ldquo;European Grain Trade.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAM,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chick-pea</span>, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal
+gram (from Port. <i>grão</i>, formerly <i>gram</i>, Lat. <i>granum</i>, Hindi
+<i>Chan&#257;</i>, Bengali <i>Chhol&#257;</i>, Ital. <i>cece</i>, Span. <i>garbanzo</i>), the
+<i>Cicer arietinum</i> of Linnaeus, so named from the resemblance
+of its seed to a ram&rsquo;s head. It is a member of the natural order
+Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in the south of
+Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not known
+undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose
+branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves,
+with small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The
+flowers are borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half
+the length of the leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the
+corolla is blue-purple. The inflated pod, 1 to 1½ in. long, contains
+two roundish seeds. It was cultivated by the Greeks in Homer&rsquo;s
+time under the name <i>erebinthos</i>, and is also referred to by
+Dioscorides as <i>krios</i> from the resemblance of the pea to the head
+of a ram. The Romans called it <i>cicer</i>, from which is derived
+the modern names given to it in the south of Europe. Names,
+more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the peoples
+of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there
+is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in
+modern Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in
+Egypt from the beginning of the Christian era, but there is no
+proof that it was known to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de
+Candolle (<i>Origin of Cultivated Plants</i>, p. 325) suggests that the
+plant originally grew wild in the countries to the south of the
+Caucasus and to the north of Persia. &ldquo;The western Aryans
+(Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into southern
+Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was
+also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India.&rdquo; Gram
+is largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw
+or cooked in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition,
+and when roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as
+ordinary flour. In Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient
+in soups. They contain, in 100 parts without husks, nitrogenous
+substances 22.7, fat 3.76, starch 63.18, mineral matters 2.6
+parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in Parkes&rsquo;s <i>Hygiene</i>).
+The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs clothing the
+leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the cold
+season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of
+oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by
+means of cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in
+domestic medicine. The steam of water in which the fresh plant
+is immersed is in the Deccan resorted to by the Portuguese
+for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The seed of <i>Phaseolus
+Mungo</i>, or green gram (Hind. and Beng. <i>moong</i>), a form of which
+plant with black seeds (<i>P. Max</i> of Roxburgh) is termed black
+gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes
+in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is
+stated by Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu
+bath. A variety, var. <i>radiatus</i> (<i>P. Roxburghii</i>, W. and Arn.,
+or <i>P. radiatus</i>, Roxb.) (vern. <i>urid</i>, <i>m&#257;shkal&#257;i</i>), also known as
+green gram, is perhaps the most esteemed of the leguminous
+plants of India, where the meal of its seed enters into the composition
+of the more delicate cakes and dishes. Horse gram,
+<i>Dolichos biflorus</i> (vern. <i>kulthi</i>), which supplies in Madras
+the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span>
+extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in South
+India, where also it is eaten in curries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Elliot, &ldquo;On the Farinaceous Grains and the various kinds
+of Pulses used in Southern India,&rdquo; <i>Edin. New Phil. Journ.</i> xvi.
+(1862) 16 sq.; H. Drury, <i>The Useful Plants of India</i> (1873);
+U. C. Dutt, <i>Materia Medica of the Hindus</i> (Calcutta, 1877); G. Watt,
+<i>Dictionary of the Economic Products of India</i> (1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMMAR<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>grammatica</i>, sc. <i>ars</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="gramma">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#956;&#956;&#945;</span>,
+letter, from <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write). By the grammar of a language is
+meant either the relations borne by the words of a sentence
+and by sentences themselves one to another, or the systematized
+exposition of these. The exposition may be, and frequently is,
+incorrect; but it always presupposes the existence of certain
+customary uses of words when in combination. In what follows,
+therefore, grammar will be generally employed in its primary
+sense, as denoting the mode in which words are connected in
+order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in logic,
+a proposition.</p>
+
+<p>The object of language is to convey thought, and so long
+as this object is attained the machinery for attaining it
+is of comparatively slight importance. The way in
+which we combine our words and sentences matters
+<span class="sidenote">Scope of grammar.</span>
+little, provided that our meaning is clear to others.
+The expressions &ldquo;horseflesh&rdquo; and &ldquo;flesh of a horse&rdquo;
+are equally intelligible to an Englishman and therefore are
+equally recognized by English grammar. The Chinese manner
+of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word before
+that which it defines, as in <i>koue jin</i>, &ldquo;man of the kingdom,&rdquo;
+literally &ldquo;kingdom man,&rdquo; and the only reason why it would be
+incorrect in French or Italian is that such a combination would
+be unintelligible to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is
+evident that the grammatical correctness or incorrectness of an
+expression depends upon its intelligibility, that is to say, upon
+the ordinary use and custom of a particular language. Whatever
+is so unfamiliar as not to be generally understood is also ungrammatical.
+In other words, it is contrary to the habit of a
+language, as determined by common usage and consent.</p>
+
+<p>In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar
+of a cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the same
+country so frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West
+Somerset, <i>thee</i> is the nominative of the second personal pronoun,
+while in cultivated English the plural accusative <i>you</i> (A.-S.
+<i>eow</i>) has come to represent a nominative singular. Both
+are grammatically correct within the sphere of their respective
+dialects, but no further. <i>You</i> would be as ungrammatical in
+West Somerset as <i>thee</i> is in classical English; and both <i>you</i> and
+<i>thee</i>, as nominatives singular, would have been equally ungrammatical
+in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing
+more than the established usage of a particular body of speakers
+at a particular time in their history.</p>
+
+<p>It follows from this that the grammar of a people changes,
+like its pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early
+English grammar is not the grammar of Modern English, any
+more than Latin grammar is the grammar of modern Italian;
+and to defend an unusual construction or inflexion on the ground
+that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is as wrong as to
+import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the grammar
+of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different
+languages will have different grammars, and that the differences
+will be more or less according to the nearer or remoter relationship
+of the languages themselves and the modes of thought
+of those who speak them. Consequently, to force the grammatical
+framework of one language upon another is to misconceive
+the whole nature of the latter and seriously to mislead
+the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be understood
+until we discard, not only the terminology of European
+grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while
+the polysynthetic idioms of America defy all attempts to discover
+in them &ldquo;the parts of speech&rdquo; and the various grammatical
+ideas which occupy so large a place in our school-grammars.
+The endeavour to find the distinctions of Latin grammar in that
+of English has only resulted in grotesque errors, and a total
+misapprehension of the usage of the English language.</p>
+
+<p>It is to the Latin grammarians&mdash;or, more correctly, to the
+Greek grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin
+writers were based&mdash;that we owe the classification of
+the subjects with which grammar is commonly supposed
+<span class="sidenote">Subdivision of grammar.</span>
+to deal. The grammar of Dionysius Thrax,
+which he wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time
+of Pompey, has formed the starting-point for the innumerable
+school-grammars which have since seen the light, and
+suggested that division of the matter treated of which they have
+followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with
+the language of literary men, and as divided into six parts&mdash;accentuation
+and phonology, explanation of figurative expressions,
+definition, etymology, general rules of flexion and critical
+canons. Of these, phonology and accentuation, or prosody,
+can properly be included in grammar only in so far as the
+construction of a sentence and the grammatical meaning of a
+word are determined by accent or letter-change; the accentual
+difference in English, for example, between <i>íncense</i> and <i>incénse</i>
+belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a difference
+between noun and verb; and the changes of vowel in the Semitic
+languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are
+distinguished from one another, constitute a very important
+part of their grammatical machinery. But where accent and
+pronunciation do not serve to express the relations of words
+in a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology, not of
+grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again,
+must be left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer;
+the grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with
+the canons of criticism.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the
+grammarians of Rome and Alexandria, must be given up and
+a new one put in its place. What grammar really deals with
+are all those contrivances whereby the relations of words and
+sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is position, sometimes
+phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition, sometimes
+flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the
+speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be
+intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided
+into the three departments of composition or &ldquo;word-building,&rdquo;
+syntax and accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the
+means adopted by language for expressing the relations of
+grammar when recourse is not had to composition or simple
+position.</p>
+
+<p>A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for
+the purely practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a
+foreign language. In this case all that is necessary
+is a correct and complete statement of the facts. But
+<span class="sidenote">Modes of treatment.</span>
+a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no
+means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight.
+The facts will be distorted by a false theory in regard to them,
+while they will certainly not be presented in a complete form if
+the grammarian is ignorant of the true theory they presuppose.
+The Semitic verb, for example, remains unintelligible so long
+as the explanation of its forms is sought in the conjugation of
+the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense of the
+word, but denotes relation and not time.</p>
+
+<p>A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be
+based on a correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds,
+and a correct appreciation of the facts is only possible where
+they are examined and co-ordinated in accordance with the
+scientific method. A practical grammar ought, wherever it is
+possible, to be preceded by a scientific grammar.</p>
+
+<p>Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and
+a scientific grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative
+method has been applied to the relations of speech. If we would
+understand the origin and real nature of grammatical forms,
+and of the relations which they represent, we must compare them
+with similar forms in kindred dialects and languages, as well
+as with the forms under which they appeared themselves at an
+earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a comparative
+grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted
+to tracing the history of grammatical forms and usages in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span>
+same language. Of course, an historical grammar is only
+possible where a succession of written records exists; where
+a language possesses no older literature we must be content
+with a comparative grammar only, and look to cognate idioms
+to throw light upon its grammatical peculiarities. In this case
+we have frequently to leave whole forms unexplained, or at
+most conjecturally interpreted, since the machinery by means of
+which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often changed
+so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its
+earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover,
+our area of comparison must be as wide as possible; where we
+have but two or three languages to compare, we are in danger
+of building up conclusions on insufficient evidence. The grammatical
+errors of the classical philologists of the 18th century
+were in great measure due to the fact that their area of comparison
+was confined to Latin and Greek.</p>
+
+<p>The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which
+traces the grammatical forms and usages of the language as far
+back as documentary evidence allows, affords material to the
+comparative grammarian, whose task it is to compare the
+grammatical forms and usages of an allied group of tongues
+and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and senses.
+The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian
+within a particular family of languages is made use of by universal
+grammar, the object of which is to determine the ideas that underlie
+all grammar whatsoever, as distinct from those that are
+peculiar to special families of speech. Universal grammar is
+sometimes known as &ldquo;the metaphysics of language,&rdquo; and it
+has to decide such questions as the nature of gender or of the
+verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin of
+grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered
+by comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment
+of the grammars of various groups of language. What historical
+grammar is to comparative grammar, comparative grammar is
+to universal grammar.</p>
+
+<p>Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific
+study of speech, is thus essentially different from that &ldquo;universal
+grammar&rdquo; so much in vogue at the beginning of the
+19th century, which consisted of a series of a priori
+<span class="sidenote">Universal grammar.</span>
+assumptions based on the peculiarities of European
+grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal
+grammar, as conceived by modern science, is as yet in its infancy;
+its materials are still in the process of being collected. The
+comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages is alone
+in an advanced state, those of the Semitic idioms, of the Finno-Ugrian
+tongues and of the Bantu dialects of southern Africa
+are still in a backward condition; and the other families of
+speech existing in the world, with the exception of the Malayo-Polynesian
+and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet
+been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an
+historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar
+of Basque, endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting
+language by a comparison of its various dialects; but in both
+cases the area of comparison is too small for more than a limited
+success to be attainable. Instead of attempting the questions
+of universal grammar, therefore, it will be better to confine our
+attention to three points&mdash;the fundamental differences in the
+grammatical conceptions of different groups of languages, the
+main results of a scientific investigation of Indo-European
+grammar, and the light thrown by comparative philology upon
+the grammar of our own tongue.</p>
+
+<p>The proposition or sentence is the unit and starting-point of
+speech, and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations
+of its several parts one to another, together with the
+expression of them. These relations may be regarded
+<span class="sidenote">Differences in grammar of unallied languages.</span>
+from various points of view. In the polysynthetic
+languages of America the sentence is conceived as a
+whole, not composed of independent words, but, like
+the thought which it expresses, one and indivisible. What we
+should denote by a series of words is consequently denoted by a
+single long compound&mdash;<i>kuligatchis</i> in Delaware, for instance,
+signifying &ldquo;give me your pretty little paw,&rdquo; and <i>aglekkigiartorasuarnipok</i>
+in Eskimo, &ldquo;he goes away hastily and exerts himself
+to write.&rdquo; Individual words can be, and often are, extracted
+from the sentence; but in this case they stand, as it were,
+outside it, being represented by a pronoun within the sentence
+itself. Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only <i>ni-sotsi-temoa</i>, &ldquo;I
+look for flowers,&rdquo; but also <i>ni-k-temoa sotsitl</i>, where the interpolated
+guttural is the objective pronoun. As a necessary result
+of this conception of the sentence the American languages
+possess no true verb, each act being expressed as a whole by a
+single word. In Cherokee, for example, while there is no verb
+signifying &ldquo;to wash&rdquo; in the abstract, no less than thirteen
+words are used to signify every conceivable mode and object of
+washing. In the incorporating languages, again, of which
+Basque may be taken as a type, the object cannot be conceived
+except as contained in the verbal action. Hence every verbal
+form embodies an objective pronoun, even though the object
+may be separately expressed. If we pass to an isolating language
+like Chinese, we find the exact converse of that which meets us
+in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition or thought
+is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over
+against one another as so many independent words. The
+relations of grammar are consequently denoted by position, the
+particular position of two or more words determining the relation
+they bear to each other. The analysis of the sentence has not
+been carried so far in agglutinative languages like Turkish.
+In these the relations of grammar are represented by individual
+words, which, however, are subordinated to the words expressing
+the main ideas intended to be in relation to one another. The
+defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, are, in a
+large number of instances, placed after the words which they
+define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu
+languages of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from
+the opposite point of view, the defining words being prefixed.
+The inflexional languages call in the aid of a new principle.
+The relations of grammar are denoted symbolically either
+by a change of vowel or by a change of termination, more
+rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each
+idea, together with the relation which it bears to the other
+ideas of a proposition, is thus represented by a single word;
+that is to say, the ideas which make up the elements of a
+sentence are not conceived severally and independently, as in
+Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion with one
+another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become
+analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea
+to which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is
+never altogether discarded, and traces of flexion remain even in
+English and Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language
+which has wholly forsaken the conception of the sentence and
+the relation of its elements with which it started, although each
+class of languages occasionally trespasses on the grammatical
+usages of the others. In language, as elsewhere in nature, there
+are no sharp lines of division, no sudden leaps; species passes
+insensibly into species, class into class. At the same time the
+several types of speech&mdash;polysynthetic, isolating, agglutinative
+and inflexional&mdash;remain clear and fixed; and even where two
+languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an
+Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group,
+or a Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group,
+we find no certain example of grammatical interchange. A mixed
+grammar, in which the grammatical procedure of two distinct
+families of speech is intermingled, is almost, if not altogether,
+unknown.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest
+and most important basis for a classification of languages.
+Words may be borrowed freely by one dialect from another, or,
+though originally unrelated, may, by the action of phonetic
+decay, come to assume the same forms, while the limited number
+of articulate sounds and conceptions out of which language was
+first developed, and the similarity of the circumstances by which
+the first speakers were everywhere surrounded, naturally produce
+a resemblance between the roots of many unconnected tongues.
+Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span>
+the machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we
+may have no hesitation in inferring a common origin.</p>
+
+<p>The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and
+primitive meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar
+may be summed up as follows. We start with stems
+or themes, by which are meant words of two or
+<span class="sidenote">Forms of Indo-European grammar.</span>
+more syllables which terminate in a limited number
+of sounds. These stems can be classed in groups of
+two kinds, one in which the groups consist of stems of similar
+meanings and similar initial syllables, and another in which
+the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case we have
+what are termed roots, the simplest elements into which
+words can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper,
+which may be described as consisting of suffixes attached to
+roots. Roots, therefore, are merely the materials out of which
+speech can be made, the embodiments of isolated conceptions
+with which the lexicographer alone has to deal, whereas stems
+present us with words already combined in a sentence and
+embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly
+understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive
+it as having been expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems,
+and in the order according to which the stems were arranged in
+a sentence. In other words, the relations of grammar were
+denoted partly by juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes
+of stems.</p>
+
+<p>These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather
+clothed with vague significations, which changed according to
+the place occupied in the sentence by the stem to which they
+were joined. Gradually this vagueness of signification disappeared,
+and particular suffixes came to be set apart to represent
+particular relations of grammar. What had hitherto been
+expressed by mere position now attached itself to the terminations
+or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown words.
+Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is
+to say, were flexions; others were classificatory, serving to
+distinguish nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects
+from agents and the like; while others, again, remained unmeaning
+adjuncts of the root. This origin of the flexions explains
+the otherwise strange fact that the same suffix may symbolize
+wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin, for instance,
+the context and dictionary will alone tell us that <i>mus-as</i> is the
+accusative plural of a noun, and <i>am-as</i> the second person singular
+of a verb, or that <i>mus-a</i> is the nominative singular of a feminine
+substantive, <i>bon-a</i> the accusative plural of a neuter adjective.
+In short, the flexions were originally merely the terminations of
+stems which were adapted to express the various relations of
+words to each other in a sentence, as these gradually presented
+themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what
+had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same
+suffix might be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a
+flexional sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all.
+In the Greek dative-locative <span class="grk" title="pod-es-si">&#960;&#972;&#948;-&#949;&#963;-&#963;&#953;</span>, for example, the suffix
+<span class="grk" title="-es">-&#949;&#962;</span> is classificatory; in the nominative <span class="grk" title="pod-es">&#960;&#972;&#948;-&#949;&#962;</span> it is flexional.</p>
+
+<p>When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a
+special sense, it would be separated in thought from the stem to
+which it belonged, and attached in the same sense to other stems
+and other terminations. Thus in modern English we can attach
+the suffix -ize to almost any word whatsoever, in order to give
+the latter a transitive meaning, and the Gr. <span class="grk" title="podessi">&#960;&#972;&#948;&#949;&#963;&#963;&#953;</span>, quoted
+above, really contains no less than three suffixes, <span class="grk" title="-es">-&#949;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="-su">-&#963;&#965;</span> and
+<span class="grk" title="-i">-&#953;</span>, the last two both denoting the locative, and coalescing,
+through <span class="grk" title="swi">&#963;&#989;&#953;</span>, into a single syllable <span class="grk" title="-si">-&#963;&#953;</span>. The latter instance shows
+us how two or more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may
+be tacked on one to another, if the original force and signification
+of the first of them comes to be forgotten. Thus, in O. Eng.
+<i>sang-estre</i> was the feminine of <i>sang-ere</i>, &ldquo;singer,&rdquo; but the meaning
+of the termination has so entirely died out of the memory that
+we have to add the Romanic <i>-ess</i> to it if we would still distinguish
+it from the masculine <i>singer</i>. A familiar example of the way
+in which the full sense of the exponent of a grammatical idea
+fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new exponent
+is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English
+to denote the superlative. &ldquo;Very warm&rdquo; expresses little more
+than the positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings
+the Englishman has recourse to such expressions as &ldquo;awfully
+warm&rdquo; like the Ger. &ldquo;schrecklich warm.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such words as &ldquo;very,&rdquo; &ldquo;awfully,&rdquo; &ldquo;schrecklich,&rdquo; illustrate
+a second mode in which Indo-European grammar has found
+means of expression. Words may lose their true signification
+and become the mere exponents of grammatical ideas. Professor
+Earle divides all words into <i>presentive</i> and <i>symbolic</i>, the former
+denoting objects and conceptions, the latter the relations which
+exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are what the
+Chinese grammarians call &ldquo;empty words&rdquo;&mdash;words, that is, which
+have been divested of their proper signification and serve a grammatical
+purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of
+the flexional suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown
+to have had this origin. Thus the suffix <i>tar</i>, which denotes
+names of kinship and agency, seems to come from the same root
+as the Lat. <i>terminus</i> and <i>trans</i>, our <i>through</i>, the Sans. <i>tar-&#257;mi</i>,
+&ldquo;I pass over,&rdquo; and to have primarily signified &ldquo;one that goes
+through&rdquo; a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. <i>head</i> or <i>hood</i>, in words
+like <i>godhead</i> and <i>brotherhood</i>, is the A.-S. <i>hâd</i>, &ldquo;character&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;rank&rdquo;; <i>dom</i>, in kingdom, the A.-S. <i>dôm</i>, &ldquo;judgment&rdquo;;
+and <i>lock</i> or <i>ledge</i>, in <i>wedlock</i> and <i>knowledge</i>, the A.-S. <i>lâc</i>, &ldquo;sport&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;gift.&rdquo; In all these cases the &ldquo;empty words,&rdquo; after first
+losing every trace of their original significance, have followed
+the general analogy of the language and assumed the form and
+functions of the suffixes with which they had been confused.</p>
+
+<p>A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is
+by the symbolic use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for
+instance, the distinction between the reduplicated present <span class="grk" title="didômi">&#948;&#943;&#948;&#969;&#956;&#953;</span>
+and the reduplicated perfect <span class="grk" title="dedôka">&#948;&#941;&#948;&#969;&#954;&#945;</span> is indicated by a distinction
+of vowel, and in primitive Aryan grammar the vowel <i>â</i> seems
+to have been set apart to denote the subjunctive mood just as
+<i>ya</i> or <i>i</i> was set apart to denote the potential. So, too, according
+to M. Hovelacque, the change of <i>a</i> into <i>i</i> or <i>u</i> in the parent Indo-European
+symbolized a change of meaning from passive to active.
+This symbolic use of the vowels, which is the purest application
+of the principle of flexion, is far less extensively carried out in
+the Indo-European than in the Semitic languages. The Semitic
+family of speech is therefore a much more characteristic type of
+the inflexional languages than is the Indo-European.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight
+cases&mdash;nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative,
+genitive, ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted
+to show that the first three of these, the &ldquo;strong cases&rdquo; as
+they are termed, are really abstracts formed by the suffixes
+<i>-as</i> (<i>-s</i>), <i>-an, -m, -t, -i, -â</i> and <i>-ya</i> (<i>-i</i>), the plural being nothing
+more than an abstract singular, as may be readily seen by
+comparing words like the Gr. <span class="grk" title="epo-s">&#7956;&#960;&#959;-&#962;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="ope-s">&#8004;&#960;&#949;-&#962;</span>, which mean
+precisely the same. The remaining &ldquo;weak&rdquo; cases, formed by
+the suffixes <i>-sma, -sya, -syâ, -yâ, -i, -an, -t, -bhi, -su, -i, -a</i> and <i>-â</i>,
+are really adjectives and adverbs. No distinction, for example,
+can be drawn between &ldquo;a cup of gold&rdquo; and &ldquo;a golden cup,&rdquo;
+and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the locative
+are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb.
+The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent
+of the stem to which they are suffixed; the suffixes of the weak
+cases, on the other hand, generally draw the accent upon
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>According to Hübschmann, the nominative, accusative and
+genitive cases are purely grammatical, distinguished from one
+another through the exigencies of the sentence only, whereas
+the locative, ablative and instrumental have a logical origin and
+determine the logical relation which the three other cases bear
+to each other and the verb. The nature of the dative is left
+undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in a place, the
+ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the means or
+concomitance of an action. The dative Hübschmann regards
+as &ldquo;the case of the participant object.&rdquo; Like Hübschmann,
+Holzweissig divides the cases into two classes&mdash;the one grammatical
+and the other logical; and his analysis of their primitive
+meaning is the same as that of Hübschmann, except as regards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span>
+the dative, the primary sense of which he thinks to have been
+motion towards a place. This is also the view of Delbrück, who
+makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbrück, however,
+holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of
+separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance,
+while there was a double locative, one used like the ablative
+absolute in Latin, the other being a locative of the object.</p>
+
+<p>The dual was older than the plural, and after the development
+of the latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which
+most of the Indo-European languages contrived in time to get
+rid. There are still many savage idioms in which the conception
+of plurality has not advanced beyond that of duality. In the
+Bushman dialects, for instance, the plural, or rather that which
+is more than one, is expressed by repeating the word; thus <i>tu</i>
+is &ldquo;mouth,&rdquo; <i>tutu</i> &ldquo;mouths.&rdquo; It may be shown that most of
+the suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more
+primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of
+them by the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases,
+on the other hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical
+with the singular of abstract nouns; so far as both form and
+meaning are concerned, no distinction can be drawn between
+<span class="grk" title="opes">&#8004;&#960;&#949;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="epos">&#7956;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>. Similarly, <i>humanity</i> and <i>men</i> signify one and
+the same thing, and the use of English words like <i>sheep</i> or <i>fish</i>
+for both singular and plural shows to what an extent our appreciation
+of number is determined by the context rather than by the
+form of the noun. The so-called &ldquo;broken plurals&rdquo; of Arabic
+and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed to denote
+the plural.</p>
+
+<p>Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic
+decay. In many languages, such as Eskimo and Choctaw, its
+place is taken by a division of objects into animate and inanimate,
+while in other languages they are separated into rational and
+irrational. There are many indications that the parent Indo-European
+in an early stage of its existence had no signs of gender
+at all. The terminations of the names of <i>father</i> and <i>mother</i>,
+<i>pater</i> and <i>mater</i>, for example, are exactly the same, and in Latin
+and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as stems in <i>i</i> or <i>ya</i> and u (like <span class="grk" title="naus">&#957;&#945;&#8166;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="nekus">&#957;&#941;&#954;&#965;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="polis">&#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="lis">&#955;&#8150;&#962;</span>), may be indifferently
+masculine and feminine. Even stems in <i>o</i> and <i>a</i> (of the second
+and first declensions), though the first are generally masculine
+and the second generally feminine, by no means invariably
+maintain the rule; and feminines like <i>humus</i> and <span class="grk" title="hodos">&#8001;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>, or
+masculines like <i>advena</i> and <span class="grk" title="politês">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, show that there was a time
+when these stems also indicated no particular gender, but owed
+their subsequent adaptation, the one to mark the masculine
+and the other to mark the feminine, to the influence of analogy.
+The idea of gender was first suggested by the difference between
+man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many languages
+at the present day, was represented not by any outward sign
+but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived
+at, the conception of gender was extended to other objects besides
+those to which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo-European
+did not distinguish between subject and object, but
+personified objects by ascribing to them the motives and powers
+of living beings. Accordingly they were referred to by different
+pronouns, one class denoting the masculine and another class
+the feminine, and the distinction that existed between these two
+classes of pronouns was after a time transferred to the nouns.
+As soon as the preponderant number of stems in <i>o</i> in daily use
+had come to be regarded as masculine on account of their meaning,
+other stems in <i>o</i>, whatever might be their signification,
+were made to follow the general analogy and were similarly
+classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix <i>i</i> or <i>ya</i>
+acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the
+feminine gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were
+not satisfied with these two genders, masculine and feminine.
+As soon as object and subject, patient and agent, were clearly
+distinguished from each other, there arose a need for a third
+gender, which should be neither masculine nor feminine, but
+denote things without life. This third gender was fittingly
+expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>regnum</i>), or by a stem without any case ending at all (<i>e.g.</i> <i>virus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The adverbial meaning of so many of the cases explains the
+readiness with which they became crystallized into adverbs and
+prepositions. An adverb is the attribute of an attribute&mdash;&ldquo;the
+rose smells sweetly,&rdquo; for example, being resolvable into &ldquo;the
+rose has the attribute of scent with the further attribute of
+sweetness.&rdquo; In our own language <i>once</i>, <i>twice</i>, <i>needs</i>, are all
+genitives; <i>seldom</i> is a dative. The Latin and Greek <i>humi</i> and
+<span class="grk" title="chamai">&#967;&#945;&#956;&#945;&#943;</span> are locatives, <i>facillime</i> (<i>facillumed</i>) and <span class="grk" title="eutychôs">&#949;&#8016;&#964;&#965;&#967;&#8182;&#962;</span> ablatives,
+<span class="grk" title="pantê">&#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#951;</span> and <span class="grk" title="hama">&#7940;&#956;&#945;</span> instrumentals, <span class="grk" title="paros">&#960;&#940;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="hexês">&#7953;&#958;&#8134;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="têlou">&#964;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#8166;</span> genitives.
+The frequency with which particular cases of particular nouns
+were used in a specifically attributive sense caused them to
+become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in
+question passing out of use, and the original force of those that
+were retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions are
+adverbs employed to define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives.
+Their appearance in the Indo-European languages is comparatively
+late, and the Homeric poems allow us to trace their growth
+in Greek. The adverb, originally intended to define the verb,
+came to be construed with the noun, and the government of
+the case with which it was construed was accordingly transferred
+from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the <i>Odyssey</i>(iv. 43), <span class="grk" title="autous d eisêgon theion domon">&#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#948;&#8125; &#949;&#7984;&#963;&#8134;&#947;&#959;&#957; &#952;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957; &#948;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#957;</span>, we see that <span class="grk" title="eis">&#949;&#7984;&#962;</span> is still an
+adverb, and that the accusative is governed by the verb; it is
+quite otherwise, however, with a line like <span class="grk" title="Atreidês de gerontas
+aolleas êgen Achaiôn es klisiên">&#7944;&#964;&#961;&#949;&#943;&#948;&#951;&#962; &#948;&#8050; &#947;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#962; &#7936;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#941;&#945;&#962; &#7974;&#947;&#949;&#957; &#7944;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#962; &#954;&#955;&#953;&#963;&#943;&#951;&#957;</span> (<i>Il.</i> i. 89) where the adverb has
+passed into a preposition. The same process of transformation
+is still going on in English, where we can say indifferently,
+&ldquo;What are you looking at?&rdquo; using &ldquo;at&rdquo; as an adverb, and
+governing the pronoun by the verb, and &ldquo;At what are you
+looking?&rdquo; where &ldquo;at&rdquo; has become a preposition. With the
+growth and increase of prepositions the need of the case-endings
+diminished, and in some languages the latter disappeared
+altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs
+used in a demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the
+conjunctions are petrified cases of pronouns. The relation
+between two sentences was originally expressed by simply setting
+them side by side, afterwards by employing a demonstrative
+at the beginning of the second clause to refer to the whole preceding
+one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have been
+in the first instance a demonstrative; indeed, we can still use
+<i>that</i> in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative
+at the beginning of the second clause represented the first clause,
+and was consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand
+in some case, and this case became a conjunction. How closely
+allied the adverb and the conjunction are may be seen from
+Greek and Latin, where <span class="grk" title="hôs">&#8033;&#962;</span> or <i>quum</i> can be used as either the one
+or the other. Our own <i>and</i>, it may be observed, has probably
+the same root as the Greek locative adverb <span class="grk" title="eti">&#7956;&#964;&#953;</span>, and originally
+signified &ldquo;going further.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force
+of which appears clearly in such a phrase as &ldquo;A wonderful thing
+to see.&rdquo; Various cases, such as the locative, the dative or the
+instrumental, are employed in Vedic Sanskrit in the sense of
+the infinitive, besides the bare stem or neuter formed by the
+suffixes <i>man</i> and <i>van</i>. In Greek the neuter stem and the dative
+case were alone retained for the purpose. The first is found in
+infinitives like <span class="grk" title="domen">&#948;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;</span> and <span class="grk" title="ferein">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> (for an earlier <span class="grk" title="fere-wen">&#966;&#949;&#961;&#949;-&#989;&#949;&#957;</span>), the
+second in the infinitives in <span class="grk" title="-ai">-&#945;&#953;</span>. Thus the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dounai">&#948;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span> answers
+letter for letter to the Vedic dative <i>d&#257;v&#257;ne</i>, &ldquo;to give,&rdquo; and the
+form <span class="grk" title="pseudesthai">&#968;&#949;&#973;&#948;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span> is explained by the Vedic <i>vayodhai</i>, for <i>vay&#257;s-dhai</i>,
+literally &ldquo;to do living,&rdquo; <i>dhai</i> being the dative of a noun from
+the root <i>dh&#257;</i>, &ldquo;to place&rdquo; or &ldquo;do.&rdquo; When the form <span class="grk" title="pseudesthai">&#968;&#949;&#973;&#948;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>
+had once come into existence, analogy was ready to create such
+false imitations as <span class="grk" title="grapsasthai">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#968;&#945;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span> or <span class="grk" title="graphthêsesthai">&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#952;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>. The Latin
+infinitive in <i>-re</i> for <i>-se</i> has the same origin, <i>amare</i>, for instance,
+being the dative of an old stem <i>amas</i>. In <i>fieri</i> for <i>fierei</i> or <i>fiesei</i>,
+from the same root as our English <i>be</i>, the original length of the
+final syllable is preserved. The suffix in <i>-um</i> is an accusative, like
+the corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin
+of the infinitive explains the Latin construction of the accusative
+and infinitive. When the Roman said, &ldquo;Miror te ad me nihil
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span>
+scribere,&rdquo; all that he meant at first was, &ldquo;I wonder at you for
+writing nothing to me,&rdquo; where the infinitive was merely a dative
+case used adverbially.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the infinitive makes it clear how little distinction
+must have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb.
+Indeed, the growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a
+time in the history of Indo-European speech when it had not as
+yet risen to the consciousness of the speaker, and in the period
+when the noun did not possess a plural there was as yet also no
+verb. The attachment of the first and second personal pronouns,
+or of suffixes resembling them, to certain stems, was the first
+stage in the development of the latter. Like the Semitic verb,
+the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have denoted relation
+only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the subject.
+The idea of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses
+were created, the one expressing a present or continuous action, the
+other an aoristic or momentary one. The distinction of sense was
+symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable
+of the aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present.
+This abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent
+(which was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination),
+and this change again was probably occasioned by the prefixing
+of the so-called augment to the aorist, which survived into historical
+times only in Sanskrit, Zend and Greek, and the origin of
+which is still a mystery. The weight of the first syllable in the
+aorist further caused the person-endings to be shortened, and so
+two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary and secondary,
+sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable of
+the present tense a perfect was formed; but originally no distinction
+was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs
+like <span class="grk" title="didômi">&#948;&#943;&#948;&#969;&#956;&#953;</span> and <span class="grk" title="hêkô">&#7971;&#954;&#969;</span> are memorials of a time when the difference
+between &ldquo;I am come&rdquo; and &ldquo;I have come&rdquo; was not yet felt.
+Reduplication was further adapted to the expression of intensity
+and desire (in the so-called intensive and desiderative forms).
+By the side of the aorist stood the imperfect, which differed
+from the aorist, so far as outward form was concerned, only
+in possessing the longer and more original stem of the present.
+Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was primitively
+an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and imperfect
+is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of
+certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the
+accent, and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote
+a difference between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect
+which was beginning to be felt. After the analogy of the imperfect,
+a pluperfect was created out of the perfect by prefixing
+the augment (of which the Greek <span class="grk" title="ememêkon">&#7952;&#956;&#941;&#956;&#951;&#954;&#959;&#957;</span> is an illustration);
+though the pluperfect, too, was originally an imperfect formed
+from the reduplicated present.</p>
+
+<p>Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive
+Indo-European verb, recourse being had to symbolization for
+the purpose. The imperative was represented by the bare stem,
+like the vocative, the accent being drawn back to the first
+syllable, though other modes of denoting it soon came into
+vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the attachment of
+the suffix <i>-ya</i> to the stem, probability by the attachment of
+<i>-a</i> and <i>-&#257;</i>, and in this way the optative and conjunctive moods
+first arose. The creation of a future by the help of the suffix
+<i>-sya</i> seems to belong to the same period in the history of the
+verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form
+a large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek <span class="grk" title="hippoio">&#7989;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#959;</span>
+for <span class="grk" title="hipposio">&#7985;&#960;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#953;&#959;</span>); in this case future time will have been regarded
+as an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for
+instance, between &ldquo;rising sun&rdquo; and &ldquo;the sun will rise.&rdquo; It
+is possible, however, that the auxiliary verb <i>as</i>, &ldquo;to be,&rdquo; enters
+into the composition of the future; if so, the future will be
+the product of the second stage in the development of the Indo-European
+verb when new forms were created by means of
+composition. The sigmatic or first aorist is in favour of this
+view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European unity,
+and may be a compound of the verbal stem with the auxiliary <i>as</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After the separation of the Indo-European languages, composition
+was largely employed in the formation of new tenses.
+Thus in Latin we have perfects like <i>scrip-si</i> and <i>ama-vi</i>, formed
+by the help of the auxiliaries <i>as</i> (<i>sum</i>) and <i>fuo</i>, while such forms
+as <i>amaveram</i> (<i>amavi-eram</i>) or <i>amarem</i> (<i>ama-sem</i>) bear their
+origin on their face. So, too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic
+(<i>amabo</i>, Irish <i>carub</i>) is based upon the substantive verb <i>fuo</i>,
+&ldquo;to be,&rdquo; and the English preterite in <i>-ed</i> goes back to a suffixed
+<i>did</i>, the reduplicated perfect of <i>do</i>. New tenses and moods,
+however, were created by the aid of suffixes as well as by the
+aid of composition, or rather were formed from nouns whose
+stems terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in Greek
+we have aorists and perfects in <span class="grk" title="-ka">-&#954;&#945;</span>, and the characteristics of
+the two passive aorists, <i>ye</i> and <i>the</i>, are more probably the suffixes
+of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs <i>ya</i>, &ldquo;to go,&rdquo;
+and <i>dhâ</i>, &ldquo;to place,&rdquo; as Bopp supposed. How late some of these
+new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric
+poems are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative
+future, and the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future
+passive occurs but once and the desiderative but twice. On
+the other hand, many of the older tenses were disused and lost.
+In classical Sanskrit, for instance, of the modal aorist forms
+the precative and benedictive almost alone remain, while the
+pluperfect, of which Delbrück has found traces in the Veda,
+has wholly disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European
+speech. No need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as &ldquo;I
+am pleased&rdquo; could be as well represented by &ldquo;This pleases me,&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;I please myself.&rdquo; It was long before the speaker was able
+to imagine an action without an object, and when he did so,
+it was a neuter or substantival rather than a passive verb that
+he formed. The passive, in fact, grew out of the middle or
+reflexive, and, except in the two aorists, continued to be represented
+by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second
+person plural is really the middle participle with <i>estis</i> understood,
+and the whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that
+the characteristic <i>r</i> which Latin shares with Celtic could have
+had at the outset no passive force.</p>
+
+<p>Much light has been thrown on the character and construction
+of the primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax.
+In contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows
+that which is defined, the Indo-European languages place that
+which is defined after that which defines it; and Bergaigne
+has made it clear that the original order of the sentence was
+(1) object, (2) verb, and (3) subject. Greater complication of
+thought and its expression, the connexion of sentences by the
+aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical inversion caused that dislocation
+of the original order of the sentence which reaches its
+culminating point in the involved periods of Latin literature.
+Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax
+of the parent Indo-European when it sets both adjective and
+genitive before the nouns which they define. In course of time
+a distinction came to be made between an attribute used as a
+mere qualificative and an attribute used predicatively, and
+this distinction was expressed by placing the predicate in opposition
+to the subject and accordingly after it. The opposition
+was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical copula or substantive
+verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly
+stood for the latter at first signified &ldquo;existence,&rdquo; and it was only
+through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like <i>Deus bonus
+est</i>, &ldquo;God exists as good,&rdquo; came to mean simply &ldquo;God is good.&rdquo;
+It is needless to observe that neither of the two articles was
+known to the parent Indo-European; indeed, the definite article,
+which is merely a decayed demonstrative pronoun, has not yet
+been developed in several of the languages of the Indo-European
+family.</p>
+
+<p>We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific investigation
+of English grammar and the modifications they
+necessitate in our conception of it. The idea that
+the free use of speech is tied down by the rules of
+<span class="sidenote">Investigation of English grammar.</span>
+the grammarian must first be given up; all that the
+grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses
+of his time, which are determined by habit and custom,
+and are accordingly in a perpetual state of flux. We must next
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span>
+get rid of the notion that English grammar should be modelled
+after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall never
+understand even the elementary principles upon which it is
+based. We cannot speak of declensions, since English has no
+genders except in the pronouns of the third person, and no
+cases except the genitive and a few faint traces of an old dative.
+Its verbal conjugation is essentially different from that of an
+inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be compressed into
+the same categories. In English the syntax has been enlarged
+at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place
+of forms. To speak of an adjective &ldquo;agreeing&rdquo; with its substantive
+is as misleading as to speak of a verb &ldquo;governing&rdquo;
+a case. In fact, the distinction between noun and adjective
+is inapplicable to English grammar, and should be replaced
+by a distinction between objective and attributive words. In
+a phrase like &ldquo;this is a cannon,&rdquo; <i>cannon</i> is objective; in a phrase
+like &ldquo;a cannon-ball,&rdquo; it is attributive; and to call it a substantive
+in the one case and an adjective in the other is only
+to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative,
+the various forms of the noun are all attributive; there is no
+difference, for example, between &ldquo;doing a thing&rdquo; and &ldquo;doing
+badly.&rdquo; Apart from the personal pronouns, the accusative
+of the classical languages can be represented only by position;
+but if we were to say that a noun which follows a verb is in the
+accusative case we should have to define &ldquo;king&rdquo; as an accusative
+in such sentences as &ldquo;he became king&rdquo; or &ldquo;he is king.&rdquo; In
+conversational English &ldquo;it is me&rdquo; is as correct as &ldquo;c&rsquo;est moi&rdquo;
+in French, or &ldquo;det er mig&rdquo; in Danish; the literary &ldquo;it is I&rdquo;
+is due to the influence of classical grammar. The combination
+of noun or pronoun and preposition results in a compound
+attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has well said that &ldquo;the really
+characteristic feature of the English finite verb is its inability
+to stand alone without a pronominal prefix.&rdquo; Thus &ldquo;dream&rdquo;
+by itself is a noun; &ldquo;I dream&rdquo; is a verb. The place of the
+pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry
+and vulgar English frequently insert the pronoun even when
+the noun precedes. The number of inflected verbal forms is
+but small, being confined to the third person singular and the
+special forms of the preterite and past participle, though the
+latter may with more justice be regarded as belonging to the
+province of the lexicographer rather than to that of the grammarian.
+The inflected subjunctive (<i>be, were, save</i> in &ldquo;God save
+the King,&rdquo; &amp;c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms,
+however, are coming into existence; at all events, we have
+as good a right to consider <i>wont, shant, cant</i> new inflected forms
+as the French <i>aimerai</i> (<i>amare habeo</i>), <i>aimerais</i> (<i>amare habebam</i>).
+If the ordinary grammars are correct in treating forms like
+&ldquo;I am loving,&rdquo; &ldquo;I was loving,&rdquo; &ldquo;I did love,&rdquo; as separate
+tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting to notice
+the equally important emphatic form &ldquo;I do love&rdquo; or the negative
+form &ldquo;I do not love&rdquo; (&ldquo;I don&rsquo;t love&rdquo;), as well as the semi-inflexional
+&ldquo;I&rsquo;ll love,&rdquo; &ldquo;he&rsquo;s loving.&rdquo; It is true that these
+latter contracted forms are heard only in conversation and not
+seen in books; but the grammar of a language, it must be
+remembered, is made by those who speak it and not by the
+printers.</p>
+
+<p>Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received
+from Greece and Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the
+Sophists to investigate the structure of the Greek
+language, and to them was accordingly due the first
+<span class="sidenote">History of formal grammar.</span>
+analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished
+the three genders and the verbal moods, while Prodicus
+busied himself with the definition of synonyms. Aristotle,
+taking the side of Democritus, who had held that the meaning
+of words is put into them by the speaker, and that there is no
+necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down that
+words &ldquo;symbolize&rdquo; objects according to the will of those who
+use them, and added to the <span class="grk" title="onoma">&#8004;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#945;</span> or &ldquo;noun,&rdquo; and the <span class="grk" title="rhêma">&#8165;&#8134;&#956;&#945;</span> or
+&ldquo;verb,&rdquo; the <span class="grk" title="sundesmos">&#963;&#973;&#957;&#948;&#949;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> or &ldquo;particle.&rdquo; He also introduced the
+term <span class="grk" title="ptôsis">&#960;&#964;&#8182;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;case,&rdquo; to denote any flexion whatsoever. He
+further divided nouns into simple and compound, invented for
+the neuter another name than that given by Protagoras, and
+starting from the termination of the nominative singular, endeavoured
+to ascertain the rules for indicating a difference of
+gender. Aristotle was followed by the Stoics, who separated the
+<span class="grk" title="arthron">&#7940;&#961;&#952;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span> or &ldquo;article&rdquo; from the particles, determined a fifth part
+of speech, <span class="grk" title="pandektês">&#960;&#945;&#957;&#948;&#941;&#954;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> or &ldquo;adverb,&rdquo; confined the term &ldquo;case&rdquo;
+to the flexions of the nouns, distinguishing the four principal
+cases by names, and divided the verb into its tenses, moods
+and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics were studying
+the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing
+it with the language of their own day, the result being a minute
+examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of
+grammarians sprang up&mdash;the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus,
+who held that a strict law of analogy existed between idea
+and word, and refused to admit exceptions to the grammatical
+rules they laid down, and the Anomalists, who denied general
+rules of any kind, except in so far as they were consecrated by
+custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was Crates of Mallos,
+the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe the first
+formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts
+obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, as well as an
+attempt to reform Greek orthography. The immediate cause
+of this grammar seems to have been a comparison of Latin with
+Greek, Crates having lectured on the subject while ambassador
+of Attalus at Rome in 159 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The zeal with which the Romans
+threw themselves into the study of Greek resulted in the school
+grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, which he
+published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which is still
+in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it,
+and the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek
+grammarians into Latin was productive of numerous blunders
+which have been perpetuated to our own day. Thus <i>tenues</i>
+is a mistranslation of the <span class="grk" title="psila">&#968;&#953;&#955;&#940;</span>, &ldquo;unaspirated&rdquo;; <i>genetivus</i>
+of <span class="grk" title="genikê">&#947;&#949;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>, the case &ldquo;of the genus&rdquo;; <i>accusativus</i> of <span class="grk" title="aitiatikê">&#945;&#7984;&#964;&#953;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>,
+the case &ldquo;of the object&rdquo;; <i>infinitivus</i> of <span class="grk" title="aparemphatos">&#7936;&#960;&#945;&#961;&#941;&#956;&#966;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;without
+a secondary meaning&rdquo; of tense or person. New names were
+coined to denote forms possessed by Latin and not by Greek;
+<i>ablative</i>, for instance, was invented by Julius Caesar, who also
+wrote a treatise <i>De analogia</i>. By the 2nd century of the Christian
+era the dispute between the Anomalists and the Analogists was
+finally settled, analogy being recognized as the principle that
+underlies language, though every rule admits of exceptions.
+Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus
+and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies
+of their predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin
+grammar composed by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and
+the eighteen books on grammar compiled by Priscian in the age
+of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus dominated the schools
+of the middle ages, and, along with the productions of Priscian,
+formed the type and source of the Latin and Greek school-grammars
+of modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the bearing
+of a scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of
+teaching and learning foreign languages. The grammar
+of a language is not to be confined within the rules
+<span class="sidenote">Learning of grammar of foreign languages.</span>
+laid down by grammarians, much less is it the creation
+of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode
+of making the pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules
+and paradigms not only gives a false idea of what grammar
+really is, but also throws obstacles in the way of acquiring it.
+The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with the sentence
+therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the pupil
+should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has
+been, so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them
+into their component parts, to show the relations that these
+bear to one another, and to indicate the nature and varieties of
+the latter. In this way the learner will be prevented from
+regarding grammar as a piece of dead mechanism or a Chinese
+puzzle, of which the parts must be fitted together in accordance
+with certain artificial rules, and will realize that it is a living
+organism which has a history and a reason of its own. The
+method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would
+learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span>
+our mother-tongue, by first mastering the expression of a complete
+thought and then breaking up this expression into its
+several elements.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philology</a></span>, and articles on the various languages. Also
+Steinthal, <i>Charakteristik der hauptsächlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues</i>
+(Berlin, 1860); Schleicher, <i>Compendium of the Comparative
+Grammar of the Indo-European Languages</i>, translated by H. Bendall
+(London, 1874); Pezzi, <i>Aryan Philology according to the most recent
+Researches</i>, translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce,
+<i>Introduction to the Science of Language</i> (London, 1879); Lersch, <i>Die
+Sprachphilosophie der Alten</i> (Bonn, 1838-1841); Steinthal, <i>Geschichte
+der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Römern mit besonderer
+Rücksicht auf die Logik</i> (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); Delbrück,
+<i>Ablativ localis instrumentalis im Altindischen, Lateinischen, Griechischen,
+und Deutschen</i> (Berlin, 1864); Jolly, <i>Ein Kapitel vergleichender
+Syntax</i> (Munich, 1873); Hübschmann, <i>Zur Casuslehre</i>
+(Munich, 1875); Holzweissig, <i>Wahrheit und Irrthum der localistischen
+Casustheorie</i> (Leipzig, 1877); Draeger, <i>Historische Syntax der
+lateinischen Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1874-1876); Sweet, <i>Words, Logic,
+and Grammar</i> (London, 1876); P. Giles, <i>Manual of Comp. Philology</i>
+(1901); C. Abel, <i>Ägypt.-indo-eur. Sprachverwandschaft</i> (1903);
+Brugmann and Delbrück, <i>Grundriss d. vergl. Gram. d. indogerm. Spr.</i>
+(1886-1900); Fritz Mauthner, <i>Beiträge <span class="correction" title="amended from zur">zu</span> einer Kritik der Sprache</i>
+vol. iii. (1902); T. G. Tucker, <i>Introd. to a Nat. Hist. of Language</i>
+(1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMMICHELE,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania,
+55 m. S.W. of it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 15,075.
+It was built in 1693, after the destruction by an earthquake
+of the old town of Occhialà to the north; the latter, on account of
+the similarity of name, is generally identified with Echetla, a
+frontier city between Syracusan and Carthaginian territory
+in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have been originally
+a Sicel city in which Greek civilization prevailed from the 5th
+century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine
+of Demeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Mon. Lincei</i>, vii. (1897), 201; <i>Not. degli scavi</i> (1902), 223.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMMONT<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (the Flemish name <i>Gheeraardsbergen</i> more
+clearly reveals its etymology <i>Gerardi-mons</i>), a town in East
+Flanders, Belgium, near the meeting point with the provinces of
+Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the Dender almost due south
+of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the charter of Grammont
+given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1068 was the first
+of its kind. This charter has been styled &ldquo;the most ancient
+written monument of civil and criminal laws in Flanders.&rdquo; The
+modern town is a busy industrial centre. Pop. (1904) 12,835.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGÉNOR ALFRED,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span>, <span class="sc">Duc de
+Guiche</span>, <span class="sc">Prince de Bidache</span> (1819-1880), French diplomatist
+and statesman, was born at Paris on the 14th of August 1819, of
+one of the most illustrious families of the old <i>noblesse</i>, a cadet
+branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name from
+the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine
+Louis Marie, duc de Gramont (1755-1836), had emigrated during
+the Revolution, and his father, Antoine Héraclius Geneviève
+Agénor (1789-1855), duc de Gramont and de Guiche, fought under
+the British flag in the Peninsular War, became a lieutenant-general
+in the French army in 1823, and in 1830 accompanied
+Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however,
+were Bonapartist in sympathy; Gramont&rsquo;s cousin Antoine
+Louis Raymond, comte de Gramont (1787-1825), though also
+the son of an <i>émigré</i>, served with distinction in Napoleon&rsquo;s
+armies, while Antoine Agénor, duc de Gramont, owed his career
+to his early friendship for Louis Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>Educated at the École Polytechnique, Gramont early gave
+up the army for diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851, which made Louis
+Napoleon supreme in France, that he became conspicuous as
+a diplomat. He was successively minister plenipotentiary at
+Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853), ambassador at
+Rome (1857) and at Vienna (1861). On the 15th of May 1870
+he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the Ollivier
+cabinet, and was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible
+for the bungling of the negotiations between France and Prussia
+arising out of the candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern
+for the throne of Spain, which led to the disastrous war of
+1870-71. The exact share of Gramont in this responsibility has
+been the subject of much controversy. The last word may be
+said to have been uttered by M. Émile Ollivier himself in his
+<i>L&rsquo;Empire libéral</i> (tome xii., 1909, <i>passim</i>). The famous declaration
+read by Gramont in the Chamber on the 6th of July, the
+&ldquo;threat with the hand on the sword-hilt,&rdquo; as Bismarck called
+it, was the joint work of the whole cabinet; the original draft
+presented by Gramont was judged to be too &ldquo;elliptical&rdquo; in its
+conclusion and not sufficiently vigorous; the reference to a
+revival of the empire of Charles V. was suggested by Ollivier;
+the paragraph asserting that France would not allow a foreign
+power to disturb to her own detriment the actual equilibrium
+of Europe was inserted by the emperor. So far, then, as this
+declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont&rsquo;s <span class="correction" title="amended from responsiblity">responsibility</span>
+must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues (Ollivier
+<i>op. cit.</i> xii. 107; see also the two <i>projets de déclaration</i> given
+on p. 570). It is clear, however that he did not share the
+&ldquo;passion&rdquo; of his colleagues for &ldquo;peace with honour,&rdquo; clear
+also that he wholly misread the intentions of the European
+powers in the event of war. That he reckoned upon the active
+alliance of Austria was due, according to M. Ollivier, to the fact
+that for nine years he had been a <i>persona grata</i> in the aristocratic
+society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the humiliation
+of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him
+less disposed than many of his colleagues to make the best of the
+renunciation of the candidature made, on behalf of his son,
+by the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It was Gramont
+who pointed out to the emperor, on the evening of the 12th,
+the dubious circumstances of the act of renunciation, and on
+the same night, without informing M. Ollivier, despatched to
+Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding the king of
+Prussia&rsquo;s guarantee that the candidature would not be revived.
+The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the
+emperor, &ldquo;who imposed it by an exercise of personal power on
+the only one of his ministers who could have lent himself to such
+a forgetfulness of the safeguards of a parliamentary régime.&rdquo;
+As for Gramont, he had &ldquo;no conception of the exigencies of
+this régime; he remained an ambassador accustomed to obey
+the orders of his sovereign; in all good faith he had no idea that
+this was not correct, and that, himself a parliamentary minister,
+he had associated himself with an act destructive of the authority
+of parliament.&rdquo;<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> &ldquo;On his part,&rdquo; adds M. Ollivier, &ldquo;it was the
+result only of obedience, not of warlike premeditation&rdquo; (<i>op. cit.</i>
+p. 262). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To
+France and to the world Gramont was responsible for the policy
+which put his country definitely into the wrong in the eyes of
+Europe, and enabled Bismarck to administer to her the &ldquo;slap
+in the face&rdquo; (<i>soufflet</i>)&mdash;as Gramont called it in the Chamber&mdash;by
+means of the mutilated &ldquo;Ems telegram,&rdquo; which was the
+immediate cause of the French declaration of war on the 15th.</p>
+
+<p>After the defeat of Weissenburg (August 4) Gramont resigned
+office with the rest of the Ollivier ministry (August 9), and after
+the revolution of September he went to England, returning after
+the war to Paris, where he died on the 18th of January 1880.
+His marriage in 1848 with Miss Mackinnon, a Scottish lady,
+remained without issue. During his retirement he published
+various apologies for his policy in 1870, notably <i>La France et
+la Prusse avant la guerre</i> (Paris, 1872).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides M. Ollivier&rsquo;s work quoted in the text, see L. Thouvenel,
+<i>Le Secret de l&rsquo;empereur, correspondance ... échangée entre M.
+Thouvenel, le duc de Gramont, et le général comte de Flahaut 1860-1863</i>
+(2nd ed., 2 vols., 1889). A small pamphlet containing his
+<i>Souvenirs 1848-1850</i> was published in 1901 by his brother Antoine
+Léon Philibert Auguste de Gramont, duc de Lesparre.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare with this Bismarck&rsquo;s remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe,
+<i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>, ii. 71): &ldquo;When Gramont was made minister,
+Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor
+was meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made
+so stupid a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor
+knew too little of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor
+had once described Gramont to him as &lsquo;un ancien bellâtre.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMONT, PHILIBERT,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1621-1707), the subject
+of the famous <i>Memoirs</i>, came of a noble Gascón family, said
+to have been of Basque origin. His grandmother, Diane
+d&rsquo;Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was &ldquo;la belle Corisande,&rdquo;
+one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson assumed that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span>
+his father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was the
+son of Henry IV., and regretted that he had not claimed the
+privileges of royal birth. Philibert de Gramont was the son of
+Antoine II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency,
+and was born in 1621, probably at the family seat of Bidache.
+He was destined for the church, and was educated at the <i>collège</i>
+of Pau, in Béarn. He refused the ecclesiastical life, however,
+and joined the army of Prince Thomas of Savoy, then besieging
+Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under his elder
+half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince
+of Condé. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and
+also served with distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 and
+1648. He favoured Condé&rsquo;s party at the beginning of the
+Fronde, but changed sides before he was too severely compromised.
+In spite of his record in the army he never received
+any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps
+because of an incurable levity in his outlook, He was, however,
+made a governor of the Pays d&rsquo;Aunis and lieutenant of Béarn.
+During the Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662
+he was exiled from Paris for paying court to Mademoiselle de la
+Motte Houdancourt, one of the king&rsquo;s mistresses. He went to
+London, where he found at the court of Charles II. an atmosphere
+congenial to his talents for intrigue, gallantry and pleasure.
+He married in London, under pressure from her two brothers,
+Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer. She
+was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was,
+according to her brother&rsquo;s optimistic account, able to fix the
+count&rsquo;s affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and
+held her own at the court of Louis XIV., but her husband pursued
+his gallant exploits to the close of a long life, being, said Ninon
+de l&rsquo;Enclos, the only old man who could affect the follies of
+youth without being ridiculous. In 1664 he was allowed to
+return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in connexion
+with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688
+he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II. on the
+birth of an heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he
+succeeded in obtaining considerable profits, being destitute
+of scruples whenever money was in question. At the age of
+seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during which he became
+reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to have
+survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied
+his brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (<i>q.v.</i>), with the materials
+for his <i>Mémoires</i>. Hamilton said that they had been dictated
+to him, but there is no doubt that he was the real author. The
+account of Gramont&rsquo;s early career was doubtless provided by
+himself, but Hamilton was probably more familiar with the
+history of the court of Charles II., which forms the most interesting
+section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a
+reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to
+suppose that he was capable of producing a work which remains
+a masterpiece of style and of witty portraiture. When the
+<i>Mémoires</i> were finished it is said that Gramont sold the MS.
+for 1500 francs, and kept most of the money himself. Fontenelle,
+then censor of the press, refused to license the book from considerations
+of respect to the strange old man, whose gambling,
+cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But
+Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition
+was removed. He died on the 10th of January 1707, and the
+<i>Mémoires</i> appeared six years later.</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he
+relates the story of his hero without comment, and no condemnation
+of the prevalent code of morals is allowed to appear, unless
+in an occasional touch of irony. The portrait is drawn with
+such skill that the count, in spite of his biographer&rsquo;s candour,
+imposes by his grand air on the reader much as he appears to
+have done on his contemporaries. The book is the most entertaining
+of contemporary memoirs, and in no other book is there a
+description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court
+of Charles II. There are other and less flattering accounts of
+the count. His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he
+was a privileged person who was allowed to state even the most
+unpleasing truths to Louis XIV. Saint-Simon in his memoirs
+describes the relief that was felt at court when the old man&rsquo;s
+death was announced.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Mémoires de la vie du comte de Grammont contenant particulièrement
+l&rsquo;histoire amoureuse de la cour d&rsquo;Angleterre sous le règne de Charles II</i>
+was printed in Holland with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other
+editions followed in 1715 and 1716. <i>Memoirs of the Life of Count de
+Grammont ... translated out of the French by Mr</i> [<i>Abel</i>] <i>Boyer</i>
+(1714), was supplemented by a &ldquo;compleat key&rdquo; in 1719. The
+<i>Mémoires</i> &ldquo;augmentées de notes et d&rsquo;éclaircissemens&rdquo; was edited
+by Horace Walpole in 1772. In 1793 appeared in London an edition
+adorned with portraits engraved after originals in the royal collection.
+An English edition by Sir Walter Scott was published by
+H. G. Bohn (1846), and this with additions was reprinted in 1889,
+1890, 1896, &amp;c. Among other modern editions are an excellent one
+in the <i>Bibliothèque Charpentier</i> edited by M. Gustave Brunet (1859);
+<i>Mémoires ...</i> (Paris, 1888) with etchings by L. Boisson after C.
+Delort and an introduction by H. Gausseron; <i>Memoirs ...</i>
+(1889), edited by Mr H. Vizetelly; and <i>Memoirs ...</i> (1903),
+edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMOPHONE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (an invented word, formed on an inversion
+of &ldquo;phonogram&rdquo;; <span class="grk" title="phônê">&#966;&#969;&#957;&#942;</span>, sound, <span class="grk" title="gramma">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#956;&#956;&#945;</span>, letter), an instrument
+for recording and reproducing sounds. It depends on the same
+general principles as the phonograph (<i>q.v.</i>), but it differs in
+certain details of construction, especially in having the sound-record
+cut spirally on a flat disk instead of round a cylinder.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMPIANS, THE<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span>, a mass of mountains in central Scotland.
+Owing to the number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult
+to assign their precise limits, but they may be described as
+occupying the area between a line drawn from Dumbartonshire
+to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the valley of the Spey or
+even Glenmore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend is from
+south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural
+division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the
+shires of Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine,
+Aberdeen, Banff and Inverness. Among the highest summits
+are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui, and Cairngorms, Ben Lawers, Ben
+More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachan and Ben Lomond. The principal
+rivers flowing from the watershed northward are the Findhorn,
+Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the South
+Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass
+is wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, affording
+excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain
+some of the finest deer-forests in Scotland. They are crossed
+by the Highland, West Highland and Callander to Oban railways,
+and present some of the finest scenery in the kingdom. The
+rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, schists, quartzite, porphyry
+and diorite. Their fastnesses were originally inhabited by the
+northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under Galgacus, were
+defeated by Agricola in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 84 at Mons Graupius&mdash;the false
+reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name
+of the mountains&mdash;the site of which has not been ascertained.
+Some authorities place it at Ardoch; others near the junction
+of the Tay and Isla, or at Dalginross near Comrie; while some,
+contending for a position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site
+in west Forfarshire or to Raedykes near Stonehaven.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMPOUND<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span>, a small market town in the mid-parliamentary
+division of Cornwall, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Truro, and 2 m.
+from its station (Grampound Road) on the Great Western
+railway. It is situated on the river Fal, and has some industry
+in tanning. It retains an ancient town hall; there is a good
+market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the Fal, are
+several early earthworks.</p>
+
+<p>Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graundpond)
+and the hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly
+so closely associated that in 1400 the former is found styled the
+vill of Grauntpond called Tibeste. At the time of the Domesday
+Survey Tibeste was amongst the most valuable of the manors
+granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic character of
+Ponsmure first appears in 1299. Thirty-five years later John
+of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Grauntpount.
+This grant was confirmed in 1378 when its extent and
+jurisdiction were defined. It was provided that the hundred
+court of Powdershire should always be held there and two fairs at
+the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra and St Barnabas, both of
+which are still held, and a Tuesday market (now held on Friday)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span>
+and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly rent to
+the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parliament
+by Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an
+indefinite number of freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nominated
+by the mayor and corporation, which existed by prescription.
+The venality of the electors became notorious. In 1780 £3000
+was paid for a seat: in 1812 each supporter of one of the
+candidates received £100. The defeat of this candidate in 1818
+led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a system of
+wholesale corruption, and in 1821 the borough was disfranchised.
+A former woollen trade is extinct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAMPUS<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (<i>Orca gladiator</i>, or <i>Orca orca</i>), a cetacean belonging
+to the <i>Delphinidae</i> or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded
+head without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical
+teeth. The upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and
+the under parts white, with a strip of the same colour over
+each eye. The O. Fr. word was <i>grapois</i>, <i>graspeis</i> or <i>craspeis</i>,
+from Med. Lat. <i>crassus piscis</i>, fat fish. This was adapted into
+English as <i>grapeys</i>, <i>graspeys</i>, &amp;c., and in the 16th century becomes
+<i>grannie pose</i> as if from <i>grand poisson</i>. The final corruption to
+&ldquo;grampus&rdquo; appears in the 18th century and was probably
+nautical in origin. The animal is also known as the &ldquo;killer,&rdquo;
+in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which consists
+largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its fierceness
+is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a
+specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen
+seals and thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested
+state, while the animal appeared to have been choked in the
+endeavour to swallow another seal, the skin of which was found
+entangled in its teeth. These cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs
+or schools, and commit great havoc among the belugas or white
+whales, which occasionally throw themselves ashore to escape
+their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of northern
+seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been
+caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean.
+There are numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cetacea</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANADA, LUIS DE<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and
+ascetic writer, born of poor parents named Sarriá at Granada.
+He lost his father at an early age and his widowed mother was
+supported by the charity of the Dominicans. A child of the
+Alhambra, he entered the service of the alcalde as page, and,
+his ability being discovered, received his education with the
+sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the Dominican
+convent and in 1525 took the vows; and, with the leave of his
+prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He
+was sent to Valladolid to continue his studies and then was
+appointed procurator at Granada. Seven years after he was
+elected prior of the convent of Scala Caeli in the mountains of
+Cordova, which after eight years he succeeded in restoring from
+its ruinous state, and there he began his work as a zealous
+reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the orator
+Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish
+preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became
+provincial of his order, declining the offer of the archbishopric
+of Braga but accepting the position of confessor and counsellor
+to Catherine, the queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure
+of the provincialship, he retired to the Dominican convent at
+Lisbon, where he lived till his death on the last day of 1588.
+Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical writings, at development
+of the religious view, the danger of the times as he saw it
+was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an
+outside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken
+among the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith
+was not understood by the people, and that their ignorance was
+the pressing danger. He fell under the suspicion of the Inquisition;
+his mystical teaching was said to be heretical, and
+his most famous book, the <i>Guia de Peccadores</i>, still a favourite
+treatise and one that has been translated into nearly every
+European tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisition,
+together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great
+opponent was the restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who
+stigmatized the second book as containing grave errors smacking
+of the heresy of the Alumbrados and manifestly contradicting
+Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the prohibition was
+removed and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by St
+Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St
+Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain
+of his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics
+excels Luis de Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety
+of illustration and soberness of statement.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The last collected edition of his works is that published in 9 vols.
+at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, <i>La Vida y virtudes
+de Luis de Granada</i> (Madrid, 1639); a study of his system by P.
+Rousselot in <i>Mystiques espagnoles</i> (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, <i>History
+of Spanish Literature</i> (vol. iii.), and Fitzmaurice Kelly, <i>History
+of Spanish Literature</i>, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be
+consulted.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANADA<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span>, the capital of the department of Granada,
+Nicaragua; 32 m. by rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the
+republic. Pop. (1900) about 25,000. Granada is built on the
+north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua, of which it is the principal
+port. Its houses are of the usual central American type, constructed
+of adobe, rarely more than one storey high, and surrounded
+by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs,
+scattered over a large area, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied
+by Indians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches
+and convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof
+is inlaid with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the
+railway station and the adjacent wharves with the market,
+about 1 m. distant. Ice, cigars, hats, boots and shoes are
+manufactured, but the characteristic local industry is the production
+of &ldquo;Panama chains,&rdquo; ornaments made of thin gold wire.
+In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations; and the
+city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton, native
+tobacco and indigo.</p>
+
+<p>Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez de
+Córdoba. It became one of the wealthiest of central American
+cities, although it had always a keen commercial rival in Leon,
+which now surpasses it in size and importance. In the 17th
+century it was often raided by buccaneers, notably in 1606,
+when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured and
+partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central
+America</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANADA<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span>, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed
+in 1833 of districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with
+the central parts of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop.
+(1900) 492,460; area, 4928 sq. m. Granada is bounded on the
+N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by Murcia and Almería,
+S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It includes the
+western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (<i>q.v.</i>), a vast
+ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest altitudes
+in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta
+(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges,
+such as the Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana,
+adjoin the main ridge. From this central watershed the three
+principal rivers of the province take their rise, viz.: the Guadiana
+Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in a northerly direction, falls
+into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood of Ubeda; the
+Genil which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of Granada, leaves
+the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins the Guadalquivir
+between Cordova and Seville; and the Rio Grande or
+Guadalféo, which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The
+coast is little indented and none of its three harbours, Almuñécar,
+Albuñol and Motril, ranks high in commercial importance.
+The climate in the lower valleys and the narrow fringe along the
+coast is warm, but on the higher grounds of the interior is
+somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies accordingly from
+the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains is very
+productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the
+richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it
+has been systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield in
+great abundance and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine,
+oil, sugar, flax, cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit.
+In the mountains immediately surrounding the city of Granada
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span>
+occur many kinds of alabaster, some very fine; there are also
+quantities of jasper and other precious stones. Mineral waters
+chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are abundant, the most
+important springs being those of Alhama, which have a temperature
+of 112° F. There are valuable iron mines, and small
+quantities of zinc, lead and mercury are obtained. The cane
+and beet sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja,
+at Motril, and in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of
+the Spanish West Indies and the Philippine Islands in 1898,
+with the consequent decrease in competition. There are also
+tanneries, foundries and manufactories of woollen, linen, cotton,
+and rough frieze stuffs, cards, soap, spirits, gunpowder and
+machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the province,
+which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The
+railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and
+bifurcates north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward
+to Almería, the other westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras.
+Baza is the terminus of a railway from Lorca. The chief towns
+include Granada, the capital (pop. 1900, 75,900) with Alhama
+de Granada (7697), Baza (12,770), Guadix (12,652), Loja (19,143),
+Montefrío (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These are described in
+separate articles. Other towns with upwards of 7000 inhabitants
+are Albuñol (8646), Almuñécar (8022), Cúllar de Baza (8007),
+Huéscar (7763), Illora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique
+(7420). The history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from
+that of the city of Granada (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANADA,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> the capital of the province, and formerly of the
+kingdom of Granada, in southern Spain; on the Madrid-Granada-Algeciras
+railway. Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnificently
+situated, 2195 ft. above the sea, on the north-western
+slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking the fertile lowlands
+known as the Vega de Granada on the west and overshadowed
+by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) on
+the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river Genil,
+the Roman <i>Singilis</i> and Moorish <i>Shenil</i>, a swift stream flowing
+westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume
+of water in summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary
+the Darro, the Roman <i>Salon</i> and Moorish <i>Hadarro</i>, enters
+Granada on the east, flows for upwards of a mile from east to
+west, and then turns sharply southward to join the main river,
+which is spanned by a bridge just above the point of confluence.
+The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation works
+along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized
+and partly covered with a roof.</p>
+
+<p>Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequeruela,
+the Albaicin (or Albaycin), and Granada properly so-called.
+The first division, founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410,
+consists of the districts enclosed by the Darro, besides a small
+area on its right, or western bank. It is bounded on the east
+by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra (<i>q.v.</i>), the most celebrated
+of all the monuments left by the Moors. The Albaicin (Moorish
+<i>Rabad al Bayazin</i>, &ldquo;Falconers&rsquo; Quarter&rdquo;) lies north-west of
+the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with that
+of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by
+citizens of Baeza, who fled hither in 1246, after the capture
+of their town by the Christians. It was long the favourite
+abode of the Moorish nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by
+gipsies and artisans. Granada, properly so-called, is north
+of the Antequeruela, and west of the Albaicin. The origin of
+its name is obscure; it has been sometimes, though with little
+probability, derived from <i>granada</i>, a pomegranate, in allusion
+to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood.
+A pomegranate appears on the city arms. The Moors, however,
+called Granada <i>Karnattah</i> or <i>Karnattah-al-Yahud</i>, and possibly
+the name is composed of the Arabic words <i>kurn</i>, &ldquo;a hill,&rdquo; and
+<i>nattah</i>, &ldquo;stranger,&rdquo;&mdash;the &ldquo;city&rdquo; or &ldquo;hill of strangers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the
+architecture of its more ancient quarters has many Moorish
+characteristics. The streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved
+and irregular; but there are several fine squares and avenues,
+such as the Bibarrambla, where tournaments were held by the
+Moors; the spacious Plaza del Trionfo, adjoining the bull-ring,
+on the north; the Alameda, planted with plane trees, and the
+Paseo del Salon. The business centre of the city is the Puerta
+Real, a square named after a gate now demolished.</p>
+
+<p>Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its cathedral, which
+commemorates the reconquest of southern Spain from the Moors,
+is a somewhat heavy classical building, begun in 1529 by Diego
+de Siloe, and only finished in 1703. It is profusely ornamented
+with jasper and coloured marbles, and surmounted by a dome.
+The interior contains many paintings and sculptures by Alonso
+Cano (1601-1667), the architect of the fine west façade, and other
+artists. In one of the numerous chapels, known as the Chapel
+Royal (<i>Capilla Real</i>), is the monument of Philip I. of Castile
+(1478-1506), and his queen Joanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452-1516). The
+church of Santa Maria (1705-1759), which may be regarded as
+an annexe of the cathedral, occupies the site of the chief
+mosque of Granada. This was used as a church until 1661.
+Santa Ana (1541) also replaced a mosque; Nuestra Señora de
+las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine towers, and
+the rich decoration of its high altar. The convent of San
+Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and
+Isabella, was converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains
+the tomb of the famous captain Gonsalvo or Gonzalo de Cordova
+(1453-1515). The Cartuja, or Carthusian monastery north of
+the city, was built in 1516 on Gonzalo&rsquo;s estate, and in his memory.
+It contains several fine paintings, and an interesting church of
+the 17th and 18th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the
+Generalife and Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described
+in connexion with it, the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada
+are the 13th-century villa known as the Cuarto Real de San
+Domingo, admirably preserved, and surrounded by beautiful
+gardens; the Alcázar de Genil, built in the middle of the 14th
+century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the Casa del
+Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a warehouse
+in the 19th century. Few Spanish cities possess a greater
+number of educational and charitable establishments. The
+university was founded by Charles V. in 1531, and transferred
+to its present buildings in 1769. It is attended by about 600
+students. In 1900, the primary schools of Granada numbered
+22, in addition to an ecclesiastical seminary, a training-school
+for teachers, schools of art and jurisprudence, and museums of
+art and archaeology. There were twelve hospitals and orphanages
+for both sexes, including a leper hospital in one of the convents.
+Granada has an active trade in the agricultural produce of the
+Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse linen
+and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once extensively
+carried on, and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy,
+France, Germany and even America, but this industry died
+during the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of
+<i>Iliberris</i> or <i>Iliberri</i>, which afterwards became a flourishing
+Roman colony, has never been fully established; but Roman
+tombs, coins, inscriptions, &amp;c., have been discovered in the
+neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia, as a result of the
+great invasion from the north in the 5th century, Granada fell
+to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of Cordova, onwards
+from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and
+ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which,
+after the fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 1031, or, according to
+some authorities, 1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen and others
+as an independent principality. The family of the Zeri, Ziri
+or Zeiri maintained itself as the ruling dynasty until 1090;
+it was then displaced by the Almohades, who were in turn
+overthrown by the Almoravides, in 1154. The dominion of
+the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of
+one year (1160-1161), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada
+formed part of the kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named
+year it passed into the hands of Abu Abdullah Mahommed Ibn
+Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the dynasty of the
+Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but united
+Granada, Almería and Malaga under his sceptre, and, as the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span>
+fervour of the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily
+abated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christians
+to vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time
+he offered asylum to refugees from Valencia, Murcia and other
+territories in which the Moors had been overcome. Al Ahmar
+and his successors ruled over Granada until 1492, in an unbroken
+line of twenty-five sovereigns who maintained their independence
+partly by force, and partly by payment of tribute to their stronger
+neighbours. Their encouragement of commerce&mdash;notably the
+silk trade with Italy&mdash;rendered Granada the wealthiest of
+Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and science
+attracted many learned Moslems, such as the historian Ibn
+Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and
+resulted in a brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is
+the supreme monument.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other
+Moorish states in Spain, fell at last through dynastic rivalries
+and a harem intrigue. The two noble families of the Zegri and
+the Beni Serraj (better known in history and legend as the
+<i>Abencerrages</i>) encroached greatly upon the royal prerogatives
+during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis arose
+in 1462, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted
+in the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his
+son, Muley Abu&rsquo;l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of
+Mulhacen, the loftiest peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score
+of legends. Muley Hassan weakened his position by resigning
+Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and incurred the enmity of
+his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful Spanish slave,
+Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and taken
+the name of Zorayah, &ldquo;morning star.&rdquo; Aisha or Ayesha, who
+thus saw her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommed (Boabdil) and Yusuf
+in danger of being supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages,
+whose leaders, according to tradition, paid for their sympathy
+with their lives (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alhambra</a></span>). In 1482 Boabdil succeeded
+in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but the gradual
+advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella forced
+him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands
+of Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-1486). In 1491 after the
+loss of these leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten; Boabdil,
+who had already been twice captured and liberated by the
+Spaniards, was compelled to sign away his kingdom; and on
+the 2nd of January 1492 the Spanish army entered Granada,
+and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign
+had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when
+the news reached London a special thanksgiving service was held
+in St Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral by order of Henry VII.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANADILLA<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span>, the name applied to <i>Passiflora quadrangularis</i>,
+Linn., a plant of the natural order <i>Passifloreae</i>, a native of
+tropical America, having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate
+leaves; petioles bearing from 4 to 6 glands; an emetic and
+narcotic root; scented flowers; and a large, oblong fruit,
+containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid edible pulp.
+The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses. The
+fruits of several other species of <i>Passiflora</i> are eaten. <i>P.
+laurifolia</i> is the &ldquo;water lemon,&rdquo; and <i>P. maliformis</i> the &ldquo;sweet
+calabash&rdquo; of the West Indies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANARIES<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>. From ancient times grain has been stored in
+greater or lesser bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice
+of preserving grain in years of plenty against years of scarcity,
+and probably Joseph only carried out on a large scale an habitual
+practice. The climate of Egypt being very dry, grain could be
+stored in pits for a long time without sensible loss of quality.
+The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a favourite way of
+storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental lands. In
+Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when
+comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons
+of dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta
+a relatively large stock of wheat is always preserved in some
+hundreds of pits (silos) cut in the rock. A single silo will store
+from 60 to 80 tons of wheat, which, with proper precautions,
+will keep in good condition for four years or more. The silos
+are shaped like a cylinder resting on a truncated cone, and
+surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit is round
+and small and covered by a stone slab, and the inside is lined
+with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally
+taken from the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any
+signs of fermentation the granary is cleared and the wheat
+turned over, but such is the dryness of these silos that little
+trouble of this kind is experienced.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the 19th century warehouses specially
+intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain,
+but America is the home of great granaries, known there as
+elevators. There are climatic difficulties in the way of storing
+grain in Great Britain on a large scale, but these difficulties
+have been largely overcome. To preserve grain in good condition
+it must be kept as much as possible from moisture and heat.
+New grain when brought into a warehouse has a tendency to
+sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the heating is
+allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An effectual
+remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a
+floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thoroughly.
+Grain can thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is
+reason to think that grain in a sound and dry condition can be
+better stored in bins or dry pits than in the open air; from a
+series of experiments carried out on behalf of the French government
+it would seem that grain exposed to the air is decomposed
+at 3½ times the rate of grain stored in silo or other bins.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing the grain-storage system of Great Britain with
+that of North America it must be borne in mind that whereas
+Great Britain raises a comparatively small amount of grain,
+which is more or less rapidly consumed, grain-growing is one of
+the greatest industries of the United States and of Canada.
+The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced in America
+can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage
+as has grown up there since the middle of the 19th century.
+The American farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate
+rate, and can get an advance on his warrant if he is in need of
+money. A holder of wheat in Chicago can withdraw a similar
+grade of wheat from a New York elevator.</p>
+
+<p>Modern granaries are all built on much the same plan. The
+mechanical equipment for receiving and discharging grain is
+very similar in all modern warehouses. A granary is usually
+erected on a quay at which large vessels can lie and discharge.
+On the land side railway sidings connect the warehouse with
+the chief lines in its district; accessibility to a canal is an advantage.
+Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators which are
+dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic elevators
+are substituted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyors</a></span>). A travelling band with throw-off
+carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain.
+Band conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging
+the bins. Bins are invariably provided with hopper bottoms,
+and any bin can be effectively cleared by the band, which runs
+underneath, either in a cellar or in a specially constructed
+tunnel. All granaries should be provided with a sufficient
+plant of cleaning machinery to take from the grain impurities
+as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing qualities.
+Chief among such machines are the warehouse separators
+which work by sieves and air currents (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour and Flour
+Manufacture</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of
+chambers for grain storage which are known as silos, and may
+be built of wood, brick, iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos
+are usually square, made of flat strips of wood nailed one on top
+of the other, and so overlapping each other at the corners that
+alternately a longitudinal and a transverse batten extends
+past the corner. The gaps are filled by short pieces of timber
+securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type
+of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain drawbacks,
+such as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt
+to harbour in the interstices unless lime washing is practised.
+Bricks and cement are good materials for constructing silos
+of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep foundations and substantial
+walls. Iron silos of circular form are used to some
+extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span>
+South America. In their case the walls are much thinner than
+with any other material, but the condensation against the inner
+wall in wet weather is a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical
+tank silos have also been made of fire-proof tiles. Ferro-concrete
+silos have been built on both the Monier and the Hennebique
+systems. In the earlier type the bin was made of an iron or
+steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent structures
+are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement.
+Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if
+properly constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even
+in case of uneven expansion of the material. With brick silos
+collapses through pressure of the stored material are not unknown.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:856px; height:424px" src="images/img337.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or warehouses
+in the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway
+Company, and was erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in
+1901-1904. It has a total storage capacity of 7,000,000
+<span class="sidenote">Port Arthur, Canada.</span>
+bushels, or 875,000 qrs. of 480 &#8468;. The range of buildings
+and bins forms an oblong, and consists of two storage
+houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses
+A and D (fig. 1). The receiving houses are fed by railway sidings.
+House A, for example, has two sidings, one running through it and
+the other beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a
+receiving elevator of 10,000 &#8468; capacity per minute, or 60,000
+bushels per hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five
+elevators of 12,000 bushels per hour on the other side of the house
+serve five warehouse separators, and all the grain received or discharged
+is weighed, there being ten sets of automatic scales in the
+upper part of the house, known as the cupola. The hopper of each
+weigher can take a charge of 1400 bushels (84,000 &#8468;). Grain can
+be conveyed either vertically or horizontally to any part of the
+house, into any of the bins in the annex B, or into any truck or lake
+steamer. This house is constructed of timber and roofed with
+corrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36 in. wide; those at the
+top of the house are provided with throw-off carriages. The dust
+from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected and spouted to
+the furnace under the boiler house, where it is consumed. The
+cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of hollow tiles of
+burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The tiles are laid
+on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 in. to 6 in. in thickness
+according to the size of the bin. Each alternate course consists
+of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous groove or
+belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting as a
+tension member and resisting the lateral pressure of the grain.
+The steel bands once in position, the groove is completely filled with
+cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually
+the bottoms of the bins are furnished with self-discharging hoppers
+of weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar.
+For the foundation or supporting floor reinforced concrete is frequently
+used. The tiles already described are faced with tiles ½ to
+1 in. thick, which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole
+exterior of the bin. Any damage to the facing tiles can easily be
+repaired since they can be removed and replaced without affecting
+the main bin walls. It is claimed that these facers constitute the
+best possible protection against fire. A steel framework, covered
+with tiles, crowns these circular bins and contains the conveyors
+and spouts which are used to fill the bins. Five tunnels in the
+concrete bedding that supports the bins carry the belt conveyors
+which bring back the grain to the working house for cleaning or
+shipment. There are altogether in each of the storage houses 80
+circular bins, each 21 ft. in diameter, and so grouped as to form
+63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in all. Each bin will store
+grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole group has a capacity
+of 2,500,000 bushels. These bins were all constructed by the Barnett
+&amp; Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A., in accordance
+with the Johnson &amp; Record patent system of fire-proof
+tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working houses
+is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not only
+their own contents but also the other working house, and in the
+event of its disablement or destruction the remaining one can be
+easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their
+contents.</p>
+
+<p>Circular tank silos have not been extensively adopted in Great
+Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley
+&amp; Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at
+Barrow-in-Furness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steel
+<span class="sidenote">Barrow-in-Furness.</span>
+plates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill warehouse.
+A covered gantry, through which passes a band conveyor,
+runs from the mill warehouse to the working silo house
+which stands in the central space amid the four steel
+tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a diameter of 45 ft.,
+and rest on foundations of concrete and steel. Each has a
+separate conical roof and they are flat-bottomed, the grain resting
+directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load of
+the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed is considered
+a point of importance. Each tank can hold about 2500 tons
+of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of
+over 45,000 qrs. of 480 &#8468;. Attached to the mill warehouse is a skip
+elevator with a discharging capacity of 75 tons an hour. The grain
+is cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the vessel to be
+unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence
+it is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic
+weigher capable of taking a charge of 1 ton. From the weighing
+machine it can be taken, with or without a preliminary cleaning,
+to any floor of the warehouse, which has a total storing capacity
+of 8000 tons, or it can be carried by the band conveyor through the
+gantry to the working house of the silo installation and distributed
+to any one of the four tank silos. There is also a connexion by a
+band conveyor running through a covered gantry into the mill,
+which stands immediately in the rear. It is perfectly easy to turn
+over the contents of any tank into any other tank. The whole
+intake and wheat handling plant is moved by two electro-motors of
+35 H.P. each, one installed in the warehouse and the other in the
+silo working house. Steel silo tanks have the advantage of storing
+a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively small capital outlay.
+On an average an ordinary silo bin will not hold more than 500 to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span>
+1000 qrs., but each of the bins at Barrow will contain 2500 tons or
+over 1100 qrs. The steel construction also reduces the risk of fire
+and consequently lessens the fire premium.</p>
+
+<p>The important granaries at the Liverpool docks date from 1868,
+but have since been brought up to modern requirements. The
+<span class="sidenote">Liverpool.</span>
+warehouses on the Waterloo docks have an aggregate
+storage area of 11¾ acres, while the sister warehouses on
+the Birkenhead side, which stand on the margin of the great float,
+have an area of 11 acres. The total capacity of these warehouses
+is about 200,000 qrs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:849px; height:579px" src="images/img338.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Trafford wharf
+is locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a
+great extent on the model of an American elevator.
+Some of the mechanical equipment was supplied by a
+<span class="sidenote">Manchester.</span>
+Chicago firm. The total capacity is 1,500,000 bushels or
+40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226 separate bins. The
+granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side of the dock, but
+is directly connected with the receiving tower, which rises at the
+water&rsquo;s edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry. The
+main building is 448 ft. long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the superstructure
+was constructed of wood with an external casing of brickwork
+and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket elevator
+capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the level of the
+hold to be unloaded. The elevator has the large unloading capacity
+of 350 tons per hour, assuming it to be working in a full hold. It
+is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system) which
+can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly in dealing with parcels
+of grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary elevator
+cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator as
+well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of horizontal
+Corliss compound engines of 500 H.P. jointly, which are fed
+by two Galloway boilers working at 100 &#8468; pressure. The pneumatic
+elevator is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines
+of 600 H.P. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 160 &#8468;.
+The grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From
+the receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where
+it is at once elevated to the top of a central tower, and is thence
+distributed to any of the bins by band conveyors in the usual way.
+The mechanical equipment of this warehouse is very complete,
+and the following several operations can be simultaneously effected:
+discharging grain from vessels in the dock at the rate of 350 tons
+per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain into the warehouse
+and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain
+from bin to bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously
+weighing in bulk at the rate of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain,
+weighing and loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and 10 carts
+simultaneously; loading grain from the warehouse into barges or
+coasting craft at the rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks
+per hour. This warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American
+construction, which can deal with 50 tons of damp grain at one time,
+and is connected with the whole bin system so that grain can be
+readily moved from any bin to the dryer or conversely.</p>
+
+<p>A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the
+London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity
+of about 25,000 qrs. or 200,000 bushels. It is over
+100 ft. high, and is built on the American plan of interlaced
+<span class="sidenote">London.</span>
+timbers resting on iron columns. The walls are externally cased
+with steel plates. The grain is stored in 56 silos, most of which are
+about 10 ft. square by 50 ft. deep. The intake plant has a capacity
+of 100 tons of wheat an hour, and includes
+six automatic grain scales, each
+of which can weigh off one sack at a
+time. The main delivery floor of the
+warehouse is at a convenient height
+above the ground level. Portable
+automatic weighing machines can be
+placed under any bin. The whole of
+the plant is driven by electric motors,
+one being allotted to each machine.</p>
+
+<p>The transit silos of the London Grain
+Elevator Company, also at the Victoria
+docks, consist of four complete and independent
+installations standing on
+three tongues of land which project
+into the water (figs. 2 and 3). Each
+silo house is furnished with eight bins,
+each of which, 12 ft. square by 80 ft.
+deep, has a capacity of 1000 qrs.
+of grain. A kind of well in the middle
+of each silo house contains the necessary
+elevators, staircases, &amp;c. The silo
+bins in each granary are erected on a
+massive cast iron tank forming a sort
+of cellar, which rests on a concrete
+foundation 6 ft. thick. The base of
+the tank is 30 ft. below the water level.
+The silos are formed of wooden battens
+nailed one on top of the other, the
+pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders
+resting on cast iron columns support
+the silos. To ensure a clean discharge
+the hopper bottoms were designed so
+as to avoid joints and thus to be
+free from rivets or similar protuberances.
+The exterior of each silo house is covered with corrugated
+iron, and the same material is used for the roofing. No
+conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators which rise above the
+tops of the silos can feed any one of them by gravity. There are
+three delivery elevators to each granary, one with a capacity of
+120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour. Each silo
+house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120 tons per
+hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the house.
+The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which
+there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines.
+Each charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks,
+which are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is provided
+with a conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying
+sacks from the weighing sheds to railway trucks or for carrying
+grain in bulk to barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical
+mechanical equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with
+its fellow warehouse. All operations in connexion with the silo
+houses are effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a
+fleet of twenty-six of Philip&rsquo;s patent self-discharging lighters. These
+craft are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of the
+ordinary type, running between the double keelson of the lighter and
+delivering into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By
+this means little trimming is required after the barge, which holds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span>
+about 200 tons of grain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such
+draft as to preclude their entry into any of the up river docks are
+cleared at Tilbury by these lighters. It is said that grain loaded
+at Tilbury into these lighters can be delivered from the transit silos
+to railway trucks or barges in about six hours. The total storage
+capacity of the silos amounts to 32,000 qrs. The motive power is
+furnished by 14 gas engines of a total capacity of 366 H.P.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are
+situated at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in
+Rumania, and serve for both the reception and discharge
+of grain. At the edge of the quay on which these warehouses
+<span class="sidenote">Rumania.</span>
+are built there are rails with a gauge of 11½ ft., upon which
+run two mechanical loading and unloading appliances. The first
+consists of a telescopic elevator which raises the grain and delivers
+it to one of the two band conveyors at the head of the apparatus.
+Each of these bands feeds automatic weighing machines with an
+hourly capacity of 75 tons. From these weighers the grain is either
+discharged through a manhole in the ground to a band conveyor
+running in a tunnel parallel to the quay wall, or it is raised by a
+second elevator (part of the same unloading apparatus), set at an
+inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient height to load railway
+trucks on the siding running parallel to the quay. A turning gear
+is provided so as to reverse, if required, the operation of the whole
+apparatus, that the portion overhanging the water can be turned
+to the land side. The unloading capacity is 150 tons of grain per
+hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic elevator has
+only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15 wells, which
+can be filled up with grain from the land side. The capacity of
+each granary is 233,333 qrs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:848px; height:227px" src="images/img339.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Many large granaries have been built, in which grain is stored
+on open floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the warehouse
+of the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of
+seven floors, including a basement and entresol. An
+<span class="sidenote">Stuttgart.</span>
+engine house accommodates two gas engines as well as an
+hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is received by an
+elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a weighing
+machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the top
+storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the building.
+A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of the
+band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be
+shot to any floor. A second band conveyor is installed in the
+entresol floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator,
+if it is desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed.
+A second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is
+provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered
+into the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain
+passes into a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher;
+directly under this weigher the grain is sacked.</p>
+
+<p>A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin
+and floor storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim
+on the Rhine, which has the storage capacity of 2100
+tons. The building is 370 ft. in length, 78 ft. wide and
+<span class="sidenote">Mannheim.</span>
+78 ft. high, and by means of transverse walls it is divided into three
+sections; of these one contains silos, in another section grain is
+stored on open floors, while the third, which is situated between
+the other two, is the grain-cleaning department. This granary
+stands by the quay side, and a ship elevator of great capacity,
+which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly clear any ship
+or barge beneath. The central or screening house section contains
+machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as well as wheat.
+The barley plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour. There are four
+main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve the screen
+house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off carriages
+are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of pipes
+which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute
+it at any required point. The plant is operated by electric motors.
+If desired the floors of the non-silo section can be utilized for storing
+other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of 1
+ton runs from the basement to the top storey. The combined
+capacity of the elevators and conveyors is 100 tons of grain per hour.
+The mechanical equipment is so complete that four distinct operations
+are claimed as possible. A ship may be unloaded into silos
+or into the granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either
+from silos or floors with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may
+be discharged either into silos or upon the floors, and simultaneously
+the grain may be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vessel,
+mixed with other grain already received, and then distributed to
+any desired point. With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended
+with other varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and
+transferred from one ship to another.</p>
+
+<p>A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay
+at Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick
+on a base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of
+timber. It is 78 ft. high and consists of seven floors,
+<span class="sidenote">Dortmund.</span>
+including basement and attic. Here again there are two sections,
+the larger being devoted to the storage of grain in low bins, while
+the smaller section consists of an ordinary silo house. Grain in
+sacks may be stored in the basement of the larger section which has
+a capacity of 1675 tons as compared with 825 tons in the silo department.
+Thus the total storage capacity is 2500 tons. In the silo
+house the bins, constructed of planks nailed one over the other, are
+of varying size and are capable of storing grain to a depth of 42 to
+47 ft. Some of the bins have been specially adapted for receiving
+damp grain by being provided internally with transverse wooden
+arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections. The object of
+this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored grain. The
+arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at the base
+so as to bring a current of air into direct contact with the grain.
+The air can be warmed if necessary. The other and larger section of
+the granary is provided with 105 bins of moderate height arranged
+in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and attic.
+On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor each bin lies exactly
+under the bin above. Grain is not stored in these bins to a greater
+depth than 5 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side walls,
+and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated for half the
+area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements
+for distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The
+uncleaned grain is taken by the receiving elevator, with a lifting
+capacity of 20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is
+passed through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or
+spouted to the main elevator (capacity 25 tons per hour) and elevated
+to the attic. From the head of this main elevator the grain
+can either be fed to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors,
+or shot to one of the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is
+carried by a spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turntables,
+as the appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute
+through spouts the grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alternatively,
+the grain may be shot into the basement and there fed
+back into the main elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the
+grain may be turned over as often as it is deemed necessary. At
+the bottom of each bin are four apertures connected by spouts,
+both with the bin below and with the central vertical pipe which
+passes down through the centre of each group of bins. To regulate
+the course of the grain from bin to bin or from bin to central pipe,
+the connecting spouts are fitted with valves of ingenious yet simple
+construction which deflect the grain in any desired direction, so
+that the contents of two or more bins may be blended, or grain
+may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bin on a lower
+floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are controlled
+by chains from the basement.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be
+observed that there are granaries built on a similar principle in the
+United Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height are
+more suitable for storing grain containing a considerable amount of
+moisture than deep silos, whether made of wood, ferro-concrete or
+other material. For one thing floor bins of the Dortmund pattern
+can be more effectually aerated than deep silos. German wheat
+has many characteristics in common with British, and, especially
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span>
+in north Germany, is not infrequently harvested in a more or less
+damp condition. In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer &amp; Co., of
+Melksham, have erected several granaries on the floor-bin principle,
+and have adopted an ingenious system of &ldquo;telescopic&rdquo; spouting,
+by means of which grain may be discharged from one bin to another
+or at any desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins
+either with level floors or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged
+one above the other on the different floors, and is so constructed that
+an opening can be effected at certain points by simply sliding
+upwards a section of the spout.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>National Granaries.</i>&mdash;Wheat forms the staple food of a large
+proportion of the population of the British Isles, and of the total
+amount consumed about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks
+normally held in the country being limited, serious consequences
+might result from any interruption of the supply, such as might
+occur were Great Britain involved in war with a power or powers
+commanding a strong fleet. To meet this contingency it has
+been suggested that the State should establish granaries containing
+a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency, or should
+adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &amp;c., to
+hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production
+of home-grown wheat.</p>
+
+<p>Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight
+of wheat) are held by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants&rsquo;
+stocks are kept in granaries at ports of importation
+and are known as first-hand stocks. Stocks of wheat
+<span class="sidenote">Amount of stocks.</span>
+and flour in the hands of millers and of flour held by
+bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers&rsquo; stocks only
+consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made
+of first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be
+possible in the case of farmers&rsquo; stocks, but second-hand stocks are
+more difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the 19th century
+the storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased.
+As the number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the
+bigger ones has increased, and proportionately their warehousing
+accommodation has been enlarged. At the present time first-hand
+stocks tend to diminish because a larger proportion of millers&rsquo;
+holdings are in mill granaries and silo houses. The immense
+preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in the grain trade
+has also had the effect of greatly diminishing stocks. With his
+cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to a
+day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British
+merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in
+preference to British warehouses. The merchant&rsquo;s risk is thereby
+lessened to a certain extent. When his wheat has been brought
+into a British port, to send it farther afield means extra expense.
+But wheat in an American or Argentine elevator may be ordered
+wherever the best price can be obtained for it. Options or
+&ldquo;futures,&rdquo; too, have helped to restrict the size of wheat stocks
+in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of wheat on
+passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market value
+of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, he sells
+an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option
+serving as insurance against loss. This is why the British corn
+trade finds it less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting
+itself by option deals, than to store large quantities which may
+depreciate and involve their owners in loss.</p>
+
+<p>Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks&rsquo;
+supply of breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various
+seasons of the year. A table compiled by the secretary of the
+National Association of British and Irish Millers from returns
+for 1902 made by 170 milling firms showed 4.7, 4.9, 4.9 and
+5 weeks&rsquo; supply at the end of March, June, September and
+December respectively. These 170 mills were said to represent
+46% of the milling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed
+to have ground 12,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled in
+1902. These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the
+other mills would not have shown anything like such a proportion
+of stock of either raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the
+stocks normally held by millers and bakers throughout the
+United Kingdom would be about four weeks&rsquo; supply. First-hand
+stocks vary considerably, but the limits are definite, ranging from
+1,000,000 to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a high figure. The
+tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two weeks&rsquo; supply
+must be a minimum. Farmers&rsquo; stocks necessarily vary with the
+size of the crop and the period of the year; they will range from
+9 or 10 weeks on the 1st of September to a half week on the 1st of
+August. Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional
+for the stock of breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks&rsquo; supply. Between
+the cereal years 1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of
+570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds fell below 7 weeks&rsquo; supply in
+only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were between the beginning of
+June and the end of August 1898. This was immediately after
+the Leiter collapse. In seven of these eleven years there is no
+instance of stocks falling below 8 weeks&rsquo; supply. In 21 out of
+these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks
+dropped below 7½ and 8 weeks&rsquo; supply respectively. Roughly
+speaking the stock of wheat available for bread-making varies
+from a two to four months&rsquo; supply and is at times well above
+the latter figure.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at
+the disposal of the state in case of urgent need during war, is
+beset by many practical difficulties. The father of
+the scheme was probably <i>The Miller</i>, a well-known
+<span class="sidenote">National reserve.</span>
+trade journal. In March and April 1886 two articles
+appeared in that paper under the heading &ldquo;Years of Plenty
+and State Granaries,&rdquo; in which it was urged that to meet the
+risk of hostile cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be
+desirable to lay up in granaries on British soil and under government
+control a stock of wheat sufficient for 12 or alternatively
+6 months&rsquo; consumption. This was to be national property, not
+to be touched except when the fortune of war sent up the price
+of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The State
+holding this large stock&mdash;a year&rsquo;s supply of foreign grain would
+have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about
+£25,000,000 exclusive of warehousing&mdash;was in peace time to sell
+no wheat except when it became necessary to part with stock
+as a precautionary measure. In that case the wheat sold was to
+be replaced by the same amount of new grain. The idea was
+to provide the country with a supply of wheat until sufficient
+wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically
+self-sufficing in respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell
+quite flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper
+on &ldquo;Great Britain&rsquo;s Corn Supplies in War,&rdquo; before the London
+Chamber of Commerce, and accepted national granaries as the
+only practicable safeguard against what appeared to him a great
+peril. The representatives of the shipping interest opposed the
+scheme, probably because it appeared to them likely to divert
+the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy. The corn
+trade opposed the project on account of its great practical
+difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat
+acreage kept the question alive, and during the earlier half of the
+&rsquo;nineties it was a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some
+influential members of parliament pressed the matter on the
+government, who, acting, no doubt, on the advice of their military
+and naval experts, refused either a royal commission or a departmental
+committee. While the then technical advisers of the
+government were divided on the advisability of establishing
+national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of expert
+opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then
+commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great
+Britain might in war be starved into submission as &ldquo;unmitigated
+humbug.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued,
+and early in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated
+Chambers of Agriculture, at the suggestion to a
+great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh, M.P., nominated
+<span class="sidenote">Yerburgh committee.</span>
+a committee to examine the question of national
+wheat stores. This committee held thirteen sittings
+and examined fifty-four witnesses. Its report, which was
+published (L. G. Newman &amp; Co., 12 Finsbury Square, London,
+E.C.) with minutes of the evidence taken, practically recommended
+that a national reserve of wheat on the lines already
+sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and
+that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span>
+appointment of a royal commission, comprising representatives
+of agriculture, the corn trade, shipping, and the army and navy,
+to conduct an exhaustive inquiry into the whole subject of the
+national food-supply in case of war. This recommendation was
+ultimately carried into effect, but not till nearly five years had
+elapsed. Of two schemes for national granaries put before the
+Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Mr Seth Taylor,
+a London miller and corn merchant, who reckoned that a store
+of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average
+cost of 40s. per qr.&mdash;this was in the Leiter year of high prices&mdash;and
+distributed in six specially constructed granaries to be
+erected at London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and
+Dublin. The cost of the granaries was put at £7,500,000. Mr
+Taylor&rsquo;s scheme, all charges included, such as 2½% interest on
+capital, cost of storage (at 6d. per qr.), and 2s. per qr. for cost
+of replacing wheat, involved an annual expenditure of £1,250,000.
+The Yerburgh committee also considered a proposal to stimulate
+the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to farmers for
+every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken different
+shapes; some have suggested that a bounty should be given
+on every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would
+only allow the bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition
+up to a certain date, say the beginning of the following harvest.
+It is obvious that a bounty on the area of land covered by
+wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a premium on poor farming,
+and might divert to wheat-growing land unsuitable for that
+purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say 3s. to 5s. per qr.
+for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands on a
+different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of 5s. might
+expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to
+9,000,000 qrs., which would mean that a bounty of £2,250,000
+per annum, plus costs of administration, had secured an extra
+home production of 2,000,000 qrs. Whether such a price would
+be worth paying is another matter; the Yerburgh committee&rsquo;s
+conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has also been
+suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent
+of 2s. 6d. per sack of 280 &#8468;. per annum on condition that each
+maintained a minimum supply of two months&rsquo; flour. This may
+be taken to mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over
+and above his usual output a miller would be entitled to an
+annual subsidy of 2s. 6d. per sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000
+sacks might be thus kept up at an annual cost of £1,250,000,
+plus the expenditure of administration, which would probably
+be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very probable
+that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse accommodation
+and depots all over the country would be ready to
+keep up a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill
+of 10,000 sacks&rsquo; capacity per week, which habitually maintains
+a total stock of 50,000 sacks, might bring up its stock to 150,000
+sacks. Such a mill, being a good customer to railways, could
+get from them the storage it required for little or nothing. But
+the bulk of the mills have no such advantages. They have little
+or no spare warehousing room, and are not accustomed to keep
+any stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as it is milled.
+It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 2s. 6d. per sack would
+have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks,
+sufficient for two to three months&rsquo; bread consumption.</p>
+
+<p>The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission
+appointed in 1903, to which was also referred the importation
+of raw material in war time. Its report appeared in
+1905. To the question whether the unquestioned
+<span class="sidenote">Royal commission, 1903-1905.</span>
+dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted
+supply of sea-borne breadstuffs renders it advisable or
+not to maintain at all times a six months&rsquo; stock of wheat and
+flour, it returned no decided answer, or perhaps it would be
+more correct to say that the commission was hopelessly divided.
+The main report was distinctly optimistic so far as the liability
+of the country to harass and distress at the hands of a hostile
+naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But
+there were several dissentients, and there was hardly any
+portion of the report in chief which did not provoke some
+reservation or another. That a maritime war would cause
+freights and insurance to rise in a high degree was freely admitted,
+and it was also admitted that the price of bread must also rise
+very appreciably. But, provided the navy did not break down,
+the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the proposals
+for providing national granaries or inducing merchants and
+millers to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and
+unnecessary. The commission was, however, inclined to consider
+more favourably a suggestion for providing free storage for
+wheat at the expense of the State. The idea was that if the State
+would subsidize any large granary company to the extent of 6d.
+or 5d. per qr., grain now warehoused in foreign lands would be
+attracted to the British Isles. But on the whole the commission
+held that the main effect of the scheme would be to saddle the
+government with the rent of all grain stored in public warehouses
+in the United Kingdom without materially increasing stocks.
+The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stocks for a
+longer period and to grow more wheat met with equally little
+favour.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming
+any sort of disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve
+of even six months&rsquo; wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks
+would prevent panic prices. On the other hand, the difficulties
+in the way of forming and administering such a reserve are very
+great. The world grows no great surplus of wheat, and to form
+a six months&rsquo;, much more a twelve months&rsquo;, stock would be
+the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat
+would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending up
+prices with a rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when
+they let go a certain amount of stock they would be bound to
+sell cheaply. A stock once formed might be held by the State
+with little or no disturbance of the corn market, although the
+existence of such an emergency stock would hardly encourage
+British farmers to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting,
+equipping and keeping in good order the necessary warehouses
+would be, probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate
+hitherto made by advocates of national granaries.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. F. Z.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquess of</span> (1721-1770),
+British soldier, was the eldest son of the third duke of Rutland.
+He was born in 1721 and educated at Eton and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, and was returned as member of parliament for
+Grantham in 1741. Four years later he received a commission
+as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in and
+about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745.
+This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granby
+went to the front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland&rsquo;s
+staff, and saw active service in the last stages of the insurrection.
+Very soon his regiment was disbanded. He continued in parliament,
+combining with it military duties, making the campaign
+of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general in 1755, three
+years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards
+(Blues). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke
+of Somerset, and in 1754 had begun his parliamentary connexion
+with Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death.
+The same year that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues,
+saw also the despatch of a considerable British contingent to
+Germany. Minden was Granby&rsquo;s first great battle. At the head
+of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders halted at the
+critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that
+officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut.-General Lord
+Granby succeeded to the command of the British contingent
+in Ferdinand&rsquo;s army, having 32,000 men under his orders at
+the beginning of 1760. In the remaining campaigns of the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War the English contingent was more conspicuous by its
+conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 31st of July
+1760 Granby brilliantly stormed Warburg at the head of the
+British cavalry, capturing 1500 men and ten pieces of artillery.
+A year later (15th of July 1761) the British defended the heights
+of Vellinghausen with what Ferdinand himself styled &ldquo;indescribable
+bravery.&rdquo; In the last campaign, at Gravenstein und
+Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, Granby&rsquo;s men bore the brunt
+of the fighting and earned the greatest share of the glory.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span>
+the popular hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited
+his arrival at all the home ports to offer him the choice of the
+Ordnance or the Horse Guards. His appointment to the Ordnance
+bore the date of the 1st of July 1763, and three years later he
+became commander-in-chief. In this position he was attacked
+by &ldquo;Junius,&rdquo; and a heated discussion arose, as the writer had
+taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member
+of the Grafton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political
+and financial trouble, resigned all his offices, except the colonelcy
+of the Blues. He died at Scarborough on the 18th of October
+1770. He had been made a privy councillor in 1760, lord
+lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and LL.D. of Cambridge in
+1769.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds,
+one of which is now in the National Gallery. His contemporary
+popularity is indicated by the number of inns and public-houses
+which took his name and had his portrait as sign-board.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAN CHACO,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> an extensive region in the heart of South
+America belonging to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20°
+to 29° S. lat., and divided between the republics of Argentine,
+Bolivia and Paraguay, with a small district of south-western
+Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is estimated at from 250,000
+to 425,000 sq. m., but the true Chaco region probably does not
+exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with marshes,
+lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still unexplored.
+On its southern and western borders there are extensive
+tracts of open woodland, intermingled with grassy plains,
+while on the northern side in Bolivia are large areas of open
+country subject to inundations in the rainy season. In general
+terms the Gran Chaco may be described as a great plain sloping
+gently to the S.E., traversed in the same direction by two great
+rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, whose sluggish courses are
+not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of overturned trees
+and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This excludes
+that part of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin,
+which is sometimes described as part of the Chaco. The greater
+part of its territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians,
+some of whom are still unsubdued, while others, like the Matacos,
+are sometimes to be found on neighbouring sugar estates and
+estancias as labourers during the busy season. The forest wealth
+of the Chaco region is incalculable and apparently inexhaustible,
+consisting of a great variety of palms and valuable cabinet
+woods, building timber, &amp;c. Its extensive tracts of &ldquo;quebracho
+Colorado&rdquo; (<i>Loxopterygium Lorentzii</i>) are of very great value
+because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its
+extract are largely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining
+footholds in this region along the southern and eastern borders.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (alternatively called the
+War of the League of Augsburg), the third<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the great aggressive
+wars waged by Louis XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire,
+Great Britain, Holland and other states. The two earlier wars,
+which are redeemed from oblivion by the fact that in them
+three great captains, Turenne, Condé and Montecucculi, played
+leading parts, are described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Wars</a></span>. In
+the third war the leading figures are: Henri de Montmorency-Boutteville,
+duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of
+Condé and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of
+Orange, who had fought against both Condé and Luxemburg
+in the earlier wars, and was now king of England; Vauban,
+the founder of the sciences of fortification and siegecraft, and
+Catinat, the follower of Turenne&rsquo;s cautious and systematic
+strategy, who was the first commoner to receive high command
+in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these men&mdash;except
+Vauban&mdash;are overshadowed by the great figures of the preceding
+generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes,
+the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and man&oelig;uvres.</p>
+
+<p>It was within these years that the art and practice of war
+began to crystallize into the form called &ldquo;linear&rdquo; in its strategic
+and tactical aspect, and &ldquo;cabinet-war&rdquo; in its political and moral
+aspect. In the Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that preceded
+the formation of the League of Augsburg, there were
+still survivals of the loose organization, violence and wasteful
+barbarity typical of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War; and even in the
+War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier years) occasional
+brutalities and devastations showed that the old spirit died hard.
+But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery in
+the old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the
+fierce Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally
+understood that barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating
+popular sympathies, but also as rendering operations a physical
+impossibility for want of supplies.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people
+into submission, armies systematically conciliated them by
+paying cash and bringing trade into the country.
+Formerly, wars had been fought to compel a people
+<span class="sidenote">Character of the war.</span>
+to abjure their faith or to change sides in some
+personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no
+longer been the case. The Peace of Westphalia established
+the general relationship of kings, priests and peoples on a basis
+that was not really shaken until the French Revolution, and
+in the intervening hundred and forty years the peoples at large,
+except at the highest and gravest moments (as in Germany in
+1689, France In 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from active
+participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of
+the theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only,
+and that intervention in it by the civil population was a punishable
+offence. Thus wars became the business of the professional
+soldiers in the king&rsquo;s own service, and the scarcity and costliness
+of these soldiers combined with the purely political character
+of the quarrels that arose to reduce a campaign from an &ldquo;intense
+and passionate drama&rdquo; to a humdrum affair, to which only
+rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour, and
+which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small
+expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between
+a prince and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred
+the average man&mdash;the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English
+Revolution&mdash;but foreign wars were &ldquo;a stronger form of diplomatic
+notes,&rdquo; as Clausewitz called them, and were waged with
+the object of adding a codicil to the treaty of peace that had
+closed the last incident.</p>
+
+<p>Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war.
+Campaigns were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty
+thousand men. Large regular armies had come into fashion,
+and, as Guibert points out, instead of small armies charged with
+grand operations we find grand armies charged with small
+operations. The average general, under the prevailing conditions
+of supply and armament, was not equal to the task of commanding
+such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces that
+Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of the question, and
+the field armies split into six or eight independent fractions,
+each charged with operations on a particular theatre of war.
+From such a policy nothing remotely resembling the crushing
+of a great power could be expected to be gained. The one
+tangible asset, in view of future peace negotiations, was therefore
+a fortress, and it was on the preservation or capture of fortresses
+that operations in all these wars chiefly turned. The idea of
+the decisive battle for its own sake, as a settlement of the quarrel,
+was far distant; for, strictly speaking, there was no quarrel,
+and to use up highly trained and exceedingly expensive soldiers
+in gaining by brute force an advantage that might equally well
+be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish.</p>
+
+<p>The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent
+value to a state at war. A century of constant warfare had
+impoverished middle Europe, and armies had to spread over a
+large area if they desired to &ldquo;live on the country.&rdquo; This was
+dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf. the Peninsular War),
+and it was also uneconomical. The only way to prevent the
+country people from sending their produce into the fortresses
+for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be paid,
+at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span>
+rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether on supplies
+brought up from the home country and stored in magazines
+(which had to be guarded) or on local resources, an army had
+as a rule to maintain or to capture a large fortress. Sieges,
+therefore, and man&oelig;uvres are the features of this form of war,
+wherein armies progressed not with the giant strides of modern
+war, but in a succession of short hops from one foothold to the
+next. This was the procedure of the average commander, and
+even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the
+Luxemburgs and Marlboroughs it was but momentary and
+spasmodic.</p>
+
+<p>The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine-tenths
+of its marches and man&oelig;uvres can be almost &ldquo;taken as
+read&rdquo;; the remaining tenth, the exceptional and abnormal
+part of it, alone possesses an interest for modern readers.</p>
+
+<p>In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV.
+sent his troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest,
+into that country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding
+parties plundered the country as far south as Augsburg, for the
+political intent of their advance suggested terrorism rather than
+conciliation as the best method. The league of Augsburg at
+once took up the challenge, and the addition of new members
+(Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the &ldquo;Grand
+Alliance&rdquo; of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian
+states, Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Those who condemned the king for raising up so many
+enemies, admired him for having so fully prepared to defend
+himself and even to forestall them,&rdquo; says Voltaire. Louvois
+had in fact completed the work of organizing the French army
+on a regular and permanent basis, and had made it not merely
+the best, but also by far the most numerous in Europe, for Louis
+disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and 60,000
+sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket
+bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The
+only relic of the old armament was the pike, which was retained
+for one-quarter of the foot, though it had been discarded by the
+Imperialists in the course of the Turkish wars described below.
+The first artillery regiment was created in 1684, to replace the
+former semi-civilian organization by a body of artillerymen
+susceptible of uniform training and amenable to discipline
+and orders.</p>
+
+<p>In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany,
+which had executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not
+in a position to resist the principal army of the coalition
+so far from support. Louvois therefore ordered it
+<span class="sidenote">Devastation of the Palatinate, 1689.</span>
+to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of
+the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires,
+Oppenheim and Worms was pitilessly and methodically carried
+into effect in January and February. There had been devastations
+in previous wars, even the high-minded Turenne had
+used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population
+or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the
+great war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces
+of their passage that it took a century to remove. But here the
+devastation was a purely military measure, executed systematically
+over a given strategic front for no other purpose than to
+delay the advance of the enemy&rsquo;s army. It differed from the
+method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers were not
+those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to
+submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It
+differed from Wellington&rsquo;s laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in
+that it was not done for the defence of the Palatinate against
+a national enemy, but because the Palatinate was where it was.
+The feudal theory that every subject of a prince at war was an
+armed vassal, and therefore an enemy of the prince&rsquo;s enemy,
+had in practice been obsolete for two centuries past; by 1690
+the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its instruments
+had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it
+had become thoroughly understood that the army alone was
+concerned with the army&rsquo;s business. Thus it was that this
+devastation excited universal reprobation; and that, in the words
+of a modern French writer, the &ldquo;idea of Germany came to
+birth in the flames of the Palatinate.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As a military measure this crime was, moreover, quite unprofitable;
+for it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French
+commander, to hold out on the east side of the middle Rhine,
+and he could think of nothing better to do than to go farther
+south and to ravage Baden and the Breisgau, which was not
+even a military necessity. The grand army of the Allies, coming
+farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of Lorraine
+and the elector of Bavaria&mdash;lately comrades in the Turkish war
+(see below)&mdash;invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn.
+The latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, shelled
+the town uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and
+overpowering its French garrison, an incident not calculated
+to advance the nascent idea of German unity. Mainz, valiantly
+defended by Nicolas du Blé, marquis d&rsquo;Uxelles, had to surrender
+on the 8th of September. The governor of Bonn, baron d&rsquo;Asfeld,
+not in the least intimidated by the bombardment, held out till
+the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of Brandenburg,
+and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered
+him by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the 12th
+of October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender
+on the 16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the
+elector, escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufflers, with
+another of Louis&rsquo;s armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured
+by the French in 1684 and since held) and Trarbach towards the
+Rhine, but in spite of a minor victory at Kochheim on the 21st
+of August, he was unable to relieve either Mainz or Bonn.</p>
+
+<p>In the Low Countries the French marshal d&rsquo;Humières, being
+in superior force, had obtained <i>special permission</i> to offer battle
+to the Allies. Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to
+amuse the Spaniards, he hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the
+Dutch, who from Namur had advanced slowly on Philippeville.
+Coming upon their army (which was commanded by the prince
+of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an advanced
+post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his advanced
+guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to clear
+the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th
+August). After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt,
+he drew back. For a few days the two armies remained face
+to face, cannonading one another at intervals, but no further
+fighting occurred. Humières returned to the region of the
+Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the others
+of Louis&rsquo; six armies the year&rsquo;s campaign passed off quite
+uneventfully.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was
+being fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with
+desultory engagements between the Orangemen of the
+north and the Irish regular army, most of which the earl
+<span class="sidenote">The war in Ireland, 1689-1691.</span>
+of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for King James.
+The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into
+the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former
+place, begun by James himself and carried on by the French
+general Rosen, lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges
+of the continent, this was resisted by the townsmen themselves,
+under the leadership of the clergyman George Walker. But the
+relieving force (consisting of two frigates, a supply ship and a force
+under Major-general Percy Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not
+until the defenders were in the last extremity that Kirke actually
+broke through the blockade (July 31st). Enniskillen was less
+closely invested, and its inhabitants, organized by Colonel Wolseley
+and other officers sent by Kirke, actually kept the open field and
+defeated the Jacobites at Newtown Butler (July 31st). A few days
+later the Jacobite army withdrew from the north. But it was long
+before an adequate army could be sent over from England to deal
+with it. Marshal Schomberg (<i>q.v.</i>), one of the most distinguished
+soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from the French service
+as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but the army he
+brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits, and
+when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its
+work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James
+failed to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the
+north, and the relics of Schomberg&rsquo;s army wintered in security,
+covered by the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however,
+more troops, this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark
+and Brandenburg, were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and
+Major-general Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized
+and equipped the field army, King William assumed the command
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span>
+himself. Five days after his arrival he began his advance from
+Loughbrickland near Newry, and on the 1st of July he engaged
+James&rsquo;s main army on the river Boyne, close to Drogheda. Schomberg
+was killed and William himself wounded, but the Irish army
+was routed.</p>
+
+<p>No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin
+or in the Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French
+auxiliary corps in James&rsquo;s army, and Tyrconnel both discountenanced
+any attempt to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces
+had reassembled; but Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the
+spokesman of the younger and more ardent of the Irish officers,
+pleaded for its retention. He was left, therefore, to hold Limerick,
+while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved northward into Galway. Here,
+as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the active sympathies of the
+people against the invader, and Sarsfield not only surprised and
+destroyed the artillery train of William&rsquo;s army, but repulsed every
+assault made on the walls that Lauzun had said &ldquo;could be battered
+down by rotten apples.&rdquo; William gave up the siege on the 30th
+of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a measure by
+the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord Marlborough,
+which captured Cork and Kinsale, and next year (1691) the Jacobite
+cause was finally crushed by William&rsquo;s general Ginckell (afterwards
+earl of Athlone) in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July 12th),
+in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the
+Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, besieged
+Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing
+the defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as
+by land. After six weeks&rsquo; resistance the defenders offered to
+capitulate, and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the
+1st of October the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfield and the
+most energetic of King James&rsquo;s supporters retired to France and
+were there formed into the famous &ldquo;Irish brigade.&rdquo; Sarsfield was
+killed at the battle of Neerwinden two years later.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The campaign of 1690 on the continent of Europe is marked
+by two battles, one of which, Luxemburg&rsquo;s victory of Fleurus,
+belongs to the category of the world&rsquo;s great battles. It is
+described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fleurus</a></span>, and the present article only deals
+summarily with the conditions in which it was fought. These,
+though they in fact led to an encounter that could, in itself,
+fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with the general
+spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of them.</p>
+
+<p>Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had
+consequently been allotted only an insignificant part in the first
+campaign. But after the disasters of 1689 Louis re-arranged
+the commands on the north-east frontier so as to allow Humières,
+Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine for united action. &ldquo;I
+will take care that Louvois plays fair,&rdquo; Louis said to the duke
+when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently
+Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination
+himself, as senior officer he would automatically take command
+if it came about. The whole force available was probably close
+on 100,000, but not half of these were present at the decisive
+battle, though Luxemburg certainly practised the utmost
+&ldquo;economy of force&rdquo; as this was understood in those days (see
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neerwinden</a></span>). On the remaining theatres of war, the
+dauphin, assisted by the duc de Lorge, held the middle Rhine,
+and Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, &amp;c.,
+as before. Catinat&rsquo;s operations are briefly described below.
+Those of the others need no description, for though the Allies
+formed a plan for a grand concentric advance on Paris, the
+preliminaries to this advance were so numerous and so closely
+interdependent that on the most favourable estimate the winter
+would necessarily find the Allied armies many leagues short of
+Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when Charles of
+Lorraine died (17th April), and the reconquest of his lost duchy
+ceased to be a direct object of the war.</p>
+
+<p>Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre
+country, where he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt
+and &ldquo;eating up&rdquo; the country between Oudenarde
+and Ghent in the face of a Spanish army concentrated
+<span class="sidenote">Fleurus, 1690.</span>
+at the latter place (15th May-12th June). He then
+left Humières with a containing force in the Scheldt region and
+hurried back to the Sambre to interpose between the Allied
+army under Waldeck and the fortress of Dinant which Waldeck
+was credited with the intention of besieging. His march from
+Tournay to Gerpinnes was counted a model of skill&mdash;the <i>locus
+classicus</i> for the maxim that ruled till the advent of Napoleon&mdash;&ldquo;march
+always in the order in which you encamp, or purpose
+to encamp, or fight.&rdquo; For four days the army marched across
+country in close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring
+cavalry and advanced, flank and rear guards. Under these
+conditions eleven miles a day was practically forced marching,
+and on arriving at Jeumont-sur-Sambre the army was given
+three days&rsquo; rest. Then followed a few leisurely marches in the
+direction of Charleroi, during which a detachment of Boufflers&rsquo;s
+army came in, and the cavalry explored the country to the north.
+On news of the enemy&rsquo;s army being at Trazegnies, Luxemburg
+hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this
+proved to be a detachment only, and soon information came
+in that Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon
+Luxemburg, without consulting his subordinate generals, took
+his army to Velaine. He knew that the enemy was marking
+time till the troops of Liége and the Brandenburgers from the
+Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the Dinant enterprise,
+and he was determined to fight a battle at once. From Velaine,
+therefore, on the morning of the 1st of July, the army moved
+forward to Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant
+victories in the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg
+was not allowed to pursue his advantage. He was ordered to
+hold his army in readiness to besiege either Namur, Mons,
+Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders dictated; and to
+send back the borrowed regiments to Boufflers, who was being
+pressed back by the Brandenburg and Liége troops. Thus
+Waldeck reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where William
+III. of England soon afterwards assumed command of the
+Allied forces in the Netherlands, and Luxemburg and the other
+marshals stood fast for the rest of the campaign, being forbidden
+to advance until Catinat&mdash;in Italy&mdash;should have won a battle.</p>
+
+<p>In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy
+had long disquieted the French court. His personal connexions
+with the imperial family and his resentment against
+Louvois, who had on some occasion treated him with
+<span class="sidenote">Staffarda.</span>
+his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join the
+Allies, while on the other hand he could hope for extensions
+of his scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of
+this doubtful condition of affairs the French army under Catinat
+had for some time been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and
+in the summer of 1690 Louis XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor
+Amadeus to compel him to take one side or the other actively
+and openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel threw in
+his lot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards
+and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced
+into Piedmont, and won, principally by virtue of his own watchfulness
+and the high efficiency of his troops, the important victory
+of Staffarda (August 18th, 1690). This did not, however, enable
+him to overrun Piedmont, and as the duke was soon reinforced,
+he had to be content with the methodical conquest of a few
+frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a small French army
+under the duc de Noailles passed into Catalonia and there lived
+at the enemy&rsquo;s expense for the duration of the campaign.</p>
+
+<p>In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion
+of the German princes prevented vigorous action, the following
+year, 1691, was uneventful. But in the Netherlands there
+were a siege, a war of man&oelig;uvres and a cavalry combat, each
+in its way somewhat remarkable. The siege was that of Mons,
+which was, like many sieges in the former wars, conducted with
+much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and Vauban
+under him. On the surrender of the place, which was hastened
+by red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and
+divided his army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former
+of whom departed to the Meuse. There he attempted by bombardment
+to enforce the surrender of Liége, but had to desist when
+the elector of Brandenburg threatened Dinant. The principal
+armies on either side faced one another under the command
+respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies
+were first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg
+hurried thither, but neither party found any tempting opportunity
+for battle, and when the cavalry had consumed all the forage
+available in the district, the two armies edged away gradually
+towards Flanders. The war of man&oelig;uvre continued, with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span>
+slight balance of advantage on Luxemburg&rsquo;s side, until September,
+when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in command
+of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter quarters
+amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary opportunity
+for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze
+(20th Sept.) he fell upon the cavalry of Waldeck&rsquo;s rearguard
+and drove it back in disorder with heavy losses until the pursuit
+was checked by the Allied infantry.</p>
+
+<p>In 1692<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than
+before, although Lorge made a successful raid into Württemberg
+in September and foraged his cavalry in German territory till
+the approach of winter. The Spanish campaign was unimportant,
+but on the Alpine side the Allies under the duke of Savoy drove
+back Catinat into Dauphiné, which they ravaged with fire and
+sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms
+than the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry&mdash;amongst
+whom figured the heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708),
+daughter of the marquis de la Charce&mdash;they beset every road
+with such success that the small regular army of the invaders
+was powerless. Brought practically to a standstill, the Allies
+soon consumed the provisions that could be gathered in, and
+then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes behind them,
+they retreated.</p>
+
+<p>In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a
+great siege. Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th
+of May. The place was defended by the prince de
+Barbançon (who had been governor of Luxemburg
+<span class="sidenote">Siege of Namur, 1692.</span>
+when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoorn
+(<i>q.v.</i>), Vauban&rsquo;s rival in the science of fortification.
+Luxemburg, with a small army, man&oelig;uvred to cover the siege
+against William III.&rsquo;s army at Louvain. The place fell on the
+5th of June,<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> after a very few days of Vauban&rsquo;s &ldquo;regular&rdquo;
+attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as before,
+Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg
+to &ldquo;preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing
+the enemy&rsquo;s enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense.&rdquo;
+This negative policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-fought
+battle. William, employing a common device, announced
+his intention of retaking Namur, but set his army in motion
+for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses held by the French.
+Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the Scheldt, and
+the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg about
+<span class="sidenote">Steenkirk.</span>
+Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then
+formed the plan of surprising Luxemburg&rsquo;s right
+wing before it could be supported by the rest of his army,
+relying chiefly on false information that a detected spy
+at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke.
+But Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread
+net of outposts as well as a secret service, and although ill in
+bed when William&rsquo;s advance was reported, he shook off his
+apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by his outpost reports
+to divine his opponent&rsquo;s plan, he met it (3rd August) by a swift
+concentration of his army, against which the Allies, whose
+advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steenkirk</a></span>). In this almost accidental battle both sides
+suffered enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about,
+or even to risk, a second resultless trial of strength. Boufflers&rsquo;s
+army returned to the Sambre and Luxemburg and William
+established themselves for the rest of the season at Lessines
+and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both armies
+had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered
+Boufflers to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombardment
+failed to intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies
+began to re-assemble, the attempt was given up (19th-21st Oct.).
+This failure was, however, compensated by the siege and capture
+of Furnes (28th Dec. 1692-7th Jan. 1693).</p>
+
+<p>In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It
+began, as mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at
+least indicated the aggressive spirit of the French generals.
+The king promoted his admiral, Tourville, and Catinat, the
+<i>roturier</i>, to the marshalship, and founded the military order of
+St Louis on the 10th of April. The grand army in the Netherlands
+this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William III. had
+only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning of operations
+Louis, after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, broke
+it up, in order to send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany,
+where Lorge had captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if reinforced,
+to overrun south Germany. But the imperial general
+Prince Louis of Baden took up a position near Heilbronn so
+strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not venture to attack
+him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream, and for
+the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed,
+of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge
+by his letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action
+as a sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And,
+before the event falsified predictions, there was much to be said
+for the course he took, which accorded better with the prevailing
+system of war than a Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system
+of war the rival armies, as armies, were almost in a state of
+equilibrium, and more was to be expected from an army dealing
+with something dissimilar to itself&mdash;a fortress or a patch of land
+or a convoy&mdash;than from its collision with another army of equal
+force.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity.
+He was still superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had
+the advantage of position. The former, authorized
+by his master this year
+<span class="sidenote">Neerwinden.</span>
+&ldquo;<i>non seulement d&rsquo;empêcher les
+ennemis de rien entreprendre, mais d&rsquo;emporter quelques
+avantages sur eux</i>,&rdquo; threatened Liége, drew William over to its
+defence and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however,
+retired to another position, between the Great and Little Geete
+rivers, and there, in a strongly entrenched position around
+Neerwinden, they were attacked by Luxemburg on the 29th of
+July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the greatest victories
+ever won by the French army, is briefly described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neerwinden</a></span>.
+It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but
+Luxemburg&rsquo;s exhausted army did not pursue; William was as
+unshaken and determined as ever; and the campaign closed,
+not with a treaty of peace, but with a few man&oelig;uvres which,
+by inducing William to believe in an attack on Ath, enabled
+Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi (October).</p>
+
+<p>Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year.
+Catinat, advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of
+Pinerolo (Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was
+besieging, took up a position in formal order of battle
+<span class="sidenote">Marsaglia.</span>
+north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the 4th of
+October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army,
+front to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency
+of the French, and Catinat&rsquo;s minute attention to details<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> in
+arraying them, gave the new marshal a victory that was a not
+unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The Piedmontese and their
+allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, as
+against Catinat&rsquo;s 1800. But here, too, the results were trifling,
+and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the year in
+which &ldquo;people perished of want to the accompaniment of
+<i>Te Deums</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and
+famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The
+armies were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William
+offered no further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In
+September, after inducing William to desist from his intention of
+besieging Dunkirk by appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry,<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+which had ridden from the Meuse, 100 m., in 4 days, Luxemburg
+gave up his command. He died on the 4th of January following,
+and with him the tradition of the Condé school of warfare disappeared
+from Europe. In Catalonia the marshal de Noailles won
+a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the ford of the Ter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span>
+(Torroella, 5 m. above the mouth of the river), and in consequence
+captured a number of walled towns.</p>
+
+<p>In 1695 William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable
+opponent than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in
+keeping him in Flanders while a corps of the Allies invested
+Namur. Coehoorn directed the siege-works, and
+<span class="sidenote">Later campaigns of the war.</span>
+Boufflers the defence. Gradually, as in 1692, the defenders
+were dislodged from the town, the citadel
+outworks and the citadel itself, the last being assaulted with
+success by the &ldquo;British grenadiers,&rdquo; as the song commemorates,
+on the 30th of August. Boufflers was rewarded for his sixty-seven
+days&rsquo; defence by the grade of marshal.</p>
+
+<p>By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague
+and indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his
+efforts to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding
+campaigns. In this new policy he met with much success.
+Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles and even the incompetent Villeroi held
+the field in their various spheres of operations without allowing the
+Allies to inflict any material injury, and also (by having recourse
+again to the policy of living by plunder) preserving French soil
+from the burden of their own maintenance. In this, as before, they
+were powerfully assisted by the disunion and divided counsels of
+their heterogeneous enemies. In Piedmont, Catinat crowned his
+work by making peace and alliance with the duke of Savoy, and
+the two late enemies having joined forces captured one of the
+fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was in 1697. Catinat
+and Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the most regular
+and methodical of the great engineer&rsquo;s career. It lasted 23 days
+and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir
+from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to
+attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendôme, Noailles&rsquo;
+successor, captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on
+the 30th of October, closed this war by practically restoring the
+<i>status quo ante</i>; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand
+Alliance that opposed them ceased to have force, and three years
+later the struggle began anew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spanish Succession, War of the</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been engaged
+in a much more serious war on his eastern marches against
+the old enemy, the Turks. This war arose in 1682 out
+of internal disturbances in Hungary. The campaign of
+<span class="sidenote">Austro-Turkish wars, 1682-1699.</span>
+the following year is memorable for all time as the last
+great wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommed IV. advanced
+from Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove
+back the small imperial army of Prince Charles of Lorraine,
+and early in July invested Vienna itself. The two months&rsquo; defence
+of Vienna by Count Rüdiger Starhemberg (1635-1701) and the
+brilliant victory of the relieving army led by John Sobieski, king of
+Poland, and Prince Charles on the 12th of September 1683, were
+events which, besides their intrinsic importance, possess the romantic
+interest of an old knightly crusade against the heathen.</p>
+
+<p>But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed,
+differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe.
+Turkey figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as
+the &ldquo;infidel,&rdquo; and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were
+characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk
+which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as
+methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign.
+In 1684 Charles of Lorraine gained a victory at Waitzen on the 27th
+of June and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and
+unsuccessfully besieged Budapest.</p>
+
+<p>In 1685 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory
+at Gran (August 16th) and the storming of Neuhaüsel (August 19th)
+were the only outstanding incidents. In 1686 Charles, assisted by
+the elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Budapest
+(Sept. 2nd). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great
+victory at Mohacz (Aug. 12th). In 1688 the Austrians advanced
+still further, took Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia.
+The margrave Louis of Baden, who afterward became one of the
+most celebrated of the methodical generals of the day, won a victory
+at Derbent on the 5th of September 1688, and next year, in spite of
+the outbreak of a general European war, he managed to win another
+battle at Nisch (Sept. 24th), to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to
+advance to the Balkans, but in 1690, more troops having to be
+withdrawn for the European war, the imperialist generals lost
+Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the other. There was, however,
+no repetition of the scenes of 1683, for in 1691 Louis won the battle
+of Szlankamen (Aug. 19th). After two more desultory if successful
+campaigns he was called to serve in western Europe, and for three
+years more the war dragged on without result, until in 1697 the
+young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the imperialists
+and won a great and decisive victory at Zenta on the Theiss (Sept.
+11th). This induced a last general advance of the Germans eastward,
+which was definitively successful and brought about the
+peace of Carlowitz (January 1699).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Naval Operations</p>
+
+<p>The naval side of the war waged by the powers of western
+Europe from 1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King
+Louis XIV., was not marked by any very conspicuous exhibition
+of energy or capacity, but it was singularly decisive in its results.
+At the beginning of the struggle the French fleet kept the sea
+in face of the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland. It
+displayed even in 1690 a marked superiority over them. Before
+the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port, and though
+its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the
+French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to
+make a proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king&rsquo;s
+ministers to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most
+effective aims, were largely responsible for the result.</p>
+
+<p>When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still
+suffering from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II.,
+which had been only in part corrected during the short reign of
+James II. The first squadrons were sent out late and in insufficient
+strength. The Dutch, crushed by the obligation to
+maintain a great army, found an increasing difficulty in preparing
+their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a despotic monarch,
+with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his power to
+strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting
+one. Ireland was still loyal to King James II., and would therefore
+have afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French
+fleet. No serious attempt was made to profit by the advantage
+thus presented. In March 1689 King James was landed and
+reinforcements were prepared for him at Brest. A British
+squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert (afterwards
+Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached the French
+port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted
+the convoy off the Old Head of Kinsale on the 10th of May.
+The French admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay,
+and an indecisive encounter took place on the 11th of May.
+The troops and stores for King James were successfully landed.
+Then both admirals, the British and the French, returned home,
+and neither in that nor in the following year was any serious
+effort made by the French to gain command of the sea between
+Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet
+entered the Channel, and gained a success over the combined
+British and Dutch fleets on the 10th of July 1690 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beachy
+Head, Battle of</a></span>), which was not followed up by vigorous
+action. In the meantime King William III. passed over to
+Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following
+year, while the cause of King James was being finally ruined
+in Ireland, the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of
+Biscay, principally for the purpose of avoiding battle. During
+the whole of 1689, 1690 and 1691, British squadrons were active
+on the Irish coast. One raised the siege of Londonderry in July
+1689, and another convoyed the first British forces sent over
+under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy
+Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition
+under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took
+Cork and reduced a large part of the south of the island. In
+1691 the French did little more than help to carry away the
+wreckage of their allies and their own detachments. In 1692
+a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to employ their fleet
+to cover an invasion of England (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">La Hogue, Battle of</a></span>).
+It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel.
+The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval
+power of King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. In the
+next year, 1693, he was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies.
+The important Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and
+Holland, called for convenience the Smyrna convoy, having
+been delayed during the previous year, anxious measures were
+taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the arrangements
+of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They
+made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps
+to discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port.
+The convoy was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet.
+But as the French admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits
+of Gibraltar with a powerful force and had been joined by a
+squadron from Toulon, the whole convoy was scattered or taken
+by him, in the latter days of June, near Lagos. But though
+this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat at La
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span>
+Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis
+XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his
+fleet up. The allies were now free to make full use of their own,
+to harass the French coast, to intercept French commerce, and
+to co-operate with the armies acting against France. Some of
+the operations undertaken by them were more remarkable for
+the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of the results.
+The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the
+attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active
+French privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A
+British attack on Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy
+loss. The scheme had been betrayed by Jacobite correspondents.
+Yet the inability of the French king to avert these enterprises
+showed the weakness of his navy and the limitations of his power.
+The protection of British and Dutch commerce was never complete,
+for the French privateers were active to the end. But
+French commerce was wholly ruined.</p>
+
+<p>It was the misfortune of the allies that their co-operation
+with armies was largely with the forces of a power so languid
+and so bankrupt as Spain. Yet the series of operations directed
+by Russel in the Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695
+demonstrated the superiority of the allied fleet, and checked
+the advance of the French in Catalonia. Contemporary with
+the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises against the
+French in the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy,
+with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance
+from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain
+Lawrence Wright in 1690-1691, and ended with that of Admiral
+Nevil in 1696-1697. It cannot be said that they attained to any
+very honourable achievement, or even did much to weaken the
+French hold on their possessions in the West Indies and North
+America. Some, and notably the attack made on Quebec by
+Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British
+colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant
+as the plunder of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman
+Pointis, in 1697, at the head of a semi-piratical force. Too often
+there was absolute misconduct. In the buccaneering and piratical
+atmosphere of the West Indies, the naval officers of the day,
+who were still infected with the corruption of the reign of Charles
+II., and who calculated on distance from home to secure them
+immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and buccaneers.
+The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its ignorance
+of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the
+case of Admiral Nevil&rsquo;s squadron, the admiral himself and all
+his captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships
+were unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused
+these expeditions to fail, and not the strength of the French
+defence. When the war ended, the navy of King Louis XIV.
+had disappeared from the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Burchett, <i>Memoirs of Transactions at Sea during the War
+with France, 1688-1697</i> (London, 1703); Lediard, <i>Naval History</i>
+(London, 1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in his
+notes. For the West Indian voyages, Tronde, <i>Batailles navales de
+la France</i> (Paris, 1867); De Yonghe, <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche
+Zeewezen</i> (Haarlem, 1860).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name &ldquo;Grand Alliance&rdquo; is applied to the coalition against
+Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not
+only waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only
+slight modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the
+war of the Spanish Succession (<i>q.v.</i>) that followed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Louvois died in July 1691.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put
+an end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at
+Versailles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first, instances
+of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A
+regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the
+Austrian service.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND CANARY<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic
+Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary
+Islands (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand
+Canary, the most fertile island of the group, is nearly circular
+in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a circumference of 75 m.
+The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines radiating to
+the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large
+tracts are covered with native pine (<i>P. canariensis</i>). There are
+several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,517),
+the capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978),
+the second place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded
+by palm trees. At Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas,
+the making of earthenware vessels employs some hundreds
+of people, who inhabit holes made in the tufa.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND CANYON,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a profound gorge in the north-west corner
+of Arizona, in the south-western part of the United States of
+America, carved in the plateau region by the Colorado river.
+Of it Captain Dutton says: &ldquo;Those who have long and carefully
+studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do not hesitate for
+a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all
+earthly spectacles&rdquo;; and this is also the verdict of many who
+have only viewed it in one or two of its parts.</p>
+
+<p>The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams,
+the Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky
+Mountains. It has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage
+area of 255,000 sq. m., emptying into the head of the Gulf of
+California. In its course the Colorado passes through a mountain
+section; then a plateau section; and finally a desert lowland
+section which extends to its mouth. It is in the plateau section
+that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface of the
+country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a tableland
+region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions,
+flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of
+stratified rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position,
+though profoundly faulted here and there, and with some
+moderate folding. For a thousand miles the river has cut a
+series of canyons, bearing different names, which reach their
+culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the contiguous
+Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther
+down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from
+2000 to 6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest
+and deepest canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth
+is the work of the Colorado river, with accompanying weathering,
+through long ages; and the river is still engaged in deepening
+it as it rushes along the canyon bottom.</p>
+
+<p>The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient
+rainfall for forests, whose growth is also made possible in part
+by the cool climate and consequently retarded evaporation;
+but the less elevated portions have an arid climate, while the
+climate in the canyon bottom is that of the true desert. Thus
+the canyon is really in a desert region, as is shown by the fact
+that only two living streams enter the river for a distance of
+500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand
+Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand
+Canyon itself. This, moreover, is dry during most of the year.
+In spite of this lack of tributaries, a large volume of water flows
+through the canyon at all seasons of the year, some coming
+from the scattered tributaries, some from springs, but most
+from the rains and snows of the distant mountains about the
+headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon
+walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility
+of the long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea
+across a vast stretch of arid land.</p>
+
+<p>The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown
+depth, and at times of flood has a greatly increased volume.
+The river varies in width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow
+Granite Gorges, where it bathes both rock walls, to 500 or 600
+ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of the Marble and Grand
+Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point has a fall of
+210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20 or
+more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and
+rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the
+Green and Grand.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude
+of lateral canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy
+rain. As Powell says, the region &ldquo;is a composite of thousands,
+and tens of thousands of gorges.&rdquo; There are &ldquo;thousands of
+gorges like that below Niagara Falls, and there are a thousand
+Yosemites.&rdquo; The largest of all, the Grand Canyon, has an
+average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4½ to 12 m. For a
+long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth
+is 6000 ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower
+gorge sunk in the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow
+gorge is in some places no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top.
+To illustrate the depth of the Grand Canyon, Powell writes:
+&ldquo;Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft. high) by the roots to
+the level of the sea, and drop it head first into the Grand Canyon,
+and the dam will not force its waters over the wall.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon
+from point to point, the main elements are much alike throughout
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span>
+its length and are due to the succession of rock strata revealed
+in the canyon walls. At the base, for some 800 ft., there is a
+complex of crystalline rocks of early geological age, consisting
+of gneiss, schist, slate and other rocks, greatly plicated and
+traversed by dikes and granite intrusions. This is an ancient
+mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it rest
+a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal,
+forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this
+come first 500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of
+bedded sandstone and limestone strata, some massive and some
+thin, which on weathering form a series of alcoves. These beds,
+like those above, are in nearly horizontal position. Above this
+comes 1600 ft. of limestone&mdash;often a beautiful marble, as in the
+Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon stained a brilliant
+red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above this
+&ldquo;red wall&rdquo; are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds
+looking &ldquo;like vast ribbons of landscape.&rdquo; At the top of the
+canyon is 1000 ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted
+for the pinnacles and towers which denudation has developed.
+It is these different rock beds, with their various colours, and
+the differences in the effect of weathering upon them, that give
+the great variety and grandeur to the canyon scenery. There
+are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves, cliffs, ledges,
+crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its characteristic
+colour and form according to the set of strata in which it lies.
+The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash; innumerable
+side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering has
+etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy
+colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur
+here and weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell
+puts the case graphically when he writes: &ldquo;A wall of homogeneous
+granite like that in the Yosemite is but a naked wall,
+whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high. Hundreds and thousands of
+feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand in a meaningless
+front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high has
+but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of
+snow 1000 ft. high&mdash;it is but more of the same thing; but a
+façade of seven systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied
+sevenfold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at
+present inaccessible, for, as Powell states, &ldquo;a year scarcely
+suffices to see it all&rdquo;; and &ldquo;it is a region more difficult to
+traverse than the Alps or the Himalayas.&rdquo; But a part of the
+canyon is now easily accessible to tourists. A trail leads from
+the Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé railway at Flagstaff, Arizona;
+and a branch line of the railway extends from Williams, Arizona,
+to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The plateau, which
+in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in elevation,
+but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace tops with
+steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and, especially
+near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain,
+with much evidence of former volcanic activity, including
+numerous cinder cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the
+edge of the canyon, at whose bottom, over a mile below, is seen
+the silvery thread of water where the muddy torrent rushes
+along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way into the depths
+of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and terraced
+slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m. distant.</p>
+
+<p>Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain
+system, formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth,
+then worn to an almost level condition through untold ages of
+slow denudation. Slowly, then, the mountains sank beneath the
+level of the sea, and in the Carboniferous Period&mdash;about the
+time of the formation of the coal-beds&mdash;sediments began to
+bury the ancient mountains. This lasted through other untold
+ages until the Tertiary Period&mdash;through much of the Palaeozoic
+and all of the Mesozoic time&mdash;and a total of from 12,000 to 16,000
+ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been
+dominant, and the river has eaten its way down to, and into,
+the deeply buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read,
+like the pages of a book. In some parts of the plateau region as
+much as 30,000 ft. of rock have been stripped away, and over
+an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average of over 6000 ft. has been
+removed.</p>
+
+<p>The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G. L. de Cardenas
+in 1540, but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region
+prevented its exploration. Various people visited parts of it
+or made reports regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858
+contains a report upon the canyon written by Prof. J. S. Newberry.
+But it was not until 1869 that the first real exploration
+of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year Major J. W.
+Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the Grand
+Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction
+of the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand
+Canyon. This hazardous journey ranks as one of the most
+daring and remarkable explorations ever undertaken in North
+America; and Powell&rsquo;s descriptions of the expedition are
+among the most fascinating accounts of travel relating to the
+continent. Powell made another expedition in 1871, but did
+not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey
+conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts
+of the canyon, and C. E. Dutton carried on extensive
+studies of the canyon and the contiguous plateau region.
+In 1890 Robert B. Stanton, with six associates, went through
+the canyon in boats, making a survey to determine the
+feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two other
+parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond)
+the other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have
+made the journey through the canyon. So far as there is
+record these are the only four parties that have ever made
+the complete journey through the Grand Canyon. It has
+sometimes been said that James White made the passage of
+the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no
+real basis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W.
+Powell, <i>Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries</i>
+(Washington, 1875); J. W. Powell, <i>Canyons of the Colorado</i>
+(Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, <i>The Romance of the
+Colorado River</i> (New York, 1902); Capt. C. E. Dutton, <i>Tertiary
+History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas</i> (Washington, 1882),
+being Monograph No. 2, U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent
+topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes
+and published by the U.S. Geological Survey.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. S. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND-DUKE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (Fr. <i>grand-duc</i>, Ital. <i>granduca</i>, Ger. <i>Grossherzog</i>),
+a title borne by princes ranking between king and duke.
+The dignity was first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke
+Cosimo I. of Florence, his son Francis obtaining the emperor&rsquo;s
+confirmation in 1576; and the predicate &ldquo;Royal Highness&rdquo;
+was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created his brother-in-law
+Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same year the
+title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the
+elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric
+of Würzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany)
+on joining the Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time,
+according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is
+borne by the sovereigns of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand-duke
+of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
+and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of Hesse-Darmstadt
+and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his
+titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king
+of Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen.
+The title is also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine
+dynasty of Tuscany.</p>
+
+<p>Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of
+the Russian <i>velíkiy knyaz</i>, more properly &ldquo;grand-prince&rdquo; (Ger.
+Grossfürst), at one time the title of the rulers of Russia, who,
+as the eldest born of the house of Rurik, exercised overlordship
+over the <i>udyelniye knyazi</i> or local princes. On the partition of
+the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest of each branch assumed
+the title of grand-prince. Under the domination of the Golden
+Horde the right to bestow the title <i>velíkiy knyaz</i> was reserved by
+the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In
+Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and
+it passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with
+the Polish republic. The style of the emperor of Russia now
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span>
+includes the titles of grand-duke (<i>velíkiy knyaz</i>) of Smolensk,
+Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia and Finland. Until 1886 this
+title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the style &ldquo;Imperial
+Highness,&rdquo; was borne by all descendants of the imperial house.
+It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and sisters,
+and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of
+the imperial house bear the title of prince (<i>knyaz</i>) and princess
+(<i>knyaginya</i>, if married, <i>knyazhna</i>, if unmarried) with the style of
+&ldquo;Highness.&rdquo; The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary,
+also bears this title as &ldquo;grand-duke&rdquo; of Transylvania, which
+was erected into a &ldquo;grand-princedom&rdquo; (Grossfürstentum) in
+1765 by Maria Theresa.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANDEE<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Span. <i>Grande</i>), a title of honour borne by the
+highest class of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have
+been originally assumed by the most important nobles to distinguish
+them from the mass of the <i>ricos hombres</i>, or great barons
+of the realm. It was thus, as Selden points out, not a general
+term denoting a class, but &ldquo;an additional dignity not only to
+all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also&rdquo; (<i>Titles of
+Honor</i>, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain privileges;
+notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until
+the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the
+territorial nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more
+important rights, <i>e.g.</i> freedom from taxation, immunity from
+arrest save at the king&rsquo;s express command, and even&mdash;in certain
+cases&mdash;the right to renounce their allegiance and make war on
+the king. Their number and privileges were further restricted
+by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved to the
+crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were
+further divided into three classes: (1) those who spoke to the
+king and received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those
+who addressed him uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his
+answer; (3) those who awaited the permission of the king before
+covering themselves. All grandees were addressed by the king
+as &ldquo;my cousin&rdquo; (<i>mi primo</i>), whereas ordinary nobles were
+only qualified as &ldquo;my kinsman&rdquo; (<i>mi pariente</i>). The title of
+&ldquo;grandee,&rdquo; abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived
+in 1834, when by the <i>Estatudo real</i> grandees were given precedence
+in the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however,
+purely titular, and implies neither privilege nor power.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND FORKS,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city in the Boundary district of British
+Columbia; situated at the junction of the north and south forks
+of the Kettle river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop.
+(1908) about 2500. It is in a good agricultural district, but
+owes its importance largely to the erection here of the extensive
+smelting plant of the Granby Consolidated Company, which
+smelts the ores obtained from the various parts of the Boundary
+country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and Old Ironsides
+mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great
+Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent
+railway communication with the south and east.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND FORKS,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks
+county, North Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river
+(of the North) and Red Lake river (whence its name), about
+80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652, of whom 2781 were
+foreign-born; (1905) 10,127; (1910) 27,888. It is served by the
+Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has a
+considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a
+channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand
+Forks. At University, a small suburb, is the University of
+North Dakota (co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with
+it is Wesley College (Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks
+(with a campus adjoining that of the University), but formerly
+the Red River Valley University at Wahpeton, North Dakota.
+In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors and 861 students;
+its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000 pamphlets. At
+Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard&rsquo;s Ursuline Academy (Roman
+Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the
+city&rsquo;s principal buildings are the public library, the Federal
+building and a Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great
+wheat valley of the Red river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour
+and agricultural machinery and implements, as well as large
+jobbing interests. There are railway car-shops here, and among
+the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks and tiles and
+cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an electric
+lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d. 1804)
+erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur
+Company on the site of the present city; it afterwards became
+a trading post of the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company. The first permanent
+settlement was made in 1871, and Grand Forks was
+reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a city in 1881.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND HAVEN,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
+Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the
+mouth of Grand river, 30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and
+78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4743, of whom 1277 were
+foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (1910) 5856. It is served by the
+Grand Trunk and the Père Marquette railways, and by steamboat
+lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is connected
+with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The
+city manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and
+leather; is a centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and
+has valuable fisheries near&mdash;fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially
+whitefish, are shipped in considerable quantities. Grand Haven
+is the port of entry for the Customs District of Michigan, and has
+a small export and import trade. The municipality owns and
+operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. A trading
+post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the American
+Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not
+begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836,
+and was chartered as a city in 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANDIER, URBAN<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1590-1634), priest of the church of
+Sainte Croix at Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was
+accused of witchcraft in 1632 by some hysterical novices of
+the Carmelite Convent, where the trial, protracted for two
+years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and burnt alive
+at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND ISLAND,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hall county,
+Nebraska, U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S.
+of Omaha. Pop. (1900) 7554 (1339 foreign-born); (1910) 10,326.
+It is served by the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington &amp;
+Quincy, and the St Joseph &amp; Grand Island railways, being the
+western terminus of the last-named line and a southern terminus
+of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated on a slope
+skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river, in the
+midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist;
+co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island
+Business and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat
+of a state Sailors&rsquo; and Soldiers&rsquo; Home, established in 1888.
+Grand Island has a large wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &amp;c.;
+is an important horse-market, and has large stock-yards. There
+are shops of the Union Pacific in the city, and among its manufactures
+are beet-sugar&mdash;Grand Island is in one of the principal
+beet-sugar-growing districts of the state&mdash;brooms, wire fences,
+confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry
+of the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and <span class="correction" title="amended from neat">meat</span> cattle.
+A &ldquo;Grand Island&rdquo; was founded in 1857, and was named from
+a large island (nearly 50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site;
+but the present city was laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866.
+It was chartered as a city in 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANDMONTINES,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a religious order founded by St Stephen
+of Thiers in Auvergne towards the end of the 11th century.
+St Stephen was so impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he
+saw in Calabria that he desired to introduce the same manner
+of life into his native country. He was ordained, and in 1073
+obtained the pope&rsquo;s permission to establish an order. He
+betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near
+Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived
+there for some time in complete solitude. A few disciples
+gathered round him, and a community was formed. The rule
+was not reduced to writing until after Stephen&rsquo;s death, 1124.
+The life was eremitical and very severe in regard to silence,
+diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule of
+the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from
+the Augustinian canons. The superior was called the &ldquo;Corrector.&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span>
+About 1150 the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled
+in the neighbouring desert of Grandmont, whence the order
+derived its name. Louis VII. founded a house at Vincennes
+near Paris, and the order had a great vogue in France, as many
+as sixty houses being established by 1170, but it seems never to
+have found favour out of France; it had, however, a couple of
+cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The
+system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the
+management of the temporals was in great measure left in their
+hands; the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels
+between the lay brothers and the choir monks were a constant
+source of weakness. Later centuries witnessed mitigations and
+reforms in the life, and at last the order came to an end just
+before the French Revolution. There were two or three convents of
+Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part in history.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55; Max
+Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896). i. § 31; and the
+art. in Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (ed. 2), and in Herzog,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND RAPIDS,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Kent county,
+Michigan, U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river,
+about 30 m. from Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit.
+Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900) 87,565, of whom 23,896 were
+foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910 census) 112,571.
+Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were Hollanders;
+3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from
+German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is
+served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore &amp; Michigan
+Southern, the Grand Trunk, the Père Marquette and the Grand
+Rapids &amp; Indiana railways, and by electric interurban railways.
+The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a range of hills on
+either side, and about midway between these hills the river flows
+over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in 1 m. Factories and
+mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all
+along the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences
+command picturesque views from the hills farther back, the
+residences on the W. side being less pretentious and standing
+on bottom-lands. The principal business thoroughfares are
+Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the important
+buildings are the United States Government building (Grand
+Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial
+district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city
+hall, the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of
+Chicago), the Manufacturer&rsquo;s building, the <i>Evening Press</i>
+building, the Michigan Trust building and several handsome
+churches. The principal charitable institutions are the municipal
+Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city hospital; the Union Benevolent
+Association, which maintains a home and hospital for the
+indigent, together with a training school for nurses; Saint
+John&rsquo;s orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the
+Dominican Sisters); Saint Mary&rsquo;s hospital (in charge of the
+Sisters of Mercy); Butterworth hospital (with a training school
+for nurses); the Woman&rsquo;s Home and Hospital, maintained
+largely by the Woman&rsquo;s Christian Temperance Union; the
+Aldrich Memorial Deaconess&rsquo; Home; the D. A. Blodgett
+Memorial Children&rsquo;s Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home.
+About 1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan
+Soldiers&rsquo; Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E.
+limits of the city is Reed&rsquo;s Lake, a popular resort during the
+summer season. The city is the see of Roman Catholic and
+Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through the
+efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused
+in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for
+a &ldquo;city plan,&rdquo; and flood walls were completed for the protection
+of the lower parts of the city from inundation. The large
+quantities of fruit, cereals and vegetables from the surrounding
+country, and ample facilities for transportation by rail and by
+the river, which is navigable from below the rapids to its mouth,
+make the commerce and trade of Grand Rapids very important.
+The manufacturing interests are greatly promoted by the fine
+water-power, and as a furniture centre the city has a world-wide
+reputation&mdash;the value of the furniture manufactured within its
+limits in 1904 amounted to $9,409,097, about 5.5% of the value
+of all furniture manufactured in the United States. Grand
+Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers&mdash;a large proportion of
+the whole world&rsquo;s product,&mdash;flour and grist mill products,
+foundry and machine-shop products, planing-mill products,
+school seats, wood-working tools, fly paper, calcined plaster,
+barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons, agricultural implements and
+bricks and tile. The total factory product in 1904 was valued
+at $31,032,589, an increase of 39.6% in four years.</p>
+
+<p>On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large
+Ottawa Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a
+Baptist mission was established in 1824. Two years later a trading
+post joined the mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for
+the next few years the growth was rapid. The settlement was
+organized as a town in 1834, was incorporated as a village in 1838,
+and was chartered as a city in 1850, the city charter being revised
+in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAND RAPIDS,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Wood county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about
+137 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073
+were foreign-born; (1905) 6157; (1910) 6521. It is served
+by the Minneapolis, St Paul &amp; Sault Ste Marie, the Green Bay &amp;
+Western, the Chicago &amp; North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee
+&amp; St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing
+centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds,
+hubs and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and
+flour. The public buildings include a post office, court house, city
+hall, city hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892).
+The city owns and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting
+and telephone companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was
+first chartered as a city in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on
+the west bank of the Wisconsin river was formerly the city of
+Centralia (pop. in 1890, 1435); it was annexed in 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANDSON<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Grandsee</i>), a town in the Swiss canton of
+Vaud, near the south-western end of the Lake of Neuchâtel,
+and by rail 20 m. S.W. of Neuchâtel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon.
+Its population in 1900 was 1771, mainly French-speaking and
+Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the home of a noted race
+of barons, while in the very old church (once belonging to a
+Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman columns,
+&amp;c., from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory.
+Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle
+was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles
+the Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy.
+It was retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison
+put to death. The Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in
+a famous battle (2nd March 1476) defeated Charles with great
+loss, capturing much booty. The scene of the battle was between
+Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town, and is marked by
+several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was thenceforward
+till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and
+then was given to the canton du Léman, which in 1803 became
+that of Vaud.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Chabloz, <i>La Bataille de Grandson</i> (Lausanne, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANET, FRANÇOIS MARIUS<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1777-1849), French painter,
+was born at Aix in Provence, on the 17th of December 1777; his
+father was a small builder. The boy&rsquo;s strong desires led his
+parents to place him&mdash;after some preliminary teaching from
+a passing Italian artist&mdash;in a free school of art directed by
+M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation. In 1793
+Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon,
+at the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in
+the arsenal. Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance
+of the young comte de Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet,
+in the year 1797, went to Paris. De Forbin was one of the
+pupils of David, and Granet entered the same studio. Later he
+got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins, which,
+having served for a manufactory of assignats during the Revolution,
+was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists.
+In the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the
+Capuchins, Granet found the materials for that one picture to
+the painting of which, with varying success, he devoted his life.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span>
+In 1802 he left Paris for Rome, where he remained until 1819,
+when he returned to Paris, bringing with him besides various
+other works one of fourteen repetitions of his celebrated Ch&oelig;ur
+des Capucins, executed in 1811. The figures of the monks
+celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a substantive part
+of the architectural effect, and this is the case with all Granet&rsquo;s
+works, even with those in which the figure subject would seem
+to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest.
+&ldquo;Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall,&rdquo; 1810 (Leuchtenberg
+collection); &ldquo;Sodoma à l&rsquo;hôpital,&rdquo; 1815 (Louvre);
+&ldquo;Basilique basse de St François d&rsquo;Assise,&rdquo; 1823 (Louvre);
+&ldquo;Rachat de prisonniers,&rdquo; 1831 (Louvre); &ldquo;Mort de Poussin,&rdquo;
+1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among his principal works;
+all are marked by the same peculiarities, everything is sacrificed
+to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated Granet, and afterwards
+named him Chevalier de l&rsquo;Ordre St Michel, and Conservateur
+des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of
+the institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the
+ties which bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre,
+Granet constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to
+Aix, immediately lost his wife, and died himself on the 21st of
+November 1849. He bequeathed to his native town the greater
+part of his fortune and all his collections, now exhibited in the
+Musée, together with a very fine portrait of the donor painted
+by Ingres in 1811.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANGE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (through the A.-Fr. <i>graunge</i>, from the Med. Lat.
+<i>granea</i>, a place for storing grain, <i>granum</i>), properly a granary
+or barn. In the middle ages a &ldquo;grange&rdquo; was a detached portion
+of a manor with farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to
+a religious house; in it the crops could be conveniently stored for
+the purpose of collecting rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often
+known as &ldquo;tithe-barns.&rdquo; In many cases a chapel was included
+among the buildings or stood apart as a separate edifice. The
+word is still used as a name for a superior kind of farm-house,
+or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and agricultural
+land attached to it.</p>
+
+<p>Architecturally considered, the &ldquo;grange&rdquo; was usually a long
+building with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or
+columns into a sort of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly
+buttressed. Sometimes these granges were of very great extent;
+one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was originally 225 ft. long by
+75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft. long) existed at Chertsey.
+Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist at Glastonbury,
+Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary&rsquo;s Abbey, York, and at Coxwold.
+A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of
+the 19th century. In France there are many examples in stone of
+the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries; some divided into a central
+and two side aisles by arcades in stone. Externally granges are
+noticeable on account of their great roofs and the slight elevation
+of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only in height. In the 15th century
+they were sometimes protected by moats and towers. At
+Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long;
+Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys;
+at Perrières, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all
+in Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of
+fine examples. Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near
+Paris, is one of the best-preserved granges in France, with walls
+in stone and internally divided into three aisles in oak timber
+of extremely fine construction.</p>
+
+<p>In the social economic movement in the United States of
+America, which began in 1867 and was known as the &ldquo;Farmers&rsquo;
+Movement,&rdquo; &ldquo;grange&rdquo; was adopted as the name for a local
+chapter of the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, and the movement
+is thus often known as the &ldquo;Grangers&rsquo; Movement&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Farmers&rsquo; Movement</a></span>). There are a National Grange at Washington,
+supervising the local divisions, and state granges in
+most states.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANGEMOUTH,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore
+of the estuary of the Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also
+of Grange Burn, a right-hand tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E.
+of Falkirk by the North British and Caledonian railways. It
+is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal, from the opening
+of which (1789) its history may be dated. The principal buildings
+are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public institute
+and free library, and there is a public park presented by the
+marquess of Zetland. Since 1810, when it became a head port, it
+has gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth
+west of Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second
+(1859) and the third (1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber
+ponds of 44 acres and a total quayage of 2500 yards. New
+docks, 93 acres in extent, with an entrance from the firth, were
+opened in 1905 at a cost of more than £1,000,000. The works
+rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the Grange from the
+Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are the leading
+imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The
+industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron
+founding. There is regular steamer communication with London,
+Christiania, Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experiments
+in steam navigation were carried out in 1802 with the
+&ldquo;Charlotte Dundas&rdquo; on the Forth and Clyde Canal at Grangemouth.
+Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a seat
+of the marquess of Zetland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANGER, JAMES<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1723-1776), English clergyman and print-collector,
+was born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford,
+and then entered holy orders, becoming vicar of Shiplake; but
+apart from his hobby of portrait-collecting, which resulted in
+the principal work associated with his name, and the publication
+of some sermons, his life was uneventful. Yet a new word was
+added to the language&mdash;&ldquo;to grangerize&rdquo;&mdash;on account of him.
+In 1769 he published in two quarto volumes a <i>Biographical
+History of England</i> &ldquo;consisting of characters dispersed in different
+classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of engraved
+British heads&rdquo;; this was &ldquo;intended as an essay towards reducing
+our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge
+of portraits.&rdquo; The work was supplemented in later editions by
+Granger, and still further editions were brought out by the Rev.
+Mark Noble, with additions from Granger&rsquo;s materials. Blank
+leaves were left for the filling in of engraved portraits for extra
+illustration of the text, and it became a favourite pursuit to
+discover such illustrations and insert them in a <i>Granger</i>, so that
+&ldquo;grangerizing&rdquo; became a term for such an extra-illustration
+of any work, especially with cuts taken from other books. The
+immediate result of the appearance of Granger&rsquo;s own work was
+the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out
+and inserted in collector&rsquo;s copies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANITE<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (adapted from the Ital. <i>granito</i>, grained; Lat.
+<i>granum</i>, grain), the group designation for a family of igneous
+rocks whose essential characteristics are that they are of acid
+composition (containing high percentages of silica), consist
+principally of quartz and felspar, with some mica, hornblende
+or augite, and are of holocrystalline or &ldquo;granitoid&rdquo; structure.
+In popular usage the term is given to almost any crystalline rock
+which resembles granite in appearance or properties. Thus
+syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases, porphyries, gneiss, and even
+limestones and dolomites, are bought and sold daily as &ldquo;granites.&rdquo;
+True granites are common rocks, especially among the older
+strata of the earth&rsquo;s crust. They have great variety in colour
+and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others
+are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state
+of preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant
+minerals, and partly also on the relative proportion in which
+they contain biotite and other dark coloured silicates. Many
+granites have large rounded or angular crystals of felspar (Shap
+granite, many Cornish granites), well seen on polished faces.
+Others show an elementary foliation or banding (<i>e.g.</i> Aberdeen
+granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear in
+the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group.</p>
+
+<p>In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering
+wide areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular
+and may be 20 m. in diameter or more. In the same district
+separate areas or &ldquo;bosses&rdquo; of granite may be found, all having
+much in common in their mineralogical and structural features,
+and such groups have probably all proceeded from the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span>
+focus or deep-seated source. Towards their margins these
+granite outcrops often show modifications by which they pass into
+diorite or syenite, &amp;c.; they may also be finer grained (like
+porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of
+pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out
+into the surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is
+intrusive and has forced its way upwards by splitting apart the
+strata among which it lies. Further evidence of this is afforded
+by the alteration which the granite has produced through a zone
+which varies from a few yards to a mile or more in breadth
+around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites slates become
+converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite or
+andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; limestones
+recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their
+composition, are more or less profoundly modified in such a way
+as to prove that they have been raised to a high temperature by
+proximity to the molten intrusive mass. Where exposed in
+cliffs and other natural sections many granites have a rudely
+columnar appearance. Others weather into large cuboidal
+blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean
+masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature.
+These differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks
+which traverse the rock and are opened up by the action of
+frost and weathering.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their
+principal component minerals may be identified in the hand
+specimens by the unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white
+or pink, with smooth cleaved surfaces; the quartz is usually
+transparent, glassy with rough irregular fractures; the micas
+appear as shining black or white flakes. Very coarse granites
+are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine granites
+are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also been
+applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly
+scales of white mica; others contain dark green or black hornblende
+in small prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet
+are occasionally visible. In the tourmaline granites prisms of
+black schorl occur either singly or in stellate groups. The
+parallel banded structures of many granites, which may be
+original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the granite
+gneisses or orthogneisses.</p>
+
+<p>Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with
+perthite or microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase
+(ranging from oligoclase to albite) is practically never absent.
+These minerals are often clouded by a deposit of fine mica and
+kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is transparent, irregular
+in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled with very small
+cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and sometimes
+a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in
+parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale
+green in section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless.
+Tourmaline may be brown, yellow or blue, and often the same
+crystal shows zones of different colours. Apatite, zircon and
+iron oxides, in small crystals, are always present. Among the
+less common accessories may be mentioned pinkish garnets;
+andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless grains of
+topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which weather
+to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl,
+tinstone, orthite and pyrites.</p>
+
+<p>The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal
+type, and may be ascertained by observing the perfection with
+which the different minerals have crystallized and the order in
+which they enclose one another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides
+are the first; their crystals are small, very perfect and nearly
+free from enclosures; they are followed by hornblende and
+biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds the brown mica.
+Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and forms well-shaped
+crystals of which the central parts may be more basic
+than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline
+and micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left
+between the earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are
+unusual; sometimes the first of the felspars have preceded the
+hornblende or biotite which may envelop them in ophitic manner.
+An earlier generation of felspar, and occasionally also of quartz,
+may be represented by large and perfect crystals of these minerals
+giving the rock a porphyritic character.</p>
+
+<p>Many granites have suffered modification by the action of
+vapours emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric
+emanations exert a profound influence on granitic rocks; their
+felspar is resolved into aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and
+quartz; tourmaline appears, largely replacing the brown mica;
+topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the rotten granite or
+china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over considerable
+areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable sources of
+china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may
+traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable
+quantities. These veins are the principal sources of tin in Cornwall,
+but the same changes may appear in the body of the
+granite without being restricted to veins, and tinstone occurs
+also as an original constituent of some granite pegmatites.</p>
+
+<p>Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals
+tend to lose their original forms and to break into mosaics of
+interlocking grains. The latter structure is very well seen in the
+quartz, which is a brittle mineral under stress. White mica
+develops in the felspars. The larger crystals are converted into
+lenticular or elliptical &ldquo;augen,&rdquo; which may be shattered throughout
+or may have a peripheral seam of small detached granules
+surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of &ldquo;granulitic&rdquo;
+or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock,
+giving it a roughly foliated character.</p>
+
+<p>The interesting structural variation of granite in which there
+are spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known
+as &ldquo;orbicular granite.&rdquo; The spheroids range from a fraction
+of an inch to a foot in diameter, and may have a felspar crystal
+at the centre. Around this there may be several zones, alternately
+lighter and darker in colour, consisting of the essential minerals
+of the rock in different proportions. Radiate arrangement is
+sometimes visible in the crystals of the whole or part of the
+spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are found in Sweden,
+Finland, Ireland, &amp;c. In other cases the spheroids are simply
+dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably
+due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as
+they separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its
+crystallization. The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many
+round or ovoidal felspar crystals scattered through a granitic
+matrix. These larger felspars have no crystalline outlines and
+consist of orthoclase or microcline surrounded by borders of
+white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark crystals of biotite
+and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these granites
+contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite
+masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks,
+it is common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous
+materials which are more or less dissolved and permeated by
+the granitic magma.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts
+of the world is given below:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">74.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">II.</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">III.</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.74</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.74</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">IV.</td> <td class="tcc rb">76.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.54</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">73.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.99</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">VI.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">68.87</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.62</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.71</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.80</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.48</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana
+(Harrison); III. Rödö, near Alnö, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holmquist);
+IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch);
+V. Pikes Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson&rsquo;s Creek, near
+Omeo, Victoria (Howitt).</p>
+
+<p>Only the most important components are shown in the table,
+but all granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium
+oxide, phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium,
+manganese and water. These are in all cases less than 1%, and
+usually much less than this, except the water, which may be 2 or
+3% in weathered rocks. From the chemical composition it may be
+computed that granites contain, on an average, 35 to 55% of quartz,
+20 to 30% of orthoclase, 20 to 30% of plagioclase felspar (including
+the albite of microperthite) and 5 to 10% of ferromagnesian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span>
+silicates and minor accessories such as apatite, zircon, sphene and
+iron oxides. The aplites, pegmatites, graphic granites and muscovite
+granites are usually richest in silica, while with increase of biotite
+and hornblende, augite and enstatite the analyses show the presence
+of more magnesia, iron and lime.</p>
+
+<p>In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change;
+the felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, muscovite
+and secondary quartz, while chlorite, quartz and calcite
+replace the biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes
+a rusty brown colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and
+the decomposed mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade;
+where the granite has been cut by joint planes not too close together
+weathering proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks
+may be left embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water
+in the rock increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in
+solution; they form valuable sources of mineral food to plants.
+The chemical changes are shown by the following analyses:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">H<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">TiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">69.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">n.d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">II.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">n.d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">n.d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">III.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.70</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65.69</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.23</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.63</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.64</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.06</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm
+granite; III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the
+same mass (anal. G. P. Merrill).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The differences are surprisingly small and are principally
+an increase in the water and a diminution in the amount of
+alkalis and lime together with the oxidation of the ferrous
+oxide.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAN SASSO D&rsquo;ITALIA<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (&ldquo;Great Rock of Italy&rdquo;), a mountain
+of the Abruzzi, Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines,
+9560 ft. in height. In formation it resembles the limestone Alps
+of Tirol and there are on its elevated plateaus a number of <i>doline</i>
+or funnel-shaped depressions into which the melted snow and
+the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow for the greater
+part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno, as it is
+sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a
+magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit
+is still the home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense
+woods of beech and pine. The group has numerous other lofty
+peaks, of which the chief are the Pizzo d&rsquo;Intermesole (8680 ft.),
+the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and
+the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The most convenient
+starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of Aquila,
+at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has
+erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a
+special guidebook (E. Abbate, <i>Guida al Gran Sasso d&rsquo; Italia</i>,
+Rome, 1888). The view from the summit extends to the
+Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the mountains of Dalmatia on
+the east in clear weather. The ascent was first made in 1794
+by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the
+interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150,
+with later alterations (see Gavini, in <i>L&rsquo; Arte</i>, 1901, 316, 391).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British
+scholar and educationalist, was born in New York on the 13th of
+September 1826. After a childhood spent in the West Indies,
+he was educated at Harrow and Oxford. He entered Oxford
+as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently held a fellowship at Oriel
+from 1849 to 1860. He made a special study of the Aristotelian
+philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the <i>Ethics</i>
+(4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford.
+In 1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service,
+and in 1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the
+latter year he succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to
+Madras with Sir Charles Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector
+of schools; the next year he removed to Bombay, to fill the post
+of Professor of History and Political Economy in the Elphinstone
+College. Of this he became Principal in 1862; and, a year
+later, vice-chancellor of Bombay University, a post he held from
+1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to 1868. In 1865 he took upon
+himself also the duties of Director of Public Instruction for
+Bombay Presidency. In 1868 he was appointed a member of
+the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of
+Sir David Brewster, he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh
+University, which had conferred an honorary LL.D. degree upon
+him in 1865. From that time till his death (which occurred in
+Edinburgh on the 30th of November 1884) his energies were
+entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The
+institution of the medical school in the University was almost
+solely due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival,
+celebrated in 1884, was the result of his wisely directed enthusiasm.
+In that year he published <i>The Story of the University of
+Edinburgh during its First Three Hundred Years</i>. He was
+created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and an honorary fellow
+of Oriel College in 1882.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, ANNE<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known
+as Mrs Grant of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 21st of
+February 1755. Her childhood was spent in America, her father,
+Duncan MacVicar, being an army officer on
+service there. In 1768 the family returned
+to Scotland, and in 1779 Anne married
+James Grant, an army chaplain, who was
+also minister of the parish of Laggan, near
+Fort Augustus, Inverness, where her father
+was barrack-master. On her husband&rsquo;s death in 1801 she
+was left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she
+published by subscription a volume of <i>Original Poems, with
+some Translations from the Gaelic</i>, which was favourably received.
+In 1806 her <i>Letters from the Mountains</i>, with their spirited description
+of Highland scenery and legends, awakened much interest.
+Her other works are <i>Memoirs of an American Lady, with Sketches
+of Manners and Scenery in America as they existed previous to
+the Revolution</i> (1808), containing reminiscences of her childhood;
+<i>Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of Scotland</i> (1811);
+and <i>Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem</i> (1814). In 1810
+she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her
+life she received a pension from government. She died on the
+7th of November 1838.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited
+by her son J. P. Grant</i> (3 vols., 1844).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, CHARLES<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1746-1823), British politician, was born
+at Aldourie, Inverness-shire, on the 16th of April 1746, the day
+on which his father, Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting
+for the Jacobites at Culloden. When a young man Charles
+went to India, where he became secretary, and later a member
+of the board of trade. He returned to Scotland in 1790, and in
+1802 was elected to parliament as member for the county of
+Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests were in
+Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility
+to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen
+chairman of the directors of the East India Company and he
+retired from parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce,
+Grant was a prominent member of the evangelical party in the
+Church of England; he was a generous supporter of the church&rsquo;s
+missionary undertakings. He was largely responsible for the
+establishment of the East India college, which was afterwards
+erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the 31st of October
+1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in 1835 as
+Baron Glenelg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Henry Morris, <i>Life of Charles Grant</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1803-1878), English portrait-painter,
+fourth son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born
+at Edinburgh in 1803. He was educated for the bar, but at the
+age of twenty-four he began at Edinburgh systematically to
+study the practice of art. On completing a course of instruction
+he removed to London, and as early as 1843 exhibited at the
+Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he utilized his
+sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses
+and hounds, such as the &ldquo;Meet of H.M. Staghounds&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;Melton Hunt&rdquo;; but his position in society gradually made
+him a fashionable portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste
+of a connoisseur, and rendered the minutest details of costume
+with felicitous accuracy. In female portraiture he achieved
+considerable success, although rather in depicting the high-born
+graces and external characteristics than the true personality.
+Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned Lady
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span>
+Glenlyon, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs
+Beauclerk. In his portraits of generals and sportsmen he
+proved himself more equal to his subjects than in those of statesmen
+and men of letters. He painted many of the principal
+celebrities of the time, including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart,
+Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby, Palmerston and Russell, his
+brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir Edwin Landseer.
+From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In 1842 he
+was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 an
+Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C.
+Eastlake in the post of president, for which his chief recommendations
+were his social distinction, tact, urbanity and
+friendly and liberal consideration of his brother artists. Shortly
+after his election as president he was knighted, and in 1870 the
+degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the university of
+Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, GEORGE MONRO<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1835-1902), principal of Queen&rsquo;s
+University, Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835.
+He was educated at Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant
+academic career; and having entered the ministry of the
+Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada and obtained a
+pastoral charge in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held from
+1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher
+and as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada
+was confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most
+strongly opposed to federal union. Grant threw the whole
+weight of his great influence in favour of confederation, and his
+oratory played an important part in securing the success of
+the movement. When the consolidation of the Dominion by
+means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872,
+Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers
+who surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his
+book <i>Ocean to Ocean</i> (1873) was one of the first things that opened
+the eyes of Canadians to the value of the immense heritage
+they enjoyed. He never lost an opportunity, whether in the
+pulpit or on the platform, of pressing on his hearers that the
+greatest future for Canada lay in unity with the rest of the
+British Empire; and his broad statesman-like judgment made him
+an authority which politicians of all parties were glad to consult.
+In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen&rsquo;s University,
+Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence
+expanded from a small denominational college into a large and
+influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an exceptionally
+able body of professors whose influence in speculation
+and research was widely felt during the quarter of a century that
+he remained at its head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New
+Zealand and South Africa, the effect of this experience being to
+strengthen still further the Imperialism which was the guiding
+principle of his political opinions. On the outbreak of the South
+African War in 1899 Grant was at first disposed to be hostile
+to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain; but his
+eyes were soon opened to the real nature of President Kruger&rsquo;s
+government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and supported the
+national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions of the
+Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa.
+Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occurring
+at Kingston on the 10th of May 1902. At the time of his
+death <i>The Times</i> observed that &ldquo;it is acknowledged on all hands
+that in him the Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it
+has yet produced.&rdquo; He was the author of a number of works, of
+which the most notable besides <i>Ocean to Ocean</i> are, <i>Advantages of
+Imperial Federation</i> (1889), <i>Our National Objects and Aims</i> (1890),
+<i>Religions of the World in Relation to Christianity</i> (1894) and
+volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant married in 1872 Jessie,
+daughter of William Lawson of Halifax.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, JAMES<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in
+Edinburgh on the 1st of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was
+a captain in the 92nd Gordon Highlanders and had served through
+the Peninsular War. For several years James Grant was in Newfoundland
+with his father, but in 1839 he returned to England,
+and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In 1843 he resigned
+his commission and devoted himself to writing, first magazine
+articles, but soon a profusion of novels, full of vivacity and
+incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters.
+His best stories, perhaps, were <i>The Romance of War</i> (his first,
+1845), <i>Bothwell</i> (1851), <i>Frank Hilton; or, The Queen&rsquo;s Own</i> (1855),
+<i>The Phantom Regiment</i> and <i>Harry Ogilvie</i> (1856), <i>Lucy Arden</i>
+(1858), <i>The White Cockade</i> (1867), <i>Only an Ensign</i> (1871), <i>Shall
+I Win Her?</i> (1874), <i>Playing with Fire</i> (1887). Grant also wrote
+<i>British Battles on Land and Sea</i> (1873-1875) and valuable books
+on Scottish history. Permanent value attaches to his great
+work, in three volumes, on <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i> (1880).
+He was the founder and energetic promoter of the National
+Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875 he
+became a Roman Catholic. He died on the 5th of May 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1827-1892), Scottish explorer
+of eastern equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father
+was the parish minister, on the 11th of April 1827. He was
+educated at the grammar school and Marischal College, Aberdeen,
+and in 1846 joined the Indian army. He saw active service in the
+Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout the mutiny of 1857,
+and was wounded in the operations for the relief of Lucknow.
+He returned to England in 1858, and in 1860 joined J. H. Speke
+(<i>q.v.</i>) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of
+the Nile sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860
+and reached Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch
+with civilization, in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but
+Grant carried out several investigations independently and made
+valuable botanical collections. He acted throughout in absolute
+loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he published, as supplementary
+to Speke&rsquo;s account of their journey, <i>A Walk across Africa</i>, in
+which he dealt particularly with &ldquo;the ordinary life and pursuits,
+the habits and feelings of the natives&rdquo; and the economic value
+of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron&rsquo;s
+medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1866 given the
+Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in
+the expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the
+Abyssinian expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I. and
+received the Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he retired
+from the army with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He had
+married in 1865, and he now settled down at Nairn, where he
+died on the 11th of February 1892. He made contributions to
+the journals of various learned societies, the most notable being
+the &ldquo;Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition&rdquo; in vol. xxix.
+of the <i>Transactions of the Linnaean Society</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1808-1875), English general,
+fifth and youngest son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire,
+and brother of Sir Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd
+of July 1808. He entered the army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th
+Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828 and captain in 1835.
+In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the Chinese War,
+and specially distinguished himself at the capture of Chin-Kiang,
+after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In the
+first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon;
+and in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded
+the 9th Lancers, and won high reputation in the battles of
+Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat). He was promoted brevet
+lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the same substantive
+rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856 brigadier
+of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the
+Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command
+of the cavalry division, and afterwards of a movable column of
+horse and foot. After rendering valuable service in the operations
+before Delhi and in the final assault on the city, he directed the
+victorious march of the cavalry and horse artillery despatched in
+the direction of Cawnpore to open up communication with the
+commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell, whom he met near the
+Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of brigadier-general,
+and placed the whole force under his command during what
+remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the
+residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly
+aided in effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by
+making a detour which threatened their rear; and following in
+pursuit with a flying column, he defeated them with the loss of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span>
+nearly all their guns at Serai Ghat. He also took part in the
+operations connected with the recapture of Lucknow, shortly
+after which he was promoted to the rank of major-general,
+and appointed to the command of the force employed for the final
+pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied energy,
+and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring,
+rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification
+was quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was
+appointed, with the local rank of lieutenant-general, to the command
+of the British land forces in the united French and British
+expedition against China. The object of the campaign was
+accomplished within three months of the landing of the forces at
+Pei-tang (1st of August 1860). The Taku Forts had been carried
+by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the open and
+Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called
+the &ldquo;most successful and the best carried out of England&rsquo;s
+little wars,&rdquo; he received the thanks of parliament and was
+gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he was made lieutenant-general and
+appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Madras; on his
+return to England in 1865 he was made quartermaster-general
+at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to the command
+of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in the
+reform of the educational and training systems of the forces,
+which followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of
+annual army man&oelig;uvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant.
+In 1872 he was gazetted general. He died in London on the
+7th of March 1875.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private
+Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B., together with some explanatory
+chapters by Capt. H. Knollys, Royal Artillery</i>, was published
+in 1873, and <i>Incidents in the China War of 1860</i> appeared posthumously
+under the same editorship in 1875.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR PATRICK<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1804-1895), British field marshal, was
+the second son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair,
+Inverness-shire, where he was born on the 11th of September
+1804. He entered the Bengal native infantry as ensign in 1820,
+and became captain in 1832. He served in Oudh from 1834 to
+1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry. Employed in the
+adjutant-general&rsquo;s department of the Bengal army from 1838
+until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served
+under Sir Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843,
+winning a brevet majority, was adjutant-general of the army
+at the battles of Moodkee in 1845 (twice severely wounded),
+and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846, receiving the C.B. and the
+brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took part in the battles
+of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining further promotion,
+and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He served also
+in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted major-general
+in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army
+from 1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General
+Anson&rsquo;s death was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme
+command of the army in India. From Calcutta he directed
+the operations against the mutineers, sending forces under
+Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow,
+until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as commander-in-chief,
+when he returned to Madras. On leaving
+India in 1861 he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted
+lieutenant-general in 1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to
+1872, was made G.C.M.G. in 1868, promoted general in 1870,
+field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the Royal Horse Guards
+and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He married as
+his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh
+(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal
+Hospital, Chelsea, from 1874 until his death there on the 28th
+of March 1895.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, ROBERT<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born
+at Grantown, Scotland, on the 17th of June 1814. At the age
+of thirteen the promise of a brilliant career was clouded by a
+prolonged illness of such a serious character as to incapacitate
+him from all school-work for six years. At twenty, however,
+his health greatly improved, and he set himself resolutely, without
+assistance, to repair his earlier disadvantages by the diligent
+study of Greek, Latin, Italian and mathematics. Astronomy
+also occupied his attention, and it was stimulated by the return
+of Halley&rsquo;s comet in 1835, as well as by his success in observing
+the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May 1836. After
+a short course at King&rsquo;s College, Aberdeen, he obtained in 1841
+employment in his brother&rsquo;s counting-house in London. During
+this period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of
+physical astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he
+had to search, amongst other records, those of the French
+Academy, and for that purpose took up his residence in Paris
+in 1845, supporting himself by giving lessons in English. He
+returned to London in 1847. <i>The History of Physical Astronomy
+from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century</i> was
+first published in parts in <i>The Library of Useful Knowledge</i>, but
+after the issue of the ninth part this mode of publication was
+discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852. The
+main object of the work is, in the author&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;to exhibit
+a view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a
+knowledge of the mechanical principles which regulate the
+movements of the celestial bodies, and in explaining the various
+phenomena relative to their physical constitution which observation
+with the telescope has disclosed.&rdquo; The lucidity and completeness
+with which a great variety of abstruse subjects were treated,
+the extent of research and the maturity of judgment it displayed,
+were the more remarkable, when it is remembered that this was
+the first published work of one who enjoyed no special opportunities,
+either for acquiring materials, or for discussing with
+others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of.
+The book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature,
+and earned for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal
+Astronomical Society&rsquo;s gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John
+Pringle Nichol as professor of astronomy in the University of
+Glasgow. From time to time he contributed astronomical
+papers to the <i>Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten,
+Comptes rendus</i> and other scientific serials; but his principal
+work at Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large
+number of stars with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory.
+The results of these labours, extending over twenty-one years,
+are contained in the <i>Glasgow Catalogue of 6415 Stars</i>, published
+in 1883. This was followed in 1892 by the <i>Second Glasgow
+Catalogue of 2156 Stars</i>, published a few weeks after his death,
+which took place on the 24th of October 1892.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin);
+<i>Nature</i>, Nov. 10, 1892; <i>The Times</i>, Nov. 2, 1892; <i>Roy. Society&rsquo;s
+Catalogue of Scient. Papers</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. A. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1822-1885), American soldier,
+and eighteenth president of the United States, was born at
+Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the 27th of April 1822. He was a
+descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman, who settled in
+Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years were
+spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in
+Ohio. In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military
+academy at West Point, and it was then that his name assumed
+the form by which it is generally known. He was christened
+Hiram, after an ancestor, with Ulysses for a middle name.
+As he was usually called by his middle name, the congressman
+who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his
+first name, and added thereto the name of his mother&rsquo;s family,
+Simpson. Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took
+a respectable place in mathematics, but at his graduation in
+1843 he only ranked twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In
+September 1845 he went with his regiment to join the forces of
+General Taylor in Mexico; there he took part in the battles of
+Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Monterey, and, after his transfer
+to General Scott&rsquo;s army, which he joined in March 1847, served
+at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey and at
+the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant
+for gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at
+Chapultepec. In August 1848, after the close of the war, he
+married Julia T. Dent (1826-1902), and was for a while stationed
+in California and Oregon, but in 1854 he resigned his commission.
+His reputation in the service had suffered from allegations of
+intemperate drinking, which, whether well founded or not,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span>
+certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the next
+six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty subsistence
+by farming and dealings in real estate. In 1860 he removed
+to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept
+by his father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to
+have exceeded $800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends
+as a broken and disappointed man. He was living at Galena
+at the outbreak of hostilities between the North and South.</p>
+
+<p>[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant&rsquo;s battles and
+campaigns, the reader is referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil
+War</a></span>. To the &ldquo;call to arms&rdquo; of 1861 Grant promptly
+responded. After some delay he was commissioned
+<span class="sidenote">Grant&rsquo;s Civil War career.</span>
+colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment and soon afterwards
+brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to
+a territorial command on the Mississippi, and first won distinction
+by his energy in seizing, on his own responsibility, the important
+point of Paducah, Kentucky, situated at the confluence of
+the two great waterways of the Tennessee and the Ohio (6th
+Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his first
+battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if
+it failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him
+to be a capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was entrusted
+by General H. W. Halleck with the command of a large
+force to clear the lower reaches of the Cumberland and the
+Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be passed on the general
+strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his able and
+energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant
+success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced
+to capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were promoted
+to the rank of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards,
+but Grant&rsquo;s own fortunes suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a
+disagreement with Halleck. When, after being virtually under
+arrest, he rejoined his army, it was concentrated about Savannah
+on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign towards Corinth,
+Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on Grant&rsquo;s
+camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (<i>q.v.</i>). After two days&rsquo;
+desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the combined
+attack of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the
+Army of the Ohio under Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee
+had been on the verge of annihilation on the evening of the first
+day, and Grant&rsquo;s leadership throughout was by no means equal
+to the emergency, though he displayed his usual personal
+bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of Halleck&rsquo;s
+armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all important
+duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole
+force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace.
+But Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and
+Grant took command of his old army and of Rosecrans&rsquo; Army
+of the Mississippi. Two victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won
+in the autumn of 1862, but the credit of both fell to Rosecrans,
+who commanded in the field, and the nadir of Grant&rsquo;s military
+fortunes was reached when the first advance on Vicksburg (<i>q.v.</i>),
+planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a series of
+political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the
+original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly
+Springs and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862).</p>
+
+<p>It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other
+unsuccessful generals into retirement, had he not shown that,
+whatever his mistakes or failures, and whether he was or was
+not sober and temperate in his habits, he possessed the iron
+determination and energy which in the eyes of Lincoln and
+Stanton,<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and of the whole Northern people, was the first requisite
+of their generals. He remained then with his army near Vicksburg,
+trying one plan after another without result, until at last
+after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was
+crowned with success&mdash;a success directly consequent upon a
+strange and bizarre campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring
+and vigour were more conspicuous than ever before. On the
+4th of July 1863 the great fortress surrendered with 29,491 men,
+this being one of the most important victories won by the Union
+arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made a major-general
+in the regular army. A few months later the great reverse of
+Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with
+the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg
+and Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga,
+to decide the fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second
+battle. Four armies were placed under his command, and
+three of these concentrated at Chattanooga. On the 25th of
+November 1863 a great three-days&rsquo; battle ended with the
+crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day had no
+foothold in the centre and west.</p>
+
+<p>After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all
+the Union forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and
+the rank of lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864).
+Grant&rsquo;s headquarters henceforth accompanied the Army of the
+Potomac, and the lieutenant-general directed the campaign in
+Virginia. This, with Grant&rsquo;s driving energy infused into the
+best army that the Union possessed, resolved itself into a
+series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible battles. Tactically the
+Confederates were almost always victorious, strategically, Grant,
+disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back Lee and the
+Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and Petersburg,
+while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of
+&ldquo;attrition,&rdquo; the Federal leader used his men with a merciless
+energy that has few, if any, parallels in modern history. At
+Cold Harbor six thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting
+an hour, and after two months the Union armies lay before
+Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but had lost no fewer than
+72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his determination.
+&ldquo;I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer,&rdquo;
+was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the
+chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he
+never relaxed his hold on Lee&rsquo;s army, and, in spite of repeated
+partial reverses, that would have been defeats for his predecessors,
+he gradually wore down his gallant adversary. The terrible
+cost of these operations did not check him: only on one occasion
+of grave peril were any troops sent from his lines to serve elsewhere,
+and he drew to himself the bulk of the men whom the
+Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final
+effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely
+supervised by Grant, preoccupied though he was with the
+operations against his own adversary. At a critical moment
+he actually left the Virginian armies to their own commanders,
+and started to take personal command in a threatened quarter,
+and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman and Thomas,
+who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the centre.
+That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command
+of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating
+many hundreds of miles apart from each other, while at the
+same time he watched and man&oelig;uvred against a great captain
+and a veteran army in one field of the war, must be the greatest
+proof of Grant&rsquo;s powers as a general. In the end complete success
+rewarded the sacrifices and efforts of the Federals on every theatre
+of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in personal control, the
+merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee&rsquo;s army until a mere
+remnant was left for the final surrender.</p>
+
+<p>Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was
+universally regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful
+study of the history of the war thoroughly bears out the popular
+view. There were soldiers more accomplished, as was McClellan,
+more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and more exact, as was Buell,
+but it would be difficult to prove that these generals, or indeed
+any others in the service, could have accomplished the task
+which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be supposed
+that Grant learned little from three years&rsquo; campaigning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span>
+in high command. There is less in common than is often supposed
+between the buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the
+grim plodding determination that led him to Vicksburg and
+to Appomattox. Shiloh revealed to Grant the intensity of the
+struggle, and after that battle, appreciating to the full the
+material and moral factors with which he had to deal, he gradually
+trained his military character on those lines which alone could
+conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose, and relentless
+vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the qualities
+necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing the
+Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree
+that he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical
+finesse he was surpassed by many of his predecessors and his
+subordinates, he had the most important qualities of a great
+captain, courage that rose higher with each obstacle, and the
+clear judgment to distinguish the essential from the minor
+issues in war.&mdash;(C. F. A.)]</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was
+shown by his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with
+the Confederate leaders, and it was understood that indictments
+for treason were to be brought against General Lee and others.
+Grant, however, insisted that the United States government
+was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and his army at
+Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his commission
+if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic
+action on Grant&rsquo;s part saved the United States from a foul
+stain upon its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was
+created, for the first time since the organization of the government,
+and Grant was promoted to that position. In the following
+year he became involved in the deadly quarrel between
+President Johnson and Congress. To tie the president&rsquo;s hands
+Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act, forbidding the
+president to remove any cabinet officer without the consent of
+the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended
+Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war <i>ad
+interim</i> until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained.
+Grant accepted the appointment under protest, and held it
+until the following January, when the Senate refused to confirm
+the president&rsquo;s action, and Secretary Stanton resumed his
+office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the readiness
+with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a bitter
+controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto
+Grant had taken little part in politics. The only vote which
+he had ever cast for a presidential candidate was in 1856 for
+<span class="sidenote">Presidency, 1868.</span>
+James Buchanan; and leading Democrats, so late as
+the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their candidate
+in the election of that year; but the effect of
+the controversy with President Johnson was to bring
+Grant forward as the candidate of the Republican party. At the
+convention in Chicago on the 20th of May 1868 he was unanimously
+nominated on the first ballot. The Democratic party
+nominated the one available Democrat who had the smallest
+chance of beating him&mdash;Horatio Seymour, lately governor of
+New York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless
+as a candidate because of his attitude during the war. The
+result of the contest was at no time in doubt; Grant received
+214 electoral votes and Seymour 80.</p>
+
+<p>The most important domestic event of Grant&rsquo;s first term as
+president was the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the
+Constitution on the 30th of March 1870, providing that suffrage
+throughout the United States should not be restricted on account
+of race, colour or previous condition of servitude. The most
+important event in foreign policy was the treaty with Great
+Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as the Treaty
+of Washington, whereby several controversies between the
+United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions
+as to damage inflicted upon the United States by the &ldquo;Alabama&rdquo;
+and other Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England,
+were referred to arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo
+Domingo (or the Dominican Republic) expressed a wish for
+annexation by the United States, and such a step was favoured
+by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in view failed
+to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In May
+1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious Reconstruction
+laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed
+by Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The
+Amnesty Bill restored civil rights to all persons in the South,
+save from 300 to 500 who had held high positions under the
+Confederacy. As early as 1870 President Grant recommended
+measures of civil service reform, and succeeded in obtaining an
+act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service commission.
+A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the
+politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty
+years since Crawford&rsquo;s Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820,
+the country had been growing more and more familiar with the
+spectacle of corruption in high places. The evil rose to alarming
+proportions during Grant&rsquo;s presidency, partly because of the
+immense extension of the civil service, partly because of the
+growing tendency to alliance between spoilsmen and the persons
+benefited by protective tariffs, and partly because the public
+attention was still so much absorbed in Southern affairs that little
+energy was left for curbing rascality in the North. The scandals,
+indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in close
+relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping
+with the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high intellectual
+powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of
+nature charming in itself, but often calculated to render him
+the easy prey of sharpers. He found it almost impossible to
+believe that anything could be wrong in persons to whom he
+had given his friendship, and on several occasions such friends
+proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely
+prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure government
+in the United States demanded that President Grant should
+not be elected to a second term. This feeling led a number of
+high-minded gentlemen to form themselves into an organization
+under the name of Liberal Republicans. They held a convention
+at Cincinnati in May with the intention of nominating for the
+presidency Charles Francis Adams, who had ably represented
+the United States at the court of St James&rsquo;s during the Civil
+War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians
+who converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating
+Horace Greeley, editor of the <i>New York Tribune</i>, who represented
+almost anything rather than the object for which the convention
+had been called together. The Democrats had despaired of
+electing a candidate of their own, and hoped to achieve success
+by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove to be an
+eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in
+1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them
+wisdom; it was still in their power to make a gallant fight by
+nominating a person for whom Republican reformers could
+vote. But with almost incredible fatuity, they adopted Greeley
+as their candidate. As a natural result Grant was re-elected
+by an overwhelming majority.</p>
+
+<p>The most important event of his second term was his veto
+of the Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the
+Resumption Act in the following year. The country
+was still labouring under the curse of an inconvertible
+<span class="sidenote">Second presidency.</span>
+paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act
+of 1862. There was a considerable party in favour of
+debasing the currency indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with
+that object was passed by Congress in April 1874. It was
+promptly vetoed by President Grant, and two months later he
+wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones of Nevada
+advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of
+the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his consistent
+advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high
+credit as for his victories in the field. In spite of these great
+services, popular dissatisfaction with the Republican party
+rapidly increased during the years 1874-1876. The causes were
+twofold: firstly, there was great dissatisfaction with the troubles
+in the Southern states, owing to the harsh Reconstruction
+laws and the robberies committed by the carpet-bag governments
+which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span>
+Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue,
+awakened lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near
+to President Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid
+the suspicion that he was himself implicated, and never perhaps
+was his hold upon popular favour so slight as in the summer
+and autumn of 1876.</p>
+
+<p>After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant
+started on a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife
+and one son. He was received with distinguished
+honours in England and on the continent of Europe,
+<span class="sidenote">Later life.</span>
+whence he made his way to India, China and Japan.
+After his return to America in September 1880 he went back to
+his old home in Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers
+of the Republican party attempted to secure his nomination for
+a third term as president, and in the convention at Chicago in
+June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300 during 36 consecutive
+ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such effective use of
+the popular prejudice against third terms that the scheme was
+defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881
+General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His
+income was insufficient for the proper support of his family, and
+accordingly he had become partner in a banking house in which
+one of his sons was interested along with other persons. The
+name of the firm was Grant and Ward. The ex-president
+invested in it all his available property, but paid no attention to
+the management of the business. His facility in giving his confidence
+to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire
+calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was discovered
+that two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic
+and gigantic frauds. This severe blow left General Grant
+penniless, just at the time when he was beginning to suffer
+acutely from the disease which finally caused his death. Down
+to this time he had never made any pretensions to literary skill
+or talent, but on being approached by the <i>Century Magazine</i>
+with a request for some articles he undertook the work in order
+to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and
+led to the writing of his <i>Personal Memoirs</i>, a frank, modest
+and charming book, which ranks among the best standard
+military biographies. The sales earned for the general and his
+family something like half a million dollars. The circumstances
+in which it was written made it an act of heroism comparable
+with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier. During most of
+the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the throat, and
+it was only four days before his death that he finished the manuscript.
+In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him
+a general on the retired list; and in the summer he was removed
+to a cottage at Mount M&rsquo;Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed
+the last five weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of
+July 1885. His body was placed in a temporary tomb in
+Riverside Drive, in New York City, overlooking the Hudson
+river.<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was
+a charming side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times
+almost like that of a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindliness
+and generosity, and if there was anything especially difficult
+for him to endure, it was the sight of human suffering, as was
+shown on the night at Shiloh, where he lay out of doors in the
+icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room where the
+surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as his
+sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as
+president, especially in his triumphant fight against the greenback
+monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings,
+Grant was a massive, noble and lovable personality, well fit to
+be remembered as one of the heroes of a great nation.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. Fi.)</div>
+
+<p>General Grant&rsquo;s son, <span class="sc">Frederick Dent Grant</span> (b. 1850),
+graduated at the U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de-camp
+to General Philip Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from
+the army in 1881, after having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel.
+He was U.S. minister to Austria in 1889-1893, and
+police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He served
+as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American
+War of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-general
+in the regular army in February 1901 and major-general
+in February 1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Adam Badeau&rsquo;s <i>Military History of U. S. Grant</i>
+(3 vols., New York, 1867-1881), and <i>Grant in Peace</i> (Hartford,
+1887), are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William
+Conant Church&rsquo;s <i>Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Preservation
+and Reconstruction</i> (New York, 1897) is a good succinct
+account. Hamlin Garland&rsquo;s <i>Ulysses S. Grant, His Life and Character</i>
+(New York, 1898) gives especial attention to the personal
+traits of Grant and abounds in anecdote. See also Grant&rsquo;s <i>Personal
+Memoirs</i> (2 vols., New York, 1885-1886); J. G. Wilson&rsquo;s <i>Life and
+Public Services of U. S. Grant</i> (New York, 1886); J. R. Young&rsquo;s
+<i>Around the World with General Grant</i> (New York, 1880); Horace
+Porter&rsquo;s <i>Campaigning with Grant</i> (New York, 1897); James Ford
+Rhodes&rsquo;s <i>History of the United States</i> (vols. iii.-vii., New York, 1896-1906);
+James K. Hosmer&rsquo;s <i>Appeal to Arms and Outcome of the Civil
+War</i> (New York, 1907); John Eaton&rsquo;s <i>Grant, Lincoln, and the
+Freedmen</i> (New York, 1907), and various works mentioned in the
+articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness Campaign</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> President Lincoln was Grant&rsquo;s most unwavering supporter.
+Many amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations
+which waited upon him to ask for Grant&rsquo;s removal. On one occasion
+he asked the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by
+Grant, so that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The
+question of Grant&rsquo;s abstemiousness was and is of little importance.
+The cause at stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the
+United States, since the war, have been in general content to leave
+the question alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908,
+when President Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant&rsquo;s tomb.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The permanent tomb is of white granite and white marble and
+is 150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building
+90 ft. on the side and 72 ft. high; the sarcophagus, in the centre
+of the building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone
+was laid by President Harrison in 1892, and the tomb was dedicated
+on the 27th of April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by
+President McKinley and General Horace Porter, president of the
+Grant Monument Association, which from 90,000 contributions
+raised the funds for the tomb.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANT<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (from A.-Fr. <i>graunter</i>, O. Fr. <i>greanter</i> for <i>creanter</i>,
+popular Lat. <i>creantare</i>, for <i>credentare</i>, to entrust, Lat. <i>credere</i>, to
+believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the
+gift of privileges, rights, &amp;c., specifically in law, the transfer of
+property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant.
+According to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold
+in corporeal hereditaments lay in livery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feoffment</a></span>),
+whereas incorporeal hereditaments, such as a reversion, remainder,
+advowson, &amp;c., lay in grant, that is, passed by the
+delivery of the deed of conveyance or grant without further
+ceremony. The distinction between property lying in livery and
+in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845 providing
+that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be transferable
+as well by grant as by livery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyancing</a></span>). A
+grant of personal property is properly termed an assignment or
+bill of sale.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANTH,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the
+spiritual and moral teaching of Sikhism (<i>q.v.</i>). The book is called
+the <i>Adi Granth Sahib</i> by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it
+is believed by them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title
+is generally applied to the volume compiled by the fifth guru
+Arjan, which contains the compositions of Guru Nanak, the
+founder of the Sikh religion; of his successors, Guru Angad,
+Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu bhagats or
+saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir,
+Rai Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna
+and Dhanna Jat; verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid;
+and panegyrics of the gurus by bards who either attended them or
+admired their characters. The compositions of the ninth guru,
+Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to the <i>Adi Granth</i> by
+Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred volume preserved
+at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn composed
+by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The <i>Adi Granth</i> contains
+passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original
+copy is said to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the
+chief copy in use is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple
+at Amritsar, where it is daily read aloud by the attendant
+Granthis or scripture readers.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a second <i>Granth</i> which was compiled by the
+Sikhs in 1734, and popularly known as the <i>Granth of the tenth
+Guru</i>, but it has not the same authority as the <i>Adi Granth</i>. It
+contains Guru Govind Singh&rsquo;s <i>J&#257;pji</i>, the <i>Ak&#257;l Ustit</i> or Praise of
+the Creator, thirty-three <i>sawaias</i> (quatrains containing some of
+the main tenets of the guru and strong reprobation of idolatry
+and hypocrisy), and the <i>Vachitar Natak</i> or wonderful drama, in
+which the guru gives an account of his parentage, divine mission
+and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three
+abridged translations by different hands of the <i>Devi Mahatamya</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span>
+an episode in the <i>Markandeya Puran</i>, in praise of Durga, the
+goddess of war. Then follow the <i>Gyan Parbodh</i> or awakening of
+knowledge, accounts of twenty-four incarnations of the deity,
+selected because of their warlike character; the <i>Hazare de
+Shabd</i>; the <i>Shastar Nam Mala</i>, which is a list of offensive and
+defensive weapons used in the guru&rsquo;s time, with special reference
+to the attributes of the Creator; the <i>Tria Charitar</i> or tales illustrating
+the qualities, but principally the deceit of women; the
+<i>Kabit</i>, compositions of a miscellaneous character; the <i>Zafarnama</i>
+containing the tenth guru&rsquo;s epistle to the emperor Aurangzeb, and
+several metrical tales in the Persian language. This <i>Granth</i> is
+only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The greater
+portion of it was written by bards in his employ.</p>
+
+<p>The two volumes are written in several different languages
+and dialects. The <i>Adi Granth</i> is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi,
+but Prakrit, Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also
+represented. The <i>Granth of the Tenth Guru</i> is written
+<span class="sidenote">Form of the Granth.</span>
+in the old and very difficult Hindi affected by literary
+men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In
+neither of these sacred volumes is there any separation of words.
+As there is no separation of words in Sanskrit, the <i>gyanis</i> or
+interpreters of the guru&rsquo;s hymns prefer to follow the ancient
+practice of junction of words. This makes the reading of the Sikh
+scriptures very difficult, and is one of the causes of the decline
+of the Sikh religion.</p>
+
+<p>The hymns in the <i>Adi Granth</i> are arranged not according to
+the gurus or bhagats who compose them, but according to rags
+or musical measures. There are thirty-one such measures in
+the <i>Adi Granth</i>, and the hymns are arranged according to the
+<span class="correction" title="amended from neasures">measures</span> to which they are composed. The gurus who composed
+hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and ninth
+gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their
+compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the
+compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the compositions
+of Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on.
+After the hymns of the gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats
+under their several musical measures. The Sikhs generally dislike
+any arrangement of the <i>Adi Granth</i> by which the compositions
+of each guru or bhagat should be separately shown.</p>
+
+<p>All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two
+<i>Granths</i> and in compositions called
+<span class="sidenote">The Sikh doctrines.</span>
+<i>Rahit Namas</i> and <i>Tanakhwah
+Namas</i>, which are believed to have been the utterances
+of the tenth guru. The cardinal principle of the sacred
+books is the unity of God, and starting from this
+premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition.
+Thus Guru Govind Singh writes:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads;</p>
+  <p class="i2">Some suspend lingams from their necks;</p>
+<p class="i05">Some see the God in the South; some bow their heads to the West.</p>
+  <p class="i2">Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with worshipping the dead.</p>
+<p class="i05">The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found God&rsquo;s secret.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His
+sight, and so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak
+says:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Caste hath no power in the next world; there is a new order of beings,</p>
+<p class="i05">Those whose accounts are honoured are the good.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by
+Hinduized Sikhs, is forbidden in the <i>Granth</i>. Guru Arjan
+writes:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;She who considereth her beloved as her God,</p>
+<p class="i05">Is the blessed <i>sati</i> who shall be acceptable in God&rsquo;s Court.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine
+and other intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak
+wrote:</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;By drinking wine man committeth many sins.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Guru Arjan wrote:</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desu Singh there is the following:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Let a Sikh take no intoxicant; it maketh the body lazy; it
+diverteth men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth
+them to evil deeds.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to
+abstain from the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising
+from the Sikh adoption of Hindu usages. The two <i>Granths</i> of
+the Sikhs and all their canonical works are absolutely silent on
+the subject. The Sikhs are not bound to abstain from any flesh,
+except that which is obviously unfit for human food, or what is
+killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging an animal&rsquo;s throat
+with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of the main sources
+of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly prohibited by
+the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the
+service of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the
+degrading smoke and cultivate their lands, their wealth and prosperity
+shall increase, and they shall want for nothing ... but
+when they smoke the vile vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose
+their wealth.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">Guru Govind Singh also said:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco
+destroyeth all generations.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most
+of the positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to
+rulers, a quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of
+the British crown.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Granth</i> was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary,
+on behalf of the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is
+in many respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the
+Punjabi dialects. <i>The Sikh Religion</i>, &amp;c., in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is
+an authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with
+the modern leaders of the Sikh sect.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> 1st <span class="sc">Baron</span> (<i>c.</i> 1695-1770),
+English diplomatist and politician, was a younger son of Sir
+William Robinson, Bart. (1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire,
+who was member of parliament for York from 1697 to 1722.
+Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity College,
+Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic
+experience in Paris and then went to Vienna, where he was
+English ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought
+to make peace between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick
+the Great, but in vain, and in 1748 he represented his country
+at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he
+sat in parliament for Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754
+Robinson was appointed a secretary of state and leader of the
+House of Commons by the prime minister, the duke of Newcastle,
+and it was on this occasion that Pitt made the famous remark
+to Fox, &ldquo;the duke might as well have sent us his jackboot
+to lead us.&rdquo; In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761
+he was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe
+from 1749 to 1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint
+postmaster-general in 1765 and 1766. He died in London on the
+30th of September 1770.</p>
+
+<p>Grantham&rsquo;s elder son, <span class="sc">Thomas Robinson</span> (1738-1786), who
+became the 2nd baron, was born at Vienna on the 30th of
+November 1738. Educated at Westminster School and at Christ&rsquo;s
+College, Cambridge, he entered parliament as member for Christchurch
+in 1761, and succeeded to the peerage in 1770. In 1771 he
+was sent as ambassador to Madrid and retained this post until
+war broke out between England and Spain in 1779. From 1780
+to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of trade
+and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783
+secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne.
+He died on the 20th of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas
+Philip, who became the 3rd baron, and Frederick John afterwards
+1st earl of Ripon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Thomas Philip Robinson</span>, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859).
+in 1803 took the name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson.
+In May 1833 he became Earl de Grey of Wrest on the death of
+his maternal aunt, Amabell Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey
+(1751-1833), and he now took the name of de Grey. He was
+first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in 1834-1835
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span>
+and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his death
+without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robinson,
+afterwards marquess of Ripon (<i>q.v.</i>), succeeded as Earl de
+Grey.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANTHAM,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough of
+Lincolnshire, England; situated in a pleasant undulating
+country on the river Witham. Pop. (1901) 17,593. It is an
+important junction of the Great Northern railway, 105 m. N.
+by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham, Lincoln
+and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham
+and the Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St
+Wulfram is a splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles,
+but mainly Early English and Decorated. The massive and
+ornate western tower and spire, about 280 ft. in height, are of
+early Decorated workmanship. There is a double Decorated
+crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south porches are
+fine examples of a later period of the same style. The delicately
+carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the
+16th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the
+King Edward VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received
+part of his education. A bronze statue commemorates him.
+The late Perpendicular building is picturesque, and the school was
+greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel Hotel is a hostelry of the
+15th century, with a gateway of earlier date. A conduit dating
+from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern public
+buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches
+and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was
+erected in 1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the
+manufacture of agricultural implements. Grantham returns one
+member to parliament. The  borough falls within the S. Kesteven
+or Stamford division of the county. Grantham was created a
+suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in 1905. The
+municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 1726 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation,
+Grantham (Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its
+situation on the Ermine Street, is supposed to have been a
+Roman station. It was possibly a borough in the Saxon period,
+and by the time of the Domesday Survey it was a royal borough
+with 111 burgesses. Charters of liberties existing now only in
+the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various kings.
+From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed
+by the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the
+office of alderman had come into existence. Finally government
+under a mayor and alderman was granted by Edward IV. in
+1463, and Grantham became a corporate town. Among later
+charters, that of James II., given in 1685, changed the title to
+that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but this was
+afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham
+was first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two
+members; but by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number
+was reduced to one. Richard III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday
+market and two fairs yearly, namely on the feast of St Nicholas
+the Bishop, and the two following days, and on Passion Sunday
+and the day following. At the present day the market is held
+on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and
+Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair
+on the 11th of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October
+and the 17th of December.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> 1st Baron (1716-1789),
+English politician, was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of
+Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was born on the 23rd of June 1716.
+He became a barrister in 1739, and, after a period of inactivity,
+obtained a large and profitable practice, becoming a K.C. in
+1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county palatine
+of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for
+Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was
+appointed solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762.
+He took part in the proceedings against John Wilkes, and,
+having become attorney-general in 1763, prosecuted the 5th
+Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth, losing his
+office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in
+July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for
+Guildford, Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice
+in eyre of the forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen
+Speaker of the House of Commons. In 1777, when presenting
+the bill for the increase of the civil list to the king, he told
+George III. that parliament has &ldquo;not only granted to your
+majesty a large present supply, but also a very great additional
+revenue; great beyond example; great beyond your majesty&rsquo;s
+highest expense.&rdquo; This speech aroused general attention and
+caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox
+and by the city of London, and received the thanks of the House
+of Commons. George, however, did not forget these plain words,
+and after the general election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord
+North, and his followers declined to support the re-election of the
+retiring Speaker, alleging that his health was not equal to the
+duties of the office, and he was defeated when the voting took
+place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron Grantley of
+Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789.
+He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William
+(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as &ldquo;a bold, able and
+eloquent, but not a popular pleader,&rdquo; and as Speaker he was
+aggressive and indiscreet. Derided by satirists as &ldquo;Sir Bullface
+Doublefee,&rdquo; and described by Horace Walpole as one who &ldquo;rose
+from obscure infamy to that infamous fame which will long stick
+to him,&rdquo; his character was also assailed by Junius, and the general
+impression is that he was a hot-tempered, avaricious and unprincipled
+man.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i>, edited by
+G. F. R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, <i>Historical and Posthumous
+Memoirs</i>, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A.
+Manning, <i>Lives of the Speakers</i> (1850).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANTOWN,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23¼ m.
+S. of Forres by the Highland railway, with a station on the Great
+North of Scotland&rsquo;s Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with
+Boat of Garten. It was founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of
+Grant, and became the chief seat of that ancient family, who had
+lived on their adjoining estate of Freuchie (Gaelic, <i>fraochach</i>,
+&ldquo;heathery&rdquo;) since the beginning of the 15th century, and
+hence were usually described as the lairds of Freuchie. The
+public buildings include the town hall, court house and orphan
+hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the
+cattle trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey
+granite, presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully
+situated in the midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods
+in Scotland, with pure air and a bracing climate, is an attractive
+resort. Castle Grant, immediately to the north, is the principal
+mansion of the earl of Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant.
+In a cave, still called &ldquo;Lord Huntly&rsquo;s Cave,&rdquo; in a rocky glen in
+the vicinity, George, marquess of Huntly, lay hid during
+Montrose&rsquo;s campaign in 1644-45.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANULITE<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (Lat. <i>granulum</i>, a little grain), a name used by
+petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. According
+to the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite
+in which both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and
+corresponds to the German <i>Granit</i>, or to the English &ldquo;muscovite
+biotite granite.&rdquo; This application has not been accepted
+generally. To the German petrologists &ldquo;granulite&rdquo; means a
+more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock, consisting
+mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular crystals,
+and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded
+pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the
+term is generally employed in this sense. The granulites are
+very closely allied to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the
+same minerals, but they are finer grained, have usually less
+perfect foliation, are more frequently garnetiferous, and have
+some special features of microscopic structure. In the rocks of
+this group the minerals, as seen in a microscopic slide, occur as
+small rounded grains forming a mosaic closely fitted together.
+The individual crystals have never perfect form, and indeed
+rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they interlock, with
+irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span>
+flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they
+are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger.
+This is especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the
+predominant minerals; mica always appears as flat scales
+(irregular or rounded but not hexagonal). Both muscovite and
+biotite may be present and vary considerably in abundance;
+very commonly they have their flat sides parallel and give the
+rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be aggregated
+into bands&mdash;in which case the granulites are indistinguishable
+from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very generally
+larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily visible
+with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock.
+They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals.</p>
+
+<p>The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or cryptoperthite;
+microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common.
+Basic felspars occur only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in
+addition to apatite, zircon, and iron oxides, the following may
+be mentioned: hornblende (not common), riebeckite (rare),
+epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene, andalusite, sillimanite,
+kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile, orthite and tourmaline.
+Though occasionally we may find larger grains of felspar, quartz
+or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks that all the
+minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped
+individuals.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the minuteness with which it has been described
+and the important controversies on points of theoretical geology
+which have arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony
+(around Rosswein, Penig, &amp;c.) may be considered the typical
+region for rocks of this group. It should be remembered that
+though granulites are probably the commonest rocks of this
+country, they are mingled with granites, gneisses, gabbros,
+amphibolites, mica schists and many other petrographical types.
+All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism either of a
+thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The granites
+pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro and
+amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite,
+and show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks
+were regarded as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes
+Georg Lehmann propounded the hypothesis that their present
+state was due principally to crushing acting on them in a solid
+condition, grinding them down and breaking up their minerals,
+while the pressure to which they were subjected welded them
+together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that
+they are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks,
+partly of Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be
+nearly massive or may have gneissose, flaser or granulitic
+structures. These have been developed largely by the injection
+of semi-consolidated highly viscous intrusions, and the varieties
+of texture are original or were produced very shortly after the
+crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however, Lehmann&rsquo;s
+advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the
+development of granulites has been so successful that the terms
+granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed
+to indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks
+at a period long after their solidification.</p>
+
+<p>The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous
+and correspond in composition to granites and porphyries.
+There are, however, many granulites which undoubtedly were
+originally sediments (arkoses, grits and sandstones). A large part
+of the highlands of Scotland consists of paragranulites of this
+kind, which have received the group name of &ldquo;Moine gneisses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in
+Saxony, India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-coloured
+basic granulites (&ldquo;trap granulites&rdquo;). These are
+fine-grained rocks, not usually banded, nearly black in colour
+with small red spots of garnet. Their essential minerals are
+pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet: chemically they resemble
+the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form a considerable
+part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite, hornblende and
+quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial grouping of
+small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of
+felspar: these &ldquo;centric&rdquo; structures are frequent in granulites.
+The rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpentine,
+but the exact conditions under which they are formed
+and the significance of their structures is not very clearly
+understood.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> <span class="sc">Cardinal de</span> (1517-1586),
+one of the ablest and most influential of the princes of
+the church during the great political and ecclesiastical movements
+which immediately followed the appearance of Protestantism
+in Europe, was born on the 20th of August 1517 at Besançon,
+where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella (1484-1550),
+who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under Charles V.,
+was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an influential
+position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death he
+was one of the emperor&rsquo;s most trusted advisers in Germany.
+On the completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity
+at Louvain, Antoine held a canonry at Besançon, but he was
+promoted to the bishopric of Arras when barely twenty-three
+(1540). In his episcopal capacity he attended several diets of
+the empire, as well as the opening meetings of the council of
+Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor, led to
+his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of
+public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare
+talent for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate
+acquaintance with most of the currents of European politics.
+One of his specially noteworthy performances was the settlement
+of the terms of peace after the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden
+at Mühlberg in 1547, a settlement in which, to say the least,
+some particularly sharp practice was exhibited. In 1550 he
+succeeded his father in the office of secretary of state; in this
+capacity he attended Charles in the war with Maurice, elector
+of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from Innsbruck, and
+afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In the
+following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage
+of Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555,
+on the abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services,
+and by whom he was employed in the Netherlands. In April
+1559 Granvella was one of the Spanish commissioners who
+arranged the peace of Cateau Cambrésis, and on Philip&rsquo;s withdrawal
+from the Netherlands in August of the same year he
+was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma.
+The policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued
+during the next five years secured for him many tangible rewards,
+in 1560 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines,
+and in 1561 he received the cardinal&rsquo;s hat; but the growing
+hostility of a people whose religious convictions he had set
+himself to trample under foot ultimately made it impossible
+for him to continue in the Low Countries, and by the advice
+of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to Franche Comté.
+Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary character,
+but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent
+in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in
+1565; but in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed
+public life by accepting another mission to Rome. Here he
+helped to arrange the alliance between the Papacy, Venice and
+Spain against the Turks, an alliance which was responsible for
+the victory of Lepanto. In the same year he became viceroy
+of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger, which for five
+years he occupied with ability and success. He was summoned
+to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council
+for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of
+his later years were those of 1580, which had for their object
+the ultimate union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and
+those of 1584, which resulted in a check to France by the marriage
+of the Spanish infanta Catherine to Charles Emmanuel, duke of
+Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop of Besançon,
+but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering disease;
+he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of
+September 1586. His body was removed to Besançon, where
+his father had been buried. Granvella was a man of great
+learning, which was equalled by his industry, and these qualities
+made him almost indispensable both to Charles V. and to
+Philip II.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the
+archives of Besançon. These were to some extent made use of by
+Prosper Levêque in his <i>Mémoires pour servir</i> (1753), as well as by
+the Abbé Boisot in the <i>Trésor de Granvella</i>. A commission for
+publishing the whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by
+Guizot in 1834, and the result has been the issue of nine volumes
+of the <i>Papiers d&rsquo;État du cardinal de Granvelle</i>, edited by C. Weiss
+(Paris, 1841-1852). They form a part of the <i>Collection de documents
+inédits sur l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>, and were supplemented by the
+<i>Correspondance du cardinal Granvelle, 1565-1586</i>, edited by M. E.
+Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12 vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also
+the anonymous <i>Histoire du cardinal de Granville</i>, attributed to
+Courchetet D&rsquo;Esnans (Paris, 1761); J. L. Motley, <i>Rise of the Dutch
+Republic</i>; M. Philippson, <i>Ein Ministerium unter Philipp II.</i> (Berlin,
+1895); and the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i> (vol. iii. 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">2nd Earl</span> (1815-1891), English statesman, eldest son of the
+1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his marriage with Lady
+Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born in London
+on the 11th of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower,
+was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess
+of Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the
+second wife (a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became
+the 2nd marquess of Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter
+and heiress of the 17th earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland
+in her own right) led to the merging of the Gower and Stafford
+titles in that of the dukes of Sutherland (created 1833), who
+represent the elder branch of the family. As Lord Granville
+Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created viscount in
+1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and was
+ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-1841).
+He was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of
+Canning. The title of Earl Granville had been previously held
+in the Carteret family.</p>
+
+<p>After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord
+Leveson went to Paris for a short time under his father, and in
+1836 was returned to parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth.
+For a short time he was under-secretary for foreign affairs in
+Lord Melbourne&rsquo;s ministry. In 1840 he married Lady Acton
+(Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of Sir Richard Acton;
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acton</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalberg</a></span>). From 1841 till his father&rsquo;s death
+in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield.
+In the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader,
+and Lord John Russell made him master of the buckhounds
+(1846). He proved a useful member of the party, and his
+influence and amiable character were valuable in all matters
+needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became vice-president
+of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent
+part in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter
+year, having already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded
+Palmerston at the foreign office until Lord John Russell&rsquo;s defeat
+in 1852; and when Lord Aberdeen formed his government at
+the end of the year, he became first president of the council,
+and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1854). Under
+Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council. His
+interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led
+to his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University,
+a post he held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent
+champion of the movement for the admission of women, and
+also of the teaching of modern languages. From 1855 Lord
+Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House, both in office,
+and, after Palmerston&rsquo;s resignation in 1858, in opposition.
+He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar&rsquo;s
+coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed
+by the rival ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him
+to form a ministry, but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston
+again became prime minister, with Lord John as foreign secretary
+and Granville as president of the council. In 1860 his wife
+died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added that of his great
+friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother (1862); but
+he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his office
+when, on Palmerston&rsquo;s death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer)
+became prime minister and took over the leadership in the
+House of Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque
+Ports, and in the same year married again, his second wife
+being Miss Castalia Campbell. From 1866 to 1868 he was in
+opposition, but in December 1868 he became colonial secretary
+in Gladstone&rsquo;s first ministry. His tact was invaluable to the
+government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills through
+the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord
+Clarendon&rsquo;s death, he was transferred to the foreign office.
+Lord Granville&rsquo;s name is mainly associated with his career as
+foreign secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal
+foreign policy of that period was not distinguished by enterprise
+or &ldquo;backbone.&rdquo; Lord Granville personally was patient and
+polite, but his courteous and pacific methods were somewhat
+inadequate in dealing with the new situation then arising in
+Europe and outside it; and foreign governments had little
+scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and relying
+on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong
+measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within
+a few days of Lord Granville&rsquo;s quoting in the House of Lords
+(11th of July) the curiously unprophetic opinion of the permanent
+under-secretary (Mr Hammond) that &ldquo;he had never
+known so great a lull in foreign affairs.&rdquo; Russia took advantage
+of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty
+of Paris, and Lord Granville&rsquo;s protest was ineffectual. In 1871
+an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan
+was agreed on between him and Shuválov; but in 1873 Russia
+took possession of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord
+Granville had to accept the aggression. When the Conservatives
+came into power in 1874, his part for the next six years was to
+criticize Disraeli&rsquo;s &ldquo;spirited&rdquo; foreign policy, and to defend his
+own more pliant methods. He returned to the foreign office in
+1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing in German
+policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders
+were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed
+to realize in time the importance of the Angra Pequeña question
+in 1883-1884, and he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to
+yield to Bismarck over it. Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan
+or equatorial and south-west Africa, British foreign policy was
+dominated by suavity rather than by the strength which commands
+respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home Rule
+for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive
+to new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave
+way to Lord Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign
+office; the Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground
+in the country by Lord Granville&rsquo;s occupancy of the post. He
+went to the Colonial Office for six months, and in July 1886
+retired from public life. He died in London on the 31st of March
+1891, being succeeded in the title by his son, born in 1872.
+Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many friendships,
+and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like
+a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no
+place in history as a constructive statesman.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of
+interesting material for the history of the period, but being written
+by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it
+explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville&rsquo;s work in that department.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl</span> (1690-1763), English
+statesman, commonly known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret,
+born on the 22nd of April 1690, was the son of George, 1st Lord
+Carteret, by his marriage with Grace Granville, daughter of
+Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and great grandson of
+the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous for his
+death in the &ldquo;Revenge.&rdquo; The family of Carteret was settled
+in the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John
+Carteret was educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church,
+Oxford. Swift says that &ldquo;with a singularity scarce to be
+justified he carried away more Greek, Latin and philosophy
+than properly became a person of his rank.&rdquo; Throughout life
+Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics, but a taste
+for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures.
+He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew
+German. Harte, the author of the <i>Life of Gustavus Adolphus</i>,
+acknowledged the aid which Carteret had given him. On the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span>
+17th of October 1710 he married at Longleat Lady Frances
+Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount Weymouth.
+He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though
+his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of
+Stuart, Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian
+dynasty. He was a friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and
+Sunderland, took a share in defeating the Jacobite conspiracy
+of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen Anne, and supported the
+passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret&rsquo;s interests were however
+in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His serious work in
+public life began with his appointment, early in 1719, as
+ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year
+he was employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter
+the Great, and in arranging the pacification of the north. His
+efforts were finally successful. During this period of diplomatic
+work he acquired an exceptional knowledge of the affairs of
+Europe, and in particular of Germany, and displayed great tact
+and temper in dealing with the Swedish senate, with Queen
+Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick William I.
+of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the
+intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary
+of state for the southern department on his return home, he soon
+became helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend
+and Sir Robert Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every
+able colleague, or subordinate, as an enemy to be removed,
+Carteret was exceptionally odious. His capacity to speak
+German with the king would alone have made Sir Robert detest
+him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland against
+Wood&rsquo;s halfpence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Swift, Jonathan</a></span>) made it necessary
+to replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was
+sent to Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October
+1724, and remained there till 1730. In the first months of his
+tenure of office he had to deal with the furious opposition to
+Wood&rsquo;s halfpence, and to counteract the effect of Swift&rsquo;s
+<i>Draper&rsquo;s Letters</i>. The lord lieutenant had a strong personal
+liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady Carteret&rsquo;s family.
+It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have reconciled
+his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if government
+had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage
+on the Irish people. Wood&rsquo;s patent was however withdrawn,
+and Ireland settled down. Carteret was a profuse and
+popular lord lieutenant who pleased both the &ldquo;English interest&rdquo;
+and the native Irish. He was at all times addicted to lavish
+hospitality, and according to the testimony of contemporaries
+was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in
+1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of
+Commons, and as the trusted minister of King George II. He
+had the full confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced
+against Carteret. Till the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret
+could take no share in public affairs except as a leader of opposition
+of the Lords. His brilliant parts were somewhat obscured
+by his rather erratic conduct, and a certain contempt, partly
+aristocratic and partly intellectual, for commonplace men and
+ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who loved
+literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having
+paid the expenses of the first handsome edition of <i>Don Quixote</i>
+to please her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed
+himself to be entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between
+Frederick, prince of Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline
+was provoked into classing him and Bolingbroke, as &ldquo;the two
+most worthless men of parts in the country.&rdquo; Carteret took
+the popular side in the outcry against Walpole for not making
+war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession approached,
+his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa&mdash;mainly
+on the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would
+dangerously increase the power of France, even if she gained
+no accession of territory. These views made him welcome to
+George II., who gladly accepted him as secretary of state in 1742.
+In 1743 he accompanied the king of Germany, and was present
+at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th of June. He held the
+secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in promoting
+an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He understood
+the relations of the European states, and the interests
+of Great Britain among them. But the defects which had
+rendered him unable to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him
+equally unable to contend with the Pelhams. His support of
+the king&rsquo;s policy was denounced as subservience to Hanover.
+Pitt called him &ldquo;an execrable, a sole minister who had renounced
+the British nation.&rdquo; A few years later Pitt adopted an identical
+policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt
+from Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became
+Earl Granville on the death of his mother. His first wife died
+in June 1743 at Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married
+Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter of Lord Pomfret&mdash;a fashionable
+beauty and &ldquo;reigning toast&rdquo; of London society, who was
+younger than his daughters. &ldquo;The nuptials of our great
+Quixote and the fair Sophia,&rdquo; and Granville&rsquo;s ostentatious
+performance of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace
+Walpole. The countess Granville died on the 7th of October
+1745, leaving one daughter Sophia, who married Lord Shelburne,
+1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may have done
+something to increase Granville&rsquo;s reputation for eccentricity.
+In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the
+intrigues of the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but
+resigned in forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president
+of the council, and was still liked and trusted by the king, but
+his share in government did not go beyond giving advice, and
+endeavouring to forward ministerial arrangements. In 1756
+he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister as the
+alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood
+why the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When
+in October 1761 Pitt, who had information of the signing of
+the &ldquo;Family Compact&rdquo; wished to declare war on Spain, and
+declared his intention to resign unless his advice was accepted,
+Granville replied that &ldquo;the opinion of the majority (of the
+Cabinet) must decide.&rdquo; He spoke in complimentary terms of
+Pitt, but resisted his claim to be considered as a &ldquo;sole minister&rdquo;
+or, in the modern phrase, &ldquo;a prime minister.&rdquo; Whether he used
+the words attributed to him in the Annual Register for 1761
+is more than doubtful, but the minutes of council show that they
+express his meaning. Granville remained in office as president
+till his death. His last act was to listen while on his death-bed
+to the reading of the preliminaries of the treaty of Paris. He
+was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood, author
+of an essay on <i>The Original Genius of Homer</i>, would have postponed
+the business, but Granville said that it &ldquo;could not prolong
+his life to neglect his duty,&rdquo; and quoted the speech of
+Sarpedon from <i>Iliad</i> xii. 322-328, repeating the last word
+(<span class="grk" title="iomen">&#7988;&#959;&#956;&#949;&#957;</span>) &ldquo;with a calm and determined resignation.&rdquo; He died
+in his house in Arlington Street, London, on the 22nd of January
+1763. The title of Granville descended to his son Robert, who
+died without issue in 1776, when the earldom of this creation
+became extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by
+Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of <i>Lord Carteret, a Political
+Biography</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> a town of Cumberland county, New South
+Wales, 13 m. by rail W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is
+an important railway junction and manufacturing town, producing
+agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, tiles and bricks;
+there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene and meat
+export works. It became a municipality in 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western
+France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of
+the Bosq, 85 m. S. by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906)
+10,530. Granville consists of two quarters, the upper town
+built on a promontory jutting into the sea and surrounded
+by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below it.
+The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building
+of granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in
+the upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two
+floating basins and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part
+in deep sea fishing, including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland,
+and oyster-fishing is carried on. It has regular communication
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span>
+with Guernsey and Jersey, and with the islands of St Pierre
+and Miquelon. The principal exports are eggs, vegetables and
+fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are imported. The
+industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the manufacture
+of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, metal-founding,
+rope-making and the manufacture of chemical
+manures. Among the public institutions are a tribunal and
+a chamber of commerce. In the commune are included the
+Iles Chausey about 7½ m. N.W. of Granville (see Channel
+Islands). Granville, before an insignificant village, was fortified
+by the English in 1437, taken by the French in 1441, bombarded
+and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully besieged
+by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by
+the English in 1803.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in
+the township of Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m.
+E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. of the village (1910) 1394; of the
+township (1910) 2442. Granville is served by the Toledo &amp; Ohio
+Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the latter reaching
+Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, Cincinnati,
+Chicago &amp; St Louis and the Baltimore &amp; Ohio railways), Columbus,
+Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of
+Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist
+Education Society and opened as a manual labour school, called
+the Granville Literary and Theological Institution. It was
+renamed Granville College in 1845, and took its present name
+in 1854 in honour of William S. Denison of Adamsville, Ohio,
+who had given $10,000 to the college. The university comprised
+in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College (229 students),
+the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College (246
+students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the collegiate
+department for women, founded as the Young Ladies&rsquo;
+Institute of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination
+in 1887 by Dr Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner,
+and closely affiliated for scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the
+university, though legally it is still a distinct institution;
+Doane Academy (137 students), the preparatory department
+for boys, established in 1831, named Granville Academy in
+1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of
+Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music
+(137 students); and a school of art (38 students).</p>
+
+<p>In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding
+year in Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land
+in Ohio, including the site of Granville; the town was laid out,
+and in the last months of that year settlers from Granville, Mass.,
+began to arrive. By January 1806 the colony numbered 234
+persons; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village
+was incorporated in 1831. There are several remarkable Indian
+mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an alligator.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Henry Bushnell, <i>History of Granville, Ohio</i> (Columbus, O., 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAPE,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> the fruit of the vine (<i>q.v.</i>). The word is adopted
+from the O. Fr. <i>grape</i>, mod. <i>grappe</i>, bunch or cluster of flowers
+or fruit, <i>grappes de raisin</i>, bunch of grapes. The French word
+meant properly a hook; cf. M.H.G. <i>krapfe</i>, Eng. &ldquo;grapnel,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;cramp.&rdquo; The development of meaning seems to be vine-hook,
+cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in English a single
+grape of a cluster. The projectile called &ldquo;grape&rdquo; or &ldquo;grape-shot,&rdquo;
+formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name
+from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted
+of a number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary
+musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron
+plates, a bolt passing through the centre of the plates binding
+the whole together. On being discharged the projectile delivered
+the bullets in a shower somewhat after the fashion of case-shot.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAPHICAL METHODS,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> devices for representing by geometrical
+figures the numerical data which result from the quantitative
+investigation of phenomena. The simplest application is met
+with in the representation of tabular data such as occur in
+statistics. Such tables are usually of single entry, <i>i.e.</i> to a certain
+value of one variable there corresponds one, and only one, value
+of the other variable. To construct the graph, as it is called,
+of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually employed.
+Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen, intersecting
+at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the
+axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along
+one, say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin
+corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these
+points perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates
+distances are taken corresponding to the related values of the
+other variable. The curve drawn through these points is the
+graph. A general inspection of the graph shows in bold relief
+the essential characters of the table. For example, if the world&rsquo;s
+production of corn over a number of years be plotted, a poor
+yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a peak, a
+uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on.
+Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two
+or more different phenomena, and the curves render apparent
+at first sight similarities or differences which can be made out from
+the tables only after close examination. In making graphs for
+comparison, the scales chosen must give a similar range of
+variation, otherwise the correspondence may not be discerned.
+For example, the scales adopted for the average consumption of
+tea and sugar must be ounces for the former and pounds for the
+latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by automatic
+recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph,
+seismometer, &amp;c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more
+rarely used, being only specially applicable when one of the
+variables is a direction or recorded as an angle. A simple case is
+the representation of photometric data, <i>i.e.</i> the value of the
+intensity of the light emitted in different directions from a
+luminous source (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighting</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems
+is usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems
+in mechanics is treated in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>, § 5, <i>Graphic Statics</i>, and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diagram</a></span>. A special phase is presented in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vector Analysis</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAPHITE,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of the element
+carbon crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically,
+it is thus indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between
+the two there are very wide differences in physical characters.
+Graphite is black and opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and
+transparent; it is one of the softest (H = 1) of minerals, and
+diamond the hardest of all; it is a good conductor of electricity,
+whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The specific gravity is 2.2,
+that of diamond is 3.5. Further, unlike diamond, it never
+occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as imperfect
+six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage parallel
+to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are flexible
+but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils
+everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is
+bright and metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus
+strikingly similar to molybdenite (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from
+the Greek <span class="grk" title="gráphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, &ldquo;to write,&rdquo; because the mineral is used for
+making pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plumbago
+and black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these
+names are singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. <i>plumbum</i>,
+lead) was originally used for an artificial product obtained from
+lead ore, and afterwards for the ore (galena) itself; it was confused
+both with graphite and with molybdenite. The true
+chemical nature of graphite was determined by K. W. Scheele
+in 1779.</p>
+
+<p>Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks&mdash;gneiss,
+granulite, schist and crystalline limestone&mdash;and also sometimes in
+granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks,
+or as large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been
+observed as a product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous
+clay-slates near their contact with granite, and where igneous
+rocks have been intruded into beds of coal; in these cases the
+mineral has clearly been derived from organic matter. The
+graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as well as that
+contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an origin.
+As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark lustrous
+scales in grey pig-iron, and in the &ldquo;kish&rdquo; of iron furnaces:
+it is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span>
+carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite
+veins in the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalliferous
+veins and the material derived from deep-seated sources;
+the decomposition of metallic carbides by water and the reduction
+of hydrocarbon vapours have been suggested as possible modes
+of origin. Such veins often attain a thickness of several feet, and
+sometimes possess a columnar structure perpendicular to the
+enclosing walls; they are met with in the crystalline limestones
+and other Laurentian rocks of New York and Canada, in the
+gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of Ceylon.
+Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount
+are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale
+mine in Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico,
+probably the richest deposits in the world, supply the American
+lead pencil manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Pennsylvania
+and Alabama is &ldquo;flake&rdquo; and unsuitable for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants,
+grate polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The
+material as mined usually does not contain more than 20 to
+50% of graphite: the ore has therefore to be crushed and the
+graphite floated off in water from the heavier impurities. Even
+the purest forms contain a small percentage of volatile matter
+and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially suitable
+for pencils, contains about 12% of impurities.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Artificial Manufacture.</i>&mdash;The alteration of carbon at high
+temperatures into a material resembling graphite has long been
+known. In 1893 Girard and Street patented a furnace and a
+process by which this transformation could be effected. Carbon
+powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed through a tube
+in which it was subjected to the action of one or more electric
+arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his
+carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899
+the International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing
+electric current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are
+adopted: (1) graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitization
+of anthracite <i>en masse</i>. The former includes electrodes,
+lamp carbons, &amp;c. Coke, or some other form of amorphous
+carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the required article moulded
+in a press or by a die. The articles are stacked transversely in a
+furnace, each being packed in granular coke and covered with
+carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at 220 volts,
+increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In graphitizing
+<i>en masse</i> large lumps of anthracite are treated in the
+electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating
+carbon with ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the
+so-called &ldquo;deflocculated&rdquo; variety when treated with gallotannic
+acid. These two modifications are valuable lubricants.
+The massive graphite is very easily machined and is widely used
+for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead pencils and the like.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Graphite and its Uses,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Imperial Institute</i>, (1906)
+P. 353. (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, <i>Graphite</i> (Ottawa, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. G. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAPTOLITES,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose
+skeletal remains are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally
+in great abundance. They are usually preserved as branching
+or unbranching carbonized bodies, tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in
+shape, their edges regularly toothed or denticulated. Most
+frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes of black
+shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of
+sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their
+original relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.</p>
+
+<p>Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous
+investment or supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each
+tooth-like projection marking the position of the sheath or <i>theca</i>
+of an individual zooid. Some of the branching forms have a
+distinct outward resemblance to the polyparies of <i>Sertularia</i> and
+<i>Plumularia</i> among the recent Hydroida (<i>Calyptoblastea</i>); in
+none of the unbranching forms, however, is the similarity by
+any means close.</p>
+
+<p>The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the
+majority range from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples
+have been met with having a length or more than 30 in.</p>
+
+<p>Very different views have been held as to the systematic
+place and rank of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them
+in his group of false fossils (<i>Graptolithus</i> = written stone). At
+one time they were referred by some to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa),
+and later, by almost general consent, to the Hydroida (Calyptoblastea)
+among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late years
+an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as
+constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own
+(<i>Graptolithina</i>).</p>
+
+<p>There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the <i>Graptoloidea</i>
+or Graptolites proper, and the <i>Dendroidea</i> or tree-like Graptolites;
+the former is typified by the unbranched genus <i>Monograptus</i>
+and the latter by the many-branched genus <i>Dendrograptus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A <i>Monograptus</i> makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like
+body (the <i>sicula</i>), which represents the flattened covering of the
+primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had
+originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or
+regions&mdash;an upper and smaller (<i>apical</i> or embryonic) portion, marked
+by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread
+(the <i>nema</i>) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or <i>apertural</i>)
+portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the
+direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms
+the broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with
+a perpendicular spine (<i>virgella</i>) and occasionally with two shorter
+lateral spines or lobes.</p>
+
+<p>A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its
+length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial
+theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of
+the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the
+mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial
+theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180°
+with the direction of that of the sicula.</p>
+
+<p>From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same
+direction, and from the second a third, and soon, in a continuous linear
+series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the one
+immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is
+effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of the
+sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to grow
+soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains
+permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it
+forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third
+or fourth theca.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or
+<i>virgula</i>) becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall
+of the polypary, and is sometimes continued distally as a naked
+rod. It was formerly supposed that a virgula was present in
+all the Graptoloidea; hence the term <i>Rhabdophora</i> sometimes
+employed for the Graptoloidea in general, and <i>rhabdosome</i> for the
+individual polypary; but while the virgula is present in many
+(Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Graptoloidea</span> are arranged in eight families, each named
+after a characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Leptograptidae;
+(3) Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5)
+Glossograptidae (sub-family, Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae;
+(7) Dimorphograptidae; (8) Monograptidae.</p>
+
+<p>In all these families the polypary originates as in <i>Monograptus</i>
+from a nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards
+and gives off only a single bud, such branching as may take
+place occurring at subsequent stages in the growth of the polypary.
+In some species young examples have been met with in
+which the nema ends above in a small membranous disk, which
+has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the underside
+of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young
+polypary hung suspended.</p>
+
+<p>Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance
+in time in the order given above, and show a progressive morphological
+evolution along certain special lines. There is a tendency
+for the branches to become reduced in number, and for the serial
+thecae to become directed more and more upwards towards the
+line of the nema. In the oldest family&mdash;Dichograptidae&mdash;in
+which the branching polypary is bilaterally symmetrical and
+the thecae uniserial (<i>monoprionidian</i>)&mdash;there is a gradation
+from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with
+only two; and from species in which all the branches and their
+thecae are directed downwards, through species in which the
+branches become bent back more and more outwards and
+upwards, until in some the terminal thecae open almost vertically.
+In the genus <i>Phyllograptus</i> the branches have become reduced
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span>
+to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls along the line of
+the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base of the
+polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are
+reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal
+walls, and the polypary thus becomes biserial (<i>diprionidian</i>), and
+the line of the nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure,
+the <i>nemacaulus</i> or virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family,
+the Monograptidae, the branches are theoretically reduced to
+one, the polypary is uniserial throughout, and all the thecae
+are directed outwards and upwards.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:442px; height:871px" src="images/img366.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1, <i>Diptograptus</i>, young sicula.</p>
+<p>2, <i>Monograptus dubius</i>, sicula and first serial theca (partly restored).</p>
+<p>3, Young form (all above after Wiman).</p>
+<p>4<i>a</i>, Older form.</p>
+<p>4<i>b</i>, Showing virgula (after Holm).</p>
+<p>5, <i>Rastrites distans.</i></p>
+<p>6, Base of Diptograptus (after Wiman).</p>
+<p>7, D. calcaratus.</p>
+<p>8, Dimorphograptus.</p>
+<p>9, Base of <i>Didymograptus minulus</i> (after Holm).</p>
+<p>10, Young <i>Dictyograptus</i>, with primary disk.</p>
+<p>11, Ibid. <i>Diptograptus</i> (after Ruedemann).</p>
+<p>12 <i>a-b</i>, Base and transverse section, <i>Retiolites Geinitzianus</i> (after Holm).</p>
+<p>13, <i>Bryograptus Kjerulfi</i>.</p>
+<p>14, <i>Dichograptus octobrachiatus</i>, with central disk.</p>
+<p>15, <i>Didymograptus Murchisoni</i>.</p>
+<p>16, <i>D. gibberulus</i>.</p>
+<p>17 <i>a-b</i>, <i>Phyllograptus</i> and transverse section.</p>
+<p>18, <i>Nemagraptus gracilis</i>.</p>
+<p>19, <i>Dicranograptus ramosus</i>.</p>
+<p>20, <i>Climacograptus Scharenbergi</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>21, <i>Glossograptus Hincksii</i>.</p>
+<p>22, <i>Lasiograptus costatus</i> (after Elles and Wood).</p>
+<p>23, <i>Dictyonema</i> (<i>-graptus</i>) <i>flabelliforme</i> (<i>-is</i>).</p>
+<p>24, <i>Dictyonema</i> (<i>-dendron</i>) <i>peltatum</i> with base of attachment.</p>
+<p>25, <i>D. cervicorne</i>, branches (after Holm).</p>
+<p>26, <i>D. rarum</i> (section after Wiman).</p>
+<p>27, <i>Dendrograptus Hallianus</i>.</p>
+<p>28, Synrhabdosome of <i>Diptograptus</i> (after Ruedemann).</p>
+<p>S,  Sicula.</p>
+<p><i>u</i>,  Upper or apical portion.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>,  Lower or apertural.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>,  Mouth.</p>
+<p>N,  Nema.</p>
+<p><i>nn</i>, Nemacaulus or virgular tube.</p>
+<p>V,  Virgula.</p>
+<p><i>vv</i>,  Virgella.</p>
+<p><i>zz</i>, Septal strands.</p>
+<p>T,  Theca.</p>
+<p>C,  Common canal (in Retiolites).</p>
+<p>G,  Gonangium.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>,  Gonotheca.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>,  Budding theca.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">The thecae in the earliest family&mdash;Dichograptidae&mdash;are so similar in
+form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a
+colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in
+those of the latest family&mdash;Monograptidae&mdash;in some species of which
+the terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (<i>Rastrites</i>) and
+in some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the
+families are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes:
+the spines are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial
+forms: in the Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a
+marginal meshwork surrounding the polypary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histologically</i>, the perisarc or <i>test</i> in the Graptoloidea appears
+to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure,
+and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity.
+The central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth;
+but in <i>Glossograptus</i> and <i>Lasiograptus</i> it is thinned down to a fine
+membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres,
+and in <i>Retiolites</i> this membrane is reduced to a delicate network.
+The groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to,
+collectively, as the <i>Retioloidea</i>, and the structure as <i>retioloid</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each
+graptolite polypary (<i>rhabdosome</i>) developed from a single sicula
+as an individual of the highest order. Certain American forms,
+however, which are preserved as stellate groups, have been
+interpreted as complex umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, individuals
+of a still higher order (<i>synrhabdosomes</i>), composed of a
+number of biserial polyparies (each having a sicula at its outer
+extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a common centre of
+origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming bladder and
+a ring of capsules.</p>
+
+<p>In the <span class="sc">Dendroidea</span>, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical
+in shape and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous
+branches irregularly disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or
+short basal portion ending below in root-like fibres or in a membranous
+disk or sheet of attachment. An exception, however,
+is constituted by the comprehensive genus <i>Dictyonema</i>, which
+embraces species composed of a large number of divergent and
+sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments into
+a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes
+some forms (<i>Dictyograptus</i>) which originate from a nema-bearing
+sicula and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.</p>
+
+<p>Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea
+little is known, but the more mature stages have been fully
+worked out. In <i>Dictyonema</i> the branches show thecae of two
+kinds: (1) the ordinary tubular thecae answering to those of
+the Graptoloidea and occupied by the nourishing zooids; and
+(2) the so-called <i>bithecae</i>, birdnest-like cups (regarded by their
+discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately right and left
+of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third set of
+thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals.
+In the genus <i>Dendrograptus</i> the gonothecae open within the walls
+of the ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward
+resemblance to those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in
+striking contrast to what obtains among the Graptoloidea in
+general, the budding orifices in the Dendroidea become closed,
+and all the various cells shut off from each other.</p>
+
+<p>The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory:
+the families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera
+<i>Dendrograptus</i>, <i>Dictyonema</i>, <i>Inocaulis</i> and <i>Thamnograptus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As regards the <i>modes of reproduction among the Graptolites</i> little is
+known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae
+were possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some
+as nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular
+appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked
+upon as connected with the reproductive system; and in the
+umbrella-shaped <i>synrhabdosomes</i> already referred to, the common
+centre is surrounded by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian
+capsules. The theory of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies
+in the Graptoloidea is, however, disputed by some authorities, and
+it has been suggested that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span>
+product of the normal or sexual mode of propagation in the group,
+but owes its origin to a peculiar type of budding or non-sexual
+reproduction, in which, as temporary resting or protecting structures,
+the vesicular bodies may have had a share.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As respects the <i>mode of life of the Graptolites</i> there can be
+little doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions,
+sessile or benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the
+recent Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining
+attached to the sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The
+Graptoloidea have also been regarded by some as benthonic
+organisms. A more prevalent view, however, is that the majority
+were pseudo-planktonic or drifting colonies, hanging from the
+underside of floating seaweeds; their polyparies being each
+suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of growth, and, in
+later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others became
+adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their
+dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained
+permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may
+have become broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum,
+at the mercy of the winds and currents, carrying the attached
+Graptolites into all latitudes. The more complex umbrella-shaped
+colonies of colonies (synrhabdosomes) described as
+provided with a common swimming bladder (pneumatophore?)
+may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming mode
+of existence.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>range of the Graptolites in time</i> extends from the Cambrian
+to the Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have
+this extended range, the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the
+close of Silurian time. Both groups make their first appearance
+together near the end of the Cambrian; but while in the succeeding
+Ordovician and Silurian the Dendroidea are comparatively
+rare, the Graptoloidea become the most characteristic and,
+locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.</p>
+
+<p>The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably
+short range in geological time; but the geographical distribution
+of the group as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost
+world-wide. This combination of circumstances has given the
+Graptoloidea a paramount stratigraphical importance as palaeontological
+indices of the detailed sequence and correlation of the
+Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many <i>Graptolite zones</i>,
+showing a constant uniformity of succession, paralleled in this
+respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of the Jurassic,
+have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe, each
+marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and
+associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding
+horizons to those on which they are found in Britain, have been
+met with in the graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations
+of other parts of Europe, in America, Australia, New Zealand
+and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Linnaeus, <i>Systema naturae</i> (12th ed. 1768);
+Hall, <i>Graptolites of the Quebec Group</i> (1865); Barrande, <i>Graptolites
+de Bohème</i> (1850); Carruthers, <i>Revision of the British Graptolites</i>
+(1868); H. A. Nicholson, <i>Monograph of British Graptolites</i>, pt. 1
+(1872); id. and J. E. Marr, <i>Phylogeny of the Graptolites</i> (1895);
+Hopkinson, <i>On British Graptolites</i> (1869); Allman, <i>Monograph of
+Gymnoblastic Hydroids</i> (1872); Lapworth, <i>An Improved Classification
+of the Rhabdophora</i> (1873); <i>The Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora</i>
+(1879, 1880); Walther, <i>Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere</i>
+(1897); Tullberg, <i>Skånes Grapioliter</i> (1882, 1883); Törnquist,
+<i>Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds</i> (1899); Wiman, <i>Die Graptolithen</i>
+(1895); Holm, <i>Gotlands Graptoliter</i> (1890); Perner, <i>Graptolites de
+Bohème</i> (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, <i>Development and Mode of Growth
+of Diplograptus</i> (1895-1896); <i>Graptolites of New York</i>, vol. i. (1904),
+vol. ii. (1908); Frech, <i>Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden</i> (1897); Elles
+and Wood, <i>Monograph of British Graptolites</i> (1901-1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRASLITZ<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Kraslice</i>), a town of Bohemia, on the
+Zwodau, 145 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803,
+exclusively German. Graslitz is one of the most important
+industrial towns of Bohemia, its specialities being the manufacture
+of musical instruments, carried on both as a factory and
+a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in importance are
+cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing,
+and the mother-of-pearl industry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRASMERE,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart
+of the English Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district
+in 1901, 781) lies near the head of the lake, on the small river
+Rothay and the Keswick-Ambleside road, 12½ m. from Keswick
+and 4 from Ambleside. The scenery is very beautiful; the valley
+about the lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water is in great part
+wooded, while on its eastern flank there rises boldly the range
+of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and Seat Sandal,
+and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are Loughrigg
+Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre
+for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered
+appearance. In a house still standing William Wordsworth
+lived from 1799 to 1808, and it was subsequently occupied by
+Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley Coleridge. Wordsworth&rsquo;s
+tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the churchyard of the
+ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial to
+Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival
+called the Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the
+octave of St Oswald&rsquo;s day (August 5th), when a holiday is
+observed and the church decorated with rushes, heather and
+flowers. The festival is of early origin, and has been derived by
+some from the Roman <i>Floralia</i>, but appears also to have been
+made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, unpaved
+in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which
+forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories
+are symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle
+plays may be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, <i>A Rambler&rsquo;s Note-Book
+at the English Lakes</i>, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for
+an athletic meeting in August.</p>
+
+<p>The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has
+an extreme breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from
+north to south, and rises so high as to form an island about the
+middle. The greatest depth of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east
+of this ridge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRASS AND GRASSLAND,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> in agriculture. The natural
+vegetable covering of the soil in most countries is &ldquo;grass&rdquo;
+(for derivation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grasses</a></span>) of various kinds. Even where
+dense forest or other growth exists, if a little daylight penetrates
+to the ground grass of some sort or another will grow. On
+ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried out,
+the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either
+be in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone,
+after having been cultivated.</p>
+
+<p>Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm,
+but since the &ldquo;era of cheap corn&rdquo; set in its importance has
+been increased, and much more attention has been given to the
+study of the different species of grass, their characteristics, the
+improvement of a pasture generally, and the &ldquo;laying down&rdquo;
+of arable land into grass where tillage farming has not paid.
+Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their farms&mdash;from
+a third to a half of the area&mdash;and even on wholly arable
+farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops
+devoted to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation
+is corn, roots, corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots,
+corn, grass, grass; the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn,
+flax, grass, grass, grass; and so on, to the point where the grass
+remains down for 5 years, or is left indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p>Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed
+as pasture pure and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the
+latter case it is usually classed as &ldquo;meadow&rdquo; land, and often
+forms an alluvial tract alongside a stream, but as grass is often
+grazed and hayed in alternate years, the distinction is not a hard
+and fast one.</p>
+
+<p>There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent.
+The latter again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass
+natural to land that has never been cultivated, and the pasture
+that has been laid down artificially on land previously arable
+and allowed to remain and improve itself in the course of time.
+The existence of ridge and furrow on many old pastures in
+Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one time,
+though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid
+down pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality
+about the fifth and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and
+improve year by year afterwards. This is usually attributed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span>
+to the fact that the unsuitable varieties die out, and the &ldquo;naturally&rdquo;
+suitable varieties only come in gradually. This trouble
+can be largely prevented, however, by a judicious selection
+of seed, and by subsequently manuring with phosphatic manures,
+with farmyard or other bulky &ldquo;topdressings,&rdquo; or by feeding
+sheep with cake and corn over the field.</p>
+
+<p>All the grasses proper belong to the natural order <i>Gramineae</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grasses</a></span>), to which order also belong all the &ldquo;corn&rdquo; plants
+cultivated throughout the world, also many others, such as
+bamboo, sugar-cane, millet, rice, &amp;c. &amp;c., which yield food for
+mankind. Of the grasses which constitute pastures and hay-fields
+over a hundred species are classified by botanists in Great
+Britain, with many varieties in addition, but the majority of
+these, though often forming a part of natural pastures, are
+worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The grasses of good
+quality which should form a &ldquo;sole&rdquo; in an old pasture and provide
+the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass
+are only about a dozen in number (see below), and of these there are
+only some six species of the very first importance and indispensable
+in a &ldquo;prescription&rdquo; of grass seeds intended for laying away land
+in temporary or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a
+botanical examination to be made of several of the most celebrated
+pastures of England, and, contrary to expectation, found
+that their chief constituents were ordinary perennial ryegrass and
+white clover. Many other grasses and legumes were present, but
+these two formed an overwhelming proportion of the plants.</p>
+
+<p>In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &amp;c., includes
+many varieties of clover and other members of the natural order
+<i>Leguminosae</i> as well as other &ldquo;herbs of the field,&rdquo; which, though
+not strictly &ldquo;grasses,&rdquo; are always found in a grass field, and
+are included in mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows.
+The following is a list of the most desirable or valuable agricultural
+grasses and clovers, which are either actually sown or, in
+the case of old pastures, encouraged to grow by draining, liming,
+manuring, and so on:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Grasses.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alopecurus pratensis</td> <td class="tcl">Meadow foxtail.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Anthoxanthum odoratum</td> <td class="tcl">Sweet vernal grass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Avena elatior</td> <td class="tcl">Tall oat-grass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Avena flavescens</td> <td class="tcl">Golden oat-grass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cynosurus cristatus</td> <td class="tcl">Crested dogstail.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dactylis glomerata</td> <td class="tcl">Cocksfoot.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca duriuscula</td> <td class="tcl">Hard fescue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca elatior</td> <td class="tcl">Tall fescue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca ovina</td> <td class="tcl">Sheep&rsquo;s fescue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca pratensis</td> <td class="tcl">Meadow fescue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lolium italicum</td> <td class="tcl">Italian ryegrass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Phleum pratense</td> <td class="tcl">Timothy or catstail.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Poa nemoralis</td> <td class="tcl">Wood meadow-grass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Poa pratensis</td> <td class="tcl">Smooth meadow-grass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Poa trivialis</td> <td class="tcl">Rough meadow-grass.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Clovers, &amp;c.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Medicago lupulina</td> <td class="tcl">Trefoil or &ldquo;Nonsuch.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Medicago sativa</td> <td class="tcl">Lucerne (Alfalfa).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium hybridum</td> <td class="tcl">Alsike clover.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium pratense</td> <td class="tcl">Broad red clover.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium pratense</td> <td class="tclm cl" rowspan="2">Perennial clover.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium perennne</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium incarnatum</td> <td class="tcl">Crimson clover or &ldquo;Trifolium.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium procumbens</td> <td class="tcl">Yellow Hop-trefoil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium repens</td> <td class="tcl">White or Dutch clover.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Achillea Millefolium</td> <td class="tcl">Yarrow or Milfoil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Anthyllis vulneraria</td> <td class="tcl">Kidney-vetch.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lotus major</td> <td class="tcl">Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lotus corniculatus</td> <td class="tcl">Lesser Birdsfoot Trefoil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carum petroselinum</td> <td class="tcl">Field parsley.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Plantago lanceolata</td> <td class="tcl">Plantain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cichorium intybus</td> <td class="tcl">Chicory.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Poterium officinale</td> <td class="tcl">Burnet.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The predominance of any particular species is largely determined
+by climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the
+treatment it receives. In limestone regions sheep&rsquo;s fescue has
+been found to predominate; on wet clay soil the dog&rsquo;s bent
+(<i>Agrostis canina</i>) is common; continuous manuring with nitrogenous
+manures kills out the leguminous plants and stimulates
+such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring with phosphates stimulates
+the clovers and other legumes; and so on. Manuring with
+basic slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre has been found
+to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils. Basic
+slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in a
+soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially
+stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has
+renovated many inferior pastures.</p>
+
+<p>In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with
+&ldquo;mineral manures&rdquo; (no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced
+the grasses from 71 to 64% of the whole, while at the same time
+it has increased the <i>Leguminosae</i> from 7% to 24%. On the
+other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure in addition to
+&ldquo;minerals&rdquo; has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and
+reduced the legumes to less than 1%.</p>
+
+<p>As to the best kinds of grasses, &amp;c., to sow in making a pasture
+out of arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have
+demonstrated that of the many varieties offered by seedsmen
+only a very few are of any permanent value. A complex mixture
+of tested seeds was sown, and after five years an examination of
+the pasture showed that only a few varieties survived and made
+the &ldquo;sole&rdquo; for either grazing or forage. These varieties in the
+order of their importance were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cocksfoot</td> <td class="tcr">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Perennial rye grass</td> <td class="tcr">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Meadow fescue</td> <td class="tcr">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hard fescue</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crested dogstail</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Timothy</td> <td class="tcr">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">White clover</td> <td class="tcr">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Meadow foxtail</td> <td class="tcr">2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The figures represent approximate percentages.</p>
+
+<p>Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already
+growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of
+this sort will show that the Cambridge experiments are very
+conclusive, and that the above species are the only ones to be
+depended on. Occasionally some other variety will be prominent,
+but if so there will be a special local reason for this.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass
+like to have a good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and
+therefore include several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass,
+evergreen ryegrass, &amp;c., knowing that these will die out in the
+course of years and leave the ground to the more permanent
+species.</p>
+
+<p>There are also several mixtures of &ldquo;seeds&rdquo; (the technical
+name given on the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted
+with success in laying down permanent pasture in some localities.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Young.</td> <td class="tccm allb">De Laune.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Leicester.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Elliot.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cambridge<br />average.</td> <td class="tccm allb">General<br />purpose<br />mixture.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cocksfoot</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hard fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Crested dogstail</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Timothy</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow foxtail</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tall fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3½</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tall oat grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italian ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Smooth meadow grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rough meadow grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Golden oat grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheep&rsquo;s fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Broad red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1½</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alsike</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1½</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lucerne (Alfalfa)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">White clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kidney vetch</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheep&rsquo;s parsley</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yarrow</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Burnet</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chicory</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Plantain</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Total &#8468; per acre</td> <td class="tcc allb">30</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td> <td class="tcc allb">17</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td> <td class="tcc allb">30</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">Arthur Young more than 100 years ago made out one to suit
+chalky hillsides; Mr Faunce de Laune (Sussex) in our days was
+the first to study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of
+all kinds; Lord Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for
+poor land with success; Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many
+deep-rooted &ldquo;herbs&rdquo; in his mixture with good results. Typical
+examples of such mixtures are given on preceding page.</p>
+
+<p>Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation
+purposes, and in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived
+grasses and clovers are given the preference. Three examples of
+temporary mixtures are given below.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">One<br />year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Two<br />years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Three<br />or four<br />years.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italian ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cocksfoot</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Timothy</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Broad red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alsike</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trefoil</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">White clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow foxtail</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">Total &#8468; per acre</td> <td class="tcc allb">30</td> <td class="tcc allb">36</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is
+often grown, either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass,
+while other forage crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown
+alone.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for
+pasture, both because it takes most kindly to grass and because
+the expense of cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land
+when the price of corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently
+suffers from drought in summer, the want of moisture preventing
+it from obtaining proper root-hold. On such soil the use of a
+heavy roller is advantageous, and indeed on any soil excepting
+heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial to the grass, as it promotes
+the capillary action of the soil-particles and the consequent
+ascension of ground-water.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture
+from being wasted by the sun&rsquo;s heat.</p>
+
+<p>The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are
+similar to those enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found
+certain grasses, such as Hungarian brome, which are suitable for
+introduction into the British Isles. The grasses of the American
+prairies also include many plants not met with in Great Britain.
+Some half-dozen species are common to both countries: Kentucky
+&ldquo;blue-grass&rdquo; is the British <i>Poa pratensis</i>; couch grass (<i>Triticum
+repens</i>) grows plentifully without its underground runners;
+bent (<i>Agrostis vulgaris</i>) forms the famous &ldquo;red-top,&rdquo; and so on.
+But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the
+&ldquo;bunch&rdquo; grasses, &ldquo;squirrel-tail&rdquo; and many others which have
+no equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the
+prairie pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover
+found on the prairies, though cultivated varieties can be introduced.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. McC.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Marquis de Grassetilly,
+Comte de</span> (1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar,
+in the present department of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he
+took service on the galleys of the order of Malta, and in 1740
+entered the service of France, being promoted to chief of squadron
+in 1779. He took part in the naval operations of the American
+War of Independence, and distinguished himself in the battles of
+Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago (1781). He
+was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by Admiral
+Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and
+taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he returned
+to France, published a <i>Mémoire justificatif</i>, and was
+acquitted by a court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January
+1788.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a <i>Notice bibliographique
+sur l&rsquo;amiral comte de Grasse d&rsquo;après les documents inédits</i> in 1840.
+See G. Lacour-Gayet, <i>La Marine militaire de la France sous le règne
+de Louis XV</i> (Paris, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRASSE,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> a town in the French department of the Alpes
+Maritimes (till 1860 in that of the Var), 12½ m. by rail N. of Cannes.
+Pop. (1906) town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a
+picturesque situation, in the form of an amphitheatre and at a
+height o£ 1066 ft. above the sea, on the southern slope of a hill,
+facing the Mediterranean. In the older (eastern) part of the town
+the streets are narrow, steep and winding, but the new portion
+(western) is laid out in accordance with modern French ideas.
+It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious climate, and is
+well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of the
+factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking
+water used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of
+a conduit, from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the
+Loup. Grasse was from 1244 (when the see was transferred
+hither from Antibes) to 1790 an episcopal see, but was then
+included in the diocese of Fréjus till 1860, when politically as
+well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to the newly-formed
+department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a
+12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an
+ancient tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town
+hall, which was formerly the bishop&rsquo;s palace (13th century).
+There is a good town library, containing the muniments of the
+abbey of Lérins, on the island of St Honorat opposite Cannes.
+In the chapel of the old hospital are three pictures by Rubens.
+The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a native of Grasse,
+and some of his best works were formerly to be seen here (now
+in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its perfumery.
+Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the neighbourhood.
+It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses (which
+costs nearly £100 per 2 &#8468;) requires alone nearly 7,000,000 roses
+a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at
+Grasse.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRASSES,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span><a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a group of plants possessing certain characters in
+common and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class
+Monocotyledons. It is one of the largest and most widespread
+and, from an economic point of view, the most important family
+of flowering plants. No plant is correctly termed a grass which
+is not a member of this family, but the word is in common
+language also used, generally in combination, for many plants of
+widely different affinities which possess some resemblance (often
+slight) in foliage to true grasses; <i>e.g.</i> knot-grass (<i>Polygonum
+aviculare</i>), cotton-grass (<i>Eriophorum</i>), rib-grass (<i>Plantago</i>),
+scorpion-grass (<i>Myosotis</i>), blue-eyed grass (<i>Sisyrinchium</i>), sea-grass
+(<i>Zostera</i>). The grass-tree of Australia (<i>Xanthorrhoea</i>) is a
+remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but
+with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-like trunk bearing a
+crown of long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of
+small, densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an
+extended signification to include the various fodder-plants,
+chiefly leguminous, often called &ldquo;artificial grasses.&rdquo; Indeed,
+formerly <i>grass</i> (also spelt <i>gwrs</i>, <i>gres</i>, <i>gyrs</i> in the old herbals)
+meant any green herbaceous plant of small size.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized
+and separated a group of <i>Gramina</i>, and this, though bounded by
+nothing more definite than habit and general appearance,
+contained the Gramineae of modern botanists. The older group,
+however, even with such systematists as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer
+(1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in addition the Cyperaceae
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span>
+(Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and some other monocotyledons
+with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough, the
+sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more distinctly
+the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all
+of the former then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst
+the latter found themselves under his other classes and orders.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">I. Structure.</span>&mdash;The general type of true grasses is familiar in
+the cultivated cereals of temperate climates&mdash;wheat, barley,
+rye, oats, and in the smaller plants which make up pastures and
+meadows and form a principal factor of the turf of natural
+downs. Less familiar are the grains of warmer climates&mdash;rice,
+maize, millet and sorgho, or the sugar-cane. Still farther removed
+are the bamboos of the tropics, the columnar stems of
+which reach to the height of forest trees. All are, however,
+formed on a common plan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Root.</i>&mdash;Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and
+possess a tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched
+and of great length. The majority of the members of the family
+are of longer duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer,
+thicker and less branched. In such cases they are very generally
+given off from just above each node (often in a circle) of the lower
+part of the stem or rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In
+some bamboos they are very numerous from the lower nodes of
+the erect culms, and pass downwards to the soil, whilst those from
+the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles of spiny fibres.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:433px; height:277px" src="images/img370.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Rhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series of axes,
+the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Stem.</i>&mdash;The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of
+perennial grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very
+long creeping or subterranean rhizomes, with elongated internodes
+and sheathing scales; the widely-creeping, slender
+rhizomes in Marram-grass (<i>Psamma</i>), <i>Agropyrum junceum</i>,
+<i>Elymus arenarius</i>, and other sand-loving plants render them
+useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with the
+nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic
+of open situations in cool temperate climates, results from an
+extensive production of short stolons, the branches and the
+fibrous roots developed from their nodes forming the dense
+&ldquo;sod.&rdquo; The very large rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also
+a striking example of &ldquo;definite&rdquo; growth; it is much branched,
+the short, thick, curved branches being given off below the apex
+of the older ones and at right angles to them, the whole forming
+a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their ends, which
+were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is always
+solid, and has the usual internal structure of the monocotyledonous
+stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches
+break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with
+which they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards
+through the sheaths which they ultimately split from above,
+and emerging as aerial shoots give a tufted habit to the plant.
+Good examples are the oat, cock&rsquo;s-foot (<i>Dactylis</i>) and other
+British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause of the &ldquo;tillering&rdquo;
+of cereals, or the production of a large number of erect
+growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem.
+Isolated tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe&mdash;and
+savanna&mdash;vegetation and open places generally in the warmer
+parts of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic
+feature of grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylindrical
+(rarely flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident
+nodes. The nodes are solid, a strong plate of tissue passing
+across the stem, but the internodes are commonly hollow, although
+examples of completely solid stems are not uncommon (<i>e.g.</i> maize,
+many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The swollen nodes are a
+characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of the
+British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm,
+but of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes
+is to raise again culms which have become bent down; they are
+composed of highly turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate
+on the side next the earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal
+or oblique position, and thus raise the culm again to an erect
+position. The internodes continue to grow in length, especially
+the upper ones, for some time; the increase takes place in a zone
+at the extreme base, just above the node. The exterior of the
+culms is more or less concealed by the leaf-sheaths; it is usually
+smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells containing
+an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a distinct
+skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance
+mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos.
+A few of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub-globular,
+forming nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized
+are termed &ldquo;bulbous&rdquo; (<i>Arrhenatherum</i>, <i>Poa bulbosa</i>, &amp;c.). In
+internal structure grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform
+to that usual in monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run
+parallel in the internodes, but a horizontal interlacement occurs
+at the nodes. In grasses of temperate climates branching is
+rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is characteristic of
+the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches are
+strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spreading
+or drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are
+reduced to hooked spines. One genus (<i>Dinochloa</i>, a native
+of the Malay archipelago) is scandent, and climbs over trees
+100 ft. or more in height, <i>Olyra latifolia</i>, a widely-spread
+tropical species, is also a climber on a humbler scale.</p>
+
+<p>Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly
+seen in bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft. is attained in
+from two to three months, and many species grow two, three or
+even more feet in twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not
+begin till the full height is nearly attained. The largest bamboo
+recorded is 170 ft., and the diameter is usually reckoned at about
+4 in. to each 50 ft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaves.</i>&mdash;These present special characters usually sufficient
+for ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and
+arranged in two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal
+tuft. They consist of two distinct portions, the sheath and the
+blade. The sheath is often of great length, and generally completely
+surrounds the culm, forming a firm protection for the
+internode, the younger basal portion of which, including the
+zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it is
+split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae
+which is almost invariably (<i>Eriospora</i> is an exception) a complete
+tube; in some grasses, however (species of <i>Poa</i>, <i>Bromus</i> and
+others), the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated
+in <i>Alopecurus vaginatus</i> and in a species of <i>Potamochloa</i>, in the
+latter, an East Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the
+summit of the sheath, above the origin of the blade, is the
+<i>ligule</i>, a usually membranous process of small size (occasionally
+reaching 1 in. in length) erect and pressed around the culm.
+It is rarely quite absent, but may be represented by a tuft of
+hairs (very conspicuous in <i>Pariana</i>). It serves to prevent
+rain-water, which has run down the blade, from entering the
+sheath. <i>Melica uniflora</i> has in addition to the ligule, a green
+erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges
+of the sheath.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:308px; height:87px" src="images/img371a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Magnified transverse section
+of one-half of a leaf-blade of <i>Festuca
+rubra</i>. The dark portions represent
+supporting and conducting tissue; the
+upper face bears furrows, at the bottom
+of each of which are seen the motor
+cells <i>m</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect in
+the basal leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath
+at an angle. The usual form is familiar&mdash;sessile, more or less
+ribbon-shaped, tapering to a point, and entire at the edge.
+The chief modifications are the articulation of the deciduous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span>
+blade on to the sheath, which occurs in all the Bambuseae
+(except <i>Planotia</i>) and in <i>Spartina stricta</i>; and the interposition
+of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in bamboos,
+<i>Leptaspis</i>, <i>Pharus</i>, <i>Pariana</i>, <i>Lophatherum</i> and others. In the
+latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate
+or sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also
+(<i>Olyra</i>, <i>Panicum</i>). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib
+usually strong, and the other ribs more slender. In <i>Anomochloa</i>
+there are several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved
+grasses (<i>Bambuseae</i>, <i>Pharus</i>, <i>Leptaspis</i>) the venation becomes
+tesselated by transverse
+connecting veins. The
+tissue is often raised
+above the veins, forming
+longitudinal ridges,
+generally on the upper
+face; the stomata are in
+lines in the intervening
+furrows. The thick prominent
+veins in <i>Agropyrum</i>
+occupy the whole
+upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal appendages are rare,
+the most frequent being marginal, saw-like, cartilaginous
+teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (<i>Danthonia scabra</i>,
+<i>Panicum serratum</i>) so large as to give the margin a serrate
+appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in <i>Alopecurus
+lanatus</i> and one or two <i>Panicums</i>. The blade is often twisted,
+frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become
+reversed. In dry-country grasses the blades are often folded
+on the midrib, or rolled up. The rolling is effected by bands of
+large wedge-shaped cells&mdash;motor-cells&mdash;between the nerves,
+the loss of turgescence by which, as the air dries, causes the
+blade to curl towards the face on which they occur. The rolling
+up acts as a protection from too great loss of water, the exposed
+surface being specially protected to this end by a strong cuticle,
+the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the protected
+surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked
+in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of
+thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all
+or the principal veins (fig. 2).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:234px" src="images/img371b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;One-flowered<br />spikelet of <i>Agrostis</i>.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Two-flowered spikelet<br />of <i>Aira</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>b</i>, Barren glumes; <i>f</i>, flowering glumes.
+(Both Enlarged.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Inflorescence.</i>&mdash;This possesses an exceptional importance in
+grasses, since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the
+sexual organs of very great uniformity, the characters employed
+for classification are mainly derived from the arrangement of
+the flowers and their investing bracts. Various interpretations
+have been given to these glumaceous organs and different terms
+employed for them by various writers. It may, however, be
+considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as
+glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to
+the flower, form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the
+nature of bracts. These are arranged so as to form <i>spikelets</i>
+(locustae), and each spikelet may contain one, as in <i>Agrostis</i>
+(fig. 3) two, as in <i>Aira</i> (fig. 4) three, or a great number of
+flowers, as in <i>Briza</i> (fig. 5) <i>Triticum</i> (fig. 6); in some species of
+<i>Eragrostis</i> there are nearly 60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed
+laterally on the axis (<i>rachilla</i>) of the spikelet, but in one-flowered
+spikelets they appear to be terminal, and are probably really
+so in <i>Anthoxanthum</i> (fig. 7) and in two anomalous genera,
+<i>Anomochloa</i> and <i>Streptochaeta</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:449px; height:208px" src="images/img371c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;Spikelet of <i>Briza</i>.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;Spikelet of <i>Triticum</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(Both enlarged.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:251px; height:319px" src="images/img371d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.&mdash;Spikelet of <i>Anthoxanthum</i>
+(enlarged) without the
+two lower barren glumes, showing
+the two upper awned barren
+glumes (<i>g</i>) and the flower.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely
+concealing it, is the <i>palea</i> or <i>pale</i> (&ldquo;upper pale&rdquo; of most systematic
+agrostologists). This organ (fig. 13, 1) is peculiar to grasses
+among Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families
+Gramineae and Cyperaceae), and is almost always present,
+certain <i>Oryzeae</i> and <i>Phalarideae</i>
+being the only exceptions. It is
+of thin membranous consistence,
+usually obtuse, often bifid, and
+possesses no central rib or nerve,
+but has two lateral ones, one on
+either side; the margins are frequently
+folded in at the ribs,
+which thus become placed at the
+sharp angles. This structure was
+formerly regarded as pointing to
+the fusion of two organs, and
+the pale was considered by
+Robert Brown to represent two
+portions soldered together of a
+trimerous perianth-whorl, the
+third portion being the &ldquo;lower
+pale.&rdquo; The pale is now generally
+considered to represent the
+single bracteole, characteristic
+of Monocotyledons, the binerved
+structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the
+spikelet during the development of the pale, as in <i>Iris</i> and others.</p>
+
+<p>The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axis of
+another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed
+to it, though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract
+or flowering glume which has been generally called by systematists
+the &ldquo;lower pale,&rdquo; and with the &ldquo;upper pale&rdquo; was formerly
+considered to form an outer floral envelope (&ldquo;calyx,&rdquo; Jussieu;
+&ldquo;perianthium,&rdquo; Brown). The two bracts are, however, on
+different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot therefore
+be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike
+one another, but in some genera (<i>e.g.</i> most <i>Festuceae</i>) are very
+similar in shape and appearance.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:158px; height:870px" src="images/img372a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Spikelet of
+<i>Stipa pennata</i>. The pair
+of barren glumes (<i>b</i>)
+are separated from the
+flowering glume, which
+bears a long awn,
+twisted below the knee
+and feathery above.
+About ¾ nat. size.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped
+form, is of firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central
+midrib and frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a
+large proportion of genera extends into an appendage termed
+the <i>awn</i> (fig. 4), and the lateral veins more rarely extend beyond
+the glume as sharp points (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pappophorum</i>). The form of the
+flowering glume is very various, this organ being plastic and
+extensively modified in different genera. It frequently extends
+downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the latter a
+swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a
+furrow. In <i>Leptaspis</i> it is formed into a closed cavity by the
+union of its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting
+through the pervious summit. Valuable characters for distinguishing
+genera are obtained from the awn. This presents
+itself variously developed from a mere subulate point to an
+organ several inches in length, and when complete (as in <i>Andropogoneae</i>,
+<i>Aveneae</i> and <i>Stipeae</i>) consists of two well-marked
+portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight portion,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span>
+usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid and
+occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most
+often suppressed, and in the large group of the <i>Paniceae</i> awns
+of any sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal
+or may come off from the back of the flowering glume, and
+Duval Jouve&rsquo;s observations have shown that it represents the
+blade of the leaf of which the portion of the
+flowering glume below its origin is the sheath;
+the twisted part (so often suppressed) corresponds
+with the petiole, and the portion of
+the glume extending beyond the origin of
+the awn (very long in some species, <i>e.g.</i> of
+<i>Danthonia</i>) with the ligule of the developed
+foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has
+three fibro-vascular bundles, when dorsal
+only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing
+epidermis.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:229px" src="images/img372b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9</span> (left).&mdash;Spikelet
+of <i>Leersia</i>.
+<i>f</i>, Flowering glume; <i>p</i>,
+pale.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10</span> (right).&mdash;Spikelet of
+<i>Setaria</i>, with an abortive
+branch (<i>h</i>) beneath it. <i>b</i>,
+Barren glumes; <i>f</i>, flowering
+glume; <i>p</i>, pale.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The flower with its palea is thus sessile in
+the axil of a floriferous glume, and in a few
+grasses (<i>Leersia</i> (fig. 9), <i>Coleanthus</i>, <i>Nardus</i>)
+the spikelet consists of nothing more, but
+usually (even in uniflorous spikelets) other
+glumes are present. Of these the two placed
+distichously opposite each other at the base
+of the spikelet never bear any flower in their
+axils, and are called the <i>empty</i> or <i>barren
+glumes</i> (figs. 3, 8). They are the &ldquo;glumes&rdquo;
+of most writers, and together form what
+was called the &ldquo;gluma&rdquo; by R. Brown.
+They rarely differ much from one another,
+but one may be smaller or quite
+absent (<i>Panicum</i>, <i>Setaria</i> (fig. 10), <i>Paspalum</i>,
+<i>Lolium</i>), or both be altogether
+suppressed, as above noticed. They are
+commonly firm and strong, often enclose
+the spikelet, and are rarely provided with
+long points or imperfect awns. Generally
+speaking they do not share in the
+special modifications of the flowering
+glumes, and rarely themselves undergo
+modification, chiefly in hardening of
+portions (<i>Sclerachne</i>, <i>Manisuris</i>, <i>Anthephora</i>,
+<i>Peltophorum</i>), so as to afford greater protection to the
+flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the basal glumes,
+a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or more-flowered
+spikelets (see <i>Triticum</i>, fig. 6) at the top of the rhachilla (numerous
+in <i>Lophatherum</i>), or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10) below and
+interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair.</p>
+
+<p>The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up
+into articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs
+are frequently present (<i>Calamagrostis</i>, <i>Phragmites</i>, <i>Andropogon</i>),
+and are often so long as to surround and conceal the flowers
+(fig. 11). The axis is often continued beyond the last flower or
+glume as a bristle or stalk.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:211px; height:225px" src="images/img372c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Spikelet of
+Reed (<i>Phragmites communis</i>)
+opened out.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, Barren glumes.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, Fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower with its pale <i>d</i>.</p>
+<p>Note the zigzag axis (<i>rhachilla</i>) bearing long silky hairs.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Involucres</i> or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are
+formed in various ways. Thus in <i>Setaria</i> (fig. 10), <i>Pennisetum</i>,
+&amp;c., the one or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent
+abortive branches of the inflorescence; in <i>Cenchrus</i> (fig. 12)
+these become consolidated, and the inner ones flattened so as
+to form a very hard globular spiny case to the spikelets. The
+cup-shaped involucre of <i>Cornucopia</i>
+is a dilatation of the axis into
+a hollow receptacle with a raised
+border. In <i>Cynosurus</i> (Dog&rsquo;s tail)
+the pectinate involucre which conceals
+the spikelet is a barren or
+abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more
+general character subtending branches
+of the inflorescence are singularly
+rare in Gramineae, in marked contrast
+with Cyperaceae, where they are
+so conspicuous. They however occur
+in a whole section of <i>Andropogon</i>, in
+<i>Anomochloa</i>, and at the base of the
+spike in <i>Sesleria</i>. The remarkable
+ovoid involucre of <i>Coix</i>, which becomes
+of stony hardness, white and
+polished (then known as &ldquo;Job&rsquo;s
+tears,&rdquo; <i>q.v.</i>), is also a modified bract
+or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at
+the apex, and contains the female
+spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles
+emerging through the small apical orifice.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:161px; height:167px" src="images/img372d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Spikelet
+of <i>Cenchrus echinatus</i>
+enclosed in a bristly
+involucre.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Any number of spikelets may compose the inflorescence, and
+their arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with
+sessile spikelets on the main axis, the latter is often dilated and
+flattened (<i>Paspalum</i>), or is more or less
+thickened and hollowed out (<i>Stenotaphrum</i>,
+<i>Rottboellia</i>, <i>Tripsacum</i>), when the spikelets
+are sunk and buried within the cavities.
+Every variety of racemose and paniculate
+inflorescence obtains, and the number of
+spikelets composing those of the large kinds
+is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence
+consists of very few flowers; thus <i>Lygeum
+Spartum</i>, the most anomalous of European
+grasses, has but two or three large uniflorous
+spikelets, which are fused together
+at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are enveloped in a
+large, hooded, spathe-like bract.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:440px; height:342px" src="images/img372e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Flowers of Grasses (enlarged).  1, <i>Piptatherum</i>, with the
+palea <i>p</i>; 2, <i>Poa</i>; 3, <i>Oryza</i>; <i>l</i>, Lodicule.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Flower.</i>&mdash;This is characterized by remarkable uniformity.
+The perianth is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy
+scales arising below the ovary, called <i>lodicules</i>; they are elongated
+or truncate, sometimes fringed with hairs, and are in contact
+with the ovary. Their usual number is two, and they are placed
+collaterally at the anterior side of the flower (fig. 13,) that is,
+within the flowering glume. They are generally considered to
+represent the inner whorl of the ordinary monocotyledonous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span>
+(liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being suppressed
+as well as the posterior member of the inner whorl. This latter
+is present almost constantly in <i>Stipeae</i> and <i>Bambuseae</i>, which
+have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally
+more numerous. In <i>Anomochloa</i> they are represented by hairs.
+In <i>Streptochaeta</i> there are six lodicules, alternately arranged
+in two whorls. Sometimes, as in <i>Anthoxanthum</i>, they are
+absent. In <i>Melica</i> there is one large anterior lodicule resulting
+presumably from the union of the two which are present in allied
+genera. Professor E. Hackel, however, regards this as an
+undivided second pale, which in the majority of the grasses is
+split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when present, as a
+third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth.
+The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and
+glume to allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they
+effect this by swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of
+these two structures. Where, as in <i>Anthoxanthum</i>, there are no
+lodicules, pale and glume do not become laterally separated,
+and the stamens and stigmas protrude only at the apex of the
+floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually hermaphrodite, but
+there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to find one
+or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet
+with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important
+in classification. <i>Holcus</i> and <i>Arrhenatherum</i> are examples in
+English grasses; and as a rule in species of temperate regions
+separation of the sexes is not carried further. In warmer
+countries monoecious and dioecious grasses are more frequent.
+In such cases the male and female spikelets and inflorescence
+may be very dissimilar, as in maize, Job&rsquo;s tears, <i>Euchlaena</i>,
+<i>Spinifex</i>, &amp;c.; and in some dioecious species this dissimilarity
+has led to the two sexes being referred to different genera (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Anthephora axilliflora</i> is the female of <i>Buchloe dactyloides</i>,
+and <i>Neurachne paradoxa</i> of a species of <i>Spinifex</i>). In other
+grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Brizopyrum</i>,
+<i>Distichlis</i>, <i>Eragrostis capitala</i>, <i>Gynerium</i>), no such
+dimorphism obtains. <i>Amphicarpum</i> is remarkable in having
+cleistogamic flowers borne on long radical subterranean peduncles
+which are fertile, whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones,
+though apparently perfect, never produce fruit. Something
+similar occurs in <i>Leersia oryzoides</i>, where the fertile spikelets
+are concealed within the leaf-sheaths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Androecium.</i>&mdash;In the vast majority there are three stamens
+alternating with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, <i>i.e.</i>
+opposite the flowering glume, the other two being posterior and
+in contact with the palea (fig. 13, 1 and 2). They are hypogynous,
+and have long and very delicate filaments, and large,
+linear or oblong two-celled anthers, dorsifixed and ultimately
+very versatile, deeply indented at each end, and commonly
+exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen
+sometimes occurs (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Anthoxanthum</i>, fig. 7), or the two posterior
+ones may be absent (<i>Uniola</i>, <i>Cinna</i>, <i>Phippsia</i>, <i>Festuca bromoides</i>).
+There is in some genera (<i>Oryza</i>, most <i>Bambuseae</i>) another row of
+three stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and <i>Anomochloa</i> and
+<i>Tetrarrhena</i> possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten
+to forty) in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (<i>Pariana</i>,
+<i>Luziola</i>). In <i>Ochlandra</i> they vary from seven to thirty, and in
+<i>Gigantochloa</i> they are monadelphous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gynoecium.</i>&mdash;The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the
+pale in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small,
+rounded to elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single
+slightly bent ovule sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing
+from the back of the ovary); the micropyle points downwards.
+It bears usually two lateral styles which are quite distinct or
+connate at the base, sometimes for a greater length (fig. 14, 1),
+each ends in a densely hairy or feathery stigma (fig. 14). Occasionally
+there is but a single style, as in <i>Nardus</i> (fig. 14, 7), which
+corresponds to the midrib of the carpel. The very long and
+apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the union of two.
+Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:305px" src="images/img373a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Pistils of grasses (much enlarged). 1, <i>Alopecurus</i>; 2,
+<i>Bromus</i>; 3, <i>Arrhenatherum</i>; 4, <i>Glyceria</i>; 5, <i>Melica</i>; 6, <i>Mibora</i>;
+7, <i>Nardus</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general monocotyledonous
+plan as represented by Liliaceae and other families
+(fig. 15), it will be seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and
+the posterior member of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of
+the whole inner row of stamens, and of the two lateral carpels,
+whilst the remaining members of the perianth are in a rudimentary
+condition. But each or any of the usually missing organs
+are to be found
+normally in different
+genera, or as
+occasional developments.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 405px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:355px; height:186px" src="images/img373b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of the ordinary Grass-flower.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1, Actual condition;</p>
+<p>2, Theoretical, with the suppressed organs supplied.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Axis.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Flowering glume.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Palea.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Outer row of perianth leaves.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Inner row.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Outer row of stamens.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Inner row.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Pistil.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Pollination.</i>&mdash;Grasses
+are generally
+wind-pollinated,
+though self-fertilization
+sometimes
+occurs. A few
+species, as we have
+seen, are monoecious
+or dioecious,
+while many are
+polygamous (having
+unisexual as well
+as bisexual flowers
+as in many members of the tribes <i>Andropogoneae</i>, fig. 18,
+and <i>Paniceae</i>), and in these the male flower of a spikelet
+always blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its
+pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets
+in the same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual
+flowers, many are strongly protogynous (the stigmas protruding
+before the anthers are ripe), such as <i>Alopecurus</i> and
+<i>Anthoxanthum</i> (fig. 7), but generally the anthers protrude first
+and discharge the greater part of their pollen before the stigmas
+appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at flowering-time, and
+the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of finely
+granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some
+flowers, such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertilization,
+but in most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization,
+seem to be possible. Thus the species of wheat are usually self-fertilized,
+but cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are
+open above, the stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty
+only about one-third of their pollen in their own flower and
+the rest into the air. In some cultivated races of barley, cross-fertilization
+is precluded, as the flowers never open. Reference
+has already been made to cleistogamic species which occur in
+several genera.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:68px; height:101px" src="images/img374a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Fruit
+of <i>Sporobolus</i>,
+showing
+the dehiscent
+pericarp and
+seed.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Fruit and Seed.</i>&mdash;The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid
+or rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large
+seed, from which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp
+being completely united to its surface. To this peculiar
+fruit the term <i>caryopsis</i> has been applied (more familiarly
+&ldquo;grain&rdquo;); it is commonly furrowed longitudinally down one
+side (usually the inner, but in <i>Coix</i> and its allies, the outer), and
+an additional covering is not unfrequently provided by the
+adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the flowering
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span>
+glume (&ldquo;chaff&rdquo; of cereals). From this type are a few deviations;
+thus in <i>Sporobolus</i>, &amp;c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not united with
+the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the loose seed to
+escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes hard,
+forming a nut, as in some genera of <i>Bambuseae</i>, while in other
+<i>Bambuseae</i> it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as
+large as an apple. In <i>Melocanna</i> the berry forms
+an edible fruit 3 or 4 in. long, with a pointed
+beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the
+small seed germinates whilst the fruit is still
+attached to the tree, putting out a tuft of roots
+and a shoot, and not falling till the latter is 6 in.
+long. The position of the embryo is plainly
+visible on the front side at the base of the grain.
+On the other, posterior, side of the grain is a
+more or less evident, sometimes punctiform,
+sometimes elongated or linear mark, the hilum,
+the place where the ovule was fastened to the wall of the ovary.
+The form of the hilum is constant throughout a genus, and
+sometimes also in whole tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The testa is thin and membranous but occasionally coloured,
+and the embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied
+by the hard farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the
+nutritive value of the grain depends. The outermost layer of
+endosperm, the aleuron-layer, consists of regular cells filled with
+small proteid granules; the rest is made up of large polygonal
+cells containing numerous starch-grains in a matrix of proteid
+which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or granular (mealy
+endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest. Its
+position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the
+endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is
+absolute for the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae
+from Cyperaceae. The part in contact with the endosperm is
+plate-like, and is known as the <i>scutellum</i>; the surface in contact
+with the endosperm forms an absorptive epithelium. In some
+grasses there is a small scale-like appendage opposite the scutellum,
+the <i>epiblast</i>. There is some difference of opinion as to which
+structure or structures represent the cotyledon. Three must be
+considered: (1) the scutellum, connected by vascular tissue
+with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the embryo which
+it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving
+merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm;
+(2) the cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and
+inconspicuous as in wheat, or larger as in <i>Stipa</i>; (3) the pileole
+or germ-sheath, arising on the same side of the axis and above the
+scutellum, enveloping the plumule in the seed and appearing
+above ground as a generally colourless sheath from the apex of
+which the plumule ultimately breaks (fig. 17, 4, <i>b</i>). The development
+of these structures (which was investigated by van Tieghem),
+especially in relation to the origin of the vascular bundles which
+supply them, favours the view that the scutellum and pileole are
+highly differentiated parts of a single cotyledon, and this view is in
+accord with a comparative study of the seedling of grasses and
+of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been regarded as
+representing a second cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful
+interpretation.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:197px" src="images/img374b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;A Grain of Wheat. 1, back, and 2, front view; 3,
+vertical section, showing (<i>b</i>) the endosperm, and (<i>a</i>) embryo; 4,
+beginning of germination, showing (<i>b</i>) the pileole and (<i>c</i>) the radicle
+and secondary rootlets surrounded by their coleorrhizae.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Germination.</i>&mdash;In germination the coleorhiza lengthens,
+ruptures the pericarp, and fixes the grain to the ground by
+developing numerous hairs. The radicle then breaks through
+the coleorhiza, as do also the secondary rootlets where, as in
+the case of many cereals, these have been formed in the embryo
+(fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows vertically upwards, its
+stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is hidden
+in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves
+successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath.
+The scutellum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from
+the endosperm. The growth of the primary root is limited;
+sooner or later adventitious roots develop from the axis above
+the radicle which they ultimately exceed in growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Means of Distribution.</i>&mdash;Various methods of scattering the
+grain have been adopted, in which parts of the spikelet or inflorescence
+are concerned. Short spikes may fall from the
+culm as a whole; or the axis of a spike or raceme is jointed so
+that one spikelet falls with each joint as in many <i>Andropogoneae</i>
+and <i>Hordeae</i>. In many-flowered spikelets the rachilla is often
+jointed and breaks into as many pieces as there are fruits, each
+piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered spikelets may
+fall as a whole (as in the tribes <i>Paniceae</i> and <i>Andropogoneae</i>),
+or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that only the
+flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These arrangements
+are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals
+though present in their wild forms, so far as these are known.
+Such arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gathering
+of the fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not
+present would be preferred for cultivation. The persistent
+bracts (glume and pale) afford an additional protection to the
+fruit; they protect the embryo, which is near the surface, from
+too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from drying up again.
+They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the grain is more
+readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in <i>Briza</i>, the glume
+has a large surface compared with the size of the grain, or when,
+as in <i>Holcus</i>, empty glumes also take part; in Canary grass
+(<i>Phalaris</i>) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing
+on the keel. In the sugar-cane (<i>Saccharum</i>) and several allied
+genera the separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below
+the spikelets; in others, as in <i>Arundo</i> (a reed-grass), the flowering
+glumes are enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently
+borne on the flowering glume is also a very efficient means of
+distribution, catching into fur of animals or plumage of birds,
+or as often in <i>Stipa</i> (fig. 8) forming a long feather for wind-carriage.
+In <i>Tragus</i> the glumes bear numerous short hooked
+bristles. The fleshy berries of some <i>Bambuseae</i> favour distribution
+by animals.</p>
+
+<p>The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus
+in <i>Stipa</i>, species of <i>Avena</i>, <i>Heteropogon</i> and others the base of
+the glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the
+ground; above the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs
+which oppose its withdrawal. The long awn, which is bent and
+closely twisted below the bend, acts as a driving organ; it is
+very hygroscopic, the coils untwisting when damp and twisting
+up when dry. The repeated twisting and untwisting, especially
+when the upper part of the awn has become fixed in the
+earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point
+deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause
+harm to sheep by catching in the wool and boring through
+the skin.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and
+arctic grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of
+the fruit is often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single
+flowers, are transformed into small-leaved shoots which fall
+from the axes and readily root in the ground. Some species,
+such as <i>Poa stricta</i>, are known only in this viviparous
+condition; others, like our British species <i>Festuca ovina</i>
+and <i>Poa alpina</i>, become viviparous under the special climatic
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">II. Classification.</span>&mdash;Gramineae are sharply defined from
+all other plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible
+to feel a doubt whether they should be referred to it or not.
+The only family closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of
+difference between the two may be here brought together. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span>
+best distinctions are found in the position of the embryo in
+relation to the endosperm&mdash;lateral in grasses, basal in Cyperaceae&mdash;and
+in the possession by Gramineae of the 2-nerved palea
+below each flower. Less absolute characters, but generally
+trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery stigmas,
+the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual
+absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split
+leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms&mdash;some
+or all of which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same characters
+will distinguish grasses from the other glumiferous orders,
+Restiaceae, and Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further
+removed by their capsular fruit and pendulous ovules. To other
+monocotyledonous families the resemblances are merely of
+adaptive or vegetative characters. Some Commelinaceae and
+Marantaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of <i>Allium</i>,
+&amp;c., possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of
+the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an
+inconspicuous scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera
+containing about 3500 well-defined species.</p>
+
+<p>The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this
+vast family renders its <i>classification</i> very difficult. The difficulty
+has been increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplication
+of genera founded on slight characters, and from the description
+(in consequence of their wide distribution) of identical
+plants under several different genera.</p>
+
+<p>No characters for main divisions can be obtained from the
+flower proper or fruit (with the exception of the character of
+the hilum), and it has therefore been found necessary to trust
+to characters derived from the usually less important inflorescence
+and bracts.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions&mdash;Paniceae
+and Poaceae, according to the position of the most perfect
+flower in the spikelet; this is the upper (apparently) terminal
+one in the first, whilst in the second it occupies the lower position,
+the more imperfect ones (if any) being above it. Munro supplemented
+this by another character easier of verification, and of
+even greater constancy, in the articulation of the pedicel in the
+Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae
+this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently
+articulates <i>above</i> the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of
+these great divisions will well accommodate certain genera
+allied to <i>Phalaris</i>, for which Brown proposed tentatively a
+third group (since named <i>Phalarideae</i>); this, or at least the
+greater part of it, is placed by Bentham under the Poaceae.</p>
+
+<p>The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor
+Eduard Hackel in his recent monograph on the order.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, falling
+from the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity.
+Rachilla not produced beyond the flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>. Hilum a point; spikelets not laterally compressed.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>&alpha; Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick,
+membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest
+the largest. Rachis generally jointed and breaking up
+when mature.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in separate
+inflorescences or on different parts of the same
+inflorescence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1. <i>Maydeae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>2. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male
+standing close to a bisexual.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>2. <i>Andropogoneae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>&beta; Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery;
+empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the
+lowest usually smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the
+unjointed rachis of the spike or the ultimate branches of
+the panicle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>3. <i>Paniceae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>b</i>. Hilum a line; spikelets laterally compressed.</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>4. <i>Oryzeae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>B. Spikelets one- to indefinite-flowered; in the one-flowered the
+rachilla frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally
+jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting
+glumes have fallen. When more than one-flowered, distinct internodes
+are developed between the flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>. Culm herbaceous, annual; leaf-blade sessile, and not jointed
+to the sheath.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>&alpha; Spikelets upon distinct pedicels and arranged in panicles or
+racemes.</p>
+
+<p>I. Spikelets one-flowered.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">i.</td> <td class="tcl">Empty glumes 4.</td> <td class="tcl">5. <i>Phalarideae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">ii.</td> <td class="tcl">Empty glumes 2.</td> <td class="tcl">6. <i>Agrostideae</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>II. Spikelets more than one-flowered.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty
+glumes, usually with a bent awn on the back.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>7. <i>Aveneae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>ii. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, unawned
+or with a straight, terminal awn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>9. <i>Festuceae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>&beta; Spikelets crowded in two close rows, forming a one-sided
+spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>8. <i>Chlorideae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>&gamma; Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>10. <i>Hordeae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>b</i>. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the
+sheath, often with a short, slender petiole.</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>11. <i>Bambuseae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 1. <i>Maydeae</i> (7 genera in the warmer parts of the earth).
+<i>Zea Mays</i> (maize, <i>q.v.</i>, or Indian corn) (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Tripsacum</i>, 2 or 3 species
+in subtropical America north of the equator; <i>Tr. dactyloides</i> (gama
+grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut; it is used for
+fodder and as an ornamental plant. <i>Coix Lacryma-Jobi</i> (Job&rsquo;s
+tears) <i>q.v.</i></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:162px; height:354px" src="images/img375.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;A pair of
+spikelets of <i>Andropogon</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tribe 2. <i>Andropogoneae</i> (25 genera, mainly tropical). The
+spikelets are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs consisting
+of a sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis
+(fig. 18). Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics,
+for instance the large genus <i>Andropogon</i>, <i>Elionurus</i> and others.
+<i>Saccharum officinarum</i> (sugar-cane) (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Sorghum</i>, an important
+tropical cereal known as black millet or <i>durra</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Miscanthus</i> and
+<i>Erianthus</i>, nearly allied to <i>Saccharum</i>, are tall reed-like grasses,
+with large silky flower-panicles, which are
+grown for ornament. <i>Imperata</i>, another
+ally, is a widespread tropical genus; one
+species <i>I. arundinacea</i> is the principal grass
+of the alang-alang fields in the Malay Archipelago;
+it is used for thatch. <i>Vossia</i>, an
+aquatic grass, often floating, is found in
+western India and tropical Africa. In the
+swampy lands of the upper Nile it forms,
+along with a species of <i>Saccharum</i>, huge
+floating grass barriers. <i>Elionurus</i>, a widespread
+savanna grass in tropical and subtropical
+America, and also in the tropics of
+the old world, is rejected by cattle probably
+on account of its aromatic character, the
+spikelets having a strong balsam-like smell.
+Other aromatic members are <i>Andropogon
+Nardus</i>, a native of India, but also cultivated,
+the rhizome, leaves and especially the spikelets
+of which contain a volatile oil, which on
+distillation yields the citronella oil of commerce.
+A closely allied species, <i>A. Schoenanthus</i>
+(lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil;
+a variety is used by the negroes in western
+Africa for haemorrhage. Other species of
+the same genus are used as stimulants and
+cosmetics in various parts of the tropics. The species of <i>Heteropogon</i>,
+a cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have
+strongly awned spikelets. <i>Themeda Forskalii</i>, which occurs from the
+Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo
+grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often covers wide
+tracts.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 3. <i>Paniceae</i> (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical;
+a few temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely hermaphrodite,
+is often present below the fertile flower. <i>Paspalum</i>, is a
+large tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the
+pampas and campos; many species are good forage plants, and the
+grain is sometimes used for food. <i>Amphicarpum</i>, native in the south-eastern
+United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on filiform
+runners at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are
+sterile. <i>Panicum</i>, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest
+in the order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with
+species of <i>Paspalum</i> they form good forage grasses in the South
+American savannas and campos. <i>Panicum Crus-galli</i> is a polymorphic
+cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one
+form (<i>P. frumentaceum</i>) it is cultivated in India for its grain. <i>P.
+plicatum</i>, with broad folded leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grass.
+<i>P. miliaceum</i> is millet (<i>q.v.</i>), and <i>P. altissimum</i>, Guinea grass. In
+the closely allied genus <i>Digitaria</i>, which is sometimes regarded as
+a section of <i>Panicum</i>, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a point;
+<i>D. sanguinalis</i> is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is cultivated
+as a food-grain; it is also the crab-grass of the southern United States,
+where it is used for fodder.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Setaria</i> and allied genera the spikelet is subtended by an
+involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of the
+inflorescence. <i>Setaria italica</i>, Hungarian grass, is extensively grown
+as a food-grain both in China and Japan, parts of India and western
+Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from prehistoric
+times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake dwellings of
+the Stone age.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Cenchrus</i> the bristles unite to form a tough spiny capsule
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span>
+(fig. 12); <i>C. tribuloides</i> (bur-grass) and other species are troublesome
+weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the
+wool of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. <i>Pennisetum
+typhoideum</i> is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. <i>Spinifex</i>,
+a dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and
+eastern Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads
+are spinose with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are
+carried away by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand
+and falling to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 4. <i>Oryzeae</i> (16 genera, mainly tropical and subtropical).
+The spikelets are sometimes unisexual, and there are often six
+stamens. <i>Leersia</i> is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which <i>L.
+oryzoides</i> occurs in the north temperate zone of both old and new
+worlds, and is a rare grass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. <i>Zizania
+aquatica</i> (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over
+large areas on banks of streams and lakes in North America and north-east
+Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. <i>Oryza sativa</i>
+(rice) (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Lygeum Spartum</i>, with a creeping stem and stiff rush-like
+leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the
+western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:246px; height:202px" src="images/img376a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;<i>Phalarideae.</i> Spikelet
+of Hierochloe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tribe 5. <i>Phalarideae</i> (6 genera,
+three of which are South African
+and Australasian; the others are
+more widely distributed, and represented
+in our flora). <i>Phalaris
+arundinacea</i>, is a reed-grass found
+on the banks of British rivers and
+lakes; a variety with striped leaves
+known as ribbon-grass is grown for
+ornament. <i>P. canariensis</i> (Canary
+grass, a native of southern Europe
+and the Mediterranean area) is
+grown for bird-food and sometimes
+as a cereal. <i>Anthoxanthum
+odoratum</i>, the sweet vernal grass of
+our flora, owes its scent to the
+presence of coumarin, which is also present in the closely allied
+genus <i>Hierochloe</i> (fig. 19), which occurs throughout the temperate
+and frigid zones.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 6. <i>Agrostideae</i> (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of
+the world; eleven are British). <i>Aristida</i> and <i>Stipa</i> are large and
+widely distributed genera, occurring especially on open plains and
+steppes; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms
+an efficient means of dispersing the grain.  <i>Stipa pennata</i> is a characteristic
+species of the Russian steppes. <i>St. spartea</i> (porcupine
+grass) and other species are plentiful on the North American prairies.
+<i>St. tenacissima</i> is the Spanish esparto grass (<i>q.v.</i>), known in North
+Africa as halfa or alfa. <i>Phleum</i> has a cylindrical spike-like inflorescence;
+<i>P. pratense</i> (timothy) is a valuable fodder grass, as also is
+<i>Alopecurus pratensis</i> (foxtail). <i>Sporobolus</i>, a large genus in the
+warmer parts of both hemispheres, but chiefly America, derives its
+name from the fact that the seed is ultimately expelled from the
+fruit. <i>Agrostis</i> is a large world-wide genus, but especially developed
+in the north temperate zone, where it includes important meadow-grasses.
+<i>Calamagrostis</i> and <i>Deyeuxia</i> are tall, often reed-like grasses,
+occurring throughout the temperate and arctic zones and upon high
+mountains in the tropics. <i>Ammophila arundinacea</i> (or <i>Psamma
+arenaria</i>) (Marram grass) with its long creeping stems forms a useful
+sand-binder on the coasts of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic
+states of America.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 7. <i>Aveneae</i> (about 24 genera, seven of which are British).
+<i>Holcus lanatus</i> (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and
+wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. <i>Aira</i> is a genus of
+delicate annuals with slender hair-like branches of the panicle.
+<i>Deschampsia</i> and <i>Trisetum</i> occur in temperate and cold regions or on
+high mountains in the tropics; <i>T. pratense</i> (<i>Avena flavescens</i>) with
+a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets is a valuable fodder-grass.
+<i>Avena fatua</i> is the wild oat and <i>A. sativa</i> the cultivated oat
+(<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Arrhenatherum avenaceum</i>, a perennial field grass, native in
+Britain and central and southern Europe, is cultivated in North
+America.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 8. <i>Chlorideae</i> (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries).
+The only British representative is <i>Cynodon Dactylon</i> (dog&rsquo;s tooth,
+Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England;
+it is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming
+an important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass of
+the southern United States, and known as durba, dub and other
+names in India). Species of <i>Chloris</i> are grown as ornamental grasses.
+<i>Bouteloua</i> with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama grass) on
+the plains of the south-western United States, afford good grazing.
+<i>Eleusine indica</i> is a common tropical weed; the nearly allied species
+<i>E. Coracana</i> is a cultivated grain in the warmer parts of Asia and
+throughout Africa. <i>Buchloe dactyloides</i> is the buffalo grass of the
+North American prairies, a valuable fodder.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 375px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:314px; height:618px" src="images/img376b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;<i>Poa annua.</i> Plant in Flower;
+about ½ nat. size. 1, one spikelet.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tribe 9. <i>Festuceae</i> (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate,
+arctic and alpine forms) many are important meadow-grasses; 15
+are British. <i>Gynerium argenteum</i> (pampas grass) is a native of
+southern Brazil and Argentina. <i>Arundo</i> and <i>Phragmites</i> are tall
+reed-grasses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reed</a></span>). Several species of <i>Triodia</i> cover large areas
+of the interior of Australia, and from their stiff, sharply pointed leaves
+are very troublesome. <i>Eragrostis</i>, one of the larger genera of the
+order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth; many
+species are grown for ornament and <i>E. abyssinica</i> is an important
+food-plant in Abyssinia.
+<i>Koeleria cristata</i> is a
+fodder-grass. <i>Briza
+media</i> (quaking grass)
+is a useful meadow-grass.
+<i>Dactylis glomerata</i>
+(cock&rsquo;s-foot), a
+perennial grass with a
+dense panicle, common
+in pastures and waste
+places is a useful
+meadow-grass. It has
+become naturalized in
+North America, where
+it is known as orchard
+grass, as it will grow
+in shade. <i>Cynosurus
+cristatus</i> (dog&rsquo;s tail) is
+a common pasture-grass.
+<i>Poa</i>, a large
+genus widely distributed
+in temperate and
+cold countries, includes
+many meadow and
+alpine grasses; eight
+species are British; <i>P.
+annua</i> (fig. 20) is the
+very common weed in
+paths and waste places;
+<i>P. pratensis</i> and <i>P. trivialis</i>
+are also common
+grasses of meadows,
+banks and pastures, the
+former is the &ldquo;June
+grass&rdquo; or &ldquo;Kentucky
+blue grass&rdquo; of North
+America; <i>P. alpina</i>
+is a mountain grass of
+the northern hemisphere
+and found also
+in the Arctic region.
+The largest species of
+the genus is <i>Poa flabellata</i>
+which forms great
+tufts 6-7 ft. high with leaves arranged like a fan; it is a native
+of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is known as
+tussock grass. <i>Glyceria fluitans</i>, manna-grass, so-called
+from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder
+grasses for swampy meadows; the grain is an article
+of food in central Europe. <i>Festuca</i> (fescue) is also
+a large and widely distributed genus, but found
+especially in the temperate and cold zones; it
+includes valuable pasture grasses, such as <i>F. ovina</i>
+(sheep&rsquo;s fescue), <i>F. rubra</i>; nine species are British.
+The closely allied genus <i>Bromus</i> (brome grass) is
+also widely distributed but most abundant in the
+north temperate zone; <i>B. erectus</i> is a useful forage
+grass on dry chalky soil.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:58px; height:486px" src="images/img376c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Spike of Wheat
+(<i>Triticum sativum</i>).
+About <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> nat. size.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tribe 10. <i>Hordeae</i> (about 19 genera, widely
+distributed; six are British). <i>Nardus stricta</i> (mat-weed),
+found on heaths and dry pastures, is a small
+perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it is
+a useless grass, crowding out better sorts. <i>Lolium
+perenne</i>, ray- (or by corruption rye-) grass, is
+common in waste places and a valuable pasture-grass;
+<i>L. italicum</i> is the Italian ray-grass; <i>L.
+temulentum</i> (darnel) contains a narcotic principle
+in the grain. <i>Secale cereale</i>, rye (<i>q.v.</i>), is cultivated
+mainly in northern Europe. <i>Agropyrum repens</i>
+(couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem,
+and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land; the
+widely creeping stem of <i>A. junceum</i>, found on
+sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful sand-binder.
+<i>Triticum sativum</i> is wheat (<i>q.v.</i>) (fig. 21), and <i>Hordeum
+sativum</i>, barley (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>H. murinum</i>, wild
+barley, is a common grass in waste places. <i>Elymus
+arenarius</i> (lyme grass) occurs on sandy sea-shores in
+the north temperate zone and is a useful sand-binder.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 11. <i>Bambuseae</i>. Contains 23 genera, mainly
+tropical. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bamboo</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>III. <span class="sc">Distribution.</span>&mdash;Grasses are the most
+universally diffused of all flowering plants.
+There is no district in which they do not occur, and in nearly
+all they are a leading feature of the flora. In number of
+species Gramineae comes considerably after Compositae and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span>
+Leguminosae, the two most numerous orders of phanerogams,
+but in number of individual plants it probably far exceeds
+either; whilst from the wide extension of many of its
+species, the proportion of Gramineae to other orders in the
+various floras of the world is much higher than its number of
+species would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where
+Leguminosae is the leading order, grasses closely follow as the
+second, whilst in the warm and temperate regions of the northern
+hemisphere, in which Compositae takes the lead, Gramineae
+again occupies the second position.</p>
+
+<p>While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical
+zone, the number of individuals is greater in the temperate
+zones, where they form extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow-formation
+depends upon uniform rainfall. Grasses also characterize
+steppes and savannas, where they form scattered tufts.
+The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest vegetation, especially
+in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes are entered the
+grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the leading
+family in Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries
+where the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some
+extra-tropical regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia,
+the Cape, Chili, &amp;c. The proportion of graminaceous species
+to the whole phanerogamic flora in different countries is found
+to vary from nearly ¼th in the Arctic regions to about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">25</span>th at
+the Cape; in the British Isles it is about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>th.</p>
+
+<p>The principal climatic cause influencing the number of graminaceous
+species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable
+feature of the distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are
+no great centres for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked
+preponderance of endemic species exists; and the genera,
+except some of the smallest or monotypic ones, have usually
+a wide distribution.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of the tropical tribe <i>Bambuseae</i> is interesting.
+The species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan
+region and tropical America, only one species being common
+to both. The tribe is very poorly represented in tropical Africa;
+one species <i>Oxytenanthera abyssinica</i> has a wide range, and three
+monotypic genera are endemic in western tropical Africa. None
+is recorded for Australia, though species may perhaps occur
+on the northern coast. One species of <i>Arundinaria</i> reaches
+northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the
+Andes by some species of <i>Chusquea</i> is very remarkable,&mdash;one,
+<i>C. aristata</i>, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level
+of perpetual snow.</p>
+
+<p>Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common
+reed, <i>Phragmites communis</i>; and many range throughout the
+warm regions of the globe, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Cynodon Dactylon</i>, <i>Eleusine
+indica</i>, <i>Imperata arundinacea</i>, <i>Sporobolus indicus</i>, &amp;c., and such
+weeds of cultivation as species of <i>Setaria</i>, <i>Echinochloa</i>. Several
+species of the north temperate zone, such as <i>Poa nemoralis</i>,
+<i>P. pratensis</i>, <i>Festuca ovina</i>, <i>F. rubra</i> and others, are absent in
+the tropics but reappear in the antarctic regions; others (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Phleum alpinum</i>) appear in isolated positions on high mountains
+in the intervening tropics. No tribe is confined to one hemisphere
+and no large genus to any one floral region; facts which indicate
+that the separation of the tribes goes back to very ancient times.
+The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well exhibits
+the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally so
+peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90
+indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 are
+endemic, 1 extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia
+and New Zealand, 18 extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than
+54 are found in both the Old and New Worlds; 26 being chiefly
+tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical.</p>
+
+<p>Of specially remarkable species <i>Lygeum</i> is found on the
+sea-sand of the eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, and the
+minute <i>Coleanthus</i> occurs in three or four isolated spots in
+Europe (Norway, Bohemia, Austria, Normandy), in North-east
+Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast of North America (Oregon,
+Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera occur in
+tropical America, including <i>Anomochloa</i> of Brazil, and most of
+the large aquatic species with separated sexes are found in this
+region. The only genus of flowering plants peculiar to the arctic
+regions is the beautiful and rare grass <i>Pleuropogon Sabinii</i>, of
+Melville Island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Grasses.</i>&mdash;While numerous remains of grass-like leaves
+are a proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly
+developed in past geological ages, especially in the Tertiary
+period, the fossil remains are in most cases too fragmentary and
+badly preserved for the determination of genera, and conclusions
+based thereon in explanation of existing geographical distribution
+are most unsatisfactory. There is, however, justification for
+referring some specimens to <i>Arundo</i>, <i>Phragmites</i>, and to the
+<i>Bambuseae</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;E. Hackel, <i>The True Grasses</i> (translated from
+Engler and Prantl, <i>Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien</i>, by F. Lamson
+Scribner and E. A. Southworth); and <i>Andropogoneae</i> in de Candolle&rsquo;s
+<i>Monographiae phanerogamarum</i> (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth,
+<i>Revision des graminées</i> (Paris, 1829-1835) and <i>Agrostographia</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1833); J. C. Döll in Martius and Eichler, <i>Flora Brasiliensis</i>,
+ii. Pts. II. and III. (Munich, 1871-1883); A. W. Eichler, <i>Blüthendiagramme</i>
+i. 119 (Leipzig, 1875); Bentham and Hooker, <i>Genera
+plantarum</i>, iii. 1074 (London, 1883); H. Baillon, <i>Histoire des
+plantes</i>, xii. 136 (Paris, 1893); J. S. Gamble, &ldquo;<i>Bambuseae</i> of British
+India&rdquo; in <i>Annals Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta</i>, vii. (1896);
+John Percival, <i>Agricultural Botany</i> (chapters on &ldquo;Grasses,&rdquo; 2nd ed.,
+London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various great
+floras, such as Ascherson and Graebner, <i>Synopsis der mitteleuropäischen
+Flora</i>; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, <i>Illustrated Flora of the Northern
+United States and Canada</i> (New York, 1896); Hooker&rsquo;s <i>Flora of
+British India</i>; <i>Flora Capensis</i> (edited by W. Thiselton-Dyer);
+Boissier, <i>Flora orientalis</i>, &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;grass&rdquo; (O. Eng. <i>gærs</i>, <i>græs</i>) is common to Teutonic
+languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth, <i>gras</i>, Dan. <i>græs</i>; the root is the
+O. Teut. <i>gra</i>-, <i>gro</i>-, to increase, whence &ldquo;grow,&rdquo; and &ldquo;green,&rdquo; the
+typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is
+seen in Lat. <i>gramen</i>. The O. Eng. <i>grasian</i>, formed from <i>græs</i>, gives
+&ldquo;to graze,&rdquo; of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also &ldquo;grazier,&rdquo;
+one who grazes or feeds cattle for the market; &ldquo;to graze,&rdquo; to
+abrade, to touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this
+from the idea of close cropping; if it is to be distinguished a possible
+connexion may be found with &ldquo;glace&rdquo; (Fr. <i>glacer</i>, glide, slip, Lat.
+<i>glacies</i>, ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced by
+&ldquo;grate,&rdquo; to scrape, scratch (Fr. <i>gratter</i>, Ger. <i>kratzen</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,18633 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3
+       "Gordon, Lord George" to "Grasses"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 11, 2011 [EBook #37984]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE: "... musical composer of the 16th
+      century, was born about 1510." 'musical' amended from 'muscial'.
+
+    ARTICLE GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO: "Finding it convenient to
+      retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own
+      cost ..." 'it' amended from 'in'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRAMMAR: "...Fritz Mauthner, Beitrage zu einer Kritik der
+      Sprache vol. iii. (1902) ..." 'zu' amended from 'zur'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED: "So far, then, as this
+      declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsibility
+      must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues ..."
+      'responsibility' amended from 'responsiblity'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRAND ISLAND: "The most important industry of the county is
+      the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle." 'meat' amended
+      from 'neat'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRANTH: "There are thirty-one such measures in the Adi
+      Granth, and the hymns are arranged according to the measures to
+      which they are composed." 'measures' amended from 'neasures'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XII, SLICE III
+
+      Gordon, Lord George to Grasses
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GORDON, LORD GEORGE                GOZZOLI, BENOZZO
+  GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON            GRAAFF REINET
+  GORDON, LEON                       GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH
+  GORDON, PATRICK                    GRABE, JOHN ERNEST
+  GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE    GRACCHUS
+  GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES      GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT
+  GORE, CHARLES                      GRACE
+  GORE                               GRACES, THE
+  GOREE                              GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR
+  GORGE                              GRACKLE
+  GORGEI, ARTHUR                     GRADISCA
+  GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO             GRADO
+  GORGET                             GRADUAL
+  GORGIAS                            GRADUATE
+  GORGON, GORGONS                    GRADUATION
+  GORGONZOLA                         GRADUS
+  GORI                               GRAETZ, HEINRICH
+  GORILLA                            GRAEVIUS, JOHANN GEORG
+  GORINCHEM                          GRAF, ARTURO
+  GORING, GEORGE GORING              GRAF, KARL HEINRICH
+  GORKI, MAXIM                       GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON
+  GORLITZ                            GRAFE, HEINRICH
+  GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON          GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON
+  GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH             GRAFFITO
+  GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON              GRAFLY, CHARLES
+  GORTON, SAMUEL                     GRAFRATH
+  GORTON                             GRAFT
+  GORTYNA                            GRAFTON, DUKES OF
+  GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON          GRAFTON, RICHARD
+  GORZ                               GRAFTON (New South Wales)
+  GORZ AND GRADISCA                  GRAFTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)
+  GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN    GRAFTON (West Virginia, U.S.A.)
+  GOS-HAWK                           GRAHAM, SIR GERALD
+  GOSHEN (Egypt)                     GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE
+  GOSHEN (Indiana, U.S.A.)           GRAHAM, SYLVESTER
+  GOSLAR                             GRAHAM, THOMAS
+  GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC               GRAHAME, JAMES
+  GOSLIN                             GRAHAM'S DYKE
+  GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW               GRAHAM'S TOWN
+  GOSPATRIC                          GRAIL, THE HOLY
+  GOSPEL                             GRAIN
+  GOSPORT                            GRAINS OF PARADISE
+  GOSS, SIR JOHN                     GRAIN TRADE
+  GOSSAMER                           GRAM
+  GOSSE, EDMUND                      GRAMMAR
+  GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY                GRAMMICHELE
+  GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH            GRAMMONT
+  GOSSIP                             GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED
+  GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA      GRAMONT, PHILIBERT
+  GOSSON, STEPHEN                    GRAMOPHONE
+  GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND         GRAMPIANS, THE
+  GOTA                               GRAMPOUND
+  GOTARZES                           GRAMPUS
+  GOTHA                              GRANADA, LUIS DE
+  GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF                GRANADA (Nicaragua)
+  GOTHENBURG                         GRANADA (province of Spain)
+  GOTHIC                             GRANADA (town of Spain)
+  GOTHITE                            GRANADILLA
+  GOTHS                              GRANARIES
+  GOTLAND                            GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS
+  GOTO ISLANDS                       GRAN CHACO
+  GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM          GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE
+  GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG           GRAND CANARY
+  GOTTINGEN                          GRAND CANYON
+  GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM             GRAND-DUKE
+  GOTTSCHALK                         GRANDEE
+  GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON             GRAND FORKS (Canada)
+  GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH        GRAND FORKS (North Dakota, U.S.A.)
+  GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS              GRAND HAVEN
+  GOUACHE                            GRANDIER, URBAN
+  GOUDA                              GRAND ISLAND
+  GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE                   GRANDMONTINES
+  GOUFFIER                           GRAND RAPIDS
+  GOUGE, MARTIN                      GRAND RAPIDS
+  GOUGE                              GRANDSON
+  GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH                  GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS
+  GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW            GRANGE
+  GOUGH, RICHARD                     GRANGEMOUTH
+  GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE              GRANGER, JAMES
+  GOUJON, JEAN                       GRANITE
+  GOUJON, JEAN MARIE ALEXANDRE       GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA
+  GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK           GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
+  GOULBURN, HENRY                    GRANT, ANNE
+  GOULBURN                           GRANT, CHARLES
+  GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON            GRANT, SIR FRANCIS
+  GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP            GRANT, GEORGE MONRO
+  GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS      GRANT, JAMES
+  GOULD, JAY                         GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS
+  GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS           GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE
+  GOURD                              GRANT, SIR PATRICK
+  GOURGAUD, GASPAR                   GRANT, ROBERT
+  GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH       GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON
+  GOURMET                            GRANT
+  GOUROCK                            GRANTH
+  GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD            GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON
+  GOUT                               GRANTHAM
+  GOUTHIERE, PIERRE                  GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON
+  GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT         GRANTOWN
+  GOVAN                              GRANULITE
+  GOVERNMENT                         GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT
+  GOVERNOR                           GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE LEVESON-GOWER
+  GOW, NIEL                          GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET
+  GOWER, JOHN                        GRANVILLE (Australia)
+  GOWER                              GRANVILLE (France)
+  GOWN                               GRANVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+  GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN               GRAPE
+  GOWRIE                             GRAPHICAL METHODS
+  GOYA                               GRAPHITE
+  GOYANNA                            GRAPTOLITES
+  GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO        GRASLITZ
+  GOYAZ                              GRASMERE
+  GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN         GRASS AND GRASSLAND
+  GOZLAN, LEON                       GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL
+  GOZO                               GRASSE
+  GOZZI, CARLO                       GRASSES
+  GOZZI, GASPARO
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), third and youngest son of Cosmo George,
+duke of Gordon, was born in London on the 26th of December 1751. After
+completing his education at Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to
+the rank of lieutenant in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of
+the admiralty, would not promise him the command of a ship, and he
+resigned his commission shortly before the beginning of the American
+War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought for him by
+General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-shire, in order to
+bribe him not to contest the county. He was considered flighty, and was
+not looked upon as being of any importance. In 1779 he organized, and
+made himself head of the Protestant associations, formed to secure the
+repeal of the Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 he
+headed the mob which marched in procession from St George's Fields to
+the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster petition
+against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a terrific riot
+ensued, which continued several days, during which the city was
+virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they dispersed after
+threatening to make a forcible entry into the House of Commons, but
+reassembled soon afterwards and destroyed several Roman Catholic
+chapels, pillaged the private dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set
+fire to Newgate and broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank
+of England and several other public buildings, and continued the work of
+violence and conflagration until the interference of the military, by
+whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded before the riots
+were quelled. For his share in instigating the riots Lord Gordon was
+apprehended on a charge of high treason; but, mainly through the skilful
+and eloquent defence of Erskine, he was acquitted on the ground that he
+had no treasonable intentions. His life was henceforth full of
+crack-brained schemes, political and financial. In 1786 he was
+excommunicated by the archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear
+witness in an ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of
+libelling the queen of France, the French ambassador and the
+administration of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to
+withdraw from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland;
+but on account of representations from the court of Versailles he was
+commanded to quit that country, and, returning to England, was
+apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced to five years'
+imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his ease, giving dinners and
+dances. As he could not obtain securities for his good behaviour on the
+termination of his term of imprisonment, he was not allowed to leave
+Newgate, and there he died of delirious fever on the 1st of November
+1793. Some time before his apprehension he had become a convert to
+Judaism, and had undergone the initiatory rite.
+
+  A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in _The
+  Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his
+  Political Conduct_, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The best
+  accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the _Annual
+  Registers_ from 1780 to the year of his death.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788-1864), Scottish painter, was the eldest
+son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the family of Watson of
+Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He was born in Edinburgh in 1788,
+and was educated specially with a view to his joining the Royal
+Engineers. He entered as a student in the government school of design,
+under the management of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for
+art quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow him
+to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself a skilful
+draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, afterwards president of the
+Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait painter, second only to Sir
+Henry Raeburn, who also was a friend of the family. In the year 1808
+John sent to the exhibition of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject
+from the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_, and continued for some years to
+exhibit fancy subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they
+were altogether without the force and character which stamped his
+portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of Sir Henry
+Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice. He assumed in
+1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest of his famous sitters was
+Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first portrait in 1820. Then came J. G.
+Lockhart in 1821; Professor Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir
+Archibald Alison, 1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey,
+and Sir David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may be
+mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers' Hall, Edinburgh;
+Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings, Linlithgow; Lord
+President Hope, in the Parliament House; and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike
+his later works, are generally rich in colour. The full length of Dr
+Brunton (1844), and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both
+on the staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his
+style, which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both of
+colour and treatment.
+
+During the last twenty years of his life he painted many distinguished
+Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him. And it is significant
+that David Cox, the landscape painter, on being presented with his
+portrait, subscribed for by many friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to
+have it executed by Watson Gordon, although he neither knew the painter
+personally nor had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits
+painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style, are
+De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London; General Sir Thomas
+Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society; the prince of Wales, Lord
+Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford
+and Sir John Shaw Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These
+latter pictures are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or
+no positive colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling
+extremely masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very
+successful in rendering acute observant character. A good example of his
+last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely handled, yet highly
+finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw Lefevre.
+
+John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the Royal Scottish
+Academy, and was elected its president in 1850; he was at the same time
+appointed limner for Scotland to the queen, and received the honour of
+knighthood. Since 1841 he had been an associate of the Royal Academy,
+and in 1851 he was elected a royal academician. He died on the 1st of
+June 1864.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, LEON, originally JUDAH LOEB BEN ASHER (1831-1892),
+Russian-Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at Wilna in 1831 and
+died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took a leading part in the modern
+revival of the Hebrew language and culture. His satires did much to
+rouse the Russian Jews to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon
+was the apostle of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is
+classical and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, _Kol Shire
+Yehudah_ (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in _Kol Kithbe Yehuda_
+(Odessa, 1889).
+
+  For his works see _Jewish Quarterly Review_, xviii. 437 seq.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON, PATRICK (1635-1699), Russian general, was descended from a
+Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who possessed the small estate of
+Auchleuchries, and were connected with the house of Haddo. He was born
+in 1635, and after completing his education at the parish schools of
+Cruden and Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at
+Braunsberg, Prussia; but, as "his humour could not endure such a still
+and strict way of living," he soon resolved to return home. He changed
+his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after journeying on foot in
+several parts of Germany, ultimately, in 1655, enlisted at Hamburg in
+the Swedish service. In the course of the next five years he served
+alternately with the Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by
+either. In 1661, after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he
+took service in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was
+sent on a special mission to England. After his return he distinguished
+himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in southern Russia,
+and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was made major-general, in
+1679 was appointed to the chief command at Kiev, and in 1683 was made
+lieutenant-general. He visited England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689
+took part as quartermaster-general in expeditions against the Crim
+Tatars in the Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite
+of the denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he was
+exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow in 1689, Gordon
+with the troops he commanded virtually decided events in favour of the
+tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa Sophia. He was therefore during
+the remainder of his life in high favour with the tsar, who confided to
+him the command of his capital during his absence from Russia, employed
+him in organizing his army according to the European system, and
+latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died on the 29th
+of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him frequently during his
+illness, was with him when he died, and with his own hands closed his
+eyes.
+
+  General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in
+  English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian
+  foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr Maurice
+  Possalt (_Tagebuch des Generals Patrick Gordon_) was published, the
+  first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in 1851,
+  and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and _Passages from the Diary
+  of General Patrick Gordon of Auchleuchries_ (1635-1699), was printed,
+  under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the Spalding Club,
+  Aberdeen, 1859.
+
+
+
+
+GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE (1820-1866), Scottish traveller and
+sportsman, known as the "lion hunter," was born on the 15th of March
+1820. He was the second son of Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd
+baronet of Altyre and Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he
+was distinguished by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and
+at eighteen joined the East India Co.'s service as a cornet in the
+Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him, after two
+years' experience he retired from the service and returned to Scotland.
+During his stay in the East he had laid the foundation of his collection
+of hunting trophies and specimens of natural history. In 1843 he joined
+the Cape Mounted Rifles, but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out
+at the end of the year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers
+set out for the interior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the
+Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In 1848 he returned
+to England. The story of his remarkable exploits is vividly told in his
+book, _Five Years of a Hunter's Life in the Far Interior of South
+Africa_ (London, 1850, 3rd ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first
+with incredulity by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who
+furnished Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: "I have
+no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming's book conveys a truthful idea
+of South African hunting" (_Missionary Travels_, chap. vii.). His
+collection of hunting trophies was exhibited in London in 1851 at the
+Great Exhibition, and was illustrated by a lecture delivered by
+Gordon-Cumming. The collection, known as "The South Africa Museum," was
+afterwards exhibited in various parts of the country. In 1858
+Gordon-Cumming went to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal,
+where the exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died
+there on the 24th of March 1866.
+
+  An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title of
+  _The Lion Hunter of South Africa_, and in this form was frequently
+  reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (1799-1861), English novelist and
+dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-merchant, was born in
+1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire. In 1823 she was married to
+Captain Charles Gore; and, in the next year, she published her first
+work, _Theresa Marchmont, or the Maid of Honour_. Then followed, among
+others, the _Lettre de Cachet_ (1827), _The Reign of Terror_ (1827),
+_Hungarian Tales_ (1829), _Manners of the Day_ (1830), _Mothers and
+Daughters_ (1831), and _The Fair of May Fair_ (1832), _Mrs Armytage_
+(1836). Every succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen: The
+_Cabinet Minister_ and _The Courtier of the Days of Charles II._, in
+1839; _Preferment_ in 1840. In 1841 _Cecil, or the Adventures of a
+Coxcomb_, attracted considerable attention. _Greville, or a Season in
+Paris_ appeared in the same year; then _Ormington, or Cecil a Peer,
+Fascination, The Ambassador's Wife_; and in 1843 _The Banker's Wife_.
+Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing fertility of invention, till
+her death on the 29th of January 1861. She also wrote some dramas of
+which the most successful was the _School for Coquettes_, produced at
+the Haymarket (1831). She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to
+music Burns's "And ye shall walk in silk attire," one of the most
+popular songs of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved
+by the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best novels
+are _Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb_, and _The Banker's Wife_.
+_Cecil_ gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable life, and
+is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the knowledge of London clubs
+displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to William Beckford, the author of
+_Vathek_. _The Banker's Wife_ is distinguished by some clever studies of
+character, especially in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating
+money-maker, and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton.
+
+Mrs Gore's novels had an immense temporary popularity; they were
+parodied by Thackeray in _Punch_, in his "Lords and Liveries by the
+author of _Dukes and Dejeuners_"; but, tedious as they are to
+present-day readers, they presented on the whole faithful pictures of
+the contemporary life and pursuits of the English upper classes.
+
+
+
+
+GORE, CHARLES (1853-   ), English divine, was born in 1853, the 3rd son
+of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother of the 4th earl of Arran.
+His mother was a daughter of the 4th earl of Bessborough. He was
+educated at Harrow and at Balliol College, Oxford, and was elected
+fellow of Trinity College in 1875. From 1880 to 1883 he was
+vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon, and, when in
+1884 Pusey House was founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey's library
+and a centre for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed
+principal, a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey
+House Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the
+younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this influence
+that the "Oxford Movement" underwent a change which to the survivors of
+the old school of Tractarians seemed to involve a break with its basic
+principles. "Puseyism" had been in the highest degree conservative,
+basing itself on authority and tradition, and repudiating any compromise
+with the modern critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from
+the same basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical
+experience in dealing with the "doubts and difficulties" of the younger
+generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable, and set
+himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority in religion
+with that of scientific authority by attempting to define the boundaries
+of their respective spheres of influence. To him the divine authority of
+the Catholic Church was an axiom, and in 1889 he published two works,
+the larger of which, _The Church and the Ministry_, is a learned
+vindication of the principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate
+against the Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second,
+_Roman Catholic Claims_, is a defence, couched in a more popular form,
+of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the attacks of the
+Romanists.
+
+So far his published views had been in complete consonance with those of
+the older Tractarians. But in 1890 a great stir was created by the
+publication, under his editorship, of _Lux Mundi_, a series of essays by
+different writers, being an attempt "to succour a distressed faith by
+endeavouring to bring the Christian Creed into its right relation to the
+modern growth of knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to
+modern problems of politics and ethics." Mr Gore himself contributed an
+essay on "The Holy Spirit and Inspiration." The book, which ran through
+twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a somewhat mixed
+reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and Tractarian alike, were
+alarmed by views on the incarnate nature of Christ that seemed to them
+to impugn his Divinity, and by concessions to the Higher Criticism in
+the matter of the inspiration of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them
+to convert the "impregnable rock," as Gladstone had called it, into a
+foundation of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly
+impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an artificial line
+beyond which criticism was not to advance. None the less the book
+produced a profound effect, and that far beyond the borders of the
+English Church, and it is largely due to its influence, and to that of
+the school it represents, that the High Church movement developed
+thenceforth on "Modernist" rather than Tractarian lines.
+
+In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures before the
+university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation. In these lectures
+he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of which in _Lux Mundi_ had
+caused so much heart-searching. This is an attempt to explain how it
+came that Christ, though incarnate God, could be in error, e.g. in his
+citations from the Old Testament. The orthodox explanation was based on
+the principle of accommodation (q.v.). This, however, ignored the
+difficulty that if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to
+human limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other
+men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations. This
+difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the [Greek:
+kenosis]. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into the
+canon theologians had, from various points of view, attempted to explain
+what St Paul meant when he wrote of Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that "he
+emptied himself and took upon him the form of a servant" ([Greek:
+heauton ekenosen morphen doulou labon]). According to Mr Gore this means
+that Christ, on his incarnation, became subject to all human
+limitations, and had, so far as his life on earth was concerned,
+stripped himself of all the attributes of the Godhead, including the
+Divine omniscience, the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under
+the human.[1]
+
+_Lux Mundi_ and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of some tension
+which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned his principalship and
+became vicar of Radley, a small parish near Oxford. In 1894 he became
+canon of Westminster. Here he gained commanding influence as a preacher
+and in 1898 was appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he
+succeeded J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was
+installed bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been
+mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views on the
+divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the Christian Church,
+Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly relations with the ministers
+of other denominations, and advocated co-operation with them in all
+matters when agreement was possible. In social questions he became one
+of the leaders of the considerable group of High Churchmen known,
+somewhat loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against
+the sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Macedonia, and
+was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908. In 1892 he founded
+the clerical fraternity known as the Community of the Resurrection. Its
+members are priests, who are bound by the obligation of celibacy, live
+under a common rule and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral,
+evangelistic, literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the
+Resurrection at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the
+community; in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was
+established there, and in the same year a branch house, for missionary
+work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa.
+
+  Dr Gore's works include _The Incarnation_ (Bampton Lectures, 1891),
+  _The Creed of the Christian_ (1895), _The Body of Christ_ (1901), _The
+  New Theology and the Old Religion_ (1908), and expositions of _The
+  Sermon on the Mount_ (1896), _Ephesians_ (1898), and _Romans_ (1899),
+  while in 1910 he published _Orders and Unity_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his _Lehre von der
+    heiligen Liebe_ (1844), _Lehre_ ii. pp. 21 et seq.: "the Son of God
+    veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as
+    child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the
+    world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows it
+    to shine forth in all its glory." See Loofs, Art. "Kenosis" in
+    Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1901), x. 247.
+
+
+
+
+GORE. (1) (O. Eng. _gor_, dung or filth), a word formerly used in the
+sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has thickened after being
+shed. (2) (O. Eng. _gara_, probably connected with _gare_, an old word
+for "spear"), something of triangular shape, resembling therefore a
+spear-head. The word is used for a tapering strip of land, in the
+"common or open field" system of agriculture, where from the shape of
+the land the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in
+straight divisions. Similarly "gore" is used in the United States,
+especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out in
+surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked. The triangular
+sections of material used in forming the covering of a balloon or an
+umbrella are also called "gores," and in dressmaking the term is used
+for a triangular piece of material inserted in a dress to adjust the
+difference in widths. To gore, i.e. to stab or pierce with any sharp
+instrument, but more particularly used of piercing with the horns of a
+bull, is probably directly connected with _gare_, a spear.
+
+
+
+
+GOREE, an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part of the
+French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the large natural
+harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde. The island, some 900 yds.
+long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant from the nearest point of the
+mainland, is mostly barren rock. The greater part of its surface is
+occupied by a town, formerly a thriving commercial entrepot and a strong
+military post. Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar
+(q.v.), c. 1860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its
+inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1905 to about 1500. Its
+healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium. The streets
+are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-red stone, are
+flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the governor's residence, the
+hospital and barracks, testify to the former importance of the town.
+Within the castle is an artesian well, the only water-supply, save that
+collected in rain tanks, on the island. Goree was first occupied by the
+Dutch, who took possession of it early in the 17th century and called it
+Goeree or Goedereede, in memory of the island on their own coast now
+united with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, i.e. a belly, in
+allusion to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken in the
+following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally expelled in 1677 by
+the French under Admiral d'Estrees. Goree subsequently fell again into
+the hands of the English, but was definitely occupied by France in 1817
+(see SENEGAL: _History_).
+
+
+
+
+GORGE, strictly the French word for the throat considered externally.
+Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk's crop, and thus, with the
+sense of something greedy or ravenous, to food given to a hawk and to
+the contents of a hawk's crop or stomach. It is from this sense that the
+expression of a person's "gorge rising at" anything in the sense of
+loathing or disgust is derived. "Gorge," from analogy with "throat," is
+used with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley
+between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or bastion;
+and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman Doric column, between
+the echinus and the astragal. From "gorge" also comes a diminutive
+"gorget," a portion of a woman's costume in the middle ages, being a
+close form of wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and
+also that part of the body armour covering the neck and collarbone (see
+GORGET). The word "gorgeous," of splendid or magnificent appearance,
+comes from the O. Fr. _gorgias_, with the same meaning, and has very
+doubtfully been connected with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a
+supposed elaborate kind.
+
+
+
+
+GORGEI, ARTHUR (1818-   ), Hungarian soldier, was born at Toporcz, in
+Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January 1818. He came of a Saxon noble
+family who were converts to Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the
+Bodyguard of Hungarian Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military
+service with a course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death
+of his father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the study
+of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the family estates in
+Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary War of 1848, Gorgei
+offered his sword to the Hungarian government. Entering the Honved army
+with the rank of captain, he was employed in the purchase of arms, and
+soon became major and commandant of the national guards north of the
+Theiss. Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from
+crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the wealthy
+Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his hands, and Gorgei
+caused him to be arraigned before a court-martial on a charge of treason
+and immediately hanged. After various successes over the Croatian
+forces, of which the most remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000
+prisoners fell into his hands, Gorgei was appointed commander of the
+army of the Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgratz
+across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the
+remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated upon
+Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue interference with
+his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a proclamation throwing the
+blame for the recent want of success upon the government, thus virtually
+revolting against their authority. Gorgei retired to the Hungarian
+Erzgebirge and conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the
+supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski, but the
+latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna, at which action
+Gorgei's corps arrived too late to take an effective part, and some time
+after this the command was again conferred upon Gorgei. The campaign in
+the spring of 1849 was brilliantly conducted by him, and in a series of
+engagements, he defeated Windischgratz. In April he won the victories of
+Godollo Izaszeg and Nagy Sarlo, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle
+at Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking the
+offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps have dictated
+terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was, he contented himself
+with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital, in which he desired to
+re-establish the diet, and after effecting this capture he remained
+inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile, at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth
+had formally proposed the dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and
+Hungary had been proclaimed a republic. Gorgei had refused the
+field-marshal's baton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in
+sympathy with the new regime. However, he accepted the portfolio of
+minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in the field.
+The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and made common cause
+with the Austrians; the allies were advancing into Hungary on all sides,
+and Gorgei was defeated by Haynau at Pered (20th-21st of June). Kossuth,
+perceiving the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being
+unwilling himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and
+was succeeded by Gorgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard against
+the various columns of the enemy. Gorgei, convinced that he could not
+break through the enemy's lines, surrendered, with his army of 20,000
+infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the Russian general Rudiger at Vilagos.
+Gorgei was not court-marshaled, as were his generals, but kept in
+confinement at Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical
+work, until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary. The
+surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared while his
+generals and many of his officers and men were hanged or shot, led,
+perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason by public opinion of
+his countrymen. After his release he played no further part in public
+life. Even in 1885 an attempt which was made by a large number of his
+old comrades to rehabilitate him was not favourably received in Hungary.
+After some years' work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrad,
+where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also HUNGARY: _History_.)
+
+General Gorgei wrote a justification of his operations (_Mein Leben und
+Wirken in Ungarn_ 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an anonymous paper under
+the title _Was verdanken wir der Revolution?_ (1875), and a reply to
+Kossuth's charges (signed "Joh. Demar") in _Budapesti Szemle_, 1881,
+25-26. Amongst those who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Gorgei
+(_1848 es 1849 bol_, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (_Ein
+offenes Wort in der Sache des Honved-Generals Arthur Gorgei_,
+Klausenburg, 1867).
+
+  See also A. G. Horn, _Gorgei, Oberkommandant d. ung. Armee_ (Leipzig,
+  1850); Kinety, _Gorgei's Life and Work in Hungary_ (London, 1853);
+  Szinyei, in _Magyar Irok_ (iii. 1378), Hentaller, _Gorgei as a
+  Statesman_ (Hungarian); Elemar, _Gorgei in 1848-1849_ (Hungarian,
+  Budapest, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647), English colonial pioneer in
+America and the founder of Maine, was born in Somersetshire, England,
+probably in 1566. From youth both a soldier and a sailor, he was a
+prisoner in Spain at the age of twenty-one, having been captured by a
+ship of the Spanish Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of
+troops fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing
+himself at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596 he was
+commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort at Plymouth and
+captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accompanied Essex on the
+expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted him in the attempt to
+suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland, and in 1600 was implicated in
+Essex's own attempt at rebellion in London. In 1603, on the accession of
+James I., he was suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored
+in the same year and continued to serve as "governor of the forts and
+island of Plymouth" until 1629, when, his garrison having been without
+pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin, and all his
+applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned. About 1605 he
+began to be greatly interested in the New World; in 1606 he became a
+member of the Plymouth Company, and he laboured zealously for the
+founding of the Popham colony at the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the
+Kennebec) river in 1607. For several years following the failure of that
+enterprise in 1608 he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading
+and exploring, with colonization as the chief end in view. He was
+largely instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the
+Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps the most
+influential member of that body. He was the recipient, either solely or
+jointly, of several grants of territory from it, for one of which he
+received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine (see MAINE). In 1635 he
+sought to be appointed governor-general of all New England, but the
+English Civil War--in which he espoused the royal cause--prevented him
+from ever actually holding that office. A short time before his death at
+Long Ashton in 1647 he wrote his _Briefe Narration of the Originall
+Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of
+America_. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the feudal
+type of colony.
+
+  See J. P. Baxter (ed.), _Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of
+  Maine_ (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications),
+  the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other volumes
+  contain a reprint of the _Briefe Narration_, Gorges's letters, and
+  other documentary material.
+
+
+
+
+GORGET (O. Fr. _gorgete_, dim. of _gorge_, throat), the name applied
+after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour. It was
+generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and attached
+either to the body armour or to the armet. It was worn in the 16th and
+17th centuries with the half-armour, with the plain cuirass, and even
+occasionally without any body armour at all. During these times it
+gradually became a distinctive badge for officers, and as such it
+survived in several armies--in the form of a small metal plate affixed
+to the front of the collar of the uniform coat--until after the
+Napoleonic wars. In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort
+is the distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer's
+gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or tabs
+worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches of the
+midshipmen in the Royal Navy.
+
+
+
+
+GORGIAS (c. 483-375 B.C.), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was a native
+of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his fellow-citizens at the
+head of an embassy to ask Athenian protection against the aggression of
+the Syracusans. He subsequently settled in Athens, and supported himself
+by the practice of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa
+in Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that he
+transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the diffusion of the
+Attic dialect as the language of literary prose. He was the author of a
+lost work _On Nature or the Non-existent_ ([Greek: Peri tou me ontos e
+peri physeos], fragments edited by M. C. Valeton, 1876), the substance
+of which may be gathered from the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also
+from the treatise (ascribed to Theophrastus) _De Melisso, Xenophane,
+Gorgia_. Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue
+_Gorgias_. The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (_The Encomium of
+Helen_ and _The Defence of Palamedes_, edited with Antiphon by F. Blass
+in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down under his name, is
+disputed.
+
+  For his philosophical opinions see SOPHISTS and SCEPTICISM. See also
+  Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, Eng. trans. vol. i. bk. iii. chap. vii.;
+  Jebb's _Attic Orators_, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, _Die
+  attische Beredsamkeit_, i. (1887); and article RHETORIC.
+
+
+
+
+GORGON, GORGONS (Gr. [Greek: Gorgo], [Greek: Gorgones], the "terrible,"
+or, according to some, the "loud-roaring"), a figure or figures in Greek
+mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose head is represented in
+the _Iliad_ (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of the aegis of Zeus. In the
+_Odyssey_ (xi. 633) she is a monster of the under-world. Hesiod
+increases the number of Gorgons to three--Stheno (the mighty), Euryale
+(the far-springer) and Medusa (the queen), and makes them the daughters
+of the sea-god Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side
+of the western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod,
+_Theog._ 274; Herodotus ii. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic tradition,
+reproduced in Euripides (_Ion_ 1002), regarded the Gorgon as a monster,
+produced by Gaea to aid her sons the giants against the gods and slain
+by Athena (the passage is a _locus classicus_ on the aegis of Athena).
+
+The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having the form of
+young women; their hair consists of snakes; they are round-faced,
+flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large projecting teeth.
+Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen claws and the tusks of boars.
+Medusa was the only one of the three who was mortal; hence Perseus was
+able to kill her by cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted
+from her neck sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The
+head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked upon it,
+was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield; according to another
+account, Perseus buried it in the market-place of Argos. The hideously
+grotesque original type of the Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was
+called, was placed on the walls of cities, and on shields and
+breastplates to terrify an enemy (cf. the hideous faces on Chinese
+soldiers' shields), and used generally as an amulet, a protection
+against the evil eye. Heracles is said to have obtained a lock of
+Medusa's hair (which possessed the same powers as the head) from Athena
+and given it to Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for
+the town of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to
+Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a storm,
+which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (_Golden Bough_, i. 378) gives
+examples of the superstition that cut hair caused storms. According to
+the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful maiden, whose hair had been
+changed into snakes by Athena, the head was represented in works of art
+with a wonderfully handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death.
+The Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this conception.
+Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by later ancient writers.
+According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55) they were female warriors living
+near Lake Tritonis in Libya, whose queen was Medusa; according to
+Alexander of Myndus, quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible
+wild animals whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
+vi. 36 [31]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were covered
+with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky hair and girdle.
+Modern authorities have explained them as the personification of the
+waves of the sea or of the barren, unproductive coast of Libya; or as
+the awful darkness of the storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is
+scattered by the sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of
+anthropologists that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is
+derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults.
+
+  See Jane E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_
+  (1903); W. H. Roscher, _Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes_ (1879); J. Six,
+  _De Gorgone_ (1885), on the types of the Gorgon's head; articles by
+  Roscher and Furtwangler in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, by G.
+  Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, and by
+  R. Gadechens in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; N. G.
+  Polites ([Greek: Ho peri ton Gorgonon mythos para to Helleniko lao],
+  1878) gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various
+  superstitions connected with them, from the modern Greek point of
+  view, which regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea.
+
+
+
+
+GORGONZOLA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from
+which it is 11 m. E.N.E. by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the
+centre of the district in which is produced the well-known Gorgonzola
+cheese.
+
+
+
+
+GORI, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Tiflis and
+49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river Kura; altitude,
+2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding country is very
+picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and a school for Russian
+and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated for its silk and cotton
+stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed the best in Georgia, and the
+wine is also esteemed. The climate is excellent, delightfully cool in
+summer, owing to the refreshing breezes from the mountains, though these
+are, however, at times disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123)
+by the Georgian king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who
+fled their country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the
+fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-1658, but
+destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century. There is a church
+constructed in the 17th century by Capuchin missionaries from Rome. Five
+miles east of Gori is the remarkable rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe,
+which was a fortress in the time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and
+an inhabited city in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III.
+(980-1014).
+
+
+
+
+GORILLA (or PONGO), the largest of the man-like apes, and a native of
+West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence it extends eastwards
+across the continent to German East Africa. Many naturalists regard the
+gorilla as best included in the same genus as the chimpanzee, in which
+case it should be known as _Anthropopithecus gorilla_, but by others it
+is regarded as the representative of a genus by itself, when its title
+will be _Gorilla savagei_, or _G. gorilla_. That there are local forms
+of gorilla is quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to
+rank as distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long
+supposed that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of
+Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the opinion of
+some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable that the creatures
+in question were really baboons. The first real account of the gorilla
+appears to be the one given by an English sailor, Andrew Battel, who
+spent some time in the wilds of West Africa during and about the year
+1590; his account being presented in Purchas's _Pilgrimage_, published
+in the year 1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with
+both the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms engeco
+and the latter pongo--names which ought apparently to be adopted for
+these two species in place of those now in use. Between Battel's time
+and 1846 nothing appears to have been heard of the gorilla or pongo, but
+in that year a missionary at the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull
+of the huge ape; and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with
+two others, came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name
+_Gorilla savagei_ was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas
+Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information with regard
+to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed the name
+_Troglodytes gorilla_ in 1847. The first complete skeleton of a gorilla
+sent to Europe was received at the museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin appears to have reached
+the British Museum in 1858. Paul B. du Chaillu's account (1861) of his
+journeys in the Gabun region popularized the knowledge of the existence
+of the gorilla. Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and
+attain a height of from 5-1/2 ft. to 6-1/2 ft., or perhaps even more.
+Some of the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere
+gorilla-like chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article
+PRIMATES. Among them are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of
+a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb, and
+the great length of the arm, which reaches half-way down the shin-bone
+(tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes are overhung by a
+beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half of the middle line of the
+skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for the attachment of the powerful
+jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or canines, are of monstrous size, recalling
+those of a carnivorous animal. The general colour is blackish, with a
+more or less marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders,
+and sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._, 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths of the
+forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood of human
+settlements when they are attracted by some special fruit or succulent
+plant; the favourite being the fruit of the "mejom," a tall cane-like
+plant (perhaps a kind of _Amomum_) which grows abundantly on deserted
+clearings. At one isolated village the natives, who were unarmed,
+reported that they not unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which
+broke down the stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to
+tear out and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another
+village Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the
+fresh tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded fruit
+rinds of the "mejoms," as well as the broken stalks of the latter, which
+had been used for beds. On another occasion he came across the bed of an
+old gorilla which had been used only the night before, as was proved by
+a negro woman, who on the previous evening had heard the animal breaking
+and treading down the stalks to form its couch. According to native
+report, the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient
+thickness to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting
+posture, with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first
+case Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence of
+three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account does not
+by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfels, in which it is
+stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a sitting posture at
+the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being made of a bed), the female
+and young ones pass the night in a nest in the tree several yards above
+the ground, made by bending the boughs together and covering them with
+twigs and moss. Mr Bates's account, as being based on actual inspection
+of the beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and
+snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at the
+slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard making his
+bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas killed by natives
+are believed by Mr Bates to have been encountered suddenly in the
+daytime on the ground or in low trees in the outlying clearings. Many
+natives, even if armed, refuse, however, to molest an adult male
+gorilla, on account of its ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr
+Winwood Reade, refused to credit du Chaillu's account of his having
+killed gorillas, and stated that the only instance he knew of one of
+these animals being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr
+Walter Rothschild's museum at Tring) shot by the German trader Paschen
+in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account was published in
+1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that two European traders,
+apparently in the "'eighties" of the 19th century, were in the habit of
+surrounding and capturing these animals as occasion offered.[1] Fully
+adult gorillas have never been seen alive in captivity--and perhaps
+never will be, as the creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So
+long ago as the year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only
+by its skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal,
+a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some months in
+Wombwell's travelling menagerie, where it was treated as a pet. On its
+death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton, of Walton Hall, by whom
+the skin was mounted in a grotesque manner, and the skeleton given to
+the Leeds museum. Apparently, however, it was not till several years
+later that the skin was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a
+gorilla; the animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a
+chimpanzee. A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society in
+October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals. At the
+time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old, and stood
+2-1/2 ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather older, was
+acquired in March 1896, having been brought to Liverpool from the French
+Congo. It is described as having been thoroughly healthy at the date of
+its arrival, and of an amiable and tractable disposition. Neither
+survived long. Two others were received in the Zoological Society's
+menagerie in 1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the
+following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein's
+gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name of pongo,
+and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for eighteen months.
+"Pussi," the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological Gardens, holds a record
+for longevity, with over seven years of menagerie life. Writing in 1903
+Mr W. T. Hornaday stated that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny
+infant, had ever landed in the United States; and it lived only five
+days after arrival.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer
+    shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of
+    the Congo.
+
+
+
+
+GORINCHEM, or GORCUM, a fortified town of Holland in the province of
+south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede at the confluence of the
+Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht. It is connected by the Zederik and
+Merwede canals with Amsterdam, and steamers ply hence in every
+direction. Pop. (1900) 11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting
+old houses, and overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the
+17th century. The principal buildings are the old church of St Vincent,
+containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the town hall, a prison,
+custom-house, barracks and a military hospital. The charitable and
+benevolent institutions are numerous, and there are also a library and
+several learned associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and
+besides working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in
+grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery being
+noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town on the left bank
+of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old buildings, which are
+decorated with mosaics.
+
+
+
+
+GORING, GEORGE GORING, LORD (1608-1657), English Royalist soldier, son
+of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born on the 14th of July 1608. He
+soon became famous at court for his prodigality and dissolute manners.
+His father-in-law, Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post
+in the Dutch army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed by
+a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England early in
+1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He served in the Scottish
+war, and already had a considerable reputation when he was concerned in
+the "Army Plot." Officers of the army stationed at York proposed to
+petition the king and parliament for the maintenance of the royal
+authority. A second party was in favour of more violent measures, and
+Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, proposed to
+march the army on London and overawe the parliament during Strafford's
+trial. This proposition being rejected by his fellow officers, he
+betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy Blount, earl of Newport, who passed
+on the information indirectly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was
+thereupon called on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended
+him for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his comrades
+induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary leaders, who sent
+him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless he declared for the
+king in August. He surrendered Portsmouth to the parliament in September
+1642 and went to Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to
+England in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of
+Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds in March
+1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield on the capture of
+the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected an exchange. At Marston
+Moor he commanded the Royalist left, and charged with great success,
+but, allowing his troopers to disperse in search of plunder, was routed
+by Cromwell at the close of the battle. In November 1644, on his
+father's elevation to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The
+parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the creation of
+the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as Lord Goring and the
+son as General Goring. In August he had been dispatched by Prince
+Rupert, who recognized his ability, to join Charles in the south, and in
+spite of his dissolute and insubordinate character he was appointed to
+supersede Henry, Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse
+(see GREAT REBELLION). He secured some successes in the west, and in
+January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied Farnham; but want
+of money compelled him to retreat to Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The
+excesses committed by his troops seriously injured the Royalist cause,
+and his exactions made his name hated throughout the west. He had
+himself prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next month
+he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, to send
+reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of Taunton, he
+obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in the month he was
+summoned with his troops to the relief of the king at Oxford. Lord
+Goring had long been intriguing for an independent command, and he now
+secured from the king what was practically supreme authority in the
+west. It was alleged by the earl of Newport that he was willing to
+transfer his allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely
+that he meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and
+occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still engaged in
+desultory operations against Taunton when the main campaign of 1645
+opened. For the part taken by Goring's army in the operations of the
+Naseby campaign see GREAT REBELLION. After the decisive defeat of the
+king, the army of Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a
+disastrous fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further
+serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his time in
+frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained leave to quit his
+disorganized forces and retire to France on the ground of health. His
+father's services secured him the command of some English regiments in
+the Spanish service. He died at Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon
+gives him a very unpleasing character, declaring that "Goring ... would,
+without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of treachery
+to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and in truth wanted
+nothing but industry (for he had wit, and courage, and understanding and
+ambition, uncontrolled by any fear of God or man) to have been as
+eminent and successful in the highest attempt of wickedness as any man
+in the age he lived in or before. Of all his qualifications
+dissimulation was his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that
+men were not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being
+deceived but twice by him."
+
+  See the life by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of National Biography_;
+  Dugdale's _Baronage_, where there are some doubtful stories of his
+  life in Spain; the _Clarendon State Papers_; Clarendon's _History of
+  the Great Rebellion_; and S. R. Gardiner's _History of the Great Civil
+  War_.
+
+
+
+
+GORKI, MAXIM (1868-   ), the pen-name of the Russian novelist Alexei
+Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-Novgorod on the 26th of
+March 1868. His father was a dyer, but he lost both his parents in
+childhood, and in his ninth year was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We
+find him afterwards in a variety of callings, but devouring books of all
+sorts greedily, whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the
+boot-shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook on board
+a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth year he tried to
+enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake himself again to his
+drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked about _kvas_, and helped the
+barefooted tramps and labourers at the docks. From these he drew some of
+his most striking pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life
+generally with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery
+he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a barrister
+at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of his fortunes, as he
+found a sympathetic master who helped him. He also became acquainted
+with the novelist Korolenko, who assisted him in his literary efforts.
+His first story was _Makar Chudra_, which was published in the journal
+_Kavkaz_. He contributed to many periodicals and finally attracted
+attention by his tale called _Chelkash_, which appeared in _Russkoe
+Bogatsvo_ ("Russian wealth"). This was followed by a series of tales in
+which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the _bosniaki_, or
+tramps. He has sometimes described other classes of society, tradesmen
+and the educated classes, but not with equal success. There are some
+vigorous pictures, however, of the trading class in his _Foma Gordeyev_.
+But his favourite type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society,
+and him he describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies
+with him. We get such a type completely in _Konovalov_. Gorki is always
+preaching that we must have ideals--something better than everyday life,
+and this view is brought out in his play _At the Lowest Depths_, which
+had great success at Moscow, but was coldly received at St Petersburg.
+
+  For a good criticism of Gorki see _Ideas and Realities in Russian
+  Literature_, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been
+  translated into English.
+
+
+
+
+GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the
+left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden on the railway to
+Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin, Zittau and Halle. Pop.
+(1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The Neisse at this point is crossed by a
+railway bridge 1650 ft. long and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Gorlitz
+is one of the handsomest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000
+acres, which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest
+towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and fine gardens,
+and although its old walls and towers have now been demolished, many of
+its ancient buildings remain to form a picturesque contrast with the
+signs of modern industry. From the hill called Landskrone, about 1500
+ft. high, an extensive prospect is obtained of the surrounding country.
+The principal buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St
+Paul, dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous
+organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about the end of
+the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and choir in pierced
+work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868, with handsome choir stalls
+and a carved altar dating from 1383; and the Roman Catholic church,
+founded in 1853, in the Roman style of architecture, with beautiful
+glass windows and oil-paintings. The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a
+very valuable library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps.
+There is also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other
+buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used as a
+guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in the Gothic style
+erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the Kaiser Friedrich museum, the
+house of the estates of the province (Standehaus), two theatres and the
+barracks. Near the town is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is
+a model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century.
+In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to Alexander
+von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob Bohme (1575-1624); a
+monument has been erected in the town in commemoration of the war of
+1870-71, and also one to the emperor William I. and a statue of Prince
+Frederick Charles. In connexion with the natural history society there
+is a valuable museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large
+library and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of
+_virtu_. Gorlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing
+commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground for
+the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides cloth, which forms
+its staple article of commerce, it has manufactories of various linen
+and woollen wares, machines, railway wagons, glass, sago, tobacco,
+leather, chemicals and tiles.
+
+Gorlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at the
+beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was then known
+as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruction by fire in 1131
+it received the name of Zgorzelice. About the end of the 12th century it
+was strongly fortified, and for a short time it was the capital of a
+duchy of Gorlitz. It was several times besieged and taken during the
+Thirty Years' War, and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years'
+War. In the battle which took place near it between the Austrians and
+Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, the
+general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the town, with the
+greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the possession of Prussia.
+
+  See Neumann, _Geschichte von Gorlitz_ (1850).
+
+
+
+
+GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German writer, was born on the
+25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His father was a man of moderate
+means, who sent his son to a Latin college under the direction of the
+Roman Catholic clergy. The sympathies of the young Gorres were from the
+first strongly with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and
+irreligion of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his
+hatred of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted on
+the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to one
+another. He then commenced a republican journal called _Das rote Blatt_,
+and afterwards _Rubezahl_, in which he strongly condemned the
+administration of the Rhenish provinces by France.
+
+After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope that the
+Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent republic. In
+1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of which Gorres was a member, to
+Paris to put their case before the directory. The embassy reached Paris
+on the 20th of November 1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed
+the supreme direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was
+received by him; but the only answer they obtained was "that they might
+rely on perfect justice, and that the French government would never lose
+sight of their wants." Gorres on his return published a tract called
+_Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris_, in which he reviewed the history
+of the French Revolution. During the thirteen years of Napoleon's
+dominion Gorres lived a retired life, devoting himself chiefly to art or
+science. In 1801 he married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years
+teacher at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to
+Heidelberg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member of
+the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with K. Brentano and
+L. von Arnim the famous _Zeitung fur Einsiedler_ (subsequently re-named
+_Trost-Einsamkeit_), and in 1807 he published _Die teutschen
+Volksbucher_. He returned to Coblenz in 1808, and again found occupation
+as a teacher in a secondary school, supported by civic funds. He now
+studied Persian, and in two years published a _Mythengeschichte der
+asiatischen Welt_, which was followed ten years later by _Das
+Heldenbuch von Iran_, a translation of part of the _Shahnama_, the epic
+of Firdousi. In 1813 he actively took up the cause of national
+independence, and in the following year founded _Der rheinische Merkur_.
+The intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its
+hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it almost
+instantly a position and influence unique in the history of German
+newspapers. Napoleon himself called it _la cinquieme puissance_. The
+ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with a representative
+government, but under an emperor after the fashion of other days,--for
+Gorres now abandoned his early advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon
+was at Elba, Gorres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the
+people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many
+Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor. He
+inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815), declaring
+that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded back from France.
+
+Stein was glad enough to use the _Merkur_ at the time of the meeting of
+the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expression to his hopes.
+But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Gorres to remember that he was not
+to arouse hostility against France, but only against Bonaparte. There
+was also in the _Merkur_ an antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression
+of the desire that an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title,
+and also a tendency to pronounced liberalism--all of which made it most
+distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick William III.
+Gorres disregarded warnings sent to him by the censorship and continued
+the paper in all its fierceness. Accordingly it was suppressed early in
+1816, at the instance of the Prussian government; and soon after Gorres
+was dismissed from his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his
+writings were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent
+political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed Kotzebue's
+assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad were framed, and
+these were the subject of Gorres's celebrated pamphlet _Teutschland und
+die Revolution_ (1820). In this work he reviewed the circumstances which
+had led to the murder of Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible
+horror at the deed itself, he urged that it was impossible and
+undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by
+reactionary measures. The success of the work was very marked, despite
+its ponderous style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and
+orders were issued for the arrest of Gorres and the seizure of his
+papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzerland. Two
+more political tracts, _Europa und die Revolution_ (1821) and _In Sachen
+der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit_ (1822), also deserve
+mention.
+
+In Gorres's pamphlet _Die heilige Allianz und die Volker auf dem
+Kongress zu Verona_ he asserted that the princes had met together to
+crush the liberties of the people, and that the people must look
+elsewhere for help. The "elsewhere" was to Rome; and from this time
+Gorres became a vehement Ultramontane writer. He was summoned to Munich
+by King Ludwig of Bavaria as Professor of History in the university, and
+there his writing enjoyed very great popularity. His _Christliche
+Mystik_ (1836-1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together
+with an exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated
+ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion was the deposition
+and imprisonment by the Prussian government of the archbishop Clement
+Wenceslaus, in consequence of the refusal of that prelate to sanction in
+certain instances the marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics.
+Gorres in his _Athanasius_ (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the
+church, although the liberals of later date who have claimed Gorres as
+one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute
+supremacy of Rome. _Athanasius_ went through several editions, and
+originated a long and bitter controversy. In the _Historisch-politische
+Blatter_, a Munich journal, Gorres and his son Guido (1805-1852)
+continually upheld the claims of the church. Gorres received from the
+king the order of merit for his services. He died on the 29th of January
+1848.
+
+  Gorres's _Gesammelte Schriften_ (only his political writings) appeared
+  in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of _Gesammelte
+  Briefe_ were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland, _Joseph
+  von Gorres_ (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, _Gorres und seine
+  Zeitgenossen_ (1877), and by the same author, _Gorres_, in the series
+  _Geisteshelden_ (1896). A _Gorres-Gesellschaft_ was founded in 1876.
+
+
+
+
+GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1752-1793), French publicist and politician, was
+born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th of March 1752, the son of a
+shoemaker. He established himself as a private tutor in Paris, and
+presently set up a school for the army at Versailles, which was attended
+by commoners as well as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short
+time in the Bicetre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his
+pupils, his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These
+circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical sentiment. At
+the opening of the states-general he began to publish the _Courrier de
+Versailles a Paris et de Paris a Versailles_, in which appeared on the
+4th of October 1789 the account of the banquet of the royal bodyguard.
+Gorsas is said to have himself read it in public at the Palais Royal,
+and to have headed one of the columns that marched on Versailles. He
+then changed the name of his paper to the _Courrier des
+quatre-vingt-trois departements_, continuing his incendiary propaganda,
+which had no small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June
+and August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in his paper
+that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national conspiracy and that
+the people exercised a just vengeance on the guilty. On the 10th of
+September 1792 he was elected to the Convention for the department of
+Seine-et-Oise, and on the 10th of January 1793 was elected one of its
+secretaries. He sat at first with the Mountain, but having been long
+associated with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists
+became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI. he
+dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the Mountain,
+and he voted for the king's detention during the war and subsequent
+banishment. A violent attack on Marat in the _Courrier_ led to an armed
+raid on his printing establishment on the 9th of March 1793. The place
+was sacked, but Gorsas escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts
+being reported to the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas,
+and a resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding
+representatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd of June
+he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under arrest with other
+members of his party. He escaped to Normandy to join Buzot, and after
+the defeat of the Girondists at Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in
+Brittany. He was imprudent enough to return to Paris in the autumn,
+where he was arrested on the 6th of October and guillotined the next
+day.
+
+  See the _Moniteur_, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793);
+  M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de l'hist. de Paris_, 10,291 seq. (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835-   ). English statesman, was born at Preston
+in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes
+on succeeding to the family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler
+from St John's College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a
+fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his father's
+illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where he married in
+1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at that time set up a king of
+their own in the Waikato district and Gorst, who had made friends with
+the chief Tamihana (William Thomson), acted as an intermediary between
+the Maoris and the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of
+schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil commissioner in
+Upper Waikato. Tamihana's influence secured his safety in the Maori
+outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a volume of recollections, under
+the title of _New Zealand Revisited: Recollections of the Days of my
+Youth_. He then returned to England and was called to the bar at the
+Inner Temple in 1865, becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for
+Hastings in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered
+parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed to secure
+re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the Conservative defeat of
+that year he was entrusted by Disraeli with the reorganization of the
+party machinery, and in five years of hard work he paved the way for the
+Conservative success at the general election of 1874. At a bye-election
+in 1875 he re-entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he
+continued to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff,
+Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the "Fourth Party," and
+he became solicitor-general in the administration of 1885-1886 and was
+knighted. On the formation of the second Salisbury administration (1886)
+he became under-secretary for India and in 1891 financial secretary to
+the Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member for
+Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of committees in the House
+of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the formation of the third
+Salisbury administration in 1895 he became vice-president of the
+committee of the council on education (until 1902). Sir John Gorst
+adhered to the principles of Tory democracy which he had advocated in
+the days of the fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active
+interest in the housing of the poor, the education and care of their
+children, and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in
+the press. But he was always exceedingly "independent" in his political
+action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain's proposals for tariff reform, and
+lost his seat at Cambridge at the general election of 1906 to a tariff
+reformer. He then withdrew from the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose
+League, of which he had been one of the founders, on the ground that it
+no longer represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he
+contested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.
+
+His elder son, SIR J. ELDON GORST (b. 1861), was financial adviser to
+the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when he became assistant
+under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1907 he succeeded Lord
+Cromer as British agent and consul-general in Egypt.
+
+  An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph Churchill
+  will be found in the _Fourth Party_ (1906), by his younger son, Harold
+  E. Gorst.
+
+
+
+
+GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and founder of the
+American sect of Gortonites, was born about 1600 at Gorton, Lancashire.
+He was first apprenticed to a clothier in London, but, fearing
+persecution for his religious convictions, he sailed for Boston,
+Massachusetts, in 1636. Constantly involved in religious disputes, he
+fled in turn to Plymouth, and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport),
+where he was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates.
+In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at Shawomet--now
+Warwick--where he was joined by a number of his followers; but he
+quarrelled with the Indians and the authorities at Boston sent soldiers
+to arrest Gorton and six of his companions. He served a term of
+imprisonment for heresy at Charlestown, after which he was ejected from
+the colony. In England in 1646 he published the curious tract
+"Simplicities Defence against Seven Headed Policy" (reprinted in 1835),
+giving an account of his grievances against the Massachusetts
+government. In 1648 he returned to New England with a letter of
+protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining his former companions
+at Shawomet, which he named Warwick, in honour of the earl, he remained
+there till his death at the end of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the
+founder of a small sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the
+end of the 18th century. They had a great contempt for the regular
+clergy and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true
+believers partook of the perfection of God.
+
+  Among his quaint writings are: _An Incorruptible Key composed of the
+  CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures_ (1647),
+  and _Saltmarsh returned from the Dead_, with its sequel, _An Antidote
+  against the Common Plague of the World_ (1657). See L. G. Jones,
+  _Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties_ (Providence,
+  1896).
+
+
+
+
+GORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb of Manchester. Pop.
+(1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufacturing district, having cotton
+mills and iron, engineering and chemical works.
+
+
+
+
+GORTYNA, or GORTYN, an important ancient city on the southern side of
+the island of Crete. It stood on the banks of the small river Lethaeus
+(Mitropolipotamo), about three hours distant from the sea, with which it
+communicated by means of its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had
+temples of Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the
+famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars; and not
+far from this was another spring, overhung by an evergreen plane tree
+which in popular belief marked the scene of the amours of Zeus and
+Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus, the largest and most powerful city
+of Crete. The two cities combined to subdue the rest of the island; but
+when they had gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and
+the history of both towns is from this time little more than a record of
+their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history of Greece.
+Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis of the island. Extensive
+ruins may still be seen at the modern village of Hagii Deka, and here
+was discovered the great inscription containing chapters of its ancient
+laws. Though partly ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very
+interesting monument of early Christian architecture, dating from about
+the 4th century.
+
+  See also CRETE, and for a full account of the laws see GREEK LAW.
+
+
+
+
+GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, BARON VON SCHLITZ (1668-1719), Holstein
+statesman, was educated at Jena. He entered the Holstein-Gottorp
+service, and after the death of the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles
+XII.'s sister, became very influential during the minority of her son
+Duke Charles Frederick. His earlier policy aimed at strengthening
+Holstein-Gottorp at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during
+Charles XII.'s stay at Altranstadt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the
+king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, when the
+Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the Elbe, Gortz rendered him
+as much assistance as was compatible with not openly breaking with
+Denmark, even going so far as to surrender the fortress of Tonning to
+the Swedes. Gortz next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against
+Sweden by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose of
+isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies against
+her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained relations
+between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, however, on the
+refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his German domains by ceding
+Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous plan of procuring the Swedish
+crown for Duke Charles Frederick also came to nought. Gortz first
+suggested the marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna
+Anne of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with that
+object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at Stralsund, Gortz
+was the first to visit him, and emerged from his presence chief minister
+or "grand-vizier" as the Swedes preferred to call the bold and crafty
+satrap, whose absolute devotion to the Swedish king took no account of
+the intense wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Gortz, himself a man of
+uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the heroic element
+in Charles's nature and was determined, if possible, to save him from
+his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary influence to the fact that
+he was the only one of Charles's advisers who believed, or pretended to
+believe, that Sweden was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a
+sufficient reserve of power to give support to an energetic
+diplomacy--Charles's own opinion, in fact. Gortz's position, however,
+was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein minister at
+Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden except a Swedish
+subject--finance minister, plenipotentiary to foreign powers, factotum,
+and responsible to the king alone, though he had not a line of
+instructions. But he was just the man for a hero in extremities, and his
+whole course of procedure was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief
+financial expedient was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by
+issuing copper tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of
+his that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market too
+enormous an amount of this copper money for Gortz to deal with. By the
+end of 1718 it seemed as if Gortz's system could not go on much longer,
+and the hatred of the Swedes towards him was so intense and universal
+that they blamed him for Charles XII.'s tyranny as well as for his own.
+Gortz hoped, however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden's
+numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means of fresh
+combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great power. It must be
+admitted that, in pursuance of his "system," Gortz displayed a genius
+for diplomacy which would have done honour to a Metternich or a
+Talleyrand. He desired peace with Russia first of all, and at the
+congress of Aland even obtained relatively favourable terms, only to
+have them rejected by his obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously,
+Gortz was negotiating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in
+England; but all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of
+cards on the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish
+nation instantly fell upon Gortz. After a trial before a special
+commission which was a parody of justice--the accused was not permitted
+to have any legal assistance or the use of writing materials--he was
+condemned to decapitation and promptly executed. Perhaps Gortz deserved
+his fate for "unnecessarily making himself the tool of an unheard-of
+despotism," but his death was certainly a judicial murder, and some
+historians even regard him as a political martyr.
+
+  See R. N. Bain, _Charles XII._ (London, 1895), and _Scandinavia_,
+  chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, _Freherre Georg Heinrich
+  von Gortz_ (Stockholm, 1868).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GORZ (Ital. _Gorizia_; Slovene, _Gorica_), the capital of the Austrian
+crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop
+(1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians, the remainder mostly Slovenes and
+Germans. It is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in
+a fertile valley, 35 m. N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an
+archbishop and possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th
+century and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the
+17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates the town,
+is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the counts of Gorz, now
+partly used as barracks. Owing to the mildness of its climate Gorz has
+become a favourite winter-resort, and has received the name of the Nice
+of Austria. Its mean annual temperature is 55 deg. F.; while the mean
+winter temperature is 38.7 deg. F. It is adorned with several pretty
+gardens with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N. of
+the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza, in whose
+chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836), the last
+Bourbon king, of the duke of Angouleme (d. 1844), his son, and of the
+duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles to the north of Gorz is the
+Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-frequented place on which stands a
+pilgrimage church. The industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar
+refining, brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of
+rosoglio. There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables,
+early fruit and wine. Gorz is mentioned for the first time at the
+beginning of the 11th century, and received its charter as a town in
+1307. During the middle ages the greater part of its population was
+German.
+
+
+
+
+GORZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by
+Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory and the Adriatic, W. by
+Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line,
+though extending for 25 m., does not present any harbour of importance.
+It is fringed by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most
+part of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries
+Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only one
+accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides, except
+towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian lowland, it is
+surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths of its area is occupied
+by mountains and hills. From the Julian Alps, which traverse the
+province in the north, the country descends in successive terraces
+towards the sea, and may roughly be divided into the upper highlands,
+the lower highlands, the hilly district and the lowlands. The principal
+peaks in the Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart
+(8784 ft.), the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386
+ft.), and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or Terglou
+(9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil Pass (3811 ft.),
+through which passes the principal road from Carinthia to the Coastland.
+The southern part of the province belongs to the Karst region, and here
+are situated the famous cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where
+the river Reka begins its subterranean course. The principal river of
+the province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues a
+strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches the
+Adriatic. At Gorz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea, and it is
+navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the name of the
+Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, the Wippach and the Torre
+with its tributary the Judrio, which forms for a short distance the
+boundary between Austria and Italy. Of special interest not only in
+itself but for the frequent allusions to it in classical literature is
+the Timavus or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short
+course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears,
+according to the well-known description of Virgil (_Aen._ i. 244) to
+have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths and with much
+noise and commotion, but at present it usually issues from only three
+mouths and flows quiet and still. It is strange enough, however, to see
+the river coming out full formed from the rock, and capable at its very
+source of bearing vessels on its bosom. According to a probable
+hypothesis it is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which
+is lost near Sankt Kanzian.
+
+Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupation of
+the population, and the vine is here planted not only in regular
+vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through the ordinary fields
+and carried up the hills in terraces locally called _ronchi_. The
+rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the lowlands, constitutes
+another great source of revenue, and furnishes the material for the only
+extensive industry of the country. The manufacture of silk is carried on
+at Gorz, and in and around the village of Haidenschaft. Gorz and
+Gradisca had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to 203
+inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about two-thirds
+were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only about 2200 Germans.
+Almost the whole of the population (99.6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic
+Church. The local diet, of which the archbishop of Gorz is a member
+_ex-officio_, is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5
+deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the
+province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous municipality,
+Gorz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places are Cormons
+(5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699), Gradisca (3843) and
+Aquileia (2319).
+
+Gorz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the 10th
+century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor Otto III. on
+John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the 11th century it became the seat of
+the Eppenstein family, who frequently bore the title of counts of
+Gorizia; and in the beginning of the 12th century the countship passed
+from them to the Lurngau family which continued to exist till the year
+1500, and acquired possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria.
+On the death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to
+the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united with it in
+1754. The province was occupied by the French in 1809, but reverted
+again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district of the administrative
+province of Trieste until 1861, when it became a separate crownland
+under its actual name.
+
+
+
+
+GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN, 1st VISCOUNT (1831-1907), British
+statesman, son of William Henry Goschen, a London merchant of German
+extraction, was born in London on the 10th of August 1831. He was
+educated at Rugby under Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he
+took a first-class in classics. He entered his father's firm of Fruhling
+& Goschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became a
+director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life took place
+in 1863, when he was returned without opposition as member for the city
+of London in the Liberal interest, and this was followed by his
+re-election, at the head of the poll, in the general election of 1865.
+In November of the same year he was appointed vice-president of the
+Board of Trade and paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When
+Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr Goschen joined
+the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board, and continued to hold
+that office until March 1871, when he succeeded Mr Childers as first
+lord of the admiralty. In 1874 he was elected lord rector of the
+university of Aberdeen. Being sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the
+British holders of Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the
+conversion of the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the
+Khedive.
+
+In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question prevented him from
+voting uniformly with his party, and he informed his constituents in the
+city that he would not stand again at the forthcoming general election.
+In 1880 he was elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that
+constituency until the general election of 1885, when he was returned
+for the Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension of
+the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone's government in 1880;
+declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted that of special
+ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in settling the Montenegrin
+and Greek frontier questions in 1880 and 1881. He was made an
+ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882, and when Sir Henry Brand was raised
+to the peerage in 1884, the speakership of the House of Commons was
+offered to him, but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 he
+frequently found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as
+regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign policy;
+and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home Rule for Ireland, Mr
+Goschen followed Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and
+became one of the most active of the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and
+eloquent opposition to Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him
+into greater public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his
+seat for Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the
+resignation of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen,
+though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury's invitation to join
+his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer. Being defeated at
+Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven votes, he was elected for St
+George's, Hanover Square, on the 9th of February. His chancellorship of
+the exchequer during the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable
+by his successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National
+Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new 2-3/4% Consols
+became known as "Goschens," his name will long be connected. Aberdeen
+University again conferred upon him the honour of the lord rectorship in
+1888, and he received a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh
+in 1890. In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again
+took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House of
+Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating power. From
+1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the admiralty, and in that
+office he earned the highest reputation for his business-like grasp of
+detail and his statesmanlike outlook on the naval policy of the country.
+He retired in 1900, and was raised to the peerage by the title of
+Viscount Goschen of Hawkhurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics
+he continued to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr
+Chamberlain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen was
+one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist side. He
+died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in the title by his
+son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Conservative M.P. for East
+Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and married a daughter of the 1st earl of
+Cranbrook.
+
+In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest interest,
+his best known, but by no means his only, contribution to popular
+culture being his participation in the University Extension Movement;
+and his first efforts in parliament were devoted to advocating the
+abolition of religious tests and the admission of Dissenters to the
+universities. His published works indicate how ably he combined the wise
+study of economics with a practical instinct for business-like progress,
+without neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to
+his well-known work on _The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges_, he
+published several financial and political pamphlets and addresses on
+educational and social subjects, among them being that on _Cultivation
+of the Imagination_, Liverpool, 1877, and that on _Intellectual
+Interest_, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote _The Life and Times of Georg
+Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of Leipzig_ (1903). (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GOS-HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the _Astur palumbarius_ of ornithologists,
+and the largest of the short-winged hawks used in falconry. Its English
+name, however, has possibly been transferred to this species from one of
+the long-winged hawks or true falcons, since there is no tradition of
+the gos-hawk, now so called, having ever been used in Europe to take
+geese or other large and powerful birds. The genus _Astur_ may be
+readily distinguished from _Falco_ by the smooth edges of its beak, its
+short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail), and its
+long legs and toes--though these last are stout and comparatively
+shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (_Accipiter_). In plumage the gos-hawk
+has a general resemblance to the peregrine falcon, and it undergoes a
+corresponding change as it advances from youth to maturity--the young
+being longitudinally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely
+barred. The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange,
+while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ greatly in
+size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk, nowadays very rare in
+Britain, was once common in England, and even towards the end of the
+18th century Thornton obtained a nestling in Scotland, while Irish
+gos-hawks were of old highly celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird,
+its disappearance may be safely connected with the disappearance of the
+ancient forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry
+and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity. In many
+parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It ranges eastward to
+China and is much valued in India. In North America it is represented by
+a very nearly allied species, _A. atricapillus_, chiefly distinguished
+by the closer barring of the breast. Three or four examples
+corresponding with this form have been obtained in Britain. A good many
+other species of _Astur_ (some of them passing into _Accipiter_) are
+found in various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be
+mentioned is the _A. novae-hollandiae_ of Australia, which is remarkable
+for its dimorphism--one form possessing the normal dark-coloured plumage
+of the genus and the other being perfectly white, with crimson irides.
+Some writers hold these two forms to be distinct species and call the
+dark-coloured one _A. cinereus_ or _A. raii_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between Jacob's
+immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation is a difficult
+problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic, or at least non-Egyptian
+origin, as in Palestine we meet with a district (Josh. x. 41) and a city
+(_ib._ xv. 51) of the same name. The Septuagint reads [Greek: Gesem
+Arabias] in Gen. xlv. 10, and xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply [Greek: Gesem].
+In xlvi. 28 "Goshen ... the land of Goshen" are translated respectively
+"Heroopolis ... the land of Rameses." This represents a late Jewish
+identification. Ptolemy defines "Arabia" as an Egyptian nome on the
+eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa, corresponding to the
+Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem. It is doubtful whether Phacussa be
+situated at the mounds of Fakus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh,
+which suits Strabo's description of its locality rather better. The
+extent of Goshen, according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10),
+included Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It is
+indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of good pasture,
+on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible vegetables and in
+fish (Numbers xi. 5).     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S. of Chicago, at an altitude of
+about 800 ft. Pop. (1890) 6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910)
+8514. Goshen is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
+and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected by
+electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city has a Carnegie
+library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under Mennonite control),
+chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart, Ind., in 1895, and removed
+to Goshen and opened under its present name in 1903. The college
+includes a collegiate department, an academy, a Bible school, a normal
+school, a summer school and correspondence courses, and schools of
+business, of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students, 73
+of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in a good farming region
+and is an important lumber market. There is a good water-power. Among
+the city's manufactures are wagons and carriages, furniture,
+wooden-ware, veneering, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber
+goods, flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The
+municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting system.
+Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered as a city in
+1868.
+
+
+
+
+GOSLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the Oker, at the north
+foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim and 31 m. S.W. from
+Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817. It is surrounded by walls and is
+of antique appearance. Among the noteworthy buildings are the "Zwinger,"
+a tower with walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque
+style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and
+containing the town archives and a library in which are some of Luther's
+manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing many interesting
+antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the hall of the tailors' gild and
+now an inn) with the statues of eight of the German emperors; and the
+Kaiserhaus, the oldest secular building in Germany, built by the emperor
+Henry III. before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This
+was restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government, and
+was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German history. Other
+buildings of interest are:--the small chapel which is all that remains
+since 1820 of the old and famous cathedral of St Simon and St Jude
+founded by Henry III. about 1040, containing among other relics of the
+cathedral an old altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which
+formerly stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church of the
+former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk, of the 12th
+century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings of considerable
+merit; and the house of the bakers' gild now an hotel, the birthplace of
+Marshal Saxe. There are four Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, several schools, a natural science museum,
+containing a collection of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of
+antiquities and a number of small foundations. The town has equestrian
+statues of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William I.
+The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the sulphur,
+copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood. The town has also
+been long noted for its beer, and possesses some small manufactures and
+a considerable trade in fruit.
+
+Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler about 920,
+and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral treasures in the
+neighbourhood were discovered it increased rapidly in prosperity. It was
+often the meeting-place of German diets, twenty-three of which are said
+to have been held here, and was frequently the residence of the
+emperors. About 1350 it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of
+the 14th century the famous _Goslar statutes_, a code of laws, which was
+adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was unsuccessfully
+besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years' War, but was taken by the
+Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by fire. Further conflagrations in
+1728 and 1780 gave a severe blow to its prosperity. It was a free town
+till 1802, when it came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was
+joined to Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with
+Hanover, re-united to Prussia.
+
+  See T. Erdmann, _Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung in
+  Geschichte, Sage und Bild_ (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, _Geschichte der
+  vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar_ (1842-1843); A.
+  Wolfstieg, _Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar_ (Berlin, 1885); T.
+  Asche, _Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar_ (1892); Neuburg, _Goslars Bergbau
+  bis 1552_ (Hanover, 1892); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar_,
+  edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the _Goslarische Statuten_
+  see the edition published by Goschen (Berlin, 1840).
+
+
+
+
+GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop, better known under
+his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius Goslicius, was born about
+1533. After having studied at Cracow and Padua, he entered the church,
+and was successively appointed bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen.
+Goslicki was an active man of business, was held in high estimation by
+his contemporaries and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It
+was chiefly through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to
+the pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establishing
+their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate of religious
+toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October 1607.
+
+  His principal work is _De Optimo senatore_, &c. (Venice, 1568). There
+  are two English translations published respectively under the titles
+  _A commonwealth of good counsaile_, &c. (1607), and _The Accomplished
+  Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth_ (1733).
+
+
+
+
+GOSLIN, or GAUZLINUS (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender of the
+city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some authorities, the
+son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according to others the natural son
+of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he became a monk, and entered a monastery
+at Reims, later he became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates
+of his time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the
+Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken prisoners (858),
+and he was released only after paying a heavy ransom (_Prudentii
+Trecensis episcopi Annales_, ann. 858). From 855 to 867 he held
+intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly, the office of chancellor
+to Charles the Bald and his successors. In 883 or 884 he was elected
+bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the dangers to which the city was to be
+exposed from the attacks of the Northmen, he planned and directed the
+strengthening of the defences, though he also relied for security on the
+merits of the relics of St Germain and St Genevieve. When the attack
+finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him and to
+Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain l'Auxerrois. The city
+was attacked on the 26th of November, and the struggle for the
+possession of the bridge (now the Pont-au-Change) lasted for two days;
+but Goslin repaired the destruction of the wooden tower overnight, and
+the Normans were obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by
+storm. The siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor
+Charles the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries
+of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or killed by
+a pestilence which raged in the city.
+
+  See Amaury Duval, _L'Eveque Gozlin ou le siege de Paris par les
+  Normands, chronique du IX^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed.
+  _ib._ 1835).
+
+
+
+
+GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator. Nothing is known of
+his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602, in command of the
+"Concord," chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh and others, he crossed the
+Atlantic; coasted from what is now Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing
+at and naming Cape Cod and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving
+the name Martha's Vineyard to the island now called No Man's Land; and
+returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other
+commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's Bay. In
+London he actively promoted the colonization of the regions he had
+visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir Ferdinando Gorges and other
+influential persons, contributed toward securing the grants of the
+charters to the London and Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he
+was associated with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels
+by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia. As a
+member of the council he took an active share in the affairs of the
+colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to introduce order,
+industry and system among the motley array of adventurers and idle
+"gentlemen" of which the little band was composed. He died from swamp
+fever on the 22nd of August 1607.
+
+  See _The Works of John Smith_ (Arber's Edition, London, 1884); and J.
+  M. Brereton, _Brief and True Relation of the North Part of Virginia_
+  (reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of Gosnold's
+  voyage of 1602.
+
+
+
+
+GOSPATRIC (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to a family which
+had connexions with the royal houses both of Wessex and Scotland. Before
+the Conquest he accompanied Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and
+at that time was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the
+earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but, repenting of
+his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the court of Scotland
+(1068). He joined the Danish army of invasion in the next year; but was
+afterwards able, from his possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms
+with the conqueror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace
+concluded in that year with Scotland left him at William's mercy. He
+lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm seems to
+have provided for him.
+
+  See E. A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877), and the
+  _English Hist. Review_, vol. xix. (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GOSPEL (O. Eng. _godspel_, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. _bona
+annuntiatio_, or _evangelium_, Gr. [Greek: euangelion]; cf. Goth. _iu
+spillon_, "to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek,
+from _iu_, that which is good, and _spellon_ to announce), primarily the
+"glad tidings" announced to the world by Jesus Christ. The word thus
+came to be applied to the whole body of doctrine taught by Christ and
+his disciples, and so to the Christian revelation generally (see
+CHRISTIANITY); by analogy the term "gospel" is also used in other
+connexions as equivalent to "authoritative teaching." In a narrower
+sense each of the records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved
+in the writings of the four "evangelists" is described as a Gospel. The
+many more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted by
+the Christian Church as canonical are known as "apocryphal gospels" (see
+APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). The present article is concerned solely with
+general considerations affecting the four canonical Gospels; see for
+details of each, the articles under MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE and JOHN.
+
+_The Four Gospels._--The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the Gospel that
+He was the Christ. Those to whom this message was first delivered in
+Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and heard Jesus, or had heard much
+about Him. They did not require to be told who He was. But more and more
+as the work of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this
+knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered some
+account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those who had followed
+Him during His life on earth, and all who joined themselves to them,
+must have felt the need of dwelling on His precepts, so that these must
+have been often repeated, and also in all probability from an early time
+grouped together according to their subjects, and so taught. For some
+time, probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life
+of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would be in
+accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers of the Gospel.
+Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expectation of the speedy return
+of Christ that they did not feel called to make provision for the
+instruction of subsequent generations. The Epistles of the New Testament
+contain no indications of the existence of any written record of the
+life and teaching of Christ. Tradition indicates A.D. 60-70 as the
+period when written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to
+be made (see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). This may be
+accepted as highly probable. We cannot but suppose that at a time when
+the number of the original band of disciples of Jesus who survived must
+have been becoming noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in
+life, the importance of writing down that which had been orally
+delivered concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also
+gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing was
+undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence of this
+feeling, and that various records had already in consequence been made.
+
+But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which we actually
+have them, belong to the number of those earliest records? Or, if not,
+what are the relations in which they severally stand to them? These are
+questions which in modern criticism have been greatly debated. With a
+view to obtaining answers to them, it is necessary to consider the
+reception of the Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and
+compare the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied in
+these two ways must be given in the present article, so far as it is
+common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them, and in the
+articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial to each.
+
+1. _The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church._--The question of
+the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which they were regarded
+during the period extending from the latter years of the 1st century to
+the beginning of the last quarter of the 2nd is a difficult one. There
+is a lack of explicit references to the Gospels;[1] and many of the
+quotations which may be taken from them are not exact. At the same time
+these facts can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various
+circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that the habits
+of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered orally should
+have continued to exert influence even after the tradition had been
+committed to writing. Although documents might be known and used, they
+would not be regarded as the authorities for that which was
+independently remembered, and would not, therefore, necessarily be
+mentioned. Consequently, it is not strange that citations of sayings of
+Christ--and these are the only express citations in writings of the
+Subapostolic Age--should be made without the source whence they were
+derived being named, and (with a single exception) without any clear
+indication that the source was a document. The exception is in the
+little treatise commonly called the Epistle of Barnabas, probably
+composed about A.D. 130, where (c. iv. 14) the words "many are called
+but few chosen" are introduced by the formula "as it is written."
+
+For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources used we have
+to rely upon the amount of correspondence with our Gospels in the
+quotations made, and in respect to other parallelisms of statement and
+of expression, in these early Christian writers. The correspondence is
+in the main full and true as regards spirit and substance, but it is
+rarely complete in form. The existence of some differences of language
+may, however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various forms
+of the same saying occurring in different documents, or remembered from
+oral tradition and through catechetical instruction, would sometimes be
+purposely combined. Or, again, the memory might be confused by this
+variety, and the verification of quotations, especially of brief ones,
+was difficult, not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of
+books, but also because ancient books were not provided with ready means
+of reference to particular passages. On the whole there is clearly a
+presumption that where we have striking expressions which are known to
+us besides only in one of our Gospel-records, that particular record has
+been the source of it. And where there are several such coincidences the
+ground for the supposition that the writing in question has been used
+may become very strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less
+clear in the several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the
+first two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our
+first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.
+
+After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect, documents
+were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history; but there is
+still some uncertainty as to the documents upon which reliance was
+placed, and the precise estimation in which they were severally held.
+This is in part at least due to the circumstance that nearly all the
+writings which have remained of the Christian literature belonging to
+the period _circa_ A.D. 130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and
+that for the most part they give only summaries of the teaching of
+Christ and of the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be
+understood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others than
+Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most important of the
+writings now in question are two by Justin Martyr (_circa_ A.D.
+145-160), viz. his _Apology_ and his _Dialogue with Trypho_. In the
+former of these works he shows plainly his intention of adapting his
+language and reasoning to Gentile, and in the latter to Jewish, readers.
+In both his name for the Gospel-records is "Memoirs of the Apostles."
+After a great deal of controversy there has come to be very wide
+agreement that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs.
+In the case of the second and third there are indications, though slight
+ones, that he held the view of their composition and authorship which
+was common from the last quarter of the century onwards (see MARK,
+GOSPEL OF, and LUKE, GOSPEL OF), but he has made the largest use of our
+first Gospel. It is also generally allowed that he was acquainted with
+the fourth Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain
+reserve. Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show that
+he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a good deal of
+difference of opinion still as to whether Justin reckoned other sources
+for the Gospel-history besides our Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs.
+In this connexion, however, as well as on other grounds, it is a
+significant fact that within twenty years or so after the death of
+Justin, which probably occurred _circa_ A.D. 160, Tatian, who had been a
+hearer of Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history
+which received the name _Diatessaron_ ("through four"), in the main a
+compilation from our four Gospels.[2]
+
+Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had attained a
+position of unique authority throughout the greater part of the Church,
+not different from that which they have held since, as is evident from
+the treatise of Irenaeus _Against Heresies_ (c. A.D. 180; see esp. iii.
+i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other evidence only a few years later. The
+struggle against Gnosticism, which had been going on during the middle
+part of the century, had compelled the Church both to define her creed
+and to draw a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those
+writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others. The
+effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally entertained
+of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time in the formal
+statements now made it is plainly implied that the belief expressed is
+no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to suppose that agreement on
+this subject between different portions of the Church could have
+manifested itself at this time in the spontaneous manner that it does,
+except as the consequence of traditional feelings and convictions, which
+went back to the early part of the century, and which could hardly have
+arisen without good foundation, with respect to the special value of
+these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although all that
+came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship cannot be
+considered proved.
+
+2. _The Internal Criticism of the Gospels._--In the middle of the 19th
+century an able school of critics, known as the Tubingen school, sought
+to show from indications in the several Gospels that they were composed
+well on in the 2nd century in the interests of various strongly marked
+parties into which the Church was supposed to have been divided by
+differences in regard to the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity.
+These theories are now discredited. It may on the contrary be
+confidently asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the
+local colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they
+show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the circumstances
+of the 2nd century; and that the character even of the Fourth Gospel is
+not such as to justify its being placed, at furthest, much after the
+beginning of that century.
+
+We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid results
+have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in consequence of the
+large amount of similarity between them in contents, arrangement, and
+even in words and the forms of sentences and paragraphs, been called
+Synoptic Gospels. It has long been seen that, to account for this
+similarity, relations of interdependence between them, or of common
+derivation, must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of
+these relations is known as the _Synoptic Problem_. Reference has
+already been made to the fact that during the greater part of the
+Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now some have held
+that the form of this oral teaching was to a great extent a fixed one,
+and that it was the common source of our first three Gospels. This oral
+theory was for a long time the favourite one in England; it was never
+widely held in Germany, and in recent years the majority of English
+students of the Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not
+satisfactorily explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too
+close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus accounted
+for, but even many of the differences between parallel contexts are
+rather such as would arise through the revision of a document than
+through the freedom of oral delivery.
+
+It is now and has for many years been widely held that a document which
+is most nearly represented by the Gospel of Mark, or which (as some
+would say) was virtually identical with it, has been used in the
+composition of our first and third Gospels. This source has supplied the
+Synoptic Outline, and in the main also the narratives common to all
+three. Questions connected with the history of this document are treated
+in the article on MARK, GOSPEL OF.
+
+There is also a considerable amount of matter common to Matthew and
+Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced into the Synoptic Outline
+very differently in those two Gospels, which clearly suggests that it
+existed in a separate form, and was independently combined by the first
+and third evangelists with their other document. This common matter has
+also a character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse.
+The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several passages
+so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces at least to have
+been derived immediately or ultimately from the same Greek document. In
+other cases there is more divergence, but in some of them this is
+accounted for by the consideration that in Matthew passages from the
+source now in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other
+chief common source before mentioned. There are, however, instances in
+which no such explanation will serve, and it is possible that our first
+and third evangelists may have used two documents which were not in all
+respects identical, but which corresponded very closely on the whole.
+The ultimate source of the subject matter in question, or of the most
+distinctive and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic
+one, and in some parts different translations may have been used.
+
+This second source used in the composition of Matthew and Luke has
+frequently been called "The Logia" in order to signify that it was a
+collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus. This name has been
+suggested by Schleiermacher's interpretation of Papias' fragment on
+Matthew (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). But some have maintained that the
+source in question also contained a good many narratives, and in order
+to avoid any premature assumption as to its contents and character
+several recent critics have named it "Q." It may, however, fairly be
+called "the Logian document," as a convenient way of indicating the
+character of the greater part of the matter which our first and third
+evangelists have taken from it, and this designation is used in the
+articles on the Gospels of Luke and Matthew. The reconstruction of this
+document has been attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its
+contents can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.
+
+3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing of the results
+of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels. Their effect is to
+lead us, especially when engaged in historical inquiries, to look beyond
+our Gospels to their sources, instead of treating the testimony of the
+Gospels severally as independent and ultimate. Nevertheless it will
+still appear that each Gospel has its distinct value, both historically
+and in regard to the moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the
+fruits of much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely
+employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each, will still
+prove serviceable.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--1. German Books: _Introductions to the New
+  Testament_--H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans.,
+  1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Julicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng.
+  trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, _Urchristliche Literaturgeschichte_, vol.
+  i. (1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels,
+  especially the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, _Die synoptischen
+  Evangelien_ (1863); Weizsacker, _Untersuchungen uber die evangelische
+  Geschichte_ (1864); B. Weiss, _Das Marcus-Evangelium und seine
+  synoptischen Parallelen_ (1872); _Das Matthaus-Evangelium und seine
+  Lucas-Parallelen_ (1876); H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886); A.
+  Resch, _Agrapha_ (1889); &c.; P. Wernle, _Die synoptische Frage_
+  (1899); W. Soltau, _Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr
+  Quellenwert_ (1901); H. J. Holtzmann, _Hand-Commentar zum N.T._, vol.
+  i. (1889); J. Wellhausen, _Das Evangelium Marci_, _Das Evangelium
+  Matthai_, _Das Evangelium Lucas_ (1904), _Einleitung in die drei
+  ersten Evangelien_ (1905); A. Harnack, _Spruche und Reden Jesu, die
+  zweite Quelle des Matthaus und Lukas_ (1907).
+
+  2. French Books: A. Loisy, _Les Evangiles synoptiques_ (1907-1908).
+
+  3. English Books: G. Salmon, _Introduction to the New Testament_ (1st
+  ed., 1885; 9th ed., 1904); W. Sanday, _Inspiration_ (Lect. vi., 3rd
+  ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, _An Introduction to the Study of the
+  Gospels_ (1st ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, _The Composition
+  of the Four Gospels_ (1890); J. E. Carpenter, _The First Three
+  Gospels, their Origin and Relations_ (1890); A. J. Jolley, _The
+  Synoptic Problem_ (1893); J. C. Hawkins, _Horae synopticae_ (1899); W.
+  Alexander, _Leading Ideas of the Gospels_ (new ed., 1892); E. A.
+  Abbott, _Clue_ (1900); J. A. Robinson, _The Study of the Gospels_
+  (1902); F. C. Burkitt, _The Gospel History and its Transmission_
+  (1906); G. Salmon, _The Human Element in the Gospels_ (1907); V. H.
+  Stanton, _The Gospels as Historical Documents_: Pt. I., _The Early Use
+  of the Gospels_ (1903); Pt. II., _The Synoptic Gospels_ (1908).
+
+  4. Synopses.--W. G. Rushbrooke, _Synopticon, An Exposition of the
+  Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1880); A. Wright, _The
+  Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek_ (2nd ed., 1903).
+
+  See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article BIBLE, section
+  _New Testament_.     (V. H. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the only two that can be held to be such in the first half of
+    the 2nd century, and the doubts whether they refer to our present
+    Gospels, see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF.
+
+  [2] The character of Tatian's _Diatessaron_ has been much disputed in
+    the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the
+    subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account of
+    these may be seen most conveniently in _The Diatessaron of Tatian_,
+    by S. Hemphill; see under TATIAN.)
+
+
+
+
+GOSPORT, a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division of Hampshire,
+England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth harbour, 81 m. S.W. from
+London by the London & Southwestern railway. Pop. of urban district of
+Gosport and Alverstoke (1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge
+connect it with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of
+fortifications, consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000
+yds. to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with
+occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Portsmouth
+harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and market hall, and
+the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of William III. To the
+south at Haslar there is a magnificent naval hospital, capable of
+containing 2000 patients, and adjoining it a gunboat slipway and large
+barracks. To the north is the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with
+brewery, cooperage, powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and
+storehouses for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy.
+
+Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was originally included
+in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the bishop and monks of Winchester
+under whom villeins farmed the land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up
+Alverstoke with Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to
+hold them until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical
+commissioners. After the confiscation of the bishop's lands in 1641,
+however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to George
+Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration. In the 16th
+century Gosport was "a little village of fishermen." It was called a
+borough in 1461, when there are also traces of burgage tenure. From 1462
+one bailiff was elected annually in the borough court, and government by
+a bailiff continued until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth
+borough under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was
+annulled in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election
+of bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is known,
+although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common property in the
+shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of Gosport increased during
+the 16th and 17th centuries owing to its position at the mouth of
+Portsmouth harbour, and its convenience as a victualling station. For
+this reason also the town was particularly prosperous during the
+American and Peninsular Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there
+for the defence of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a
+garrison town under a lord-lieutenant.
+
+
+
+
+GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800-1880), English composer, was born at Fareham,
+Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He was elected a chorister of
+the Chapel Royal in 1811, and in 1816, on the breaking of his voice,
+became a pupil of Attwood. A few early compositions, some for the
+theatre, exist, and some glees were published before 1825. He was
+appointed organist of St Luke's, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became
+organist of St Paul's in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until
+1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the London
+musical world of the time was an influential one, and he did much by his
+teaching and criticism to encourage the study and appreciation of good
+music. In 1876 he was given the degree of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though
+his few orchestral works have very small importance, his church music
+includes some fine compositions, such as the anthems "O taste and see,"
+"O Saviour of the world" and others. He was the last of the great
+English school of church composers who devoted themselves almost
+exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee his is an
+honoured name, if only on account of his finest work in that form, the
+five-part glee, Ossian's "Hymn to the sun." He died at Brixton, London,
+on the 10th of May 1880.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSAMER, a fine, thread like and filmy substance spun by small spiders,
+which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse bushes, and floating in
+the air in clear weather; especially in the autumn. By transference
+anything light, unsubstantial or flimsy is known as "gossamer." A thin
+gauzy material used for trimming and millinery, resembling the "chiffon"
+of to-day, was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian
+period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very light
+weight.
+
+The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms in English,
+and is apparently taken from _gose_, goose and _somere_, summer. The
+Germans have _Madchensommer_, maidens' summer, and _Altweibersommer_,
+old women's summer, as well as _Sommerfaden_, summer-threads, as
+equivalent to the English gossamer, the connexion apparently being that
+gossamer is seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St
+Martin's summer) when geese are also in season. Another suggestion is
+that the word is a corruption of _gaze a Marie_ (gauze of Mary) through
+the legend that gossamer was originally the threads which fell away from
+the Virgin's shroud on her assumption.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSE, EDMUND (1849-   ), English poet and critic, was born in London on
+the 21st of September 1849, son of the zoologist P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he
+became an assistant in the department of printed books in the British
+Museum, where he remained until he became in 1875 translator to the
+Board of Trade. In 1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of
+Lords. In 1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much
+grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide and
+appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable work in
+bringing foreign literature home to English readers. _Northern Studies_
+(1879), a collection of essays on the literature of Holland and
+Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged visit to those countries,
+and was followed by later work in the same direction. He translated
+Ibsen's _Hedda Gabler_ (1891), and, with W. Archer, _The Master-Builder_
+(1893), and in 1907 he wrote a life of Ibsen for the "Literary Lives"
+series. He also edited the English translation of the works of Bjornson.
+His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901, when he
+was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf of the first class.
+Mr Gosse's published volumes of verse include _On Viol and Flute_
+(1873), _King Erik_ (1876), _New Poems_ (1879), _Firdausi in Exile_
+(1885), _In Russet and Silver_ (1894), _Collected Poems_ (1896).
+_Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island_ (1901), an "ironic phantasy,"
+the scene of which is laid in the 20th century, though the personages
+are Greek gods, is written in prose, with some blank verse. His
+_Seventeenth Century Studies_ (1883), _Life of William Congreve_ (1888),
+_The Jacobean Poets_ (1894), _Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of
+St Paul's_ (1899), _Jeremy Taylor_ (1904, "English Men of Letters"), and
+_Life of Sir Thomas Browne_ (1905) form a very considerable body of
+critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He also wrote a life
+of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols., 1884); _A History of
+Eighteenth Century Literature_ (1889); a _History of Modern English
+Literature_ (1897), and vols. iii. and iv. of an _Illustrated Record of
+English Literature_ (1903-1904) undertaken in connexion with Dr Richard
+Garnett. Mr Gosse was always a sympathetic student of the younger school
+of French and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being
+collected as _French Profiles_ (1905). _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896)
+contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences of
+Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann's series of "Literature
+of the World" and the same publisher's "International Library." To the
+9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ he contributed numerous
+articles, and his services as chief literary adviser in the preparation
+of the 10th and 11th editions incidentally testify to the high position
+held by him in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was
+entertained in Paris by the leading _litterateurs_ as a representative
+of English literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously
+_Father and Son_, an intimate study of his own early family life. He
+married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and two
+daughters.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-1888), English naturalist, was born at
+Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father, Thomas Gosse (1765-1844)
+being a miniature painter. In his youth the family settled at Poole,
+where Gosse's turn for natural history was noticed and encouraged by his
+aunt, Mrs Bell, the mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1792-1880). He
+had, however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827, he
+found himself clerk in a whaler's office at Carbonear, in Newfoundland,
+where he beguiled the tedium of his life by observations, chiefly with
+the microscope. After a brief and unsuccessful interlude of farming in
+Canada, during which he wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of
+Newfoundland, he travelled in the United States, was received and
+noticed by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time in
+Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His _Canadian Naturalist_
+(1840), written on the voyage home, was followed in 1843 by his
+_Introduction to Zoology_. His first widely popular book was _The Ocean_
+(1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile been teaching in London, was
+sent by the British Museum to collect specimens of natural history in
+Jamaica. He spent nearly two years on that island, and after his return
+published his _Birds of Jamaica_ (1847) and his _Naturalist's Sojourn in
+Jamaica_ (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological works
+for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to impair his
+health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was attracted by the forms of
+marine life so abundant on that shore, and in 1853 published _A
+Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire Coast_, accompanied by a
+description of the marine aquarium invented by him, by means of which he
+succeeded in preserving zoophytes and other marine animals of the
+humbler grades alive and in good condition away from the sea. This
+arrangement was more fully set forth and illustrated in his _Aquarium_
+(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by _A Manual of Marine Zoology_, in two
+volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings after the author's
+drawings. A volume on the marine fauna of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In
+June of the same year he was elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most
+careful observer, but who lacked the philosophical spirit, was now
+tempted to essay work of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two
+books, _Life_ and _Omphalos_, embodying his speculations on the
+appearance of life on the earth, which he considered to have been
+instantaneous, at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met with
+no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the field of
+observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate. Taking up his
+residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he produced from 1858 to
+1860 his standard work on sea-anemones, the _Actinologia Britannica_.
+_The Romance of Natural History_ and other popular works followed. In
+1865 he abandoned authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the
+cultivation of orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his
+attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by Dr C. T.
+Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the 23rd of August 1888.
+
+  _His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse._
+
+
+
+
+GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1734-1829), French musical composer, son of a
+small farmer, was born at the village of Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut,
+and showing early a taste for music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He
+went to Paris in 1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor of
+a private band kept by La Popeliniere, a wealthy amateur, and gradually
+determined to do something to revive the study of instrumental music in
+France. He had his own first symphony performed in 1754, and as
+conductor to the Prince de Conde's orchestra he produced several operas
+and other compositions of his own. He imposed his influence upon French
+music with remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770,
+organized the Ecole de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band of the
+Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed (with Mehul and
+Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de Musique when this
+institution was created in 1795. He was an original member of the
+Institute and a chevalier of the legion of honour. Outside France he was
+but little known, and his own numerous compositions, sacred and secular,
+were thrown into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has
+a place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully
+stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at Passy on the
+16th of February 1829.
+
+  See the _Lives_ by P. Hedouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878).
+
+
+
+
+GOSSIP (from the O.E. _godsibb_, i.e. God, and _sib_, akin, standing in
+relation to), originally a god-parent, i.e. one who by taking a
+sponsor's vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship to the
+child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light personal or social
+conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of idle tale-bearing.
+"Gossip" was early used with the sense of a friend or acquaintance,
+either of the parent of the child baptized or of the other god-parents,
+and thus came to be used, with little reference to the position of
+sponsor, for women friends of the mother present at a birth; the
+transition of meaning to an idle chatterer or talker for talking's sake
+is easy. The application to the idle talk of such persons does not
+appear to be an early one.
+
+
+
+
+GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773-1858), German divine and
+philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg on the 14th of December
+1773, and educated at the university of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos
+and others he came under the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted
+by Johann Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After
+taking priest's orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811)
+and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought about his
+dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman Catholic for the
+Protestant communion. As minister of the Bethlehem church in Berlin
+(1829-1846) he was conspicuous not only for practical and effective
+preaching, but for the founding of schools, asylums and missionary
+agencies. He died on the 20th of March 1858.
+
+  _Lives_ by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton (Berlin,
+  1878).
+
+
+
+
+GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624), English satirist, was baptized at St
+George's, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554. He entered Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving the university in 1576 he
+went to London. In 1598 Francis Meres in his _Palladis Tamia_ mentions
+him with Sidney, Spenser, Abraham Fraunce and others among the "best for
+pastorall," but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been
+an actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks of
+_Catilines Conspiracies_ as a "Pig of mine own Sowe." To this play and
+some others, on account of their moral intention, he extends indulgence
+in the general condemnation of stage plays contained in his _Schoole of
+Abuse, containing a pleasant invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers,
+Jesters and such like Caterpillars of the Commonwealth_ (1579). The
+euphuistic style of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of
+learning were in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply
+insincerity. Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the
+disorder which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was
+introducing into the social life of London. It was not only by
+extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized. Spenser, in
+his _Teares of the Muses_ (1591), laments the same evils, although only
+in general terms. The tract was dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney, who
+seems not unnaturally to have resented being connected with a pamphlet
+which opened with a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser,
+writing to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the
+author "was for hys labor scorned." He dedicated, however, a second
+tract, _The Ephemerides of Phialo ... and A Short Apologie of the
+Schoole of Abuse_, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579. Gosson's abuse of poets
+seems to have had a large share in inducing Sidney to write his
+_Apologie for Poetrie_, which probably dates from 1581. After the
+publication of the _Schoole of Abuse_ Gosson retired into the country,
+where he acted as tutor to the sons of a gentleman (_Plays Confuted_.
+"To the Reader," 1582). Anthony a Wood places this earlier and assigns
+the termination of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the
+stage, which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The
+publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most formidable of
+which was Thomas Lodge's _Defence of Playes_ (1580). The players
+themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson's own plays. Gosson replied to
+his various opponents in 1582 by his _Playes Confuted in Five Actions_,
+dedicated to Sir Francis Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was
+made lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was presented
+by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex, which he
+exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph's, Bishopsgate. He died on the 13th of
+February 1624. _Pleasant Quippes for Upstart New-fangled Gentlewomen_
+(1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also ascribed to Gosson.
+
+  The _Schoole of Abuse and Apologie_ were edited (1868) by Prof. E.
+  Arber in his _English Reprints_. Two poems of Gosson's are included.
+
+
+
+
+GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND (1822-1901), French actor, was born at
+Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered the Conservatoire in
+1841, winning the second prize for comedy that year and the first in
+1842. After a year of military service he made his debut at the Comedie
+Francaise on the 17th of July 1844, as Alexis in _Les Heritiers_ and
+Mascarelles in _Les Precieuses ridicules_. He was immediately admitted
+_pensionnaire_, and became _societaire_ in 1850. By special permission
+of the emperor in 1866 he played at the Odeon in Emile Augier's
+_Contagion_. His golden jubilee at the Theatre Francais was celebrated
+in 1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got was a fine
+representative of the grand style of French acting, and was much admired
+in England as well as in Paris. He wrote the libretto of the opera
+_Francois Villon_ (1857) and also of _L'Esclave_ (1874). In 1881 he was
+decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honour.
+
+
+
+
+GOTA, a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener. The name,
+however, is more familiar in its application to the canal which affords
+communication between Gothenburg and Stockholm. The river flows out of
+the southern extremity of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat,
+which it enters by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the
+eastern forming the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the
+port of Gothenburg. The Gota river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable
+for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls of
+Trollhattan (q.v.). Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg and Hunneberg
+(royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached at Venersborg. Several
+important ports lie on the north, east and south shores (see VENER).
+From Sjotorp, midway on the eastern shore, the western Gota canal leads
+S.E. to Karlsborg. Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it
+from the Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and
+lower it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and
+Botten to Lake Vetter (q.v.; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to
+Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point, and a
+descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren, after which the
+canal, carried still at a considerable elevation, overlooks a rich and
+beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake Roxen with its ruined castle of
+Stjernarp is next traversed. At Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake
+Glan to the north, giving access to the important manufacturing centre
+of Norrkoping. Passing Lake Asplangen, the canal follows a cut through
+steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town of
+Soderkoping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem. Vessels plying to
+Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-fringe (_skargard_), and
+then follow the Sodertelge canal into Lake Malar. The whole distance
+from Gothenburg to Stockholm is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about
+2-1/2 days. The length of artificial work on the Gota canal proper is 54
+m., and there are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse
+weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any interest
+save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea of a canal dates from
+1516, but the construction was organized by Baron von Platten and
+engineered by Thomas Telford in 1810-1832. The falls of Trollhattan had
+already been locked successfully in 1800.
+
+
+
+
+GOTARZES, or GOTERZES, king of Parthia (c. A.D. 42-51). In an
+inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun[1] he is called [Greek:
+Gotarzes Geopothros], i.e. "son of Gew," and seems to be designated as
+"satrap of satrap." This inscription therefore probably dates from the
+reign of Artabanus II. (A.D. 10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have
+belonged. From a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription
+[Greek: Basileos basileon Arsanoz uos kekaloumenos Artabavou Gotepzes]
+(Wroth, _Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia_, p. 165; _Numism_. _Chron._,
+1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are wrong), which
+must be translated "king of kings Arsakes, named son of Artabanos,
+Gotarzes," it appears that he was adopted by Artabanus. When the
+troublesome reign of Artabanus II. ended in A.D. 39 or 40, he was
+succeeded by Vardanes, probably his son; but against him in 41 rose
+Gotarzes (the dates are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself
+detested by his cruelty--among many other murders he even slew his
+brother Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. _Ann._ xi. 8)--and Vardanes
+regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and gathered an
+army from the Dahan nomads. The war between the two kings was at last
+ended by a treaty, as both were afraid of the conspiracies of their
+nobles. Gotarzes returned to Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was
+assassinated in 45, Gotarzes was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac.
+_Ann._ xi. 9 ff.; Joseph. _Antiq._ xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called
+Kotardes). He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, "king of
+kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (_Epiphanes_),
+the friend of the Greeks (_Philhellen_)," without mentioning his proper
+name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury induced the
+hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius and fetch from Rome an
+Arsacid prince Meherdates (i.e. Mithradates), who lived there as
+hostage. He crossed the Euphrates in 49, but was beaten and taken
+prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut off his ears (Tac. _Ann._ xii. 10 ff.).
+Soon after Gotarzes died, according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus
+says that he was murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51.
+
+  An earlier "Arsakes with the name Gotarzes," mentioned on some
+  astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in _Zeitschr. fur
+  Assyriologie_, vi. 216; Mahler in _Wiener Zeitschr. fur Kunde des
+  Morgenlands_, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in
+  Babylonia about 87 B.C.     (Ed. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Rawlinson, _Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc._ ix. 114; Flandin and Coste,
+    _La Perse ancienne_, i. tab. 19; Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci
+    inscr._ 431.
+
+
+
+
+GOTHA, a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the residence of the
+dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant situation on the Leine canal,
+6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on
+the railway to Bebra-Cassel. Pop. (1905) 36,906. It consists of an old
+inner town and encircling suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of
+Friedenstein, lying on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1100 ft. With
+the exception of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are
+handsome and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades between
+the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town's attractiveness. To
+the south of the castle there is an extensive and finely adorned park.
+To the north-west of the town the Galberg--on which there is a public
+pleasure garden--and to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of
+over 1300 ft. and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein,
+begun by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and
+completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of
+Grimmenstein. It is a huge square building flanked with two wings,
+having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains the
+ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000 volumes,
+among which are several rare editions and about 6900 manuscripts. The
+picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings, the natural history museum,
+the Chinese museum, and the cabinet of art, which includes a collection
+of Egyptian, Etruscan, Roman and German antiquities, are now included in
+the new museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the
+south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are the church
+of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty tower, founded in the
+12th century, twice burnt down, and rebuilt in its present form in 1652;
+the church of the Augustinian convent, with an altar-piece by the
+painter Simon Jacobs; the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life
+insurance bank; the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a
+winter garden and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal
+legislature; the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the 11th
+century; the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a
+girls' school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace, now used
+as public offices. The educational establishments include a gymnasium
+(founded in 1524, one of the most famous in Germany), two training
+schools for teachers, conservatoires of music and several scientific
+institutions. Gotha is remarkable for its insurance societies and for
+the support it has given to cremation. The crematorium was long regarded
+as a model for such establishments.
+
+Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia, its
+manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great reputation,
+porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical and surgical
+instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps and toys. There are also
+a number of nurseries and market gardens. The book trade is represented
+by about a dozen firms, including that of the great geographical house
+of Justus Perthes, founded in 1785.
+
+Gotha (in old chronicles called _Gotegewe_ and later _Gotaha_) existed
+as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord Gothard abbot
+of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was known as a town as early as
+1200, about which time it came into the possession of the landgraves of
+Thuringia. On the extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession
+of the electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of
+dukes. After the battle of Muhlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein
+was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In 1567 the
+town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the elector Augustus of
+Saxony. After the death of John Frederick's sons, it came into the
+possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the founder of the line of the
+dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction of this family it was united in
+1825 along with the dukedom to Coburg.
+
+  See _Gotha und seine Umgebung_ (Gotha, 1851); Kuhne, _Beitrage zur
+  Geschichte der Entwicklung der socialen Zustande der Stadt und des
+  Herzogtums Gotha_ (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, _Les Villes de la Thuringe_
+  (Paris, 1869), and Beck, _Geschichte der Stadt Gotha_ (Gotha, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF, the early name given to the people of the village
+of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed simplicity. But if
+tradition is to be believed the Gothamites were not so very simple. The
+story is that King John intended to live in the neighbourhood, but that
+the villagers, foreseeing ruin as the cost of supporting the court,
+feigned imbecility when the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the
+latter went they saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on
+this report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the
+"wise men" boasted, "we ween there are more fools pass through Gotham
+than remain in it." The "foles of Gotham" are mentioned as early as the
+15th century in the _Towneley Mysteries_; and a collection of their
+"jests" was published in the 16th century under the title _Merrie Tales
+of the Mad Men of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke
+Doctour_. The "A.B." was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde
+(1490?-1549), famous among other things for his wit, but he probably had
+nothing to do with the compilation. As typical of the Gothamite folly is
+usually quoted the story of the villagers joining hands round a
+thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it would sing all the year. The
+localizing of fools is common to most countries, and there are many
+other reputed "imbecile" centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there
+are the people of Coggeshall, Essex, the "carles of Austwick,"
+Yorkshire, "the gowks of Gordon," Berwickshire, and for many centuries
+the charge of folly has been made against "silly" Suffolk and Norfolk
+(_Descriptio Norfolciensium_ about 12th century, printed in Wright's
+_Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems_). In Germany there are the
+_Schildburgers_, in Holland the people of Kampen. Among the ancient
+Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools; among the Thracians, Abdera; among
+the ancient Jews, Nazareth.
+
+  See W. A. Clouston, _Book of Noodles_ (London, 1888); R. H.
+  Cunningham, _Amusing Prose Chap-books_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+GOTHENBURG (Swed. _Goteborg_), a city and seaport of Sweden, on the
+river Gota, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat, 285 m. S.W. of
+Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Gota canal-route. Pop. (1900) 130,619.
+It is the chief town of the district (_lan_) of Goteborg och Bohus, and
+the seat of a bishop. It lies on the east or left bank of the river,
+which is here lined with quays on both sides, those on the west
+belonging to the large island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the
+Gota. On this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen
+and Lundby.
+
+The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with extensive
+and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain enclosed by low
+hills. The inner city, including the business quarter, is contained
+almost entirely between the river and the Rosenlunds canal, continued in
+the Vallgraf, the moat of the old fortifications; and is crossed by the
+Storahamn, Ostrahamn and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by
+the handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Sodra Hamngatan. The first of
+these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn, where the sea-going
+passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg.
+The museum, in the old East India Company's house, has fine collections
+in natural history, entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and
+ethnography, a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and
+industrial art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and contains
+the town-hail (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are statues by B. E.
+Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin, and of Oscar I. by J. P.
+Molin. Among several churches in this quarter of the city is the
+cathedral (_Gustavii Domkyrka_), a cruciform church founded in 1633 and
+rebuilt after fires in 1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house
+and residence of the governor of the _lan_. On the north side, closely
+adjacent, are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Gota canal steamers lie,
+and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs Bangard.
+Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky eminence, Lilla
+Otterhalleberg. The inner city is girdled on the south and east by the
+Kungspark, which contains Molin's famous group of statuary, the
+Belt-bucklers (_Baltespannare_), and by the beautiful gardens of the
+Horticultural Society (_Tradgardsforeningen_). These grounds are
+traversed by the broad Nya Alle, a favourite promenade, and beyond them
+lies the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street,
+Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the last are the
+university and the New theatre. At the west end of Vasa Street is the
+city library, the most important in the country except the royal library
+at Stockholm and the university libraries at Upsala and Lund. The
+suburbs are extensive. To the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget,
+with numerous factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park,
+planted with oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding
+views of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the
+workmen's quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen. All are
+connected with the city by electric tramways. Six railways leave the
+city from four stations. The principal lines, from the Statens and
+Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhattan, and into Norway
+(Christiania); N.E. between Lakes Vener and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun
+and the north; E. to Boras and beyond, and S. by the coast to
+Helsingborg, &c. From the Vestgota station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E.
+to Skara and the southern shores of Vener, and from Saro station near
+Slottskog Park a line serves Saro, a seaside watering-place on an island
+20 m. S. of Gothenburg.
+
+The city has numerous important educational establishments. The
+university (_Hogskola_) was a private foundation (1891), but is governed
+by a board, the members of which are nominated by the state, the town
+council, Royal Society of Science and Literature, directors of the
+museum, and the staffs of the various local colleges. There are several
+boys' schools, a college for girls, a scientific college, a commercial
+college (1826), a school of navigation, and Chalmers' Polytechnical
+College, founded by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg
+of English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this
+institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital. A people's
+library was founded by members of the family of Dickson, several of whom
+have taken a prominent part in philanthropical works in the city. The
+connexion of the family with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert
+Dickson, a native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which
+he was joined in 1807 by his brother James.
+
+In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg ranks as
+second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually the principal
+centre of export trade and port of register; and as a manufacturing town
+it is slightly inferior to Malmo. Its principal industrial
+establishments are mechanical works (both in the city and at Lundby),
+saw-mills, dealing with the timber which is brought down the Gota,
+flour-mills, margarine factories, breweries and distilleries, tobacco
+works, cotton mills, dyeing and bleaching works (at Levanten in the
+vicinity), furniture factories, paper and leather works, and
+shipbuilding yards. The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247
+of 120,488 tons. There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels
+drawing 20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels.
+Gothenburg is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants for
+America.
+
+The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and returns nine
+members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).
+
+Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was from the first
+designed to be fortified, a town of the same name founded on Hisingen in
+1603 having been destroyed by the Danes during the Calmar war. From
+1621, when it was first chartered, it steadily increased, though it
+suffered greatly in the Danish wars of the last half of the 17th and the
+beginning of the 18th centuries, and from several extensive
+conflagrations (the last in 1813), which have destroyed important
+records of its history. The great development of its herring fishery in
+the latter part of the 18th century gave a new impulse to the city's
+trade, which was kept up by the influence of the "Continental System,"
+under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial merchandise of
+England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to decline, but after its
+closer connexion with the interior of the country by the Gota canal
+(opened 1832) and Western railway it rapidly advanced both in population
+and trade. Since the demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has
+been defended only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of
+the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden's greatest
+sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786-1854) and Johann Peter Molin
+(1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothenburg was for a time the
+residence of the Bourbon family. The name of this city is associated
+with the municipal licensing system known as the Gothenburg System (see
+LIQUOR LAWS).
+
+  See W. Berg, _Samlingar till Goteborgs historia_ (Gothenburg, 1893);
+  Lagerberg, _Goteborg i aldre och nyare tid_ (Gothenburg, 1902);
+  Froding, _Det forna Goteborg_ (Stockholm, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GOTHIC, the term generally applied to medieval architecture, and more
+especially to that in which the pointed arch appears. The style was at
+one time supposed to have originated with the warlike people known as
+the Goths, some of whom (the East Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the
+eastern portion of Europe, and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in
+the Asturias of Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description
+have ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent
+construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading; since,
+however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult to change
+it. The term when first employed was one of reproach, as Evelyn (1702)
+when speaking of the faultless building (i.e. classic) says, "they were
+demolished by the Goths or Vandals, who introduced their own licentious
+style now called modern or Gothic." The employment of the pointed arch
+in Syria, Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the
+Mahommedans for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries before
+it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable to adhere to
+the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed Architecture. (See
+ARCHITECTURE)
+
+
+
+
+GOTHITE, or GOETHITE, a mineral composed of an iron hydrate, Fe2O3.H2O,
+crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with diaspore
+and manganite (q.v.). It was first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was
+named after the poet Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly
+in habit; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid (M
+in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic masses with a radiated fibrous
+structure also occur. The colour varies from yellowish or reddish to
+blackish-brown, and by transmitted light it is often blood-red; the
+streak is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific gravity, 4.3. The best
+crystals are the brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal
+pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel iron mines at Lostwithiel,
+and the Botallack mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety occurring as
+thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known as Rubinglimmer or
+pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. [Greek: pyrros], flame-coloured, and [Greek:
+sideros], iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the same locality is
+called lepidocrocite (from [Greek: lepis], scale, and [Greek: krokis],
+fibre). Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram in
+Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals arranged
+in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow colour.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Gothite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite and hematite,
+and when found in sufficient quantity is mined with these as an ore of
+iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure in other minerals. Acicular
+crystals, resembling rutile in appearance, sometimes penetrate crystals
+of pale-coloured amethyst, for instance, at Wolf's Island in Lake Onega
+in Russia: this form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and
+the crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the name
+of "Cupid's darts" (_fleches d'amour_). The metallic glitter of
+avanturine or sun-stone (q.v.) is due to the enclosed scales of gothite
+and certain other minerals.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GOTHS
+
+  Early history.
+
+(_Gotones_, later _Gothis_), a Teutonic people who in the 1st century of
+the Christian era appear to have inhabited the middle part of the basin
+of the Vistula. They were probably the easternmost of the Teutonic
+peoples. According to their own traditions as recorded by Jordanes, they
+had come originally from the island Scandza, i.e. Skane or Sweden, under
+the leadership of a king named Berig, and landed first in a region
+called Gothiscandza. Thence they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi
+(the Holmryge of Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood
+of Rugenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them and the
+neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer they migrated into
+Scythia and settled in a district which they called Oium. The rest of
+their early history, as it is given by Jordanes following Cassiodorus,
+is due to an erroneous identification of the Goths with the Getae, and
+ancient Thracian people.
+
+The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden has been much
+discussed by modern authors. The legend was not peculiar to the Goths,
+similar traditions being current among the Langobardi, the Burgundians,
+and apparently several other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with
+truth that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from the
+Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of these
+traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly, however, many
+of the royal families may have contained an element of Scandinavian
+blood, a hypothesis which would well accord with the social conditions
+of the migration period, as illustrated, e.g., in _Volsunga Saga_ and in
+_Hervarar Saga ok Heiethreks Konungs_. In the case of the Goths a
+connexion with Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from
+archaeological evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the
+coasts about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however, there
+was any migration at all, one would rather have expected it to have
+taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin of the Goths can
+hardly be separated from that of the Vandals, whom according to
+Procopius they resembled in language and in all other respects. Moreover
+the Gepidae, another Teutonic people, who are said to have formerly
+inhabited the delta of the Vistula, also appear to have been closely
+connected with the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the
+migration from Scandza.
+
+Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement of the early
+traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the Goths go back to the
+first years of the Christian era, at which time they seem to have been
+subject to the Marcomannic king Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman
+history, however, until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which
+time they appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla.
+During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced
+considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the lower
+Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor Gordianus is called
+"victor Gothorum" by Capitolinus, though we have no record of the ground
+for the claim, and further conflicts are recorded with his successors,
+one of whom, Decius, was slain by the Goths in Moesia. According to
+Jordanes the kings of the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha
+and afterwards Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the
+Anglo-Saxon poem _Widsith_. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay tribute
+to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of the Black Sea,
+and during the next twenty years they frequently ravaged the maritime
+regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian is said to have won a victory
+over them, but the province of Dacia had to be given up. In the time of
+Constantine the Great Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the
+Goths, A.D. 321. Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with
+their king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear of
+subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi, Austrogothi
+(Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not clear whether these
+were all distinct.
+
+Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories far to the
+south and east, it must not be assumed that they had evacuated their old
+lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records several traditions of their
+conflicts with other Teutonic tribes, in particular a victory won by
+Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of the Gepidae, and another by Geberic
+over Visimar, king of the Vandals, about the end of Constantine's reign,
+in consequence of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to
+settle in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of the
+Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, Iormunrekr), whose deeds are
+recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations. According to
+Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii, the Venedi, and a number
+of other tribes who seem to have been settled in the southern part of
+Russia. From Anglo-Saxon sources it seems probable that his supremacy
+reached westwards as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and
+is said to have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla)
+in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed. Still more
+famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who according to Northern
+tradition was his wife and was cruelly put to death on a false charge of
+unfaithfulness. An attempt to avenge her death was made by her brothers
+Ammius (Hamethir) and Sarus (Sorli) by whom Hermanaric was severely
+wounded. To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits are
+recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom we may mention
+Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others, who in _Widsith_ are
+represented as defending their country against the Huns in the forest of
+the Vistula. Hermanaric committed suicide in his distress at an invasion
+of the Huns about A.D. 370, and the portion of the nation called
+Ostrogoths then came under Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained
+permission to cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the
+nation became Christian about this time (see BELOW). The exactions of
+the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which ended in the
+total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople in the year 378.
+     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+  Later history.
+
+From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths parts asunder, to
+be joined together again only incidentally and for a season. The great
+mass of the East Goths stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the
+overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present play any important
+part in the affairs of the Empire. The great mass of the West Goths
+crossed the Danube into the Roman provinces, and there played a most
+important part in various characters of alliance and enmity. The great
+migration was in 376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful
+settlers under their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have
+tried to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance
+of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the great
+mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern were meanwhile
+thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths suffered from the Roman
+officials, which led first to disputes and then to open war. In 378 the
+Goths won the great battle of Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the
+Great, the successor of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the
+mass of the Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as _foederati_.
+Many of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox
+Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen party among
+the Goths than to the larger part of them who had embraced Arian
+Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Constantinople in 381; he was
+received with high honours, and had a solemn funeral when he died. His
+saying is worth recording, as an example of the effect which Roman
+civilization had on the Teutonic mind. "The emperor," he said, "was a
+god upon earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his own
+head."
+
+The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between the West Goths
+and the Empire. Dissensions arose between them and the ministers of
+Arcadius; the Goths threw off their allegiance, and chose Alaric as
+their king. This was a restoration alike of national unity and of
+national independence. The royal title had not been borne by their
+leaders in the Roman service. Alaric's position is quite different from
+that of several Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple
+rebels. He was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or
+Bold-men, a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His
+whole career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands,
+first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths are under
+him an independent people under a national king; their independence is
+in no way interfered with if the Gothic king, in a moment of peace,
+accepts the office and titles of a Roman general. But under Alaric the
+Goths make no lasting settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and
+warfare between the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up
+this whole time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths,
+provinces are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root
+anywhere; no Western land as yet becomes _Gothia_. Alaric's designs of
+settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the
+Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of his
+career his eyes seem fixed on Africa.
+
+Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the second Gothic
+invasion of that country. In this campaign the religious position of the
+Goths is strongly marked. The Arian appeared as an enemy alike to the
+pagan majority and the Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by
+monks, and his chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples
+(_vide_ G. F. Hertzberg, _Geschichte Griechenlands_, iii. 391). His
+Italian campaigns fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he
+was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho's death.
+In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409, 410). The second
+time it suited a momentary policy to set up a puppet emperor of his own,
+and even to accept a military commission from him. The third time he
+sacked the city, the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken
+by an army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military
+details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history of the
+Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric's reign marks in the history
+of that nation. It stands between two periods of settlement within the
+Empire and of service under the Empire. Under Alaric there is no
+settlement, and service is quite secondary and precarious; after his
+death in 410 the two begin again in new shapes.
+
+Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian invasion of
+Italy, which, according to one view, again brings the East and West
+Goths together. The great mass of the East Goths, as has been already
+said, became one of the many nations which were under vassalage to the
+Huns; but their relation was one merely of vassalage. They remained a
+distinct people under kings of their own, kings of the house of the
+Amali and of the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48). They had to follow
+the lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars of
+their own; and it has been held that among these separate East Gothic
+enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in 405 by Radagaisus
+(whom R. Pallmann[1] writes Ratiger, and takes him for the chief of the
+heathen part of the East Goths). One chronicler, Prosper, makes this
+invasion preceded by another in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus
+appear as partners. The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence
+of Goths in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that
+his invasion was a national Gothic enterprise.
+
+Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric, another era
+opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the end lead to the
+establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy in the West. The position of
+Ataulphus is well marked by the speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He
+had at one time dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning
+_Romania_ into _Gothia_, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus;
+but he had learned that the world could be governed only by the laws of
+Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms for the support of the
+Roman power. And in the confused and contradictory accounts of his
+actions (for the story in Jordanes cannot be reconciled with the
+accounts in Olympiodorus and the chroniclers), we can see something of
+this principle at work throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by
+barbarian invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was to
+win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shiftings of
+allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up the position
+of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia, the daughter of
+the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of the union between Goth
+and Roman, and, had their son Theodosius lived, a dynasty might have
+arisen uniting both claims. But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at
+Barcelona in 415, by his murder at the hands of another faction of the
+Goths. The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a more
+settled state of things was established. The Empire received again, as
+the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis in Spain, and
+Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul. The "second Aquitaine," with
+the sea-coast from the mouth of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire,
+became the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths
+was now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not yet
+begin.
+
+The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows a shifting
+state of relations between the Roman and Gothic powers; but, after
+defeats and successes both ways, the older relation of alliance against
+common enemies was again established. At last Goth and Roman had to join
+together against the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the
+Hun. But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of their
+subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for Attila against
+Christendom at Chalons, just as the Servians came to fight for Bajazet
+against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric fell in the battle (451).
+After this momentary meeting, the history of the East and West Goths
+again separates for a while. The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at
+the expense of the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi.
+Under Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely a
+Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all Gaul south of
+the Loire and west of the Rhone, with all Spain, except the north-west
+corner, which was still held by the Suevi. Provence alone remained to
+the Empire. The West Gothic kings largely adopted Roman manners and
+culture; but, as they still kept to their original Arian creed, their
+rule never became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They
+stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggressive
+Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion of the Frank
+Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long after, the seat of an
+heretical power, against which the forces of northern Gaul marched as on
+a crusade. In 507 the West Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the
+Frankish arms at Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as
+a great power north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a
+fragment of Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing
+to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest man
+in Gothic history.
+
+When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of Attila, the East
+Goths recovered their full independence. They now entered into relations
+with the Empire, and were settled on lands in Pannonia. During the
+greater part of the latter half of the 5th century, the East Goths play
+in south-eastern Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played
+in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every
+conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern Roman
+power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them, they pass from
+the East to the West. They are still ruled by kings of the house of the
+Amali, and from that house there now steps forward a great figure,
+famous alike in history and in romance, in the person of Theodoric, son
+of Theodemir. Born about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople
+as a hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of his
+life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars within the
+Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another Theodoric, son of
+Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older but lesser Theodoric seems to
+have been the chief, not the king, of that branch of the East Goths
+which had settled within the Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the
+Great, as he is sometimes distinguished, is sometimes the friend,
+sometimes the enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed
+with various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but in
+all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It was in both
+characters together that he set out in 488, by commission from the
+emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer. By 493 Ravenna was taken;
+Odoacer was killed by Theodoric's own hand; and the East Gothic power
+was fully established over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the
+north of Italy. In this war the history of the East and West Goths
+begins again to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that
+Theodoric was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches of the
+nation were soon brought much more closely together, when, through the
+overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse, the power of Theodoric
+was practically extended over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the
+whole of Spain. A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II.,
+and, as that prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic
+king stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and preserved
+for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish dominion. Toulouse
+passed away to the Frank; but the Goth kept Narbonne and its district,
+the land of Septimania--the land which, as the last part of Gaul held by
+the Goths, kept the name of _Gothia_ for many ages. While Theodoric
+lived, the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own
+dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protectorate over the
+Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have practically exercised it,
+except in the case of the Franks.
+
+The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent and far more
+splendid than it could have been in the time of Ermanaric. But it was
+now of a wholly different character. The dominion of Theodoric was not a
+barbarian but a civilized power. His twofold position ran through
+everything. He was at once national king of the Goths, and successor,
+though without any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West.
+The two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived side
+by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its own law,
+by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, the common
+sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric's rule is drawn for us in
+the state papers drawn up in his name and in the names of his successors
+by his Roman minister Cassiodorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on
+the ground in northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than
+garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed protector of the
+peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of government, while the
+Roman consul had the honour. All the forms of the Roman administration
+went on, and the Roman polity and Roman culture had great influence on
+the Goths themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations
+in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic freedom was
+necessarily lost. Such a system as that which Theodoric established
+needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It broke in pieces after his death.
+
+On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths were again
+separated. The few instances in which they are found acting together
+after this time are as scattered and incidental as they were before.
+Amalaric succeeded to the West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania.
+Provence was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king
+Athalaric, the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha.
+The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy now showed itself. The
+long wars of Justinian's reign (535-555) recovered Italy for the Empire,
+and the Gothic name died out on Italian soil. The chance of forming a
+national state in Italy by the union of Roman and Teutonic elements,
+such as those which arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under
+Lombard rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed
+before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war of course
+made the distinction stronger; under the kings who were chosen for the
+purposes of the war national Gothic feeling had revived. The Goths were
+now again, if not a wandering people, yet an armed host, no longer the
+protectors but the enemies of the Roman people of Italy. The East
+Gothic dominion and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation
+had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his expedition
+that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders, m the eastern
+provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation passed away almost without
+a trace, while the next Teutonic conquerors stamped their name on the
+two ends of the land, one of which keeps it to this day.
+
+The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came much nearer to
+establishing itself as a national power in the lands which it took in.
+But the difference of race and faith between the Arian Goths and the
+Catholic Romans of Gaul and Spain influenced the history of the West
+Gothic kingdom for a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic
+subjects, and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks were
+Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became Catholics much
+earlier than the Goths. The African conquests of Belisarius gave the
+Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian Vandals, another Catholic neighbour
+in the form of the restored Roman power. The Catholics everywhere
+preferred either Roman, Suevian or Frankish rule to that of the
+heretical Goths; even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem
+for a while to have received a Frankish governor. In some other mountain
+districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained their independence, and
+in 534 a large part of the south of Spain, including the great cities of
+Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New Carthage, was, with the good will of its
+Roman inhabitants, reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the
+coast as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire was
+carrying on in Italy against the East Goths was at the same moment
+carried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in Italy the whole land
+was for a while won back, and the Gothic power passed away for ever. In
+Spain the Gothic power outlived the Roman power, but it outlived it only
+by itself becoming in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the
+Gothic power as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He
+reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which had been
+parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion to his own; he
+overcame some of the independent districts, and won back part of the
+recovered Roman province in southern Spain. He further established the
+power of the crown over the Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow
+into territorial lords. The next reign, that of his son Recared
+(586-601), was marked by a change which took away the great hindrance
+which had thus far stood in the way of any national union between Goths
+and Romans. The king and the greater part of the Gothic people embraced
+the Catholic faith. A vast degree of influence now fell into the hands
+of the Catholic bishops; the two nations began to unite; the Goths were
+gradually romanized and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In
+short, the Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to be
+formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the Roman mass.
+The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic kingdom. "Gothic," not
+"Roman" or "Spanish," is its formal title; only a single late instance
+of the use of the formula "regnum Hispaniae" is known. In the first half
+of the 7th century that name became for the first time geographically
+applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern Spain.
+The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle with the Avars and
+Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings were Catholic, the great
+objection to their rule on the part of the Roman inhabitants was taken
+away. The Gothic nobility still remained a distinct class, and held,
+along with the Catholic prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union
+with the Catholic Church was accompanied by the introduction of the
+ecclesiastical ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to
+elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended again to
+favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow up in Spain before
+the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West Gothic crown therefore remained
+elective till the end. The modern Spanish nation is the growth of the
+long struggle with the Mussulmans; but it has a direct connexion with
+the West Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether
+a different place in Spanish memory from that which they hold in Italian
+memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary invader and ruler; the
+Teutonic element in Italy comes from other sources. In Spain the Goth
+supplies an important element in the modern nation. And that element has
+been neither forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of
+northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name of
+Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim. The name of
+the people who played so great a part in all southern Europe, and who
+actually ruled over so large a part of it has now wholly passed away;
+but it is in Spain that its historical impress is to be looked for.
+
+Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible of
+Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments (see GOTHIC
+LANGUAGE below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin we have the edict of
+Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F. Bluhme in the _Monumenta
+Germaniae historica_; and the books of _Variae_ of Cassiodorus may pass
+as a collection of the state papers of Theodoric and his immediate
+successors. Among the West Goths written laws had already been put forth
+by Euric. The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a _Breviarium_ of Roman
+law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West Gothic laws
+dates from the later days of the monarchy, being put forth by King
+Recceswinth about 654. This code gave occasion to some well-known
+comments by Montesquieu and Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny
+(_Geschichte des romischen Rechts_, ii. 65) and various other writers.
+They are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae, leges_, tome i. (1902). Of
+special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already so often
+quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, a
+special source of the history of the West Gothic kings down to Svinthala
+(621-631). But all the Latin and Greek writers contemporary with the
+days of Gothic predominance make their constant contributions. Not for
+special facts, but for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive
+than Salvian of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work _De
+Gubernatione Dei_ is full of passages contrasting the vices of the
+Romans with the virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In
+all such pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways,
+but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues which the
+Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are their chastity, their
+piety according to their own creed, their tolerance towards the
+Catholics under their rule, and their general good treatment of their
+Roman subjects. He even ventures to hope that such good people may be
+saved, notwithstanding their heresy. All this must have had some
+groundwork of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful if
+the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from the
+doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian.     (E. A. F.)
+
+  There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the
+  principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_
+  (Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, _Geschichte der Westgoten_
+  (Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, _Die Konige der Germanen_ (1861-1899); E.
+  von Wietersheim, _Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (1880-1881); R.
+  Pallmann, _Die Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864); B.
+  Rappaport, _Die Einfalle der Goten in das romische Reich_ (Leipzig,
+  1899), and K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme_ (Munich,
+  1837). Other works which may be consulted are: E. Gibbon, _Decline and
+  Fall of the Roman Empire_, edited by J. B. Bury (1896-1900); H. H.
+  Milman, _History of Latin Christianity_ (1867); J. B. Bury, _History
+  of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889); P. Villari, _Le Invasioni
+  barbariche in Italia_ (Milan, 1901); and F. Martroye, _L'Occident a
+  l'epoque byzantine: Goths et Vandales_ (Paris, 1903). There is a
+  popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the "Story of the
+  Nations" series (London, 1888). For the laws see the _Leges_ in Band
+  I. of the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges_ (1902). A.
+  Helfferich, _Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts_ (Berlin,
+  1858); F. Bluhme, _Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts_ (1872); F.
+  Dahn, _Lex Visigothorum_. _Westgotische Studien_ (Wurzburg, 1874); C.
+  Rinaudo, _Leggi dei Visigote, studio_ (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer,
+  "Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung" in the _Neues Archiv der
+  Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_. See also the
+  article on THEODORIC.
+
+_Gothic Language._--Our knowledge of the Gothic language is derived
+almost entirely from the fragments of a translation of the Bible which
+is believed to have been made by the Arian bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d.
+383) for the Goths who dwelt on the lower Danube. The MSS. which have
+come down to us and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in
+Italy (489-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete,
+together with more or less considerable fragments of the four Gospels
+and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains of the Old
+Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and Nehemiah. There is also
+an incomplete commentary (_skeireins_) on St John's Gospel, a fragment
+of a calendar, and two charters (from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now
+lost) which contain some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written
+in a special character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila.
+It is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which indeed most
+of the letters are obviously derived, and several orthographical
+peculiarities, e.g. the use of _ai_ for _e_ and _ei_ for _i_ reflect the
+Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters, however, have been
+taken over from the Runic and Latin alphabets. Apart from the texts
+mentioned above, the only remains of the Gothic language are the proper
+names and occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings,
+together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a Salzburg
+MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions on a torque and a
+spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia) and Kovel (Volhynia)
+respectively. The language itself, as might be expected from the date of
+Wulfila's translation, is of a much more archaic type than that of any
+other Teutonic writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest
+Northern inscriptions. This may be seen, e.g. in the better preservation
+of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual and
+the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite erroneous,
+however, to regard the Gothic fragments as representing a type of
+language common to all Teutonic nations in the 4th century. Indeed the
+distinctive characteristics of the language are very marked, and there
+is good reason for believing that it differed considerably from the
+various northern and western languages, whereas the differences among
+the latter at this time were probably comparatively slight (see TEUTONIC
+LANGUAGES). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that the language
+of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius (_Vand._ i. 2) states
+distinctly that the Gothic language was spoken not only by the
+Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the Vandals and the Gepidae; and in
+the former case there is sufficient evidence, chiefly from proper names,
+to prove that his statement is not far from the truth. With regard to
+the Gepidae we have less information; but since the Goths, according to
+Jordanes (cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of
+their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages were at
+least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (_Vand._ i. 3; _Goth._ i. 1,
+iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as Gothic nations. The fact
+that the two former were sprung from the north-east of Germany renders
+it probable that they had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though
+non-Teutonic in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the
+migration period. Some modern writers have included in the same class
+the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently come from the basin of
+the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal on the whole hardly justifies
+the supposition that their language retained a close affinity with
+Gothic.
+
+In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language--using the term in its
+widest sense--must have spread over the greater part of Europe together
+with the north coast of Africa. It disappeared, however, with surprising
+rapidity. There is no evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after
+the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is
+doubtful whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic
+conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat longer in view
+of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned above. Possibly the
+information there given was derived from southern Hungary or
+Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae were to be found shortly
+before the Magyar invasion (889). According to Walafridus Strabo (_de
+Reb. Eccles._ cap. 7) also Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th
+century) in some churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth
+the language seems to have survived only among the Goths (_Goti
+Tetraxitae_) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time by Ogier
+Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constantinople about the
+middle of the 16th century. He collected a number of words and phrases
+in use among them which show clearly that their language, though not
+unaffected by Iranian influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic.
+
+  See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, _Ulfilas_ (Altenburg and
+  Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, _Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel_
+  (Halle, 1875). For other works on the Gothic language see J. Wright,
+  _A Primer of the Gothic Language_ (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To the
+  references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck,
+  _Etymologisches Worterbuch d. got. Sprache_ (Amsterdam, 2nd ed. 1901);
+  F. Kluge, "Geschichte d. got. Sprache" in H. Paul's _Grundriss d.
+  germ. Philologie_ (2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg,
+  _Gotisches Elementarbuch_ (Heidelberg, 1897); Th. von Grienberger,
+  _Beitrage zur Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur_, xxi. 185
+  ff.; L. F. A. Wimmer, _Die Runenschrift_ (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff.; G.
+  Stephens, _Handbook to the Runic Monuments_ (London, 1884), p. 203; F.
+  Wrede, _Uber die Sprache der Wandalen_ (Strassburg, 1886). For further
+  references see K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen_, p. 432 f. (where earlier
+  references to the Crimean Goths are also given); F. Kluge, _op. cit._,
+  p. 515 ff.; and O. Bremer, _ib._ vol. iii., p. 822.     (H. M. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864).
+
+
+
+
+GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden, lying between
+57 deg. and 58 deg. N., and having a length from S.S.W. to N.N.E. of 75
+m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area of 1142 sq. m. The
+nearest point on the mainland is 50 m. from the westernmost point of the
+island. With the island Faro, off the northern extremity, the Karlsoe,
+off the west coast, and Gotska Sando, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the
+administrative district (_lan_) of Gotland. The island is a level
+plateau of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average
+height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering,
+free-standing columns of limestone (_raukar_). A few low isolated hills
+rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although in parts
+dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors have been
+largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive sand-dunes in the
+north. As usual in a limestone formation, some of the streams have their
+courses partly below the surface, and caverns are not infrequent. Less
+than half the total area is under forest, the extent of which was
+formerly much greater. Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially
+the first, which is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The
+sugar-beet is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works
+on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government sheep
+farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging principally to an
+old native breed, yellow and horned. Some lime-burning, cement-making
+and sea-fishing are carried on. The capital of the island is Visby, on
+the west coast. There are over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby
+N.E. to Tingstade and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to
+Klintehamn, a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn
+on the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic
+attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly
+every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no villages
+remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one of the richest
+commercial centres of the Baltic from the 11th to the 14th century, and
+its prosperity was shared by the whole island. It retains ten churches
+besides the cathedral. The massive towers of the village churches are
+often detached, and doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches
+of Roma, Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Larbo may be
+specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at Dalhem near
+Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect distinguished from that of
+any part of the Swedish mainland. Pop. of _lan_ (1900) 52,781.
+
+Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was christianized
+by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from his exile at Kiev. He
+dedicated the first church in the island to St Peter at Visby. At that
+time Visby had long been one of the most important trading towns in the
+Baltic, and the chief distributing centre of the oriental commerce which
+came to Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the
+Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century, it became
+the chief depot for the produce of the eastern Baltic countries,
+including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony (11th century or
+earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although Visby was an independent member
+of the Hanseatic League, the influence of Lubeck was paramount in the
+city, and half its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed,
+Bjorkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German (Hanseatic)
+foundation, dating principally from the middle of the 12th century.
+However that may be, the importance of Visby in the sea trade of the
+North is conclusively attested by the famous code of maritime law which
+bears its name. This _Waterrecht dat de Kooplude en de Schippers gemakt
+hebben to Visby_ ("sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made at
+Visby") was a compilation based upon the Lubeck code, the Oleron code
+and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed in Low German in 1505, but
+in all probability had its origin about 1240, or not much later (see SEA
+LAWS). By the middle of the the city was so great that, according to an
+old ballad, "the Gotlanders weighed out gold with stone weights and
+played with the choicest jewels. The swine ate out of silver troughs,
+and the women spun with distaffs of gold." This fabled wealth was too
+strong a temptation for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In
+1361 he invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the city
+walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the islanders who
+fell) and plundered the city. From this blow it never recovered, its
+decay being, however, materially helped by the fact that for the greater
+part of the next 150 years it was the stronghold of successive
+freebooters or sea-rovers--first, of the Hanseatic privateers called
+Vitalienbrodre or Viktualienbruder, who made it their stronghold during
+the last eight years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights,
+whose Grand Master drove out the "Victuals Brothers," and kept the
+island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too Erik XIII.
+(the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark by his own subjects,
+established himself in 1437, and for a dozen years waged piracy upon
+Danes and Swedes alike. After him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish
+lords, who down to the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates'
+stronghold of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Soren Norrby, the last
+supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master's cause was lost,
+waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships and others from the
+same convenient base. But this led to an expedition by the men of
+Lubeck, who partly destroyed Visby in 1525. By the peace of Stettin
+(1570) Gotland was confirmed to the Danish crown, to which it had been
+given by Queen Margaret. But at the peace of Bromsebro in 1645 it was at
+length restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for
+the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the Danes,
+and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.
+
+The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a spirit of
+independence, and their relations with Sweden were curious. The island
+at one period paid an annual tribute of 60 marks of silver to Sweden,
+but it was clearly recognized that it was paid by the desire of the
+Gotlanders, and not enforced by Sweden. The pope recognized their
+independence, and it was by their own free will that they came under the
+spiritual charge of the bishop of Linkoping. Their local government was
+republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the written
+_Gotland Law_, which dates not later than the middle of the 13th
+century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the measures adopted by
+this body, and there was no Swedish judge or other official in the
+island. Visby had a system of government and rights independent of, and
+in some measure opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems
+clear that there were at one time two separate corporations, for the
+native Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that these
+were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native Gotlanders were
+not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole--even intermarriage was
+illegal--but Germans, on account of their commercial pre-eminence in the
+island, were excepted.
+
+  See C. H. Bergman, _Gotland's geografi och historia_ (Stockholm, 1898)
+  and _Gotlandska skildringar och minnen_ (Visby, 1902); A. T. Snobohm,
+  _Gotlands land och folk_ (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler, _Bidrag till
+  en Gotlandsk bibliografi_ (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hildebrand, _Visby
+  och dess Minnesmarken_ (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.); A. Bjorkander, _Till
+  Visby Stads Aeldsta Historia_ (1898), where most of the literature
+  dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of the author's
+  arguments require criticism. For local government and rights see K.
+  Hegel, _Stadter und Gilden im Mittelalter_ (book iii. ch. iii.,
+  Leipzig, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+GOTO ISLANDS [GOTO RETTO, GOTTO], a group of islands belonging to Japan,
+lying west of Kiushiu, in 33 deg. N., 129 deg. E. The southern of the
+two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures 17 m. by 13-1/2; the
+northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by 7-1/2. These islands lie
+almost in the direct route of steamers plying between Nagasaki and
+Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped
+hills command the old castle-town of Fukae. The islands are highly
+cultivated; deer and other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the
+mountain streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians.
+
+
+
+
+GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1746-1797), German poet and dramatist, was
+born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha. After the completion of his
+university career at Gottingen, he was appointed second director of the
+Archive of his native town, and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat
+of the imperial law courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
+legation. In 1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen,
+and here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous _Gottinger
+Musenalmanach_. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where he belonged
+to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years later he took up his
+permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on the 18th of March 1797.
+Gotter was the chief representative of French taste in the German
+literary life of his time. His own poetry is elegant and polished, and
+in great measure free from the trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of
+the earlier generation of imitators of French literature; but he was
+lacking in the imaginative depth that characterizes the German poetic
+temperament. His plays, of which _Merope_ (1774), an adaptation in
+admirable blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and
+_Medea_ (1775), a _melodrame_, are best known, were mostly based on
+French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting the
+formlessness and irregularity of the _Sturm und Drang_ drama.
+
+  Gutter's collected _Gedichte_ appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; a
+  third volume (1802) contains his _Literarischer Nachlass_. See B.
+  Litzmann, _Schroder und Gotter_ (1887), and R. Schlosser, _F. W.
+  Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German poets of the middle
+ages. The dates of his birth and death are alike unknown, but he was the
+contemporary of Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von
+der Vogelweide, and his epic _Tristan_ was written about the year 1210.
+In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as he is entitled
+_Meister_, never _Herr_, by his contemporaries; his poem--the only work
+that can with any certainty be attributed to him--bears witness to a
+learned education. The story of _Tristan_ had been evolved from its
+shadowy Celtic origins by the French _trouveres_ of the early 12th
+century, and had already found its way into Germany before the close of
+that century, in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It
+was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version is based
+not on that of Chretien de Troyes, but on that of a _trouvere_ Thomas,
+who seems to have been more popular with contemporaries. A comparison of
+the German epic with the French original is, however, impossible, as
+Chretien's _Tristan_ is entirely lost, and of Thomas's only a few
+fragments have come down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage
+which Tristan, a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal
+(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king's bride.
+On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by mistake a love potion,
+which binds them irrevocably to each other. The epic resolves itself
+into a series of love intrigues in which the two lovers ingeniously
+outwit the trusting king. They are ultimately discovered, and Tristan
+flees to Normandy where he marries another Isolde--"Isolde with the
+white hands"--without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland.
+At this point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close of
+the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time, Ulrich von
+Turheim and Heinrich von Freiberg--the latter much the superior--who
+have supplied the conclusion. After further love adventures Tristan is
+fatally wounded by a poisoned spear in Normandy; the "blond Isolde," as
+the only person who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall.
+The ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, a
+black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him, announcing that
+the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, she finds her lover dead.
+Marke at last learns the truth concerning the love potion, and has the
+two lovers buried side by side in Kurnewal.
+
+It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence of his
+French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely the narrative
+of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, introduced into the story
+an astounding fineness of psychological motive, which, to judge from a
+general comparison of the Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather
+than French; he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has,
+above all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval
+literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing and
+seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never for a moment
+disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the tragedy is unrolled with
+an earnestness that admits of no touch of humour, and also, it may be
+added, with a freedom from moralizing which was easier to attain in the
+13th than in later centuries. The mastery of style is no less
+conspicuous. Gottfried had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von
+Aue, but he was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and
+rhythms than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, and
+indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent that proved
+fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression is concerned,
+Gottfried's _Tristan_ is the masterpiece of the German court epic.
+
+  Gottfried's _Tristan_ has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman
+  (Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed.,
+  Leipzig,1890-1891); by W. Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K.
+  Marold (1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H.
+  Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best of
+  all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated
+  English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The
+  continuation of Ulrich von Turheim will be found in Massman's edition;
+  that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited by R.
+  Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, "Gottfrieds von
+  Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle" in the _Zeit. fur deut. Alt._
+  xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff.; W. Golther, _Die Sage von Tristan und
+  Isolde_ (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, _L'Originalite de Gottfried de
+  Strasbourg dans son poeme de Tristan et Isolde_ (Lille, 1905). K.
+  Immermann (q.v.) has written an epic of _Tristan und Isolde_ (1840),
+  R. Wagner (q.v.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, _Tristan
+  und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit_ (Leipzig, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+GOTTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
+pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg (1200 ft.), in the
+broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S. from Hanover, on the
+railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057, (1905) 34,030. It is traversed by
+the Leine canal, which separates the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from
+Masch, and is surrounded by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees
+and form an agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the
+town are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions
+are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant churches
+of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a high tower (290
+ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th century and restored in
+1880, and the numerous university buildings, Gottingen possesses few
+structures of any public importance. There are several thriving
+industries, including, besides the various branches of the publishing
+trade, the manufacture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and
+other scientific instruments.
+
+The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by George II. in
+1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading position, and in
+1823 its students numbered 1547. Political disturbances, in which both
+professors and students were implicated, lowered the attendance to 860
+in 1834. The expulsion in 1837 of the famous seven professors--_Die
+Gottinger Sieben_--viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht
+(1800-1876); the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860);
+the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); the historian,
+Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the physicist, Wilhelm Eduard
+Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl
+Grimm (1785-1863), and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),--for protesting
+against the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the liberal
+constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of the university.
+The events of 1848, on the other hand, told somewhat in its favour; and,
+since the annexation of Hanover in 1866, it has been carefully fostered
+by the Prussian government. In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and
+its students 1529. The main university building lies on the
+Wilhelmsplatz, and, adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols,
+and 5300 MSS., the richest collection of modern literature in Germany.
+There is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological,
+ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable being
+Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the anatomical institute.
+There are also a celebrated observatory, long under the direction of
+Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), a botanical garden, an agricultural
+institute and various hospitals, all connected with the university. Of
+the scientific societies the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences
+(_Konigliche Sozietat der Wissenschaften_) founded by Albrecht von
+Haller, which is divided into three classes, the physical, the
+mathematical and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80
+members and publishes the well-known _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_.
+There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. Gauss and W.
+E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Burger.
+
+The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs in
+documents of about 950 A.D. The place received municipal rights from the
+German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from 1286 to 1463 it was the seat
+of the princely house of Brunswick-Gottingen. During the 14th century it
+held a high place among the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it
+joined the Reformation movement, and in the following century it
+suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly in
+1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the Saxons in 1632.
+After a century of decay, it was anew brought into importance by the
+establishment of its university; and a marked increase in its industrial
+and commercial prosperity has again taken place in recent years. Towards
+the end of the 18th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of
+young poets of the _Sturm und Drang_ period of German literature, known
+as the _Gottingen Dichterbund_ or _Hainbund_ (see GERMANY:
+_Literature_).
+
+  See Freusdorff, _Gottingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Gottingen,
+  1887); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen_, edited by G. Schmidt,
+  A. Hasselblatt and G. Kastner; Unger, _Gottingen und die Georgia
+  Augusta_ (1861); and _Gottinger Professoren_ (Gotha, 1872); and O.
+  Mejer, _Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Gottingen_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical scholar, was born
+at Jena on the 19th of January 1793. He studied at the universities of
+Jena and Berlin, took part in the war against France in 1814, and
+finally settled down in 1822 as professor at the university of his
+native town, where he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of
+January 1869. In his early years Gottling devoted himself to German
+literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: _Uber das
+Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede_ (1814) and _Nibelungen und Gibelinen_
+(1817). The greater part of his life, however, was devoted to the study
+of classical literature, especially the elucidation of Greek authors.
+The contents of his _Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem klassischen
+Altertum_ (1851-1863) and _Opuscula Academica_ (published in 1869 after
+his death) sufficiently indicate the varied nature of his studies. He
+edited the [Greek: Techne] (grammatical manual) of Theodosius of
+Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's _Politics_ (1824), and _Economics_ (1830)
+and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made
+of his _Allgemeine Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache_ (1835),
+enlarged from a smaller work, which was translated into English (1831)
+as the _Elements of Greek Accentuation_; and of his _Correspondence with
+Goethe_ (published 1880).
+
+  See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. Lothholz
+  (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the _Opuscula Academica_),
+  and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, ix.
+
+
+
+
+GOTTSCHALK [GODESCALUS, GOTTESCALE], (c. 808-867?), German theologian,
+was born near Mainz, and was devoted (_oblatus_) from infancy by his
+parents,--his father was a Saxon, Count Bern,--to the monastic life. He
+was trained at the monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus
+Maurus, and became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrieres.
+In June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been
+unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his liberty,
+withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and then to the
+monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. There he studied St
+Augustine, with the result that he became an enthusiastic believer in
+the doctrine of absolute predestination, in one point going beyond his
+master--Gottschalk believing in a predestination to condemnation as well
+as in a predestination to salvation, while Augustine had contented
+himself with the doctrine of preterition as complementary to the
+doctrine of election. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained
+priest, without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, _chorepiscopus_
+of Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy,
+preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered into
+relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard, count of Friuli.
+Driven from Italy through the influence of Hrabanus Maurus, now
+archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two violent letters to Notting and
+Eberhard, he travelled through Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but
+continued preaching and writing. In October 848 he presented to the
+synod at Mainz a profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas
+expressed by Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted,
+however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never again
+enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over to Hincmar,
+archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his monastery at Orbais. The
+next year at a provincial council at Quierzy, presided over by Charles
+the Bald, he attempted to justify his ideas, but was again condemned as
+a heretic and disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the
+priesthood, whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut
+up in the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to induce
+him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend his doctrine,
+writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians of France and
+Germany. A great controversy resulted. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes,
+Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of Corbie, Loup of Ferrieres and Florus of
+Lyons wrote in his favour. Hincmar wrote _De praedestinatione_ and _De
+una non trina deitate_ against his views, but gained little aid from
+Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. The
+question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of Valence (855)
+and of Savonnieres (859). Finally the pope Nicolas I. took up the case,
+and summoned Hincmar to the council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could
+not or would not appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend
+himself before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when Hincmar
+learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him the sacraments or
+burial in consecrated ground unless he would recant. This Gottschalk
+refused to do. He died on the 30th of October between 866 and 870.
+
+Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a violent
+temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in his ideas as in
+his conduct. He was less an innovator than a reactionary. Of his many
+works we have only the two professions of faith (cf. Migne, _Patrologia
+Latina_, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), and some poems, edited by L. Traube in
+_Monumenta Germaniae historica: Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_ (t. iii.
+707-738). Some fragments of his theological treatises have been
+preserved in the writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of
+Ferrieres.
+
+  From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, much
+  has been written on him. Mention may be made of two recent studies, F.
+  Picavet, "Les Discussions sur la liberte au temps de Gottschalk, de
+  Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in _Comptes rendus de l'acad.
+  des sciences morales et politiques_ (Paris, 1896); and A. Freystedt,
+  "Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und Lehre," in _Zeitschrift fur
+  Kirchengeschichte_ (1897), vol. xviii.
+
+
+
+
+GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of letters, was born at
+Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the son of a Prussian artillery
+officer. He received his early education at the gymnasia in Mainz and
+Coburg, and subsequently at Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he
+entered the university of Konigsberg as a student of law, but, in
+consequence of his pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The
+academic authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant
+towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he
+eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During this
+period of unrest he issued _Lieder der Gegenwart_ (1842) and
+_Zensurfluchtlinge_ (1843)--the poetical fruits of his political
+enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree of
+_doctor juris_ in Konigsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the _venia
+legendi_. His political views again stood in the way, and forsaking the
+legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely to literature. He
+met with immediate success, and beginning as dramaturge in Konigsberg
+with _Der Blinde von Alcala_ (1846) and _Lord Byron in Italien_ (1847)
+proceeded to Hamburg where he occupied a similar position. In 1852 he
+married Marie, baroness von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years
+lived in Silesia. In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen
+newspaper, but in 1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in
+1877, by the king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix
+"von," having been previously made a _Geheimer Hofrat_ by the grand duke
+of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the _Brockhaus'sche Blatter
+fur litterarische Unterhaltung_ and the monthly periodical _Unsere
+Zeit_. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.
+
+Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of poetry,
+novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes of lyric poetry
+are _Sebastopol_ (1856), _Janus_ (1873), _Bunte Bluten_ (1891). Among
+his epics, _Carlo Zeno_ (1854), _Maja_ (1864), dealing with an episode
+in the Indian Mutiny, and _Merlins Wanderungen_ (1887). The comedy _Pitt
+und Fox_ (1854), first produced on the stage in Breslau, was never
+surpassed by the other lighter pieces of the author, among which may be
+mentioned _Die Welt des Schwindels_ and _Der Spion von Rheinsberg_. The
+tragedies, _Mazeppa_, _Catharine Howard_, _Amy Robsart_ and _Der Gotze
+von Venedig_, were very successful; and the historical novels, _Im Banne
+des schwarzen Adlers_ (1875; 4th ed., 1884), _Die Erbschaft des Blutes_
+(1881), _Die Tochter Rubezahls_ (1889), and _Verkummerte Existenzen_
+(1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a critic and historian
+of literature Gottschall has also done excellent work. His _Die deutsche
+Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and
+_Poetik_ (1858; 6th ed., 1903) command the respect of all students of
+literature.
+
+  Gottschall's collected _Dramatische Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. in
+  1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many
+  volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography,
+  _Aus meiner Jugend_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German author and critic, was
+born on the 2nd of February 1700, at Judithenkirch near Konigsberg, the
+son of a Lutheran clergyman. He studied philosophy and history at the
+university of his native town, but immediately on taking the degree of
+_Magister_ in 1723, fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the
+Prussian military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B.
+Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of "Philander von der Linde,"
+was a well-known poet and also president of the _Deutschubende poetische
+Gesellschaft_ in Leipzig. Of this society Gottsched was elected "Senior"
+in 1726, and in the next year reorganized it under the title of the
+_Deutsche Gesellschaft_. In 1730 he was appointed extraordinary
+professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and
+metaphysics in the university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of
+December 1766.
+
+Gottsched's chief work was his _Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst fur
+die Deutschen_ (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the
+art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His _Ausfuhrliche
+Redekunst_ (1728) and his _Grundlegung einer_ _deutschen Sprachkunst_
+(1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the
+purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which _Der
+sterbende Cato_ (1732), an adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French
+play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. In his _Deutsche
+Schaubuhne_ (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations
+from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical
+repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, _Notiger Vorrat zur
+Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst_ (1757-1765), is still
+valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary
+criticism. As a critic, Gottsched insisted on German literature being
+subordinated to the laws of French classicism; he enunciated rules by
+which the playwright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery
+from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded a healthy
+corrective to the extravagance and want of taste which were rampant in
+the German literature of the time, Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he
+came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.) and
+Johann Jakob Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison
+and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic imagination
+should not be hampered by artificial rules; they pointed to the great
+English poets, and especially to Milton. Gottsched, although not blind
+to the beauties of the English writers, clung the more tenaciously to
+his principle that poetry must be the product of rules, and, in the
+fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he
+was inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and before his
+death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly.
+
+His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, nee Kulmus (1713-1762), in some
+respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an author of some
+reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, of which _Das Testament_
+is the best, and translated the _Spectator_ (9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope's
+_Rape of the Lock_ (1744) and other English and French works. After her
+death her husband edited her _Samtliche kleinere Gedichte_ with a memoir
+(1763).
+
+  See T. W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.
+  Cruger, Gottsched, _Bodmer, und Breitinger_ (with selections from
+  their writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, _Die Poetik Gottscheds
+  und der Schweizer_ (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, _Gottscheds Stellung
+  im deutschen Bildungsleben_ (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek,
+  _Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1897). On
+  Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, _Frau Gottsched und die burgerliche
+  Komodie_ (Berlin, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was born at Worms on the
+9th of July 1721. He studied theology at Halle (1739-1742), where he
+became intimate with the poets Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz,
+acted for some years as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various
+other ecclesiastical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of
+November 1781. The writings of Gotz consist of a number of short lyrics
+and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of Anacreon.
+His original compositions are light, lively and sparkling, and are
+animated rather by French wit than by German depth of sentiment. The
+best known of his poems is _Die Madcheninsel_, an elegy which met with
+the warm approval of Frederick the Great.
+
+  Gotz's _Vermischte Gedichte_ were published with biography by K. W.
+  Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of his poems,
+  dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by C. Schuddekopf in
+  the _Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1893).
+  See also _Briefe von und an J. N. Gotz_, edited by C. Schuddekopf
+  (1893).
+
+
+
+
+GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. _guazzo_ (probably in
+origin connected with "wash"), meaning literally a "ford," but used also
+for a method of painting in opaque water-colour. The colours are mixed
+with or painted in a vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true
+water-colours the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface
+of the paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through a
+translucent wash in "gouache," these are obtained by white or other
+light colour. "Gouache" is frequently used in miniature painting.
+
+
+
+
+GOUDA (or TER GOUWE), a town of Holland, in the province of South
+Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence with the Ysel,
+and a junction station 12-1/2 m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1900)
+22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven (5-1/2m. N.) on the old
+Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on the Ysel; and there is a regular
+steamboat service in various directions, Amsterdam being reached by the
+canalized Gouwe; Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out
+in a fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by
+numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine trees have
+replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt is the largest
+market-square in Holland. Among the numerous churches belonging to
+various denominations, the first place must be given to the Groote Kerk
+of St John. It was founded in 1485, but rebuilt after a fire in 1552,
+and is remarkable for its dimensions (345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad),
+for a large and celebrated organ, and a splendid series of over forty
+stained-glass windows presented by cities and princes and executed by
+various well-known artists, including the brothers Dirk (d. c. 1577) and
+Wouter (d. c. 1590) Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see
+_Explanation of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c._, Gouda, 1876,
+reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy buildings are
+the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt in 1690, and the
+weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem (1608-1669) and adorned
+with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers (d. c. 1690). The museum of
+antiquities (1874) contains an exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and
+some pictures and portraits by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel
+(a native of Gouda, 1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other
+buildings are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for
+women and a music hall.
+
+In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly derived from
+brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date the making of clay
+tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, although this industry has
+somewhat declined, the churchwarden pipes of Gouda are still well known
+and largely manufactured. In winter-time it is considered a feat to
+skate hither from Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return
+with it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the Ysel
+furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries; there are
+also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a yarn factory, an
+oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit and shipping trade is
+considerable, and as one of the principal markets of South Holland, the
+round, white Gouda cheeses are known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N.
+by W. of Gouda on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the
+little old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous
+theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater contains
+a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating the capture of the town
+by the Spaniards in 1575 and the subsequent sack and massacre.
+
+
+
+
+GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, musical composer of the 16th century, was born about
+1510. The French and the Belgians claim him as their countryman. In all
+probability he was born at Besancon, for in his edition of the songs of
+Arcadelt, as well as in the mass of 1554, he calls himself "natif de
+Besancon" and "Claudius Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances
+the theory of Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his
+early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent Latin in
+which some of his letters were written proves that, in addition to his
+musical knowledge, he also acquired a good classical training. It is
+supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 at the head of a music-school, and
+that besides many other celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his
+pupils. About the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for
+Paris, where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in 1555,
+a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more important is another
+collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the celebrated French version
+of the Psalms by Marot and Beza published in 1565. It is written in four
+parts, the melody being assigned to the tenor. The invention of the
+melodies was long ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely
+been proved to have originated in popular tunes found in the
+collections of this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the
+French Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German Lutherans, a
+German imitation of the French versions of the Psalms in the same metres
+having been published at an early date. Although the French version of
+the Psalms was at first used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there
+is little doubt that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel
+Brenet's Biographie (_Annales franc-cuntoises_, Besancon, 1898, P.
+Jacquin) it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565,
+Goudimel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather to the
+daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years later he fell a
+victim to religious fanaticism during the St Bartholomew massacres at
+Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of August 1572, his death, it is stated,
+being due to "les ennemis de la gloire de Dieu et quelques mechants
+envieux de l'honneur qu'il avait acquis." Masses and motets belonging to
+his Roman period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives
+of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus the work
+entitled _Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo musico auctore,
+nunc primum in lucem editae_, contains one mass by the learned editor
+himself, the other two being by Claudius Sermisy and Jean Maillard
+respectively. Another collection, _La Fleur des chansons des deux plus
+excellens musiciens de nostre temps_, consists of part songs by Goudimel
+and Orlando di Lasso. Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's
+_Domine quid multiplicati sunt_.
+
+
+
+
+GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned the estate of
+Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. _Guillaume Gouffier_,
+chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate enemy of Jacques Coeur,
+obtaining his condemnation and afterwards receiving his property (1491).
+He had a great number of children, several of whom played a part in
+history. Artus, seigneur de Boisy (c. 1475-1520) was entrusted with the
+education of the young count of Angouleme (Francis I.), and on the
+accession of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand master
+of the royal household, playing an important part in the government; to
+him was given the task of negotiating the treaty of Noyon in 1516; and
+shortly before his death the king raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy
+to the rank of a duchy, that of Roannais, in his favour. ADRIEN GOUFFIER
+(d. 1523) was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France.
+GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral. of France (see
+BONNIVET). CLAUDE GOUFFIER, son of Artus, was created comte de
+Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy (1564).
+
+There were many branches of this family, the chief of them being the
+dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of Crevecoeur and of
+Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux, and of Espagny. The name
+of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th century by a branch of the house of
+Choiseul.     (M. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360-1444), surnamed DE CHARPAIGNE, French chancellor,
+was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon of Bourges, in 1402 he became
+treasurer to John, duke of Berri, and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was
+arrested by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean
+de Montaigu (1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then
+banished. Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he
+became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a member
+of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415, he was transferred
+from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-Ferrand. In May 1418, when
+the Burgundians re-entered Paris, he only escaped death at their hands
+by taking refuge in the Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall
+into the hands of his enemy, the duke de la Tremoille, who imprisoned
+him in the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was
+appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422. He
+endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party to the
+selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but had to resign
+his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres; first from March
+25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La Tremoille had supplanted
+Richmond. After the fall of La Tremoille in 1433 he returned to court,
+and exercised a powerful influence over affairs of state almost till his
+death, which took place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-Dome) on the
+25th or 26th of November 1444.
+
+  See Hiver's account in the _Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires du
+  Centre_, p. 267 (1869); and the _Nouvelle Biographie generale_, vol.
+  xxi.
+
+
+
+
+GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. _gouge_, derived from the Late Lat. _gubia_
+or _gulbia_, in Ducange _gulbium_, an implement _ad hortum excolendum_,
+and also _instrumentum ferreum in usu fabrorum_; according to the _New
+English Dictionary_ the word is probably of Celtic origin, _gylf_, a
+beak, appearing in Welsh, and _gilb_, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool
+of the chisel type with a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or
+channel in wood, stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in
+surgery for operations involving the excision of portions of bone.
+"Gouge" is also used as the name of a bookbinder's tool, for impressing
+a curved line on the leather, and for the line so impressed. In mining,
+a "gouge" is the layer of soft rock or earth sometimes found in each
+side of a vein of coal or ore, which the miner can scoop out with his
+pick, and thus attack the vein more easily from the side. The verb "to
+gouge" is used in the sense of scooping or forcing out.
+
+
+
+
+GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH, VISCOUNT (1779-1869), British field-marshal, a
+descendant of Francis Gough who was made bishop of Limerick in 1626, was
+born at Woodstown, Limerick, on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained
+a commission in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th
+Highlanders at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape
+Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1796. His next service was
+in the West Indies, where, with the 87th (Royal Irish Fusiliers), he
+shared in the attack on Porto Rico, the capture of Surinam, and the
+brigand war in St Lucia. In 1809 he was called to take part in the
+Peninsular War, and, joining the army under Wellington, commanded his
+regiment as major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was
+taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded, and had his
+horse shot under him. For his conduct on this occasion he was afterwards
+promoted lieutenant-colonel, his commission, on the recommendation of
+Wellington, being antedated from the day of the duke's despatch. He was
+thus the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services
+performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next engaged at
+the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured a French eagle. At
+the defence of Tarifa the post of danger was assigned to him, and he
+compelled the enemy to raise the siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again
+distinguished himself, his regiment captured the baton of Marshal
+Jourdan. He was again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after
+created a knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the
+war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from active
+service. He next took command of a regiment stationed in the south of
+Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties of a magistrate during a
+period of agitation. Gough was promoted major-general in 1830. Seven
+years later he was sent to India to take command of the Mysore division
+of the army. But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties
+which led to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic
+general on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed
+commander-in-chief of the British forces in China. This post he held
+during all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements and
+numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he at length
+enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottinger, to dictate peace
+on his own terms. After the conclusion of the treaty of Nanking in August
+1842 the British forces were withdrawn; and before the close of the year
+Gough, who had been made a G.C.B, in the previous year for his services
+in the capture of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843
+he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India, and
+in December he took the command in person against the Mahrattas, and
+defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more than fifty guns. In 1845
+occurred the rupture with the Sikhs, who crossed the Sutlej in large
+numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough conducted the operations against them, being
+well supported by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to
+serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of Mudki and
+Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of Sobraon, and shortly
+afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh
+Gough were rewarded by his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom
+as Baron Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and again
+Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle of Chillianwalla
+being equivocal, he was superseded by the home authorities in favour of
+Sir Charles Napier; before the news of the supersession arrived Lord
+Gough had finally crushed the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February
+1849). His tactics during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered
+controversy (see SIKH WARS). Lord Gough now returned to England, was
+raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the thanks of
+both Houses of Parliament. A pension of L2000 per annum was granted to
+him by parliament, and an equal pension by the East India Company. He did
+not again see active service. In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the
+Royal Horse Guards, and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to
+invest Marshal Pelissier and other officers with the insignia of the
+Bath. Honours were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was
+made a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who did
+not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor, was named a
+G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field-marshal. He was twice
+married, and left children by both his wives. He died on the 2nd of March
+1869.
+
+  See R. S. Rait, _Lord Gough_ (1903); and Sir W. Lee Warner, _Lord
+  Dalhousie_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886), American temperance orator, was
+born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on the 22nd of August 1817. He was
+educated by his mother, a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was
+sent to the United States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years
+with family friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a
+book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in 1833 his
+mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell in with dissolute
+companions, and became a confirmed drunkard. He lost his position, and
+for several years supported himself as a ballad singer and story-teller
+in the cheap theatres and concert-halls of New York and other eastern
+cities. Even this means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in
+Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance
+pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined to
+devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform. Gifted with
+remarkable powers of pathos and of description, he was successful from
+the start, and was soon known and sought after throughout the entire
+country, his appeals, which were directly personal and emotional, being
+attended with extraordinary responses. He continued his work until the
+end of his life, made several tours of England, where his American
+success was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy
+on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he passed away
+two days later, on the 18th of February 1886. He published an
+_Autobiography_ (1846); _Orations_ (1854); _Temperance Addresses_
+(1870); _Temperance Lectures_ (1879); and _Sunlight and Shadow, or
+Gleanings from My Life Work_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+GOUGH, RICHARD (1735-1809), English antiquary, was born in London on the
+21st of October 1735. His father was a wealthy M.P. and director of the
+East India Company. Gough was a precocious child, and at twelve had
+translated from the French a history of the Bible, which his mother
+printed for private circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbe
+Fleury's work on the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an
+elaborate work entitled _Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized_. In
+1752 he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began his
+work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving Cambridge in
+1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions in various parts of
+Great Britain. In 1773 he began an edition in English of Camden's
+_Britannia_, which appeared in 1789. Meantime he published, in 1786,
+the first volume of his splendid work, the _Sepulchral Monuments of
+Great Britain, applied to illustrate the history of families, manners,
+habits, and arts at the different periods from the Norman Conquest to
+the Seventeenth Century_. This volume, which contained the first four
+centuries, was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th
+century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared in 1799.
+Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in
+1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director. He was elected F.R.S.
+in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th of February 1809. His books and
+manuscripts relating to Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his
+collections in the department of British topography, and a large number
+of his drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were
+bequeathed to the university of Oxford.
+
+  Among the minor works of Gough are _An Account of the Bedford Missal_
+  (in MS.); _A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of Denmark_
+  (1777); _History of Pleshy in Essex_ (1803); _An Account of the Coins
+  of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria_ (1804); and "History of the Society
+  of Antiquaries of London," prefixed to their _Archaeologia_.
+
+
+
+
+GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE (1697-1767), French abbe and litterateur, was born
+in Paris on the 19th of October 1697. He studied at the College of the
+Jesuits, and at the College Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong
+Jansenist. In 1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered
+the order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon of St
+Jacques l'Hopital. On account of his extreme Jansenist opinions he
+suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits, and several of his
+works were suppressed at their instigation. In his latter years his
+health began to fail, and he lost his eyesight. Poverty compelled him to
+sell his library, a sacrifice which hastened his death, which took place
+at Paris on the 1st of February 1767.
+
+  He is the author of _Supplement au dictionnaire de Moreri_ (1735), and
+  a _Nouveau Supplement_ to a subsequent edition of the work; he
+  collaborated in _Bibliotheque francaise, ou histoire litteraire de la
+  France_ (18 vols., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the _Vies des saints_ (7
+  vols., 1730); he also wrote _Memoires historiques et litteraires sur
+  le college royal de France_ (1758); _Histoire des Inquisitions_
+  (Paris, 1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet's _Dictionnaire_,
+  of which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbe Fabre in
+  his continuation of Fleury's _Histoire ecclesiastique_.
+
+  See _Memoires hist. et litt. de l'abbe Goujet_ (1767).
+
+
+
+
+GOUJON, JEAN (c. 1520-c. 1566), French sculptor of the 16th century.
+Although some evidence has been offered in favour of the date 1520
+(_Archives de l'art francais_, iii. 350), the time and place of his
+birth are still uncertain. The first mention of his name occurs in the
+accounts of the church of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in
+the following year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town,
+where he added to the tomb of Cardinal d'Amboise a statue of his nephew
+Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved portions of the tomb of
+Louis de Breze, executed some time after 1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon
+was employed by Pierre Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre,
+on the restorations of St-Germain l'Auxerrois; the building
+accounts--some of which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de
+Laborde on a piece of parchment binding--specify as his work, not only
+the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de Piete, now
+lost. In 1547 appeared Martin's French translation of Vitruvius, the
+illustrations of which were due, the translator tells us in his
+"Dedication to the King," to Goujon, "nagueres architecte de Monseigneur
+le Connetable, et maintenant un des votres." We learn from this
+statement not only that Goujon had been taken into the royal service on
+the accession of Henry II., but also that he had been previously
+employed under Bullant on the chateau of Ecouen. Between 1547 and 1549
+he was employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot for
+the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the 16th of June
+1549. Lescot's edifice was reconstructed at the end of the 18th century
+by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine des Innocents, this being a
+considerable variation of the original design. At the Louvre, Goujon,
+under the direction of Lescot, executed the carvings of the south-west
+angle of the court, the reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the
+Tribune des Cariatides, for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of
+September 1550. Between 1548 and 1554 rose the chateau d'Anet, in the
+embellishment of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme in
+the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building accounts of
+Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a vast number of other works
+of equal importance, destroyed or lost in the great Revolution. In 1555
+his name appears again in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so
+every succeeding year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the
+course of this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal
+employment all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies. Goujon
+has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently possible that
+he was one of the victims of this attack. We should therefore probably
+ascribe the work attributed to him in the Hotel Carnavalet (_in situ_),
+together with much else executed in various parts of Paris--but now
+dispersed or destroyed--to a period intervening between the date of his
+dismissal from the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken
+place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The researches of M.
+Tomaso Sandonnini (see _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, 2^e periode, vol.
+xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition, long entertained, that
+Goujon died during the St Bartholomew massacre in 1572.
+
+_List of authentic works of Jean Goujon_: Two marble columns supporting
+the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on right and left of porch
+on entering; left-hand gate of the church of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for
+decoration of screen of St Germain l'Auxerrois (now in Louvre);
+"Victory" over chimney-piece of Salle des Gardes at Ecouen; altar at
+Chantilly; illustrations for Jean Martin's translation of Vitruvius;
+bas-reliefs and sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents;
+bas-reliefs adorning entrance of Hotel Carnavalet, also series of
+satyrs' heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana
+from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at Anet;
+portico of Anet (now in courtyard of Ecole des Beaux Arts); bust of
+Diane de Poictiers (now at Versailles); Tribune of Caryatides in the
+Louvre; decoration of "Escalier Henri II.," Louvre; oeils de boeuf and
+decoration of Henri II. facade, Louvre; groups for pediments of facade
+now placed over entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre.
+
+  See A. A. Pottier, _Oeuvres de Goujon_ (1844); Reginald Lister, _Jean
+  Goujon_ (London, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE (1766-1795), French publicist and
+statesman, was born at Bourg on the 13th of April 1766, the son of a
+postmaster. The boy went early to sea, and saw fighting when he was
+twelve years old; in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good
+his lack of education. As procureur-general-syndic of the department of
+Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1792, he had to supply the inhabitants with
+food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and tact. In the
+Convention, which he entered on the death of Herault de Sechelles, he
+took his seat on the benches of the Mountain. He conducted a mission to
+the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and
+was a consistent advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless, he
+was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which he denounced
+in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain after his recall to Paris,
+following on the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was
+one of those who protested against the readmission of Louvet and other
+survivors of the Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and,
+when the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May 20,
+1795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance with their
+desires, he proposed the immediate establishment of a special commission
+which should assure the execution of the proposed changes and assume the
+functions of the various committees. The failure of the insurrection
+involved the fall of those deputies who had supported the demands of the
+populace. Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi,
+Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under arrest by their
+colleagues, and on their way to the chateau of Taureau in Brittany had
+a narrow escape from a mob at Avranches. They were brought back to Paris
+for trial before a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though
+no proof of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be
+found--they were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte,
+strangers to one another--they were condemned. In accordance with a
+pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the staircase leading from
+the court-room with a knife which Goujon had successfully concealed.
+Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy succeeded, but the other three merely
+inflicted wounds which did not prevent their being taken immediately to
+the guillotine. With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a
+party.
+
+  See J. Claretie, _Les Derniers Montagnards, histoire de l'insurrection
+  de Prairial an III d'apres les documents_ (1867); _Defense du
+  representant du peuple Goujon_ (Paris, no date), with the letters and
+  a hymn written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents
+  see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425).
+
+
+
+
+GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK (1818-1897), English churchman, son of Mr
+Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of Leicester, and nephew of the Right
+Hon. Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of
+Sir Robert Peel and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the
+11th of February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College,
+Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in 1841 and
+1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively. For some years he held
+the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce,
+bishop of the diocese. In 1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby,
+but in 1857 he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel,
+Marylebone. In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 1859
+vicar of St John's, Paddington. In 1866 he was made dean of Norwich, and
+in that office exercised a long and marked influence on church life. A
+strong Conservative and a churchman of traditional orthodoxy, he was a
+keen antagonist of "higher criticism" and of all forms of rationalism.
+His _Thoughts on Personal Religion_ (1862) and _The Pursuit of Holiness_
+were well received; and he wrote the _Life_ (1892) of his friend Dean
+Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in agreement. He
+resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of
+May 1897.
+
+  See _Life_ by B. Compton (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GOULBURN, HENRY (1784-1856), English statesman, was born in London on
+the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge.
+In 1808 he became member of parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was
+appointed under-secretary for home affairs and two and a half years
+later he was made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still
+retaining office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in
+1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April 1827.
+Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman, his period of office
+was on the whole a successful one, and in 1823 he managed to pass the
+Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In January 1828 he was made chancellor of
+the exchequer under the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked
+Roman Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the
+domain of finance Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce the rate
+of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow any one to sell
+beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete change of policy
+with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving office with Wellington in
+November 1830, Goulburn was home secretary under Sir Robert Peel for
+four months in 1835, and when this statesman returned to office in
+September 1841 he became chancellor of the exchequer for the second
+time. Although Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn
+was responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the
+national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended in the
+repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office in June
+1846. After representing Horsham in the House of Commons for over four
+years Goulburn was successively member for St Germans, for West Looe,
+and for the city of Armagh. In May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge
+University, and he retained this seat until his death on the 12th of
+January 1856 at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel's
+firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son, Henry
+(1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler at Cambridge in
+1835.
+
+  See S. Walpole, _History of England_ (1878-1886).
+
+
+
+
+GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales, Australia, 134 m.
+S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1901) 10,618. It
+lies in a productive agricultural district, at an altitude of 2129 ft.,
+and is a place of great importance, being the chief depot of the inland
+trade of the southern part of the state. There are Anglican and Roman
+Catholic cathedrals. Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer,
+and tanning are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and
+Goulburn became a city in 1864.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American conchologist, was born at
+New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 23rd of April 1805, graduated at
+Harvard College in 1825, and took his degree of doctor of medicine in
+1830. Thrown from boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry,
+perseverance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue his
+studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself to the
+practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional rank and
+social position. He became president of the Massachusetts Medical
+Society, and was employed in editing the vital statistics of the state.
+As a conchologist his reputation is world-wide, and he was one of the
+pioneers of the science in America. His writings fill many pages of the
+publications of the Boston Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p.
+197 for a list) and other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the
+_Principles of Zoology_ (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the _Terrestrial and
+Air-breathing Mollusks_ (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he
+translated Lamarck's _Genera of Shells_. The two most important
+monuments to his scientific work, however, are _Mollusca and Shells_
+(vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition (1838-1842)
+under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by the government, and
+the _Report on the Invertebrata_ published by order of the legislature
+of Massachusetts in 1841. A second edition of the latter work was
+authorized in 1865, and published in 1870 after the author's death,
+which took place at Boston on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a
+corresponding member of all the prominent American scientific societies,
+and of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896), American astronomer, a son of
+Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859), principal of the Boston Latin
+school, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September
+1824. Having graduated at Harvard College in 1844, he studied
+mathematics and astronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned
+to America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the longitude
+department of the United States coast survey; he developed and organized
+the service, was one of the first to determine longitudes by telegraphic
+means, and employed the Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish
+longitude-relations between Europe and America. The _Astronomical
+Journal_ was founded by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in
+1861, was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as director
+of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York; and published in 1859 a
+discussion of the places and proper motions of circumpolar stars to be
+used as standards by the United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862
+actuary to the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an
+important volume of _Military and Anthropological Statistics_. He fitted
+up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.; but undertook in
+1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, to organize a national
+observatory at Cordoba; began to observe there with four assistants in
+1870, and completed in 1874 his _Uranometria Argentina_ (published 1879)
+for which he received in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical
+Society. This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884),
+and a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations of
+32,448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's photographs of
+the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a pioneer in the use of the
+camera as an instrument of precision; and he secured at Cordoba 1400
+negatives of southern star-clusters, the reduction of which occupied the
+closing years of his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge,
+where he died on the 26th of November 1896.
+
+  See _Astronomical Journal_, No. 389; _Observatory_, xx. 70 (same
+  notice abridged); _Science_ (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler);
+  _Astrophysical Journal_, v. 50; _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_,
+  lvii. 218.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844-   ), English caricaturist and
+politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd of December 1844. Although
+in early youth he showed great love of drawing, he began life in a bank
+and then joined the London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched
+the members and illustrated important events in the financial world;
+many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography and published for
+private circulation. In 1879 he began the regular illustration of the
+Christmas numbers of _Truth_, and in 1887 he became a contributor to the
+_Pall Mall Gazette_, transferring his allegiance to the _Westminster
+Gazette_ on its foundation and subsequently acting as assistant editor.
+Among his independent publications are _Who killed Cock Robin?_ (1897),
+_Tales told in the Zoo_ (1900), two volumes of _Froissart's Modern
+Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould_ (1902 and 1903), and
+_Picture Politics_--a periodical reprint of his _Westminster Gazette_
+cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of political warfare in
+the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently grafting his ideas on to
+subjects taken freely from _Uncle Remus_, _Alice in Wonderland_, and the
+works of Dickens and Shakespeare, Sir F. C. Gould used these literary
+vehicles with extraordinary dexterity and point, but with a satire that
+was not unkind and with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and
+cynicism were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+GOULD, JAY (1836-1892), American financier, was born in Roxbury,
+Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836. He was brought up on
+his father's farm, studied at Hobart Academy, and though he left school
+in his sixteenth year, devoted himself assiduously thereafter to private
+study, chiefly of mathematics and surveying, at the same time keeping
+books for a blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his
+father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a surveyor in
+preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware counties in New York, of
+Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, and of Oakland county in Michigan, and
+of a projected railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An
+ardent anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote _A History of
+Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing a Sketch of
+the Early Settlements in the County, and A History of the Late Anti-Rent
+Difficulties in Delaware_ (Roxbury, 1856). He then engaged in the lumber
+and tanning business in western New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg,
+Pennsylvania. In 1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her
+father, Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer &
+Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very bad
+condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he bought and
+reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway, from which he ultimately
+realized a large profit. In 1859 he removed to New York City, where he
+became a broker in railway stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president
+of the Erie railway, of which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr.
+(q.v.), had gained control in July of that year. The management of the
+road under his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of
+fraudulent stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English
+bondholders, and Gould was forced out of the company in March 1872 and
+compelled to restore securities valued at about $7,500,000. It was
+during his control of the Erie that he and Fisk entered into a league
+with the Tweed Ring, they admitted Tweed to the directorate of the Erie,
+and Tweed in turn arranged favourable legislation for them at Albany.
+With Tweed, Gould was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould
+was the chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000
+bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring attempt
+to "corner" the market, his hope being that, with the advance in price
+of gold, wheat would advance to such a price that western farmers would
+sell, and there would be a consequent great movement of breadstuffs from
+West to East, which would result in increased freight business for the
+Erie road. His speculations in gold, during which he attempted through
+President Grant's brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the
+president and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the
+panic of "Black Friday," on the 24th of September 1869, when the price
+of gold fell from 162 to 135.
+
+Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in 1883 he
+withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the stock of the
+Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolidations,
+reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines, the "Gould
+System" of railways in the south-western states. In 1880 he was in
+virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about one-ninth of the
+railway mileage of the United States at that time. Besides, he obtained
+a controlling interest in the Western Union Telegraph Company, and after
+1881 in the elevated railways in New York City, and was intimately
+connected with many of the largest railway financial operations in the
+United States for the twenty years following 1868. He died of
+consumption and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his
+fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of this he left
+to his own family.
+
+His eldest son, GEORGE JAY GOULD (b. 1864), was prominent also as an
+owner and manager of railways, and became president of the Little Rock &
+Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern
+railway (1893), the International & Great Northern railway (1893), the
+Missouri Pacific railway (1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and
+the Manhattan Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and
+director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was under his
+control that the Wabash system became transcontinental and secured an
+Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was he who brought about a friendly
+alliance between the Gould and the Rockefeller interests.
+
+The eldest daughter, HELEN MILLER GOULD (b. 1868), became widely known
+as a philanthropist, and particularly for her generous gifts to American
+army hospitals in the war with Spain in 1898 and for her many
+contributions to New York University, to which she gave $250,000 for a
+library in 1895 and $100,000 for a Hall of Fame in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1818-1893), French composer, was born in Paris
+on the 17th of June 1818, the son of F. L. Gounod, a talented painter.
+He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halevy
+and Lesueur, and won the "Grand Prix de Rome" in 1839. While residing in
+the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study of sacred
+music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach. In 1843 he went to
+Vienna, where a "requiem" of his composition was performed. On his
+return to Paris he tried in vain to find a publisher for some songs he
+had written in Rome. Having become organist to the chapel of the
+"Missions Etrangeres," he turned his thoughts and mind to religious
+music. At that time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy
+orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane matters when,
+through the intervention of Madame Viardot, the celebrated singer, he
+received a commission to compose an opera on a text by Emile Augier for
+the Academie Nationale de Musique. _Sapho_, the work in question, was
+produced in 1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least
+sufficed to bring the composer's name to the fore. Some critics appeared
+to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the style of
+dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer, who was also a musical
+critic, attributed to Gounod the wish to revive the system of musical
+declamation invented by Gluck. The fact was that _Sapho_ differed in
+some respects from the operatic works of the period, and was to a
+certain extent in advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris
+Opera in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the
+original score, not altogether to its advantage, and _Sapho_ once more
+failed to attract the public. Gounod's second dramatic attempt was again
+in connexion with a classical subject, and consisted in some choruses
+written for _Ulysse_, a tragedy by Ponsard, played at the Theatre
+Francais in 1852, when the orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The
+composer's next opera, _La Nonne sanglante_, given at the Paris Opera in
+1854, was a failure.
+
+Goethe's _Faust_ had for years exercised a strong fascination over
+Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic account. The
+performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on the same subject delayed
+the production of his opera for a time. In the meanwhile he wrote in a
+few months the music for an operatic version of Moliere's comedy, _Le
+Medecin malgre lui_, which was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1858.
+Berlioz well described this charming little work when he wrote of it,
+"Everything is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this 'opera comique'; there
+is nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." The first performance of
+_Faust_ took place at the Theatre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1859.
+Goethe's masterpiece had already been utilized for operatic purposes by
+various composers, the most celebrated of whom was Spohr. The subject
+had also inspired Schumann, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a
+few, and the enormous success of Gounod's opera did not deter Boito from
+writing his _Mefistofele_. _Faust_ is without doubt the most popular
+French opera of the second half of the 19th century. Its success has
+been universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in the
+land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type of modern
+French opera. At the time of its production in Paris it was scarcely
+appreciated according to its merits. Its style was too novel, and its
+luscious harmonies did not altogether suit the palates of those
+dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini as the incarnation of music.
+Times have indeed changed, and French composers have followed the road
+opened by Gounod, and have further developed the form of the lyrical
+drama, adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their
+national temperament. Although in its original version _Faust_ contained
+spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces according to custom,
+yet it differed greatly from the operas of the past. Gounod had not
+studied the works of German masters such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in
+vain, and although his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be
+denied that much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic
+sentimentality which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music
+such as his had previously been produced by any French composer. Auber
+was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions with absolute
+_insouciance_, teeming with melodious ideas, but lacking depth. Berlioz,
+a musical Titan, wrestled against fate with a superhuman energy, and,
+Jove-like, subjugated his hearers with his thunderbolts. It was,
+however, reserved for Gounod to introduce _la note tendre_, to sing the
+tender passion in accents soft and languorous. The musical language
+employed in _Faust_ was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be
+adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms thereby
+becoming hackneyed. Gounod's opera was given in London in 1863, when its
+success, at first doubtful, became enormous, and it was heard
+concurrently at Covent Garden and Her Majesty's theatres. Since then it
+has never lost its popularity.
+
+Although the success of _Faust_ in Paris was at first not so great as
+might have been expected, yet it gradually increased and set the seal on
+Gounod's fame. The fortunate composer now experienced no difficulty in
+finding an outlet for his works, and the succeeding decade is a
+specially important one in his career. The opera from his pen which came
+after Faust was _Philemon et Baucis_, a setting of the mythological tale
+in which the composer followed the traditions of the Opera Comique,
+employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the individuality of his
+own style. This work was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1860. It has
+repeatedly been heard in London. _La Reine de Saba_, a four-act opera,
+produced at the Grand Opera on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether
+a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet with
+success, although the score contains some of Gounod's choicest
+inspirations, notably the well-known air, "Lend me your aid." _La Reine
+de Saba_ was adapted for the English stage under the name of _Irene_.
+The non-success of this work proved a great disappointment to Gounod,
+who, however, set to work again, and this time with better results,
+_Mireille_, the fruit of his labours, being given for the first time at
+the Theatre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1864. Founded upon the _Mireio_
+of the Provencal poet Mistral, _Mireille_ contains much charming and
+characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against its
+success, and although several revivals have taken place and various
+modifications and alterations have been made in the score, yet
+_Mireille_ has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain portions of
+this opera have, however, been popularized in the concert-room. _La
+Colombe_, a little opera in two acts without pretension, deserves
+mention here. It was originally heard at Baden in 1860, and subsequently
+at the Opera Comique. A suavely melodious _entr'acte_ from this little
+work has survived and been repeatedly performed.
+
+Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his _Faust_, Gounod now
+sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and turned his attention to
+_Romeo and Juliet_. Here, indeed, was a subject particularly well
+calculated to appeal to a composer who had so eminently qualified
+himself to be considered the musician of the tender passion. The
+operatic version of the Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the
+Theatre Lyrique on the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as
+being the composer's second best opera. Some people have even placed it
+on the same level as _Faust_, but this verdict has not found general
+acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed his opinion of
+the relative value of the two operas enigmatically by saying, "_Faust_
+is the oldest, but I was younger; _Romeo_ is the youngest, but I was
+older." The luscious strains wedded to the love scenes, if at times
+somewhat cloying, are generally in accord with the situations, often
+irresistibly fascinating, while always absolutely individual. The
+success of _Romeo_ in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually
+this work was transferred to the Grand Opera, after having for some time
+formed part of the repertoire of the Opera Comique. In London it was not
+until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de Reszke that this opera
+obtained any real hold upon the English public.
+
+After having so successfully sought for inspiration from Moliere, Goethe
+and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another famous dramatist, and
+selected Pierre Corneille's _Polyeucte_ as the subject of his next
+opera. Some years were, however, to elapse before this work was given to
+the public. The Franco-German War had broken out, and Gounod was
+compelled to take refuge in London, where he composed the "biblical
+elegy" _Gallia_ for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During
+his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a number of
+songs to English words, many of which have attained an enduring
+popularity, such as "Maid of Athens," "There is a green hill far away,"
+"Oh that we two were maying," "The fountain mingles with the river." His
+sojourn in London was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in
+lawsuits with publishers. On Gounod's return to Paris he hurriedly set
+to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny's _Cinq-Mars_, which was
+given at the Opera Comique on the 5th of April 1877 (and in London in
+1900), without obtaining much success. _Polyeucte_, his much-cherished
+work, appeared at the Grand Opera the following year on the 7th of
+October, and did not meet with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more
+fortunate with _Le Tribut de Zamora_, his last opera, which, given on
+the same stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his
+later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt to keep up
+with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned methods.
+
+The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to assert itself
+in another field--that of sacred music. His friend Camille Saint-Saens,
+in a volume entitled _Portraits et Souvenirs_, writes:
+
+  Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to
+  accumulate masses and motetts; but it was at the commencement of his
+  career, in the _Messe de Sainte Cecile_, and at the end, in the
+  oratorios _The Redemption and Mors et vita_, that he rose highest.
+
+Saint-Saens, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three
+above-mentioned works will survive all the master's operas. Among the
+many masses composed by Gounod at the outset of his career, the best is
+the _Messe de Sainte Cecile_, written in 1855. He also wrote the _Messe
+du Sacre Coeur_ (1876) and the _Messe a la memoire de Jeanne d'Arc_
+(1887). This last work offers certain peculiarities, being written for
+solos, chorus, organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In
+style it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. _The Redemption_, which
+seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain, was
+produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was styled a sacred
+trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria. The score is prefixed by a
+commentary written by the composer, in which the scope of the oratorio
+is explained. It cannot be said that Gounod has altogether risen to the
+magnitude of his task. The music of _The Redemption_ bears the
+unmistakable imprint of the composer's hand, and contains many beautiful
+thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from monotony.
+_Mors et vita_, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope Leo XIII., was also
+produced for the first time in Birmingham at the Festival of 1885. This
+work is divided into three parts, "Mors," "Judicium," "Vita." The first
+consists of a Requiem, the second depicts the Judgment, the third
+Eternal Life. Although quite equal, if not superior to _The Redemption_,
+_Mors et vita_ has not obtained similar success.
+
+Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it would occupy
+too much space to attempt even an incomplete catalogue of his
+compositions. Besides the works already mentioned may be named two
+symphonies which were played during the 'fifties, but have long since
+fallen into neglect. Symphonic music was not Gounod's forte, and the
+French master evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further
+attempts in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas _Les
+Deux Reines_ and _Jeanne d'Arc_ must not be forgotten. He also attempted
+to set Moliere's comedy, _Georges Dandin_, to music, keeping to the
+original prose. This work has never been brought out. Gounod composed a
+large number of songs, many of which are very beautiful. One of the
+vocal pieces that have contributed most to his popularity is the
+celebrated _Meditation on the First Prelude of Bach_, more widely known
+as the _Ave Maria_. The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach
+was original, and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment
+was successful.
+
+Gounod died at St Cloud on the 18th of October 1893. His influence on
+French music was immense, though during the last years of the 19th
+century it was rather counterbalanced by that of Wagner. Whatever may be
+the verdict of posterity, it is unlikely that the quality of
+individuality will be denied to Gounod. To be the composer of _Faust_ is
+alone a sufficient title to lasting fame.     (A. He.)
+
+
+
+
+GOURD, a name given to various plants of the order _Cucurbitaceae_,
+especially those belonging to the genus _Cucurbita_, monoecious trailing
+herbs of annual duration, with long succulent stems furnished with
+tendrils, and large, rough, palmately-lobed leaves; the flowers are
+generally large and of a bright yellow or orange colour, the barren ones
+with the stamens united; the fertile are followed by the large succulent
+fruit that gives the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties
+of _Cucurbita_ are under cultivation in tropical and temperate climates,
+especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely difficult to refer them
+to definite specific groups, on account of the facility with which they
+hybridize; while it is very doubtful whether any of the original forms
+now exist in the wild state. Charles Naudin, who made a careful and
+interesting series of observations upon this genus, came to the
+conclusion that all varieties known in European gardens might be
+referred to six original species; probably three, or at most four, have
+furnished the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the
+specific names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most
+important of the gourds, from an economic point of view, is perhaps _C.
+maxima_, the _Potiron Jaune_ of the French, the red and yellow gourd of
+British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which is remarkable
+for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat rough rind varies from
+white to bright yellow, while in some kinds it remains green; the fleshy
+interior is of a deep yellow or orange tint. This valuable gourd is
+grown extensively in southern Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia Minor
+it yields, at some periods of the year, an important article of diet to
+the people; immense quantities are sold in the markets of
+Constantinople, where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a
+white rind are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow
+kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of 240 lb. It grows well
+in Central Europe and the United States, while in the south of England
+it will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection in hot summers. The
+yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous varieties yields a
+considerable amount of nutriment, and is the more valuable as the fruit
+can be kept, even in warm climates, for a long time. In France and in
+the East it is much used in soups and ragouts, while simply boiled it
+forms a substitute for other table vegetables; the taste has been
+compared to that of a young carrot. In some countries the larger kinds
+are employed as cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large
+quantity of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of
+the poppy and olive. The "mammoth" gourds of English and American
+gardeners (known in America as squashes) belong to this species. The
+pumpkin (summer squash of America) is _Cucurbita Pepo_. Some of the
+varieties of _C. maxima_ and Pepo contain a considerable quantity of
+sugar, amounting in the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5%, and in the hot plains
+of Hungary efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial
+source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds may be
+given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green vegetable when
+boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety (_ovifera_) of _C. Pepo_. Many
+smaller gourds are cultivated in India and other hot climates, and some
+have been introduced into English gardens, rather for the beauty of
+their fruit and foliage than for their esculent qualities. Among these
+is _C. Pepo_ var. _aurantia_, the orange gourd, bearing a spheroidal
+fruit, like a large orange in form and colour; in Britain it is
+generally too bitter to be palatable, though applied to culinary
+purposes in Turkey and the Levant. _C. Pepo_ var. _pyriformis_ and var.
+_verrucosa_, the warted gourds, are likewise occasionally eaten,
+especially in the immature state; and _C. moschata_ (musk melon) is very
+extensively cultivated throughout India by the natives, the yellow flesh
+being cooked and eaten.
+
+[Illustration: Photographed from specimens in the British Museum.
+
+Group of Gourds.
+
+  1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd, _Lagenaria vulgaris_.
+    6. Giant gourd, _Cucurbita maxima_.]
+
+The bottle-gourds are placed in a separate genus, _Lagenaria_, chiefly
+differing from _Cucurbita_ in the anthers being free instead of
+adherent. The bottle-gourd properly so-called, _L. vulgaris_, is a
+climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and beautiful white
+flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1-5) first begins to grow in the
+form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens towards the
+extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask with a narrow neck and
+large rounded bulb; it sometimes attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe,
+the pulp is removed from the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving
+water standing in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle:
+or the lower part is cut off and cleared out, forming a basin-like
+vessel applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash
+(_Crescentia_) of the West Indies: the smaller varieties, divided
+lengthwise, form spoons. The ripe fruit is apt to be bitter and
+cathartic, but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When
+about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and minced
+meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &c., and then boiled, forming a
+favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated snake-gourds of
+India and China (_Trichosanthes_) are used in curries and stews.
+
+All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic principle
+_colocynthin_, and in many varieties of _Cucurbita_ and the allied
+genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to render them
+unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of several species therefore
+possess some anthelmintic properties; those of the common pumpkin are
+frequently administered in America as a vermifuge.
+
+The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history, and the
+esculent species have become so modified by culture that the original
+plants from which they have descended can no longer be traced. The
+abundance of varieties in India would seem to indicate that part of Asia
+as the birthplace of the present edible forms; but some appear to have
+been cultivated in all the hotter regions of that continent, and in
+North Africa, from the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar
+with at least certain kinds of _Cucurbita_, and with the bottle-gourd.
+_Cucurbita Pepo_, the source of many of the American forms, is probably
+a native of that continent.
+
+  Most of the annual gourds may be grown successfully in Britain. They
+  are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted out in rich
+  soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm. The more
+  ornamental kinds may be trained over trellis-work, a favourite mode of
+  displaying them in the East; but the situation must be sheltered and
+  sunny. Even _Lagenaria_ will sometimes produce fine fruit when so
+  treated in the southern counties.
+
+  For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr J. W.
+  Odell, "Gourds and Cucurbits," in _Journ. Royal Hort. Soc._ xxix. 450
+  (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GOURGAUD, GASPAR, BARON (1783-1852), French soldier, was born at
+Versailles on the 14th of September 1783; his father was a musician of
+the royal chapel. At school he showed talent in mathematical studies and
+accordingly entered the artillery. In 1802 he became junior lieutenant,
+and thereafter served with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being
+wounded at Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808,
+but returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly all
+the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809. In 1811 he was chosen to
+inspect and report on the fortifications of Danzig. Thereafter he became
+one of the ordnance officers attached to the emperor, whom he followed
+closely through the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to
+enter the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder which
+might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon. For his services
+in this campaign he received the title of baron, and became first
+ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813 in Saxony he further evinced
+his courage and prowess, especially at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in
+the first battle of 1814, near to Brienne, that he rendered the most
+signal service by killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who
+were riding furiously towards Napoleon's tent. Wounded at the battle of
+Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to share in several of the
+conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at Laon and
+Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of Louis XVIII. in the
+summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause of Napoleon during the Hundred
+Days (1815), was named general and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and
+fought at Waterloo.
+
+After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) Gourgaud
+retired with him and a few other companions to Rochefort. It was to him
+that Napoleon entrusted the letter of appeal to the prince regent for an
+asylum in England. Gourgaud set off in H.M.S. "Slaney," but was not
+allowed to land in England. He determined to share Napoleon's exile and
+sailed with him on H.M.S. "Northumberland" to St Helena. The ship's
+secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining account of some of
+Gourgaud's gasconnades at table. His extreme sensitiveness and vanity
+soon brought him into collision with Las Cases and Montholon at
+Longwood. The former he styles in his journal a "Jesuit" and a scribbler
+who went thither in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior
+in rank, the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel,
+for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring of the life
+at Longwood and the many slights which he suffered from Napoleon, he
+desired to depart, but before he could sail he spent two months with
+Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account of him throws much light on his
+character, as also on the "policy" adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In
+England he was gained over by members of the Opposition and thereafter
+made common cause with O'Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe,
+for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jackson. He
+soon published his _Campagne de 1815_, in the preparation of which he
+had had some help from Napoleon; but Gourgaud's _Journal de Ste-Helene_
+was not destined to be published till the year 1899. Entering the arena
+of letters, he wrote, or collaborated in, two well-known critiques. The
+first was a censure of Count P. de Segur's work on the campaign of 1812,
+with the result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him.
+He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott's _Life of Napoleon_. He
+returned to active service in the army in 1830; and in 1840 proceeded
+with others to St Helena to bring back the remains of Napoleon to
+France. He became a deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1849; he died
+in 1852.
+
+  Gourgaud's works are _La Campagne de 1815_ (London and Paris, 1818);
+  _Napoleon et la Grande Armee en Russie; examen critique de l'ouvrage
+  de M. le comte P. de Segur_ (Paris, 1824); _Refutation de la vie de
+  Napoleon par Sir Walter Scott_ (Paris, 1827). He collaborated with
+  Montholon in the work entitled _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de
+  France sous Napoleon_ (Paris, 1822-1823), and with Belliard and others
+  in the work entitled _Bourrienne et ses erreurs_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1830); but his most important work is the _Journal inedit de
+  Ste-Helene_ (2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naif and
+  life-like record of the life at Longwood. See, too, _Notes and
+  Reminiscences of a Staff Officer_, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904),
+  and the bibliography to the article LOWE, SIR HUDSON.     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH, COUNT (1828-1901), Russian general, was
+born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the 15th of November 1828. He was
+educated in the imperial corps of pages, entered the hussars of the
+imperial bodyguard as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857,
+adjutant to the emperor in 1860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th
+Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the emperor's
+suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the grenadier regiment, and in
+1873 the 1st brigade, 2nd division, of the cavalry of the guard.
+Although he took part in the Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his
+claim to distinction is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877.
+He led the van of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July,
+crossed the Balkans by the Hain Bogaz pass, debouching near Hainkioi,
+and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani, Maglish
+and Kazanlyk; on the 18th of July he attacked Shipka, which was
+evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus within sixteen days of
+crossing the Danube Gourko had secured three Balkan passes and created a
+panic at Constantinople. He then made a series of successful
+reconnaissances of the Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places,
+occupied Stara Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni
+Zagra), checked the advance of Suleiman's army, and returned again over
+the Balkans. In October he was appointed commander of the allied
+cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication to Orkhanie with
+a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik, Telische and Vratza, and, in
+the middle of November, Orkhanie itself. Plevna was isolated, and after
+its fall in December Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the
+Balkans to the fertile valley beyond, totally defeated Suleiman, and
+occupied Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the end
+of January 1878 stopping further operations (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS).
+Gourko was made a count, and decorated with the 2nd class of St George
+and other orders. In 1879-1880 he was governor of St Petersburg, and
+from 1883 to 1894 governor-general of Poland. He died on the 29th of
+January 1901.
+
+
+
+
+GOURMET, a French term for one who takes a refined and critical, or even
+merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking and the delights of the
+table. The word has not the disparaging sense attached to the Fr.
+_gourmand_, to whom the practical pleasure of good eating is the chief
+end. The O. Fr. _groumet_ or _gromet_ meant a servant, or shop-boy,
+especially one employed in a wine-seller's shop, hence an expert taster
+of wines, from which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of
+gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the English
+"groom" (q.v.). The origin of _gourmand_ is unknown. In English, in the
+form "grummet," the word was early applied to a cabin or ship's boy.
+Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged to carry one "grummet"; thus in a
+charter of 1229 (quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) it is laid down
+_servitia inde debita Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi.
+homines, cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet_.
+
+
+
+
+GOUROCK, a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on
+the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 3-1/4 m. W. by N. of Greenock
+by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 5261. It is partly situated on a
+fine bay affording good anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to
+by the numerous yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway
+from Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel 1-1/3 m.
+long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel to
+the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland coast and
+the Crinan Canal. The eminence called Barrhill (480 ft. high) divides
+the town into two parts, the eastern known as Kempoch, the western as
+Ashton. Near Kempoch point is a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high,
+called "Granny Kempoch," which the superstitious of other days regarded
+as possessing influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in
+1662, of certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as
+witches. Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls,
+recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that Gourock
+was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were cured. There is
+tramway communication with Greenock and Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there
+stands on the shore the familiar beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a
+burgh of barony in 1694.
+
+
+
+
+GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD (1625-1703), French adventurer, was born at La
+Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen he entered the house of La
+Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in 1646 became secretary to Francois de
+la Rochefoucauld, author of the _Maximes_. Resourceful and quick-witted,
+he rendered services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues
+with the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations he
+made the acquaintance of Conde, whom he wished to help to escape from
+the chateau of Vincennes; of Mazarin, for whom he negotiated the
+reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas Fouquet. After the
+Fronde he engaged in financial affairs, thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he
+farmed the _taille_ in Guienne. He bought depreciated _rentes_ and had
+them raised to their nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts
+from the financiers for his protection, being Fouquet's confidant in
+many operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he
+accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his
+unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king. He was
+involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was condemned to
+death for peculation and embezzlement of public funds; but escaping, was
+executed in effigy. He sent a valet one night to take the effigy down
+from the gallows in the court of the Palais de Justice, and then fled
+the country. He remained five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from
+the amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers. Having
+returned secretly to France, he entered the service of Conde, who,
+unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever manager to put his
+affairs in order. In this way he was able to reappear at court, to
+assist at the campaigns of the war with Holland, and to offer himself
+for all the delicate negotiations for his master or the king. He
+received diplomatic missions in Germany, in Holland, and especially in
+Spain, though it was only in 1694, that he was freed from the
+condemnation pronounced against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696
+he fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his
+secretary, in four months and a half, his _Memoires_, an important
+source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors,
+introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals of a
+financier of the age of Fouquet, and throw light on certain points of
+the diplomatic history. They were first published in 1724.
+
+  There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and appendix,
+  by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, 2 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+GOUT, the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a constitutional
+disorder which manifests itself by inflammation of the joints, with
+sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and also by morbid changes in
+various important organs. The term gout, which was first used about the
+end of the 13th century, is derived through the Fr. _goutte_ from the
+Lat. _gutta_, a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of
+the dropping of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The
+disease was known and described by the ancient Greek physicians under
+various terms, which, however, appear to have been applied by them alike
+to rheumatism and gout. The general term _arthritis_ ([Greek: arthron],
+a joint) was employed when many joints were the seat of inflammation;
+while in those instances where the disease was limited to one part the
+terms used bore reference to such locality; hence _podagra_ ([Greek:
+podagra], from [Greek: pous], the foot, and [Greek: hagra], a seizure),
+_chiragra_ ([Greek: cheir], the hand), _gonagra_ ([Greek: gonu], the
+knee), &c.
+
+Hippocrates in his _Aphorisms_ speaks of gout as occurring most commonly
+in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact that women are less liable
+to it than men. He also gives directions as to treatment. Celsus gives a
+similar account of the disease. Galen regarded gout as an unnatural
+accumulation of humours in a part, and the chalk-stones as the
+concretions of these, and he attributed the disease to over-indulgence
+and luxury. Gout is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, and
+Seneca, in his 95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the
+Roman ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and
+debauchery. Lucian, in his _Tragopodagra_, gives an amusing account of
+the remedies employed for the cure of gout.
+
+In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the attention of
+physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount of suffering
+which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English physician of the 17th
+century, wrote an important treatise on the subject, and his description
+of the gouty paroxysm, all the more vivid from his having himself been
+afflicted with the disease for thirty-four years, is still quoted by
+writers as the most graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology
+of gout. Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting
+itself in various ways, divided the disease into _regular gout_, which
+affects the joints only, and _irregular gout_, where the gouty
+disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety he
+subdivided into _atonic gout_, where the most prominent symptoms are
+throughout referable to the stomach and alimentary canal; _retrocedent
+gout_, where the inflammatory attack suddenly disappears from an
+affected joint and serious disturbance takes place in some internal
+organ, generally the stomach or heart; and _misplaced gout_, where from
+the first the disease does not appear externally, but reveals itself by
+an inflammatory attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most
+eminent authorities on gout, adopted a division somewhat similar to,
+though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, _regular gout_, which
+affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic, and _irregular
+gout_, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing the functions of
+various organs.
+
+It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without any previous
+warning; but, while this is true in many instances, the reverse is
+probably as frequently the case, and the premonitory symptoms,
+especially in those who have previously suffered from the disease, may
+be sufficiently precise to indicate the impending seizure. Among the
+more common of these may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive
+organs, with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after
+eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver. A
+remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes observed. This
+symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves, who connected it with irritation
+in the urinary organs, which also is present as one of the premonitory
+indications of the gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance
+also present themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme
+irritability of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that
+of numbness and coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may persist for
+many days and then undergo amelioration immediately before the impending
+paroxysm. On the night of the attack the patient retires to rest
+apparently well, but about two or three o'clock in the morning awakes
+with a painful feeling in the foot, most commonly in the ball of the
+great toe, but it may be in the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With
+the pain there often occurs a distinct shivering followed by
+feverishness. The pain soon becomes of the most agonizing character: in
+the words of Sydenham, "now it is a violent stretching and tearing of
+the ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and
+tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part affected that
+it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor the jar of a person
+walking in the room."
+
+When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen and of a
+deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glistening, and the
+surrounding veins are more or less distended. After a few hours there is
+a remission of the pain, slight perspiration takes place, and the
+patient may fall asleep. The pain may continue moderate during the day
+but returns as night advances, and the patient goes through a similar
+experience of suffering to that of the previous night, followed with a
+like abatement towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with
+greater or less severity during the continuance of the attack, which
+generally lasts for a week or ten days. As the symptoms decline the
+swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate, but the skin over
+it pits on pressure for a time, and with this there is often associated
+slight desquamation of the cuticle. During the attacks there is much
+constitutional disturbance. The patient is restless and extremely
+irritable, and suffers from cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia,
+thirst and constipation. The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a
+copious deposit, consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of
+the symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect the
+other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack is over the
+patient feels quite well and fancies himself better than he had been for
+a long time before; hence the once popular notion that a fit of the gout
+was capable of removing all other ailments. Any such idea, however, is
+sadly belied in the experience of most sufferers from this disease. It
+is rare that the first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to
+occur within a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded
+off. The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold on
+the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences the same
+joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflammation suffer again,
+but in course of time others become implicated, until in advanced cases
+scarcely any articulation escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic.
+It is to be noticed that when gout assumes this form the frequently
+recurring attacks are usually attended with less pain than the earlier
+ones, but their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the
+disturbance of various important organs, especially the stomach, liver,
+kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take place in the
+joints from the formation of the so-called chalk-stones or tophi. These
+deposits, which are highly characteristic of gout, appear at first to
+take place in the form of a semifluid material, consisting for the most
+part of urate of soda, which gradually becomes more dense, and
+ultimately quite hard. When any quantity of this is deposited in the
+structures of a joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as
+deposits appear to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion
+with every attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parts is
+apt to be the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course, on the
+amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem to be in no necessary
+relation to the severity of the attack, being in some cases even of
+chronic gout so slight as to be barely appreciable externally, but on
+the other hand occasionally causing great enlargement of the joints, and
+fixing them in a flexed or extended position which renders them entirely
+useless. Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme case
+of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French carrots with
+their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the stalks. Any of the
+joints may be thus affected, but most commonly those of the hands and
+feet. The deposits take place in other structures besides those of
+joints, such as along the course of tendons, underneath the skin and
+periosteum, in the sclerotic coat of the eye, and especially on the
+cartilages of the external ear. When largely deposited in joints an
+abscess sometimes forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is
+exposed. Sir Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient
+when playing at cards was accustomed to chalk the score of the game upon
+the table with his gouty knuckles.
+
+The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is less easy than that
+form above described, where the disease gives abundant external evidence
+of its presence; but that other parts than joints suffer from gouty
+attacks is beyond question. The diagnosis may often be made in cases
+where in an attack of ordinary gout the disease suddenly leaves the
+affected joints and some new series of symptoms arises. It has been
+often observed when cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the
+pain and inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and
+alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs
+supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed by Cullen
+retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more especially if the
+disease again returns to the joints. Further, the gouty nature of some
+long-continued internal or cutaneous disorder may be rendered apparent
+by its disappearance on the outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints.
+Gout, when of long standing, is often found associated with degenerative
+changes in the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the
+kidneys, which are apt to assume the contracted granular condition
+characteristic of one of the forms of Bright's disease. A variety of
+urinary calculus--the uric acid--formed by concretions of this substance
+in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence in connexion with gout;
+hence the well-known association of this disease and gravel.
+
+The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on METABOLIC DISEASES.
+Many points, however, still remain unexplained. As remarked by
+Trousseau, "the production in excess of uric acid and urates is a
+pathological phenomenon inherent like all others in the disease; and
+like all the others it is dominated by a specific cause, which we know
+only by its effects, and which we term the gouty diathesis." This
+subject of diathesis (habit, or organic predisposition of individuals),
+which is regarded as an essential element in the pathology of gout,
+naturally suggests the question as to whether, besides being inherited,
+such a peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a
+consideration of the causes which are recognized as influential in
+favouring the occurrence of this disease.
+
+It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary, fully
+more than half the number of cases being, according to Sir C. Scudamore
+and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is no less certain that there
+are habits and modes of life the observance of which may induce the
+disease even where no hereditary tendencies can be traced, and the
+avoidance of which may, on the other hand, go far towards weakening or
+neutralizing the influence of inherited liability. Gout is said to
+affect the sedentary more readily than the active. If, however,
+inadequate exercise be combined with a luxurious manner of living, with
+habitual over-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially
+in alcoholic beverages, then undoubtedly the chief factors in the
+production of the disease are present.
+
+Much has been written upon the relative influence of various forms of
+alcoholic drinks in promoting the development of gout. It is generally
+stated that fermented are more injurious than distilled liquors, and
+that, in particular, the stronger wines, such as port, sherry and
+madeira, are much more potent in their gout-producing action than the
+lighter class of wines, such as hock, moselle, &c., while malt liquors
+are fully as hurtful as strong wines. It seems quite as probable,
+however, that over-indulgence in any form of alcohol, when associated
+with the other conditions already adverted to, will have very much the
+same effect in developing gout. The comparative absence of gout in
+countries where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland,
+is cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging that
+disease; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there is on the
+whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other pleasures of the
+table, which in no degree less than alcohol are chargeable with inducing
+the gouty habit. Gout is not a common disease among the poor and
+labouring classes, and when it does occur may often be connected even in
+them with errors in living. It is not very rare to meet gout in butlers,
+coachmen, &c., who are apt to live luxuriously while leading
+comparatively easy lives.
+
+Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who observe
+the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses are in the
+direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual. Many of the
+great names in history in all times have had their existence embittered
+by this malady, and have died from its effects. The influence of
+hereditary tendency may often be traced in such instances, and is
+doubtless called into activity by the depressing consequences of
+over-work. It may, notwithstanding, be affirmed as generally true that
+those who lead regular lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food
+and alcoholic drinks, or still better abstain from the latter
+altogether, are less likely to be the victims of gout even where an
+undoubted inherited tendency exists.
+
+Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years of life, the
+greatest number of cases in one decennial period being between the ages
+of thirty and forty, next between twenty and thirty, and thirdly between
+forty and fifty. It may occasionally affect very young persons; such
+cases are generally regarded as hereditary, but, so far as diet is
+concerned, it has to be remembered that their home life has probably
+been a predisposing cause. After middle life gout rarely appears for the
+first time. Women are much less the subjects of gout than men,
+apparently from their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of
+course, that of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and
+doubtless also from the differing circumstances of their physical
+constitution. It most frequently appears in females after the cessation
+of the menses. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning, such
+as plumbers, painters, &c., are apt to suffer from gout; and it would
+seem that impregnation of the system with this metal markedly interferes
+with the uric acid excreting function of the kidneys.
+
+Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to the disease.
+Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue, and irritation or
+injuries of particular joints will often precipitate the gouty paroxysm.
+
+With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety of opinion
+has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the numerous quaint
+nostrums detailed by Lucian to the "expectant" or do-nothing system
+recommended by Sydenham. But gout, although, as has been shown, a malady
+of a most severe and intractable character, may nevertheless be
+successfully dealt with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures.
+The general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated. During
+the acute attack the affected part should be kept at perfect rest, and
+have applied to it warm opiate fomentations or poultices, or, what
+answers quite as well, be enveloped in cotton wool covered in with oil
+silk. The diet of the patient should be light, without animal food or
+stimulants. The administration of some simple laxative will be of
+service, as well as the free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the
+bicarbonate or acetate of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for
+the relief of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful
+action on the disease. This drug (_Colchicum autumnale_), which is
+believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients, has proved of
+such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as observed by Dr Garrod,
+"we may safely assert that colchicum possesses as specific a control
+over the gouty inflammation as cinchona barks or their alkaloids over
+intermittent fever." It is usually administered in the form of the wine
+in doses of 10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the
+acetous extract (gr. 1/2-gr. i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the
+pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is unnecessary to
+have recourse to opiates; but its action requires to be carefully
+watched by the physician from its well-known nauseating and depressing
+consequences, which, should they appear, render the suspension of the
+drug necessary. Otherwise the remedy may be continued in gradually
+diminishing doses for some days after the disappearance of the gouty
+inflammation. Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular
+form by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment above
+mentioned, the use of frictions and mustard applications to the joints
+is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance there. When gout
+has become chronic, colchicum, although of less service than in acute
+gout, is yet valuable, particularly when the inflammatory attacks recur.
+More benefit, however, appears to be derived from potassium iodide,
+guaiacum, the alkalis potash and lithia, and from the administration of
+aspirin and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective
+local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha bandage.
+Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from its solvent action
+upon the urates. It is usually administered in the form of the carbonate
+(gr. v., freely diluted).
+
+The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals of the gouty
+attacks are of the highest importance. These bear reference for the most
+part to the habits and mode of life of the patient. Restriction must be
+laid upon the amount and quality of the food, and equally, or still
+more, upon the alcoholic stimulants. "The instances," says Sir Thomas
+Watson, "are not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves,
+who, being warned by one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward
+resolutely abstained from rich living and from wine and strong drinks of
+all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence and self-denial
+by complete immunity from any return of the disease, or upon whom, at
+any rate, its future assaults have been few and feeble." The same
+eminent authority adds: "I am sure it is worth any _young_ man's while,
+who has had the gout, to become a teetotaller." By those more advanced
+in life who, from long continued habit, are unable entirely to
+relinquish the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must
+be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form of walking or
+riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives, is of great
+advantage, and all over-work, either physical or mental, should be
+avoided. _Fatiguez la bete, et reposez la tete_ is the maxim of an
+experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d'Estrees of Contrexeville).
+Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such directions, even by
+those who feel their importance, is too often rendered difficult or
+impossible by circumstances of occupation and otherwise, and at most
+only an approximation can be made. Certain mineral waters and baths
+(such as those of Vichy, Royat, Contrexeville, &c.) are of undoubted
+value in cases of gout and arthritis. The particular place must in each
+case be determined by the physician, and special caution must be
+observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons whose gout is
+complicated by organic disease of any kind.
+
+  Dr Alexander Haig's "uric acid free diet" has found many adherents.
+  His view as regards the pathology is that in gouty persons the blood
+  is less alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to hold in
+  solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints.
+  Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs), and
+  by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing
+  substances, he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and
+  containing 24 oz. of breadstuffs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings)
+  together with 24 oz. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans,
+  lentils, mushrooms and asparagus); 8 oz. of the breadstuffs may be
+  replaced by 21 oz. of milk or 2 oz. of cheese, butter and oil being
+  taken as required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet.
+
+  Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently been put forward
+  by Professor A. Robin of the Hopital Beaujon, who says serious
+  mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats and
+  take light food, fish, eggs, &c. The common object in view is the
+  diminished output of uric acid. This output is chiefly obtained from
+  food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, i.e. young white
+  meats, eggs, &c. Consequently the gouty subject ought to restrict
+  himself to the consumption of red meat, beef and mutton, and leave out
+  of his dietary all white meat and internal organs. He should take
+  little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats. Vegetarian
+  diet he regards as a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they tend to
+  weaken the patient. To prevent the formation of uric acid Robin
+  prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine.
+
+
+
+
+GOUTHIERE, PIERRE (1740-1806), French metal worker, was born at Troyes
+and went to Paris at an early age as the pupil of Martin Cour. During
+his brilliant career he executed a vast quantity of metal work of the
+utmost variety, the best of which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals
+in that great art period. It was long believed that he received many
+commissions for furniture from the court of Louis XVI., and especially
+from Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for the
+queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthiere can, however, well bear this
+loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics ultimately be
+justified who believe that many of the furniture mounts attributed to
+him were from the hand of Thomire. But if he did not work for the court
+he unquestionably produced many of the most splendid belongings of the
+duc d'Aumont, the duchesse de Mazarin and Mme du Barry. Indeed the
+custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about the
+financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more than any other
+man for the fame of her chateau of Louveciennes. When the collection of
+the duc d'Aumont was sold by auction in Paris in 1782 so many objects
+mounted by Gouthiere were bought for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette
+that it is not difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that they
+were actually made for the court. The duc's sale catalogue is, however,
+in existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices realized.
+The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthiere. The precious lacquer
+cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra, the tables and cabinets in
+marquetry, the columns and vases in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles,
+the porcelains of China and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by
+him. More than fifty of these pieces bore Gouthiere's signature. The duc
+d'Aumont's cabinet represented the high-water mark of the chaser's art,
+and the great prices which were paid for Gouthiere's work at this sale
+are the most conclusive criterion of the value set upon his achievement
+in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette paid 12,000 livres for a red
+jasper bowl or _brule-parfums_ mounted by him, which was then already
+famous. Curiously enough it commanded only one-tenth of that price at
+the Fournier sale in 1831; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford
+bought it at the prince de Beauvais's sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It
+is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and most
+representative gathering of Gouthiere's undoubted work. The mounts of
+gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show satyrs' heads, from which
+hang festoons of vine leaves, while within the feet a serpent is coiled
+to spring. A smaller cup is one of the treasures of the Louvre. There
+too is a bronze clock, signed by "Gouthiere, _cizileur et doreur du Roy
+a Paris_," dated 1771, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing the
+Rhone and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the
+city of Avignon. Not all of Gouthiere's work is of the highest quality,
+and much of what he executed was from the designs of others. At his best
+his delicacy, refinement and finish are exceedingly delightful--in his
+great moments he ranks with the highest alike as artist and as
+craftsman. The tone of soft dead gold which is found on some of his
+mounts he is believed to have invented, but indeed the gilding of all
+his superlative work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone
+is admirably seen in the bronzes and candelabra which he executed for
+the chimney-piece of Marie Antoinette's boudoir at Fontainebleau. He
+continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame du Barry until the
+Revolution, and then the guillotine came for her and absolute ruin for
+him. When her property was seized she owed him 756,000 livres, of which
+he never received a sol, despite repeated applications to the
+administrators. "_Reduit a solliciter une place a l'hospice, il mourut
+dans la misere._" So it was stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons
+against du Barry's heirs.
+
+
+
+
+GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT, MARQUIS DE (1764-1830), French marshal, was
+born at Toul on the 13th of April 1764. At the age of eighteen he went
+to Rome with the view of prosecuting the study of painting, but although
+he continued his artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he
+never definitely adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was
+chosen a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of
+General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course of two
+years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he commanded the
+centre division of Moreau's army in the campaign of the Rhine, and by
+coolness and sagacity greatly aided him in the celebrated retreat from
+Bavaria to the Rhine. In 1798 he succeeded Massena in the command of the
+army of Italy. In the following year he commanded the left wing of
+Jourdan's army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Massena, he
+joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished himself in
+face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat of Novi. When
+Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command of the army of the Rhine,
+Gouvion St-Cyr was named his principal lieutenant, and on the 9th of May
+gained a victory over General Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on
+good terms with his commander and retired to France after the first
+operations of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command the
+army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named grand officer
+of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace was shortly afterwards
+concluded with Portugal, he succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at
+Madrid. In 1803 he was appointed to the command of an army corps in
+Italy, in 1805 he served with distinction under Massena, and in 1806 was
+engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in the Prussian
+and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which year he was made a
+count, he commanded an army corps in Catalonia; but, not wishing to
+comply with certain orders he received from Paris (for which see Oman,
+_Peninsular War_, vol. iii.), he resigned his command and remained in
+disgrace till 1811. He was still a general of division, having been
+excluded from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing
+to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the Empire. On
+the opening of the Russian campaign he received command of an army
+corps, and on the 18th of August 1812 obtained a victory over the
+Russians at Polotsk, in recognition of which he was created a marshal of
+France. He received a severe wound in one of the actions during the
+general retreat. St-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden
+(August 26-27, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the
+Allies after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on the 11th of
+November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On the restoration
+of the Bourbons he was created a peer of France, and in July 1815 was
+appointed war minister, but resigned his office in the November
+following. In June 1817 he was appointed minister of marine, and in
+September following again resumed the duties of war minister, which he
+continued to discharge till November 1819. During this time he effected
+many reforms, particularly in respect of measures tending to make the
+army a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himself also to
+safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire, organized the
+general staff and revised the code of military law and the pension
+regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817. He died at Hyeres (Var) on
+the 17th of March 1830. Gouvion St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained
+better opportunities of acquiring distinction had he shown himself more
+blindly devoted to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the
+high compliment of referring to his "military genius," and entrusted him
+with independent commands in secondary theatres of war. It is doubtful,
+however, if he possessed energy commensurate with his skill, and in
+Napoleon's modern conception of war, as three parts moral to one
+technical, there was more need for the services of a bold leader of
+troops whose "doctrine"--to use the modern phrase--predisposed him to
+self-sacrificing and vigorous action, than for a _savant_ in the art of
+war of the type of St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot,
+did justice to his "commanding talents," but remarked the indolence
+which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind that had
+passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without attaining the
+simplicity of genius.
+
+  He was the author of the following works, all of the highest value:
+  _Journal des operations de l'armee de Catalogne en 1808 et 1809_
+  (Paris, 1821); _Memoires sur les campagnes des armees de Rhin et de
+  Rhin-et-Moselle de 1794 a 1797_ (Paris, 1829); and _Memoires pour
+  servir a l'histoire militaire sous le Directoire, le Consulat, et
+  l'Empire_ (1831).
+
+  See Gay de Vernon's _Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+GOVAN, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It lies on
+the south bank of the Clyde in actual contact with Glasgow, and in a
+parish of the same name which includes a large part of the city on both
+sides of the river. Pop. (1891) 61,589; (1901) 76,532. Govan remained
+little more than a village till 1860, when the growth of shipbuilding
+and allied trades gave its development an enormous impetus. Among its
+public buildings are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital,
+Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder Park (40
+acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue of John Elder
+(1824-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband of the donor. A statue
+of Sir William Pearce (1833-1888), another well-known Govan shipbuilder,
+once M.P. for the burgh, stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board
+opened in 1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow
+gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow corporation;
+but it has an electric light installation of its own, and performs all
+other municipal functions quite independently of the city, annexation to
+which it has always strenuously resisted. Prince's Dock lies within its
+bounds and the shipbuilding yards have turned out many famous ironclads
+and liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match-making,
+silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube-making, weaving, and
+the manufacture of locomotives and electrical apparatus. The town forms
+the greater part of the Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one
+member to parliament.
+
+
+
+
+GOVERNMENT (O. Fr. _governement_, mod. _gouvernement_, O. Fr.
+_governer_, mod. _gouverner_, from Lat. _gubernare_, to steer a ship,
+guide, rule; cf. Gr. [Greek: kubernan]), in its widest sense, the ruling
+power in a political society. In every society of men there is a
+determinate body (whether consisting of one individual or a few or many
+individuals) whose commands the rest of the community are bound to obey.
+This sovereign body is what in more popular phrase is termed the
+government of the country, and the varieties which may exist in its
+constitution are known as forms of government. For the opposite theory
+of a community with "no government," see ANARCHISM.
+
+How did government come into existence? Various answers to this question
+have at times been given, which may be distinguished broadly into three
+classes. The first class would comprehend the legendary accounts which
+nations have given in primitive times of their own forms of government.
+These are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The
+government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon, Moses, Numa
+and Alfred in like manner shaped the government of their respective
+nations. There was no curiosity about the institutions of other
+nations--about the origin of governments in general; and each nation was
+perfectly ready to accept the traditional [Greek: nomothetai] of any
+other.
+
+The second may be called the logical or metaphysical account of the
+origin of government. It contained no overt reference to any particular
+form of government, whatever its covert references may have been. It
+answered the question, how government in general came into existence;
+and it answered it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The
+phenomenon to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted
+government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing without them.
+The characteristic feature of this kind of speculation is that it
+reflects how contemporary men would behave if all government were
+removed, and infers that men must have behaved so before government came
+into existence. Society without government resolves itself into a number
+of individuals each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days
+before government, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to see how
+this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views of the nature
+of the supposed original state. With Hobbes, it is a state of war, and
+government is the result of an agreement among men to keep the peace.
+With Locke, it is a state of liberty and equality,--it is not a state of
+war; it is governed by its own law,--the law of nature, which is the
+same thing as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an
+end by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their natural
+liberty and submit themselves to one supreme government. In the words of
+Locke, "Men being by nature all free, equal and independent, no one can
+be put out of this estate and subjected to the political power of
+another without his own consent. The only way whereby any one divests
+himself of his natural liberty, and puts on the _bonds of civil
+society_, is by agreeing with other men to join and unite into a
+community" (_On Civil Government_, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his
+theory as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his
+demonstration of the baselessness of Sir R. Filmer's speculations with
+the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the foundation of
+his own. But in general the various forms of the hypothesis eliminate
+the question of time altogether. The original contract from which
+government sprang is likewise the subsisting contract on which civil
+society continues to be based. The historical weakness of the theory was
+probably always recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively
+demonstrated by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on the
+principles of government.
+
+The "social compact" (see ROUSSEAU) is the most famous of the
+metaphysical explanations of government. It has had the largest history,
+the widest influence and the most complete development. To the same
+class belong the various forms of the theory that governments exist by
+divine appointment. Of all that has been written about the divine right
+of kings, a great deal must be set down to the mere flatteries of
+courtiers and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men
+are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been appointed
+by God. Like the social compact, the theory of divine appointment
+avoided the question of historical fact.
+
+The application of the historical method to the phenomena of society has
+changed the aspect of the question and robbed it of its political
+interest. The student of the history of society has no formula to
+express the law by which government is born. All that he can do is to
+trace governmental forms through various stages of social development.
+The more complex and the larger the society, the more distinct is the
+separation between the governing part and the rest, and the more
+elaborate is the subdivision of functions in the government. The
+primitive type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general. At the same
+time, his way of life differs little from that of his followers and
+subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing
+greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times. Increase
+of bulk brings with it a more complex social organization. War tends to
+develop the strength of the governmental organization; peace relaxes it.
+All societies of men exhibit the germs of government; but there would
+appear to be races of men so low that they cannot be said to live
+together in society at all. Modern investigations have illustrated very
+fully the importance of the family (q.v.) in primitive societies, and
+the belief in a common descent has much to do with the social cohesion
+of a tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a
+household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot affirm
+that political government has its origin in family government, or that
+there may not have been states of society in which government of some
+sort existed while the family did not.
+
+
+I. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
+
+_Three Standard Forms._--Political writers from the time of Aristotle
+have been singularly unanimous in their classification of the forms of
+government. There are three ways in which states may be governed. They
+may be governed by one man, or by a number of men, small in proportion
+to the whole number of men in the state, or by a number large in
+proportion to the whole number of men in the state. The government may
+be a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms are used by
+John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very nearly the same
+sense. The determining quality in governments in both writers, and it
+may safely be said in all intermediate writers, is the numerical
+relation between the constituent members of the government and the
+population of the state. There were, of course, enormous differences
+between the state-systems present to the mind of the Greek philosopher
+and the English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent
+states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern Europe. The unit
+of government in the one case was a city, in the other a nation. This
+difference is of itself enough to invalidate all generalization founded
+on the common terminology. But on one point there is a complete parallel
+between the politics of Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek
+cities were to the rest of the world very much what European nations and
+European colonies are to the rest of the world now. They were the only
+communities in which the governed visibly took some share in the work of
+government. Outside the European system, as outside the Greek system, we
+have only the stereotyped uniformity of despotism, whether savage or
+civilized. The question of forms of government, therefore, belongs
+characteristically to the European races. The virtues and defects of
+monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and defects
+manifested by the historical governments of Europe. The generality of
+the language used by political writers must not blind us to the fact
+that they are thinking only of a comparatively small portion of mankind.
+
+_Greek Politics._--Aristotle divides governments according to two
+principles. In all states the governing power seeks either its own
+advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and the government is bad
+or good accordingly. In all states the governing power is one man, or a
+few men or many men. Hence six varieties of government, three of which
+are bad and three good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved
+form, thus:--
+
+  The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the depraved form
+  (Tyranny).
+
+  The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to the depraved
+  form (Oligarchy).
+
+  The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds to the depraved
+  form (Democracy).
+
+The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act unjustly where
+their own interests are concerned. The worst of the depraved forms is
+tyranny, the next oligarchy and the least bad democracy.[1] Each of the
+three leading types exhibits a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we
+have the heroic, the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the
+Lacedemonian (hereditary generalship, [Greek: strategia]), and absolute
+monarchy. So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding
+varieties. The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly
+agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for political
+affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy is that in which
+a considerable number of small proprietors have the power; here, too,
+the laws prevail. The worst democracy consists of a larger citizen class
+having leisure for politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small
+number of very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is
+reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which as much as
+possible is left to the laws, and as little as possible to the will of
+the governor.
+
+The _Politics_ of Aristotle, from which these principles are taken,
+presents a striking picture of the variety and activity of political
+life in the free communities of Greece. The king and council of heroic
+times had disappeared, and self-government in some form or other was the
+general rule. It is to be noticed, however, that the governments of
+Greece were essentially unstable. The political philosophers could lay
+down the law of development by which one form of government gives birth
+to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to the
+consideration of the causes of revolutions. The dread of tyranny was
+kept alive by the facility with which an over-powerful and unscrupulous
+citizen could seize the whole machinery of government. Communities
+oscillated between some form of oligarchy and some form of democracy.
+The security of each was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of
+the opposing factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that
+exuberant variety of form and expression which characterizes all the
+intellectual products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent
+progress. Then there was no approximation to a national government, even
+of the federal type. The varying confederacies and hegemonies are the
+nearest approach to anything of the kind. What kind of national
+government would ultimately have arisen if Greece had not been crushed
+it is needless to conjecture; the true interest of Greek politics lies
+in the fact that the free citizens were, in the strictest sense of the
+word, self-governed. Each citizen took his turn at the common business
+of the state. He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time
+in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship in Athens
+was a liberal education, such as it never can be made under any
+representative system.
+
+_The Government of Rome._--During the whole period of freedom the
+government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal self-government.
+Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his own person in the comitia
+of the centuries or the tribes. The administrative powers of government
+were, however, in the hands of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from
+the holders of high public office. The senate represented capacity and
+experience rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument the
+city government of Rome could never have made the conquest of the world.
+The gradual extension of the citizenship to other Italians changed the
+character of Roman government. The distant citizens could not come to
+the voting booths; the device of representation was not discovered; and
+the comitia fell into the power of the town voters. In the last stage of
+the Roman republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of
+a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect of leaving
+to the people of London or Paris the supreme control of the British
+empire or of France,--irresistible temptation, inevitable corruption.
+The rabble of the capital learn to live on the rest of the empire.[2]
+The favour of the effeminate masters of the world is purchased by _panem
+et circenses_. That capable officers and victorious armies should long
+be content to serve such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of
+generals placed itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of
+them made himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus and Tiberius, the
+Roman people became habituated to a new form of government, which is
+best described by the name of Caesarism. The outward forms of republican
+government remained, but one man united in his own person all the
+leading offices, and used them to give a seemingly legal title to what
+was essentially military despotism. There is no more interesting
+constitutional study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the
+growth of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect of
+Tiberius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as the English
+constitution of the present day. The master of the world posed as the
+humble servant of a menial senate. Deprecating the outward symbols of
+sovereignty, he was satisfied with the modest powers of a consul or a
+tribunus plebis. The reign of Tiberius, little capable as he was by
+personal character of captivating the favour of the multitude, did more
+for imperialism than was done by his more famous predecessors.
+Henceforward free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the
+military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the character
+imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an elective not an
+hereditary king. The real foundation of his power was the army, and the
+army in course of time openly assumed the right of nominating the
+sovereign. The characteristic weakness of the Roman empire was the
+uncertainty of the succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the
+lifetime of the emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were
+elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force of arms
+could decide the question between them.
+
+_Modern Governments._--_Feudalism._--The Roman empire bequeathed to
+modern Europe the theory of universal dominion. The nationalities which
+grew up after its fall arranged themselves on the basis of territorial
+sovereignty. Leaving out of account the free municipalities of the
+middle ages, the problem of government had now to be solved, not for
+small urban communities, but for large territorial nations. The medieval
+form of government was feudal. One common type pervaded all the
+relations of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation
+between lord and vassal (see FEUDALISM). The bond between them was the
+tenure of land. In England there had been, before the Norman Conquest,
+an approximation to a feudal system. In the earlier English
+constitution, the most striking features were the power of the witan,
+and the common property of the nation in a large portion of the soil.
+The steady development of the power of the king kept pace with the
+aggregation of the English tribes under one king. The conception that
+the land belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception
+that everything belonged primarily to the king.[3] The Norman Conquest
+imposed on England the already highly developed feudalism of France, and
+out of this feudalism the free governments of modern Europe have grown.
+One or two of the leading steps in this process may be indicated here.
+The first, and perhaps the most important, was the device of
+representation. For an account of its origin, and for instances of its
+use in England before its application to politics, we must be content to
+refer to Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. The problem of
+combining a large area of sovereignty with some degree of
+self-government, which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths, was
+henceforward solved. From that time some form of representation has been
+deemed essential to every constitution professing, however remotely, to
+be free.
+
+The connexion between representation and the feudal system of estates
+must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the king a limited right
+to military service and to certain aids, both of which were utterly
+inadequate to meet the expenses of the government, especially in time of
+war. The king therefore had to get contributions from his people, and he
+consulted them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply
+the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed out
+that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king and the
+order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of inchoate estates or
+sub-estates of the realm. The right of representation was thus in its
+origin a right to consent to taxation. The pure theory of feudalism had
+from the beginning been broken by William the Conqueror causing all
+free-holders to take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The
+institution of parliaments, and the association of the king's smaller
+tenants _in capite_ with other commoners, still further removed the
+government from the purely feudal type in which the mesne lord stands
+between the inferior vassal and the king.
+
+_Parliamentary Government._--_The English System._--The right of the
+commons to share the power of the king and lords in legislation, the
+exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes, the disappearance of the
+clergy as a separate order, were all important steps in the movement
+towards popular government. The extinction of the old feudal nobility in
+the dynastic wars of the 15th century simplified the question by leaving
+the crown face to face with parliament. The immediate result was no
+doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably never stood
+higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth; but even
+these powerful monarchs were studious in their regard for parliamentary
+conventionalities. After a long period of speculative controversy and
+civil war, the settlement of 1688 established limited monarchy as the
+government of England. Since that time the external form of government
+has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes, the
+constitution of William III. might be taken for the same system as that
+which still exists. The silent changes have, however, been enormous. The
+most striking of these, and that which has produced the most salient
+features of the English system, is the growth of cabinet government.
+Intimately connected with this is the rise of the two great historical
+parties of English politics. The normal state of government in England
+is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for the
+time, the stronger of the two. Before the Revolution the king's
+ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even after the
+Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating, and each
+individual minister was bound to the others only by the tie of common
+service to the king. Under the Hanoverian sovereigns the ministry became
+consolidated, the position of the cabinet became definite, and its
+dependence on parliament, and more particularly on the House of Commons,
+was established. Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the
+other, and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done in
+the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics has divided
+parliament into the representatives of two parties, and the party in
+opposition has been steadied by the consciousness that it, too, has
+constitutional functions of high importance, because at any moment it
+may be called to provide a ministry. Criticism is sobered by being made
+responsible. Along with this movement went the withdrawal of the
+personal action of the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to
+veto a bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne. No
+ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834. Whatever the
+power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably limited to his
+personal influence over his ministers. And it must be remembered that
+since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers have become, in practice,
+responsible ultimately, not to parliament, but to the House of Commons.
+Apart, therefore, from democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we
+find that the House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the
+centre of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been
+enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions of the
+government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional writers, such as
+Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a wonderful compound of the
+three standard forms,--monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. Each has its
+place, and each acts as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the
+question "Whether the British government inclines more to absolute
+monarchy or to a republic," decides in favour of the former alternative.
+"The tide has run long and with some rapidity to the side of popular
+government, and is just beginning to turn toward monarchy." And he gives
+it as his own opinion that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death,
+the true euthanasia of the British constitution. These views of the
+English government in the 18th century may be contrasted with Bagehot's
+sketch of the modern government as a working instrument.[4]
+
+_Leading Features of Parliamentary Government._--The parliamentary
+government developed by England out of feudal materials has been
+deliberately accepted as the type of constitutional government all over
+the world. Its leading features are popular representation more or less
+extensive, a bicameral legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated
+ministry. In connexion with all of these, numberless questions of the
+highest practical importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which
+would surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to a
+few very general considerations.
+
+_The Two Chambers._--First, as to the double chamber. This, which is
+perhaps more accidental than any other portion of the British system,
+has been the most widely imitated. In most European countries, in the
+British colonies, in the United States Congress, and in the separate
+states of the Union,[5] there are two houses of legislature. This result
+has been brought about partly by natural imitation of the accepted type
+of free government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber
+will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the elements
+of the British original cannot be reproduced to order under different
+conditions. There have, indeed, been a few attempts to imitate the
+special character of hereditary nobility attaching to the British House
+of Lords. In some countries, where the feudal tradition is still strong
+(e.g. Prussia, Austria, Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper
+chambers has survived as truly representative of actual social and
+economic relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain
+(e.g. in France after the Revolution) the attempt to establish an
+hereditary peerage on the British model has always failed. For the
+peculiar solidarity between the British nobility and the general mass of
+the people, the outcome of special conditions and tendencies, is a
+result beyond the power of constitution-makers to attain. The British
+system too, after its own way, has for a long period worked without any
+serious collision between the Houses,--the standing and obvious danger
+of the bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess
+the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not--in fact they
+often do not--possess the confidence of the House of Lords. It is only
+in legislation that the Lower House really shares its powers with the
+Upper; and (apart from any such change in the constitution as was
+suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman) the constitution
+possesses, in the unlimited power of nominating peers, a well-understood
+last resource should the House of Lords persist in refusing important
+measures demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United
+Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies with the
+people (the electorate), and the House of Lords recognizes the principle
+that it must accept a measure when the popular will has been clearly
+expressed. In all but measures of first-class importance, however, the
+House of Lords is a real second chamber, and in these there is little
+danger of a collision between the Houses. There is the widest possible
+difference between the British and any other second chamber. In the
+United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal
+representation of states) is the more important of the two Houses, and
+the only one whose control of the executive can be compared to that
+exercised by the British House of Commons.
+
+The real strength of popular government in England lies in the ultimate
+supremacy of the House of Commons. That supremacy had been acquired,
+perhaps to its full extent, before the extension of the suffrage made
+the constituencies democratic. Foreign imitators, it may be observed,
+have been more ready to accept a wide basis of representation than to
+confer real power on the representative body. In all the monarchical
+countries of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be,
+the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won. Where
+the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no reason for
+guarding it against abuse. The independence of the executive in the
+United States brings that country, from one point of view, more near to
+the state system of the continent of Europe than to that of the United
+Kingdom. The people make a more complete surrender of power to the
+government (State or Federal) than is done in England.
+
+_Cabinet Government._--The peculiar functions of the English cabinet are
+not easily matched in any foreign system. They are a mystery even to
+most educated Englishmen. The cabinet (q.v.) is much more than a body
+consisting of chiefs of departments. It is the inner council of the
+empire, the arbiter of national policy, foreign or domestic, the
+sovereign in commission. The whole power of the House of Commons is
+concentrated in its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in
+the legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not fixed
+even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its proceedings. The
+relations of an individual minister to the cabinet, and of the cabinet
+to its head and creator, the premier, are things known only to the
+initiated. With the doubtful exception of France, no other system of
+government presents us with anything like its equivalent. In the United
+States, as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers
+surrounding the chief of the state.
+
+_Change of Power in the English System._--One of the most difficult
+problems of government is how to provide for the devolution of political
+power, and perhaps no other question is so generally and justly applied
+as the test of a working constitution. If the transmission works
+smoothly, the constitution, whatever may be its other defects, may at
+least be pronounced stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the
+contrivances which this problem has suggested to political societies.
+Here, as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale.
+When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law of succession
+fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled to succeed,
+assassination becomes almost a necessary measure of precaution. The
+prince whom chance or intrigue has promoted to the throne of a father or
+an uncle must make himself safe from his relatives and competitors.
+Hence the scenes which shock the European conscience when "Amurath an
+Amurath succeeds." The strong monarchical governments of Europe have
+been saved from this evil by an indisputable law of succession, which
+marks out from his infancy the next successor to the throne. The king
+names his ministers, and the law names the king. In popular or
+constitutional governments far more elaborate precautions are required.
+It is one of the real merits of the English constitution that it has
+solved this problem--in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion--but
+with perfect success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and
+down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended all
+the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the real
+change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The constitutional
+practice of the 19th century settled, beyond the reach of controversy,
+the occasions on which a ministry is bound to retire. It must resign or
+dissolve when it is defeated[6] in the House of Commons, and if after a
+dissolution it is beaten again, it must resign without alternative. It
+may resign if it thinks its majority in the House of Commons not
+sufficiently large. The dormant functions of the crown now come into
+existence. It receives back political power from the old ministry in
+order to transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to be formed,
+and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established
+practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recommending the
+king to consult him; and that successor must be the recognized leader of
+his successful rivals. All this is a matter of custom, not of law; and
+it is doubtful if any two authorities could agree in describing the
+custom in language of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any
+one he pleases, and charge him with the formation of a government; but
+the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to the
+recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an individual.
+It is certain that the intervention of the crown facilitates the
+transfer of power from one party to another, by giving it the appearance
+of a mere change of servants. The real disturbance is that caused by the
+appeal to the electors. A general election is always a struggle between
+the great political parties for the possession of the powers of
+government. It may be noted that modern practice goes far to establish
+the rule that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once
+without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons.
+
+The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the will of the House
+of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House of Commons itself is
+dependent on the will of the ministry. In the last result both depend on
+the will of the constituencies, as expressed at the general election.
+There is no fixity in either direction in the tenure of a ministry. It
+may be challenged at any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and
+beaten. And that there should be a ministry and a House of Commons in
+harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is rendered
+all but impossible by the law and the practice as to the duration of
+parliaments.
+
+_Change of Power in the United States._--The United States offers a very
+different solution of the problem. The American president is at once
+king and prime minister; and there is no titular superior to act as a
+conduit-pipe between him and his successor. His crown is rigidly fixed;
+he can be removed only by the difficult method of impeachment. No
+hostile vote on matters of legislation can affect his position. But the
+end of his term is known from the first day of his government; and
+almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country are
+shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a change of
+government in America means a considerable change in the administrative
+staff (see CIVIL SERVICE). The commotion caused by a presidential
+election in the United States is thus infinitely greater and more
+prolonged than that caused by a general election in England. A change of
+power in England affects comparatively few personal interests, and
+absorbs the attention of the country for a comparatively short space of
+time. In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared
+for, and when it comes it involves the personal fortunes of large
+numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more democratic
+than the American, in the sense that the popular will can more speedily
+be brought to bear upon the government.
+
+_Change of Power in France._--The established practice of England and
+America may be compared with the constitutionalism of France. Here the
+problem presents different conditions. The head of the state is neither
+a premier of the English, nor a president of the American type. He is
+served by a prime minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry,
+hold office on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds
+office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like the
+others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet to cabinet is
+concerned, he discharges the functions of an English king. But the
+transmission of power between himself and his successor is protected by
+no constitutional devices whatever, and experience would seem to show
+that no such devices are really necessary. Other European countries
+professing constitutional government appear to follow the English
+practice. The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly
+fair to compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that,
+while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same persons
+are generally re-elected.
+
+_The Relation between Government and Laws._--It might be supposed that,
+if any general proposition could be established about government, it
+would be one establishing some constant relation between the form of a
+government and the character of the laws which it enforces. The
+technical language of the English school of jurists is certainly of a
+kind to encourage such a supposition. The entire body of law in force in
+a country at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of
+the governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit of
+this jurisprudence than the following:--"The real legislator is not he
+by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose will it continues to
+be law." The whole of the vast repertory of rules which make up the law
+of England--the rules of practice in the courts, the local customs of a
+county or a manor, the principles formulated by the sagacity of
+generations of judges, equally with the statutes for the year, are
+conceived of by the school of Austin as created by the will of the
+sovereign and the two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would
+now satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place to
+examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition, but the
+statement we have made carries on its face a demonstration of its own
+falsity in fact. There is probably no government in the world of which
+it could be said that it might change at will the substantive laws of
+the country and still remain a government. However well it may suit the
+purposes of analytical jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by
+sovereign to subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition,
+and that the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society,
+anything but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of a
+particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliberate will
+of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has illustrated this
+point by the case of the great tax-gathering empires of the east, in
+which the absolute master of millions of men never dreams of making
+anything in the nature of a law at all. This view is no doubt as strange
+to the English statesman as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous
+work of government in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For
+a large portion of the year the attention of the whole people is bent on
+the operations of a body of men who are constantly engaged in making new
+laws. It is natural, therefore, to think of law as a factitious thing,
+made and unmade by the people who happen for the time being to
+constitute parliament. It is forgotten how small a proportion the laws
+actually devised by parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the
+land. No European country has undergone so many changes in the form of
+government as France. It is surprising how little effect these political
+revolutions have had on the body of French law. The change from empire
+to republic is not marked by greater legislative effects than the change
+from a Conservative to a Liberal ministry in England would be.
+
+These reflections should make us cautious in accepting any general
+proposition about forms of government and the spirit of their laws. We
+must remember, also, that the classification of governments according to
+the numerical proportion between governors and governed supplies but a
+small basis for generalization. What parallel can be drawn between a
+small town, in which half the population are slaves, and every freeman
+has a direct voice in the government, and a great modern state, in which
+there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign
+powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates and
+representatives? Propositions as vague as those of Montesquieu may
+indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility. But to take any
+leading head of positive law, and to say that monarchies treat it in one
+way, aristocracies and democracies in another, is a different matter.
+
+
+II. SPHERE OF GOVERNMENT
+
+The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government in a
+civilized community shapes itself into the threefold functions of
+legislation, judicature and administration. The two first are perfectly
+well-defined, and the last includes all the kinds of state action not
+included in the other two. It is with reference to legislation and
+administration that the line of permissible state-action requires to be
+drawn. There is no doubt about the province of the judicature, and that
+function of government may therefore be dismissed with a very few
+observations.
+
+The complete separation of the three functions marks a high point of
+social organization. In simple societies the same officers discharge all
+the duties which we divide between the legislator, the administrator and
+the judge. The acts themselves are not consciously recognized as being
+of different kinds. The evolution of all the parts of a highly complex
+government from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the
+history of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modern
+government, however little they may resemble each other now, can be
+followed back without a break to their common origin. Parliament, the
+cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law, all carry us back to the
+same _nidus_ in the council of the feudal king.
+
+_Judicature._--The business of judicature, requiring as it does the
+possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge, is
+generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a separate and
+independent class of functionaries. In England the appellate
+jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains in theory the
+connexion between the supreme legislative and the supreme judicial
+functions. In some states of the American Union certain judicial
+functions of the upper house were for a time maintained after the
+example of the English constitution as it existed when the states were
+founded. In England there is also still a considerable amount of
+judicial work in which the people takes its share. The inferior
+magistracies, except in populous places, are in the hands of private
+persons. And by the jury system the ascertainment of fact has been
+committed in very large measure to persons selected indiscriminately
+from the mass of the people, subject to a small property qualification.
+But the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons whom
+the law has jealously fenced off from external interference and control.
+The independence of the bench distinguishes the English system from
+every other. It was established in principle as a barrier against
+monarchical power, and hence has become one of the traditional ensigns
+of popular government. In many of the American states the spirit of
+democracy has demanded the subjection of the judiciary to popular
+control. The judges are elected directly by the people, and hold office
+for a short term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the
+responsible executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses.
+At the same time the constitution of the United States has assigned to
+the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique position. The supreme
+court is the guardian of the constitution (as are the state courts of
+the constitution of the states: see UNITED STATES). It has to judge
+whether a measure passed by the legislative powers is not void by reason
+of being unconstitutional, and it may therefore have to veto the
+deliberate resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It
+is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been
+completely justified by its success.
+
+_Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration._--The
+question of the limits of state action does not arise with reference to
+the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a duty which the sovereign
+power must of absolute necessity take upon itself. But to what conduct
+of the citizens the laws shall extend is the most perplexing of all
+political questions. The correlative question with regard to the
+executive would be what works of public convenience should the state
+undertake through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere of
+government may be stated in these two questions: What should the state
+do for its citizens? and How far should the state interfere with the
+action of its citizens? These questions are the direct outcome of modern
+popular government; they are equally unknown to the small democracies of
+ancient times and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly
+ancient political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions,
+has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of government.
+The conception that the power of the state can be and ought to be
+limited belongs to the times of "government by discussion," to use
+Bagehot's expression,--to the time when the sovereign number is divided
+by class interests, and when the action of the majority has to be
+carried out in the face of strong minorities, capable of making
+themselves heard. Aristotle does indeed dwell on one aspect of the
+question. He would limit the action of the government in the sense of
+leaving as little as possible to the personal will of the governors,
+whether one or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that
+the sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by general
+principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign to ancient
+philosophy. The state is conceived as acting like a just man, and
+justice in the state is the same thing as justice in the individual. The
+Greek institutions which the philosophers are unanimous in commending
+are precisely those which the most state-ridden nations of modern times
+would agree in repudiating. The exhaustive discussion of all political
+measures, which for over two centuries has been a fixed habit of English
+public life, has of itself established the principle that there are
+assignable limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever
+have been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or less
+vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from the
+interference of the law. Phrases like "the liberty of the subject," the
+"sanctity of private property," "an Englishman's house is his castle,"
+"the rights of conscience," are the commonplaces of political
+discussion, and tell the state, "Thus far shalt thou go and no further."
+
+The two contrasting policies are those of _laissez-faire_ (let alone)
+and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism, the one a policy
+of non-interference with the free play of social forces, the other of
+their regulation for the benefit of the community. The _laissez-faire_
+theory was prominently upheld by John Stuart Mill, whose essay on
+_Liberty_, together with the concluding chapters of his treatise on
+_Political Economy_, gives a tolerably complete view of the principles
+of government. There is a general presumption against the interference
+of government, which is only to be overcome by very strong evidence of
+necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective than
+voluntary action. The necessary duties of government are so burdensome,
+that to increase them destroys its efficiency. Its powers are already so
+great that individual freedom is constantly in danger. As a general
+rule, nothing which can be done by the voluntary agency of individuals
+should be left to the state. Each man is the best judge of his own
+interests. But, on the other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to
+be useful or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary agency,
+or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot be considered
+capable of judging of the quality supplied, then Mill would allow the
+state to interpose. Thus the education of children, and even of adults,
+would fairly come within the province of the state. Mill even goes so
+far as to admit that, where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the
+establishment of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to
+labourers as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account
+of the refusal of individuals to co-operate, government may justifiably
+compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire to see some
+control exercised by the government over the operations of those
+voluntary associations which, consisting of large numbers of
+shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the hands of one or a
+few persons. In short, Mill's general rule against state action admits
+of many important exceptions, founded on no principle less vague than
+that of public expediency. The essay on _Liberty_ is mainly concerned
+with freedom of individual character, and its arguments apply to control
+exercised, not only by the state, but by society in the form of public
+opinion. The leading principle is that of Humboldt, "the absolute and
+essential importance of human development in its richest diversity."
+Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion and morals from the
+action, direct and indirect, of the state. Mill, as we have seen,
+conceives education to be within the province of the state, but he would
+confine its action to compelling parents to educate their children.
+
+The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however, is Herbert
+Spencer. In his _Social Statics_, published in 1850, he holds it to be
+the essential duty of government to _protect_--to maintain men's rights
+to life, to personal liberty and to property; and the theory that the
+government ought to undertake other offices besides that of protector he
+regards as an untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest
+exercise of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others.
+This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the duty and
+the only duty of the state to enforce. If the state goes beyond this
+duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an aggressor. Thus all state
+regulations of commerce, all religious establishments, all government
+relief of the poor, all state systems of education and of sanitary
+superintendence, even the state currency and the post-office, stand
+condemned, not only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as
+involving violations of man's natural liberty.
+
+The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of political
+practice than of political theory. In some cases state interference has
+been abolished or greatly limited. These cases are mainly two--in
+matters of opinion (especially religious opinion), and in matters of
+contract.
+
+  The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a
+  formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles as
+  ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; ESTABLISHMENT; MARRIAGE; OATH; ROMAN CATHOLIC
+  CHURCH, &c., and COMPANY; CONTRACT; PARTNERSHIP, &c. In other cases
+  the state has interfered for the protection and assistance of definite
+  classes of persons. For example, the education and protection of
+  children (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; EDUCATION; TECHNICAL
+  EDUCATION); the regulation of factory labour and dangerous employment
+  (see LABOUR LEGISLATION); improved conditions of health (see
+  ADULTERATION; HOUSING; PUBLIC HEALTH, LAW OF, &c.); coercion for moral
+  purposes (see BET AND BETTING; CRIMINAL LAW; GAMING AND WAGERING;
+  LIQUOR LAWS; LOTTERIES, &c.). Under numerous other headings in this
+  work the evolution of existing forms of government is discussed; see
+  also the bibliographical note to the article CONSTITUTION AND
+  CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that
+    any one of the depraved forms is better than any other.
+
+  [2] None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or
+    permanent conquests; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to
+    another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source
+    of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (_Essays_, part i. 3,
+    _That Politics may be reduced to a Science_), "free governments are
+    the most ruinous and oppressive for their provinces."
+
+  [3] Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to
+    have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the
+    peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only
+    on this view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to
+    land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was no
+    doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every
+    ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right
+    held of the crown by a vassal.
+
+  [4] See Bagehot's _English Constitution_; or, for a more recent
+    analysis, Sidney Low's _Governance of England_.
+
+  [5] For an account of the double chamber system in the state
+    legislatures see UNITED STATES: _Constitution and Government_, and
+    also S. G. Fisher, _The Evolution of the Constitution_ (Philadelphia,
+    1897).
+
+  [6] A government "defeat" may, of course, not really represent a
+    hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government
+    has obtained a reversal of the vote and has _not_ resigned.
+
+
+
+
+GOVERNOR (from the Fr. _gouverneur_, from _gouverner_, O. Fr.
+_governer_, Lat. _gubernare_, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in
+general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically, an
+official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c. In British
+colonies or dependencies the representative of the crown is termed a
+governor. Colonial governors are classed as governors-general, governors
+and lieutenant-governors, according to the status of the colony or group
+of colonies over which they preside. Their powers vary according to the
+position which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority of
+the crown. In the United States (q.v.) the official at the head of every
+state government is called a governor.
+
+
+
+
+GOW, NIEL (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parentage, famous as
+a violinist and player of reels, but more so for the part he played in
+preserving the old melodies of Scotland. His compositions, and those of
+his four sons, Nathaniel, the most famous (1763-1831), William
+(1751-1791), Andrew (1760-1803), and John (1764-1826), formed the "Gow
+Collection," comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a
+valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most important of
+Niel's sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as the author of the
+well-known "Caller Herrin," taken from the fishwives' cry, a tune to
+which words were afterwards written by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel's son,
+NIEL GOW junior (1795-1823), was the author of the famous songs "Flora
+Macdonald's Lament" and "Cam' ye by Athol."
+
+
+
+
+GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced age in 1408, so
+that he may be presumed to have been born about 1330. He belonged to a
+good Kentish family, but the suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the
+poet is to be identified with a John Gower who was at one time possessed
+of the manor of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no
+evidence that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was
+undoubtedly possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner
+of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk. In a
+document of 1382 he is called an "Esquier de Kent," and he was certainly
+not in holy orders. That he was acquainted with Chaucer we know, first
+because Chaucer in leaving England for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and
+another to represent him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer
+addressed his _Troilus and Criseide_ to Gower and Strode (whom he
+addresses as "moral Gower" and "philosophical Strode") for criticism and
+correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition of
+Gower's _Confessio amantis_, "And gret wel Chaucer whan ye mete," &c.
+There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion, based partly on the
+subsequent omission of these lines and partly on the humorous reference
+of Chaucer to Gower's _Confessio amantis_ in the introduction to the
+_Man of Law's Tale_, that the friendship was broken by a quarrel. From
+his Latin poem _Vox clamantis_ we know that he was deeply and painfully
+interested in the peasants' rising of 1381; and by the alterations which
+the author made in successive revisions of this work we can trace a
+gradually increasing sense of disappointment in the youthful king, whom
+he at first acquits of all responsibility for the state of the kingdom
+on account of his tender age. That he became personally known to the
+king we learn from his own statement in the first edition of the
+_Confessio amantis_, where he says that he met the king upon the river,
+was invited to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which
+followed received the suggestion which led him to write his principal
+English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the later
+revisions of the _Confessio amantis_, that he was a great admirer of the
+king's brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., whom
+he came eventually to regard as a possible saviour of society from the
+misgovernment of Richard II. We have a record that in 1393 he received a
+collar from his favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that
+the effigy upon Gower's tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the swan
+badge which was used by Henry.
+
+The first edition of the _Confessio amantis_ is dated 1390, and this
+contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication to the then
+earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry became the sole object of
+the dedication, is of the year 1393. Gower's political opinions are
+still more strongly expressed in the _Cronica tripartita_.
+
+In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the special licence
+granted by the bishop of Winchester for the celebration of this marriage
+in John Gower's private oratory we gather that he was then living in
+lodgings assigned to him within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps
+also that he was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is
+probable that this was not his first marriage, for there are indications
+in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when that was
+written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408, and his death took
+place very soon after this. He had been blind for some years before his
+death. A magnificent tomb with a recumbent effigy was erected over his
+grave in the chapel of St John the Baptist within the church of the
+priory, now St Saviour's, Southwark, and this is still to be seen,
+though not quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on
+the tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a
+considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely to the
+rebuilding of the church.
+
+The effigy on Gower's tomb rests its head upon a pile of three folio
+volumes entitled _Speculum meditantis_, _Vox clamantis_ and _Confessio
+amantis_. These are his three principal works. The first of these was
+long supposed to have perished, but a copy of it was discovered in the
+year 1895 under the title _Mirour de l'omme_. It is a French poem of
+about 30,000 lines in twelve-line stanzas, and under the form of an
+allegory of the human soul describes the seven deadly sins and their
+opposing virtues, and then the various estates of man and the vices
+incident to each, concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin
+Mary, and with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God
+and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part, but shows
+considerable command over the language and a great facility in metrical
+expression.
+
+Gower's next work was the _Vox clamantis_ in Latin elegiac verse, in
+which the author takes occasion from the peasants' insurrection of 1381
+to deal again with the faults of the various classes of society. In the
+earlier portion the insurrection itself is described in a rather vivid
+manner, though under the form of an allegory: the remainder contains
+much the same material as we have already seen in that part of the
+French poem where the classes of society are described. Gower's Latin
+verse is very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book
+he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam, Peter de Riga
+and others.
+
+Gower's chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests upon his
+English work, the _Confessio amantis_, in which he displays in his
+native language a real gift as a story-teller. He is himself the lover
+of his poem, in spite of his advancing years, and he makes his
+confession to Genius, the priest of Venus, under the usual headings
+supplied by the seven deadly sins. These with their several branches are
+successively described, and the nature of them illustrated by tales,
+which are directed to the illustration both of the general nature of the
+sin, and of the particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he
+receives at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of
+Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious, and
+there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application of moral
+ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress. The tales are
+drawn from very various sources and are often extremely well told. The
+metre is the short couplet, and it is extremely smooth and regular. The
+great fault of the _Confessio amantis_ is the extent of its digressions,
+especially in the fifth and seventh books.
+
+Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades on the virtue
+of the married state (_Traitie pour essampler les amantz maries_), and
+after the accession of Henry IV. he produced the _Cronica tripartita_, a
+partisan account in Latin leonine hexameters of the events of the last
+twelve years of the reign of Richard II. About the same time he
+addressed an English poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (_In Praise
+of Peace_), and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades
+(_Cinkante Balades_), which deal with the conventional topics of love,
+but are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several
+occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his life.
+
+On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had considerable literary
+powers; and though not a man of genius, and by no means to be compared
+with Chaucer, yet he did good service in helping to establish the
+standard literary language, which at the end of the 14th century took
+the place of the Middle English dialects. The _Confessio amantis_ was
+long regarded as a classic of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were
+often mentioned side by side as the fathers of English poetry.
+
+  A complete edition of Gower's works in four volumes, edited by G. C.
+  Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume containing the
+  French works, the second and third the English, and the fourth the
+  Latin, with a biography. Before this the _Confessio amantis_ had been
+  published in the following editions: Caxton (1483); Berthelette (1532
+  and 1554); Chalmers, _British Poets_ (1810); Reinhold Pauli (1857); H.
+  Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series of French ballades and the
+  _Praise of Peace_ were printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1818, and the
+  _Vox clamantis_ and _Cronica tripartita_ were edited by H. O. Coxe for
+  the Roxburghe Club in 1850. The _Cronica tripartita_, the _Praise of
+  Peace_ and some of the minor Latin poems were printed in Wright's
+  _Political Poems_ (Rolls series, 14). The _Praise of Peace_ appeared
+  in the early folio editions of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr
+  Skeat in his _Chaucerian and other Pieces_. Reference may be made to
+  Todd's _Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer_;
+  the article (by Sir H. Nicolas) in the _Retrospective Review_ for
+  1828; _Observations on the Language of Chaucer and Gower_, by F. J.
+  Child; H. Morley's English Writers, iv.; Ten Brink's _History of Early
+  English Literature_, ii.; and Courthope's _History of English Poetry_,
+  i.     (G. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GOWER, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan, lying
+between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between Breconshire and the sea,
+its length from the Breconshire border to Worm's Head being 28 m., and
+its breadth about 8 m. It corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower
+(in Welsh _Gwyr_) which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other
+commotes stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the
+principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the country to
+the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by its continued
+inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural deaneries, West and
+East Gower, being in the archdeaconry of Carmarthen. What is meant by
+Gower in modern popular usage, however, is only the peninsular part or
+"English Gower" (that is the Welsh _Bro-wyr_, as distinct from _Gwyr_
+proper), roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying
+mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor.
+
+The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their immense
+deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are far scantier,
+those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave being the most
+important. In the Roman period the river Tawe, or the great morass
+between it and the Neath, probably formed the boundary between the
+Silures and the Goidelic population to the west. The latter, reinforced
+perhaps from Ireland, continued to be the dominant race in Gower till
+their conquest or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of
+Cunedda who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries
+later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of their
+more or less temporary occupation in such place-names as Burry Holms,
+Worms Head and Swansea, and probably also in some cliff earthworks.
+About the year 1100 the conquest of Gower was undertaken by Henry de
+Newburgh, first earl of Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de
+Londres and others. His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the
+marches and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled
+for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving the
+Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically undisturbed.
+These invaders were probably reinforced a little later by a small
+detachment of the larger colony of Flemings which settled in south
+Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which in some cases developed into
+castles, were built for the protection of the various manors into which
+the district was parcelled out, the castles of Swansea and Loughor being
+ascribed to the earl of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de
+Londres. These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during
+the 12th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in 1113, by his
+son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting in concert with
+Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last Prince Llewelyn in 1257.
+With the Norman conquest the feudal system was introduced, and the
+manors were held _in capite_ of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard
+of the castle of Swansea, the _caput baroniae_.
+
+About 1189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family to the crown and
+was granted in 1203 by King John to William de Braose, in whose family
+it remained for over 120 years except for three short intervals when it
+was held for a second time by King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the
+Great (1216-1223), and the Despensers (c. 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh
+and English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of their
+treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from King John,
+who also visited the town of Swansea in 1210 and in 1215 granted its
+merchants liberal privileges. In 1283 a number of de Braose's
+tenants--unquestionably Welshmen--left Gower for the royal lordship of
+Carmarthen, declaring that they would live under the king rather than
+under a lord marcher. In the following year the king visited de Braose
+at Oystermouth Castle, which seems to have been made the lord's chief
+residence, after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later on
+the king's officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen
+repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavouring to
+reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with semi-regal
+jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of the new county. De
+Braose resisted the claim and organized the English part of his lordship
+on the lines of a county palatine, with its own _comitatus_ and chancery
+held in Swansea Castle, the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by
+himself. The inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown
+against their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king,
+who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into their alleged
+grievances, but in the following year the de Braose of the time,
+probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both to the burgesses of
+Swansea and to the English and Welsh inhabitants of his "county" of
+English Gower. He was the last lord seignior to live within the
+seigniory, which passed from him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray.
+Other troubles befell the de Braose barons and their successors in
+title, for their right to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps,
+representatives of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation
+carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps being
+actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was given in their
+favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted to the Mowbrays and
+was held by them until the 4th duke of Norfolk exchanged it in 1489,
+for lands in England, with William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The
+latter's granddaughter brought it to her husband Charles Somerset, who
+in 1506 was granted her father's subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow,
+Raglan and Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present
+lord, the duke of Beaufort.
+
+Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by its inclusion
+in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then reorganized; its chancery,
+which from about the beginning of the 14th century had been located at
+Oystermouth Castle, came to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535
+and 1542 purported to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords
+marchers as conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded
+as private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance, the
+seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till 1858, when
+it was abolished by act of parliament, the appointment of coroner for
+Gower is still vested in him, all writs are executed by the lord's
+officers instead of by the officers of the sheriff for the county, and
+the lord's rights to the foreshore, treasure trove, felon's goods and
+wrecks are undiminished.
+
+The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south and
+south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this part that
+was declared by Professor Freeman to be "more Teutonic than Kent
+itself." The seaside fringe lying between this area and the town of
+Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west of the peninsula, also became
+anglicized at a comparatively early date, though the place-names and the
+names of the inhabitants are still mainly Welsh. The present line of
+demarcation between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea in a
+W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It has remained
+practically the same for several centuries, and is likely to continue
+so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern outcrop of the coal
+measures, the industrial population to the north being Welsh-speaking,
+the agriculturists to the south being English. In 1901 the Gower rural
+district (which includes the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of
+Llanrhidian, with about three-sevenths of the total population) had
+64.5% of the population above three years of age that spoke English
+only, 5.2% that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as
+compared with 17% speaking English only, 17.7% speaking Welsh only and
+the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7% speaking
+English only, 55.2% speaking Welsh only and the rest bilinguals in the
+Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts constituting Welsh
+Gower.
+
+More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed common
+land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is apparently capable of
+cultivation. Besides the demesne manors of the lord seignior, six in
+number, there are some twelve mesne manors and fees belonging to the
+Penrice estate, and nearly twenty more belonging to various other
+owners. The tenure is customary freehold, though in some cases described
+as copyhold, and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is
+by borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller in
+size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales, and
+agriculture is still in a backward state.
+
+In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of Goire as the
+island home of the dead, a view which probably sprang up among the Celts
+of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula would appear as an island. It is also
+surmised by Sir John Rhys that Malory's Brandegore (i.e. Bran of Gower)
+represents the Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, _Arthurian Legend_,
+160, 329 et seq.). On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula,
+is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur's Stone. The
+unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty by Sir
+Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower was a favourite
+burial-place in early British times.
+
+  See Rev. J. D. Davies, _A History of West Gower_ (4 vols., 1877-1894);
+  Col. W. Ll-Morgan, _An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower_ (1899); an
+  article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled "Anglia
+  Trans-Walliana" in the _Saturday Review_ for May 20, 1876; "The
+  Signory of Gower" by G. T. Clark in _Archaeologia Cambrensis_ for
+  1893-1894; _The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey_, ed. by Baker and
+  Grant-Francis (1861-1870).     (D. Ll. T.)
+
+
+
+
+GOWN, properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly worn by
+either sex but now generally for that worn by women. While "dress" is
+the usual English word, except in such combinations as "tea-gown,"
+"dressing-gown" and the like, where the original loose flowing nature of
+the "gown" is referred to, "gown" is the common American word. "Gown"
+comes from the O. Fr. _goune_ or _gonne_. The word appears in various
+Romanic languages, cf. Ital. _gonna_. The medieval Lat. _gunna_ is used
+of a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually adopted,
+but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from the English. Outside
+the ordinary use of the word, "gown" is the name for the distinctive
+robes worn by holders of particular offices or by members of particular
+professions or of universities, &c. (see ROBES).
+
+
+
+
+GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN, 3RD EARL OF (c. 1577-1600), Scottish conspirator,
+was the second son of William, 4th Lord Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie
+(cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea, daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord
+Methven. The Ruthven family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had
+owned extensive estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven
+peerage dated from the year 1488. The 1st earl of Gowrie (? 1541-1584),
+and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 1520-1566), had both been
+concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and both took an active part
+on the side of the Kirk in the constant intrigues and factions among the
+Scottish nobility of the period. The former had been the custodian of
+Mary, queen of Scots, during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where,
+according to the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions; he
+had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the "raid of Ruthven"
+when King James VI. was treacherously seized while a guest at the castle
+of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under restraint for several months while
+the earl remained at the head of the government. Though pardoned for
+this conspiracy he continued to plot against the king in conjunction
+with the earls of Mar and Angus; and he was executed for high treason on
+the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession on
+which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise of pardon
+from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of Gowrie, only
+survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates, which had been
+forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586.
+
+When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom while still a
+child, he inherited along with his vast estates family traditions of
+treason and intrigue. There was also a popular belief, though without
+foundation, that there was Tudor blood in his veins; and Burnet
+afterwards asserted that Gowrie stood next in succession to the crown of
+England after King James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him,
+the young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming preachers,
+who procured his election in 1592 as provost of Perth, a post that was
+almost hereditary in the Ruthven family. He received an excellent
+education at the grammar school of Perth and the university of
+Edinburgh, where he was in the summer of 1593, about the time when his
+mother, and his sister the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing
+himself sword in hand into the king's bedchamber in Holyrood Palace. A
+few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in offering to
+serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile to the Scottish king;
+and it is probable that he had also relations with the rebellious
+Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already deeply engaged in treasonable
+conspiracy when, in August 1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor,
+William Rhynd, to study at the university of Padua. On his way home in
+1599 he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer Theodore
+Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the English ambassador, who
+reported him to Cecil as devoted to Elizabeth's service, and a nobleman
+"of whom there may be exceeding use made." In Paris he may also at this
+time have had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London
+he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her ministers.
+
+
+  The Gowrie conspiracy.
+
+These circumstances owe their importance to the light they throw on the
+obscurity of the celebrated "Gowrie conspiracy," which resulted in the
+slaughter of the earl and his brother by attendants of King James at
+Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks after Gowrie's return to Scotland in
+May 1600. This event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history. The
+mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in any of the
+alternative hypotheses suggested to account for the unquestionable facts
+of the occurrence; the discrepancies in the evidence produced at the
+time; the apparent lack of forethought or plan on the part of the chief
+actors, whichever hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless
+folly of their actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive,
+whoever the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery
+that have been suggested are three in number: first, that Gowrie and his
+brother had concocted a plot to murder, or more probably to kidnap King
+James, and that they lured him to Gowrie House for this purpose;
+secondly, that James paid a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the
+intention, which he carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and
+thirdly, that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl
+following high words between the king and the earl, or his brother. To
+understand the relative probabilities of these hypotheses regard must be
+had to the condition of Scotland in the year 1600 (see SCOTLAND:
+_History_). Here it can only be recalled that plots to capture the
+person of the sovereign for the purpose of coercing his actions were of
+frequent occurrence, more than one of which had been successful, and in
+several of which the Ruthven family had themselves taken an active part;
+that the relations between England and Scotland were at this time more
+than usually strained, and that the young earl of Gowrie was reckoned in
+London among the adherents of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at
+variance with James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of
+their cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him to
+Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be James's rival
+for the succession to the English crown. Moreover, as regards the
+question of motive it is to be observed, on the one hand, that the
+Ruthvens believed Gowrie's father to have been treacherously done to
+death, and his widow insulted by the king's favourite minister; while,
+on the other, James was indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of
+Gowrie's estate, and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his
+brother, Alexander Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although
+the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance connected
+with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined by historians of
+the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted that the mystery has been
+entirely dispelled; but, while it is improbable that complete certainty
+will ever be arrived at as to whether the guilt lay with James or with
+the Ruthven brothers, the most modern research in the light of materials
+inaccessible or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly
+to the conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and his
+brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution, it follows
+that King James was innocent of the blood of the Ruthvens; and it raises
+the presumption that his own account of the occurrence was, in spite of
+the glaring improbabilities which it involved, substantially true.
+
+
+  The slaughter of the Ruthvens.
+
+The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in outline, as
+follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose early to hunt in the
+neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about 14 m. from Perth. Just as he was
+setting forth in company with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir
+Thomas Erskine and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known
+as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of Gowrie, who
+had ridden from Perth that morning to inform the king that he had met on
+the previous day a man in possession of a pitcher full of foreign gold
+coins, whom he had secretly locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven
+urged the king to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to
+take possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave credit
+to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins was one of the
+numerous Catholic agents at that time moving about Scotland in disguise.
+Without giving a positive reply to Alexander Ruthven, James started to
+hunt; but later in the morning he called Ruthven to him and said he
+would ride to Perth when the hunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a
+servant, Henderson, by whom he had been accompanied from Perth in the
+early morning, to tell Gowrie that the king was coming to Gowrie House.
+This messenger gave the information to Gowrie about ten o'clock in the
+morning. Meanwhile Alexander Ruthven was urging the king to lose no
+time, requesting him to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and
+to bring to Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a
+train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about one
+o'clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for a mile or so to
+announce the king's approach. But notwithstanding Henderson's warning
+some three hours earlier, Gowrie had made no preparations for the king's
+entertainment, thus giving the impression of having been taken by
+surprise. After a meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour,
+James, forbidding his retainers to follow him, went with Alexander
+Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers and two
+doors, both of which Ruthven locked behind them, into a turret-room at
+the angle of the house, with windows looking on the courtyard and the
+street. Here James expected to find the mysterious prisoner with the
+foreign gold. He found instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was
+none other than Gowrie's servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven
+immediately put on his hat, and drawing Henderson's dagger, presented it
+to the king's breast with threats of instant death if James opened a
+window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven to the execution of
+his father, the 1st earl of Gowrie, drew from James a reproof of
+Ruthven's ingratitude for various benefits conferred on his family.
+Ruthven then uncovered his head, declaring that James's life should be
+safe if he remained quiet; then, committing the king to the custody of
+Henderson, he left the turret--ostensibly to consult Gowrie--and locked
+the door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned
+Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the purpose for
+which he had been placed in the turret; he also at James's request
+opened one of the windows, and was about to open the other when Ruthven
+returned. Whether or not Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain.
+But Gowrie had meantime spread the report below that the king had taken
+horse and had ridden away; and the royal retinue were seeking their
+horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret, attempted to
+bind James's hands; a struggle ensued, in the course of which the king
+was seen at the window by some of his followers below in the street, who
+also heard him cry "treason" and call for help to the earl of Mar.
+Gowrie affected not to hear these cries, but kept asking what was the
+matter. Lennox, Mar and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the
+main staircase to the king's help, but were stopped by the locked door,
+which they spent some time in trying to batter down. John Ramsay
+(afterwards earl of Holdernesse), noticing a small dark stairway leading
+directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it and found
+the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing his dagger, Ramsay
+wounded Ruthven, who was then pushed down the stairway by the king. Sir
+Thomas Erskine, summoned by Ramsay, now followed up the small stairs
+with Dr Hugh Herries, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven
+despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the courtyard with
+his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother's body, rushed up
+the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed by Cranstoun and
+others of his retainers; and in the melee Gowrie was killed. Some
+commotion was caused in the town by the noise of these proceedings; but
+it quickly subsided, though the king did not deem it safe to return to
+Falkland for some hours.
+
+
+  The Sprot forgeries.
+
+The tragedy caused intense excitement throughout Scotland, and the
+investigation of the circumstances was followed with much interest in
+England also, where all the details were reported to Elizabeth's
+ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose influence in Scotland was
+too extensive for the king to neglect, were only with the greatest
+difficulty persuaded to accept James's account of the occurrence,
+although he voluntarily submitted himself to cross-examination by one of
+their number. Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no
+doubt by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented
+the story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to cover his own design to extirpate
+the Ruthven family. James gave some colour to this belief, which has not
+been entirely abandoned, by the relentless severity with which he
+pursued the two younger, and unquestionably innocent, brothers of the
+earl. Great efforts were made by the government to prove the complicity
+of others in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert
+Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been privy to
+the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters produced by a
+notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been written by Logan to Gowrie
+and others. These letters, which are still in existence, were in fact
+forged by Sprot in imitation of Logan's handwriting; but the researches
+of Andrew Lang have shown cause for suspecting that the most important
+of them was either copied by Sprot from a genuine original by Logan, or
+that it embodied the substance of such a letter. If this be correct, it
+would appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan's
+impregnable fortress on the coast of Berwickshire, was part of the plot;
+and it supplies, at all events, an additional piece of evidence to prove
+the genuineness of the Gowrie conspiracy.
+
+Gowrie's two younger brothers, William and Patrick Ruthven, fled to
+England; and after the accession of James to the English throne William
+escaped abroad, but Patrick was taken and imprisoned for nineteen years
+in the Tower of London. Released in 1622, Patrick Ruthven resided first
+at Cambridge and afterwards in Somersetshire, being granted a small
+pension by the crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford, widow of the 1st
+Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a daughter, Mary; the latter
+entered the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and married the famous
+painter van Dyck, who painted several portraits of her. Patrick died in
+poverty in a cell in the King's Bench in 1652, being buried as "Lord
+Ruthven." His son, Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in
+1656, in which, after reciting that the parliament of Scotland in 1641
+had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, he prayed that his
+"extreme poverty" might be relieved by the bounty of the Protector.
+
+  See Andrew Lang, _James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (London, 1902),
+  and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, _Criminal Trials in
+  Scotland_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1833); David Moysie, _Memoirs of the
+  Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603_ (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A. Barbe,
+  _The Tragedy of Gowrie House_ (London, 1887); Andrew Bisset, _Essays
+  on Historical Truth_ (London, 1871); David Calderwood, _History of the
+  Kirk of Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); P. F. Tytler,
+  _History of Scotland_ (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1828-1843); John Hill
+  Burton, _History of Scotland_ (7 vols., Edinburgh, 1867-1870). W. A.
+  Craigie has edited as _Skotlands Rimur_ some Icelandic ballads
+  relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also printed the Danish
+  translation of the official account of the conspiracy, which was
+  published at Copenhagen in 1601.     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GOWRIE, a belt of fertile alluvial land (_Scotice_, "carse") of
+Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the Firth of Tay,
+it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends from the eastern
+boundaries of Perth city to the confines of Dundee. It measures 15 m. in
+length, its breadth from the river towards the base of the Sidlaw Hills
+varying from 2 to 4 m. Probably it is a raised beach, submerged until a
+comparatively recent period. Although it contained much bog land and
+stagnant water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained
+and cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in
+Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its castles and
+mansions, almost wholly residential, among which may be mentioned
+Kinfauns Castle, Inchyra House, Pitfour Castle, Errol Park, Megginch
+Castle, dating from 1575; Fingask Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in
+the 15th century and occupied by James VI. in 1617; Rossie Priory, the
+seat of Lord Kinnaird; and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of
+Kinghorne.
+
+
+
+
+GOYA, a river town and port of Corrientes, Argentine Republic, the
+commercial centre of the south-western departments of the province and
+chief town of a department of the same name, on a _riacho_ or side
+channel of the Parana about 5 m. from the main channel and about 120 m.
+S. of the city of Corrientes. Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built
+on low ground which is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but
+its streets are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is
+good. Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a
+national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood are chiefly
+pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and oranges. Goya
+had an export of crudely-made cheese long before the modern cheese
+factories of the Argentine Republic came into existence. The place dates
+from 1807, and had its origin, it is said, in the trade established
+there by a ship captain and his wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied
+passing vessels with beef.
+
+
+
+
+GOYANNA, or GOIANA, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of the state of
+Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernambuco. Pop.(1890) 15,436.
+It is built on a fertile plain between the rivers Tracunhaem and
+Capibaribe-mirim near their junction to form the Goyanna river, and is
+15 m. from the coast. It is surrounded by, and is the commercial centre
+for, one of the richest agricultural districts of the state, which
+produces sugar, rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor
+oil. The Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the
+city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna is
+one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the Dutch from
+1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches, an orphans' asylum,
+hospital and some small industries.
+
+
+
+
+GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO (1746-1828), Spanish painter, was born in
+1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese village near Saragossa. At an
+early age he commenced his artistic career under the direction of Jose
+Luzan Martinez, who had studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It
+is clear that the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by
+diligent study of the best Italian masters did not much influence his
+erratic pupil. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold, capricious,
+headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent part on more than one
+occasion in those rival religious processions at Saragossa which often
+ended in unseemly frays; and his friends were led in consequence to
+despatch him in his nineteenth year to Madrid, where, prior to his
+departure for Rome, his mode of life appears to have been anything but
+that of a quiet orderly citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with
+a voice, he sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the
+capital, with whom he seems to have been a very general favourite.
+
+Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandalizing by his
+mode of life the sedate court officials, he did not receive--perhaps did
+not seek--the usual honorarium accorded to those students who visited
+Rome for the purpose of study. Finding it convenient to retire for a
+time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own cost; and being
+without resources he joined a "quadrilla" of bull-fighters, passing from
+town to town until he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next
+hear of him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt. In
+1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition initiated by the
+academy of Parma, styling himself "pupil to Bayeu, painter to the king
+of Spain." Compelled to quit Rome somewhat suddenly, he appears again in
+Madrid in 1775, the husband of Bayeu's daughter, and father of a son.
+About this time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos,
+no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre works. On
+returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases for the tapestry
+factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king took much interest. Between
+1776 and 1780 he appears to have supplied thirty examples, receiving
+about L1200 for them. Soon after the revolution of 1868, an official was
+appointed to take an inventory of all works of art belonging to the
+nation, and in one of the cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered
+forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected (see
+_Los Tapices de Goya; por Cruzado Villaamil, Madrid_, 1870).
+
+His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs, the king's
+painter, and royal favour naturally followed. His career now becomes
+intimately connected with the court life of his time. He was
+commissioned by the king to design a series of frescoes for the church
+of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid, and he also produced works for
+Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo. Ecclesiastical art was not his forte,
+and although he cannot be said to have failed in any of his work, his
+fame was not enhanced by his religious subjects.
+
+In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled: his portraits are
+evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained flattery. He
+worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid painted, amongst many
+others, the portraits of four sovereigns of Spain--Charles III. and IV.,
+Ferdinand VII. and "King Joseph." The duke of Wellington also sat to
+him; but on his making some remark which raised the artist's choler,
+Goya seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There
+are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in the British Museum,
+the other in a private collection. One of his best portraits is that of
+the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva. He now became the spoiled child
+of fortune, and acquired, at any rate externally, much of the polish of
+court manners. He still worked industriously upon his own lines, and,
+while there is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his
+portraits, the stern individuality is always preserved.
+
+Including the designs for tapestry, Goya's genre works are numerous and
+varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-like "Al Fresco
+Breakfast," "Romeria de San Isidro," to the "Curate feeding the Devil's
+Lamp," the "Meson del Gallo," and the painfully realistic massacre of
+the "Dos de Mayo" (1808). Goya's versatility is proverbial; in his hands
+the pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his crayon
+sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and character,
+slight but full of meaning. He was in his thirty-second year when he
+commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose influence may, however, be
+traced in his work at an earlier date. A careful examination of some of
+the drawings made for these etchings indicates a steadiness of purpose
+not usually discovered in Goya's craft as draughtsman. He is much more
+widely known by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must
+be sought in public and private collections, principally in Spain, while
+the former are known and prized in every capital of Europe. The etched
+collections by which Goya is best known include "Los Caprichos," which
+have a satirical meaning known only to the few; they are bold, weird and
+full of force. "Los Proverbios" are also supposed to have some hidden
+intention. "Los Desastres de la Guerra" may fairly claim to depict Spain
+during the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently
+at home; he was a skilled master of the barbarous art, and no doubt
+every sketch is true to nature, and from life.
+
+Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter years to
+escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at Bordeaux on the
+16th of April 1828, and a monument has been erected there over his
+remains. From the deaths of Velasquez and Murillo to the advent of
+Fortuny, Goya's name is the only important one found in the history of
+Spanish art.
+
+  See also the lives by Paul Lefort (1877), and Yriarte (1867).
+
+
+
+
+GOYAZ, an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Grosso and Para on
+the W., Maranhao, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the E., and Minas Geraes and
+Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1890) 227,572; (1900) 255,284, including
+many half-civilized Indians and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq. m.
+The outline of the state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin
+edge extending northward between and up to the junction of the rivers
+Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly 15 deg. of
+latitude. The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian plateau
+region, but its surface is much broken towards the N. by the deeply
+eroded valleys of the Araguaya and Upper Tocantins rivers and their
+tributaries. The general slope of the plateau is toward the N., and the
+drainage of the state is chiefly through the above-named rivers--the
+principal tributaries of the Araguaya being the Grande and Vermelho, and
+of the Upper Tocantins, the Manoel Alves Grande, Somno, Paranan and
+Maranhao. A considerable part of southern Goyaz, however, slopes
+southward and the drainage is through numerous small streams flowing
+into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the Parana. The general
+elevation of the plateau is estimated to be about 2700 ft., and the
+highest elevation was reported in 1892 to be the Serra dos Pyreneos
+(5250 ft.). Crossing the state N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined
+chain of mountains, of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rita and Santa Martha
+ranges form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great.
+The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby arboreal
+growth called _caatingas_, but the streams are generally bordered with
+forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards the N. the forest
+becomes denser and of the character of the Amazon Valley. The climate of
+the plateau is usually described as temperate, but it is essentially
+sub-tropical. The valley regions are tropical, and malarial fevers are
+common. The cultivation of the soil is limited to local needs, except in
+the production of tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The
+open campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported.
+Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more than two
+centuries, but the output has never been large and no very rich mines
+have been discovered. Diamonds have been found, but only to a very
+limited extent. There is a considerable export of quartz crystal,
+commercially known as "Brazilian pebbles," used in optical work.
+Although the northern and southern extremities of Goyaz lie within two
+great river systems--the Tocantins and Parana--the upper courses of
+which are navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only
+outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the railway
+termini of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the extension of railways
+from both of those states, one entering Goyaz by way of Catalao, near
+the southern boundary, and the other at some point further N.
+
+The capital of the state is GOYAZ, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a mining town
+on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya rising on the northern
+slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop. (1890) 6807. Gold was discovered
+here in 1682 by Bartholomeu Bueno, the first European explorer of this
+region, and the settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which
+is still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren, rocky
+mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the heat is most
+oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly cold. Goyaz is the
+see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and possesses a small cathedral and
+some churches.
+
+
+
+
+GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch painter, was born at
+Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned painting under several
+masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married in 1618 and settled at the Hague
+about 1631. He was one of the first to emancipate himself from the
+traditions of minute imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and
+Savery. Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those
+painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with
+considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He formed
+Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention from Rembrandt, and
+bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter de Molyn, Coelenbier,
+Saftleven, van der Kabel and even Berghem. His life at the Hague for
+twenty-five years was very prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be
+president of his gild. A friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der
+Helst, he sat to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter
+Margaret married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder
+Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the Hague. He
+died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and houses to the amount of
+15,000 florins.
+
+Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school to the other.
+He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh; he then passed through
+the workshops of de Man, Klok and de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive
+step and joined Esaias van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier
+pictures, some of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show
+the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is minute.
+Details of branching and foliage are given, and the figures are
+important in relation to the distances. After 1625 these peculiarities
+gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in landscapes of cool tints
+varying from grey green to pearl or brown and yellow dun is the
+principal object which van Goyen holds in view, and he succeeds
+admirably in light skies with drifting misty cloud, and downs with
+cottages and scanty shrubbery or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of
+foliage he now works in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of
+sepia or Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or
+lucidity. Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate
+light and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most pleasing
+views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with shipping near the
+banks, he sometimes has the strength if not the colour of Albert Cuyp.
+The defect of his work is chiefly want of solidity. But even this had
+its charm for van Goyen's contemporaries, and some time elapsed before
+Cuyp, who imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to
+the foliage of foreground trees.
+
+Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collections, but
+his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly at the Louvre, and in
+Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works
+were exhibited together at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once
+or twice, van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland
+and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views of
+Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts. But he was also
+fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did not neglect Arnheim or
+Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is a view of the Hague, executed in
+1651 for the municipality, and now in the town collection of that city.
+Most of his panels represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the
+Maese. But he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea
+at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict the calm
+inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more than a curling
+breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often painted winter scenes,
+with ice and skaters and sledges, in the style familiar to Isaac van
+Ostade. There are numerous varieties of these subjects in the master's
+works from 1621 to 1653. One historical picture has been assigned to van
+Goyen--the "Embarkation of Charles II." in the Bute collection. But this
+canvas was executed after van Goyen's death. When he tried this form of
+art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he produced little in
+partnership with his contemporaries, and we can only except the
+"Watering-place" in the gallery of Vienna, where the landscape is
+enlivened with horses and cattle by Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen,
+who was his son-in-law, only painted figures for one of his pictures,
+and it is probable that this piece was completed after van Goyen's
+death. More than 250 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible.
+Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist without the
+full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter whose hand it is
+easier to trace without the help of these adjuncts. An etcher, but a
+poor one, van Goyen has only bequeathed to us two very rare plates.
+
+
+
+
+GOZLAN, LEON (1806-1866), French novelist and play-writer, was born on
+the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles. When he was still a boy, his
+father, who had made a large fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series
+of misfortunes, and Leon, before completing his education, had to go to
+sea in order to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined
+to run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Mery, who was
+then making himself famous by his political satires, introduced him to
+several newspapers, and Gozlan's brilliant articles in the _Figaro_ did
+much harm to the already tottering government of Charles X. His first
+novel was _Les Memoires d'un apothicaire_ (1828), and this was followed
+by numberless others, among which may be mentioned _Washington Levert et
+Socrate Leblanc_ (1838), _Le Notaire de Chantilly_ (1836), _Aristide
+Froissart_ (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his
+productions), _Les Nuits du Pere Lachaise_ (1846), _Le Tapis vert_
+(1855), _La Folle du logis_ (1857), _Les Emotions de Polydore Marasquin_
+(1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are--_La Pluie et le
+beau temps_ (1861), and _Une Tempete dans un verre d'eau_ (1850), two
+curtain-raisers which have kept the stage; _Le Lion empaille_ (1848),
+_La Queue du chien d'Alcibiade_ (1849), _Louise de Nanteuil_ (1854), _Le
+Gateau des reines_ (1855), _Les Paniers de la comtesse_ (1852); and he
+adapted several of his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a
+romantic and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions of
+his country entitled _Les Chateaux de France_ (2 vols., 1844),
+originally published (1836) as _Les Tourelles_, which has some
+archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (_Balzac chez
+lui_, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1846, and
+in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan died on the 14th of September
+1866, in Paris.
+
+  See also P. Audebrand, _Leon Gozlan_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+GOZO (GOZZO), an island of the Maltese group in the Mediterranean Sea,
+second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3-1/4 m. from the nearest
+point of Malta, is of oval form, 8-3/4 m. in length and 4-1/2 m. in
+extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m. Its chief town,
+Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901, 5057) stands near the
+middle of the island on one of a cluster of steep conical hills, 3-1/2
+m. from the port of Migiarro Bay, on the south-east shore, below Fort
+Chambray. The character of the island is similar to that of Malta. The
+estimated population in 1907 was 21,911.
+
+
+
+
+GOZZI, CARLO, COUNT (1722-1806), Italian dramatist, was descended from
+an old Venetian family, and was born at Venice in March 1722. Compelled
+by the embarrassed condition of his father's affairs to procure the
+means of self-support, he, at the age of sixteen, joined the army in
+Dalmatia; but three years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he
+soon made a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the
+Granelleschi society, to which the publication of several satirical
+pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally devoted to
+conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims, and was especially
+zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature pure and untainted by foreign
+influences. The displacement of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of
+Pietro Chiari (1700-1788) and Goldoni, founded on French models,
+threatened defeat to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the
+rescue by publishing a satirical poem, _Tartana degli influssi per l'
+anno bisestile_, and in 1761 by his comedy, _Fiaba dell' amore delle tre
+melarancie_, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets, founded
+on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained the services of the
+Sacchi company of players, who, on account of the popularity of the
+comedies of Chiari and Goldoni--which afforded no scope for the display
+of their peculiar talents--had been left without employment; and as
+their satirical powers were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play
+met with extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the
+audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical element,
+which he had merely used as a convenient medium for his satirical
+purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic pieces based on fairy
+tales, which for a period obtained great popularity, but after the
+breaking up of the Sacchi company were completely disregarded. They
+have, however, obtained high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de
+Stael and Sismondi; and one of them, _Re Turandote_, was translated by
+Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production of
+tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced; but as this
+innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had recourse to the
+Spanish drama, from which he obtained models for various pieces, which,
+however, met with only equivocal success. He died on the 4th of April
+1806.
+
+  His collected works were published under his own superintendence, at
+  Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works, translated
+  into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in 1795. See Gozzi's
+  work, _Memorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gozzi_ (3 vols., Venice,
+  1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset (1848), and into
+  English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, _Uber Gozzis dramatische
+  Poesie_ (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, _Vita di Gasp. Gozzi_ (1821);
+  "Charles Gozzi," by Paul de Musset, in the _Revue des deux mondes_ for
+  15th November 1844; Magrini, _Carlo Gozzi e la fiabe: saggi storici,
+  biografici, e critici_ (Cremona, 1876), and the same author's book on
+  Gozzi's life and times (Benevento, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+
+GOZZI, GASPARO, COUNT (1713-1786), eldest brother of Carlo Gozzi, was
+born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739 he married the poetess Luise
+Bergalli, and she undertook the management of the theatre of Sant'
+Angelo, Venice, he supplying the performers with dramas chiefly
+translated from the French. The speculation proved unfortunate, but
+meantime he had attained a high reputation for his contributions to the
+_Gazzetta Veneta_, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest
+critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a
+considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in 1774 he
+was appointed to reorganize the university system at Padua. He died at
+Padua on the 26th of December 1786.
+
+  His principal writings are _Osservatore Veneto periodico_ (1761), on
+  the model of the English _Spectator_, and distinguished by its high
+  moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; _Lettere famigliari_
+  (1755), a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on
+  subjects of general interest; _Sermoni_, poems in blank verse after
+  the manner of Horace; _Il Mondo morale_ (1760), a personification of
+  human passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian; and
+  _Giudizio degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante_
+  (1755), a defence of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli.
+  He also translated various works from the French and English,
+  including Marmontel's _Tales_ and Pope's _Essay on Criticism_. His
+  collected works were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes,
+  and several editions have appeared since.
+
+
+
+
+GOZZOLI, BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence in 1424, or
+perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career assisted Fra Angelico,
+whom he followed to Rome and worked with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed
+in Santa Maria in Aracoeli a fresco of "St Anthony and Two Angels." In
+1449 he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria.
+In S. Fortunate, near Montefalco, he painted a "Madonna and Child with
+Saints and Angels," and three other works. One of these, the altar-piece
+representing "St Thomas receiving the Girdle of the Virgin," is now in
+the Lateran Museum, and shows the affinity of Gozzoli's early style to
+Angelico's. He next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco,
+Montefalco, filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the
+life of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante,
+Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and is still
+marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there with a more
+distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church, in the chapel of St
+Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin and Saints, the Crucifixion
+and other subjects. He remained at Montefalco (with an interval at
+Viterbo) probably till 1456, employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he
+went to Perugia, and painted in a church a "Virgin and Saints," now in
+the local academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the
+headquarters of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished his
+important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the "Journey of
+the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of this chapel, a
+composition of "Angels in a Paradise." His picture in the National
+Gallery, London, a "Virgin and Child with Saints," 1461, belongs also to
+the period of his Florentine sojourn. Another small picture in the same
+gallery, the "Rape of Helen," is of dubious authenticity. In 1464
+Gozzoli left Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive
+works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St Sebastian
+protecting the City from the Plague of this same year, 1464; over the
+entire choir of the church, a triple course of scenes from the legends
+of St Augustine, from the time of his entering the school of Tegaste on
+to his burial, seventeen chief subjects, with some accessories; in the
+Pieve di S. Gimignano, the "Martyrdom of Sebastian," and other subjects,
+and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his style
+combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original elements, and he
+received co-operation from Giusto d'Andrea. He stayed in this city till
+1467, and then began, in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast
+series of mural paintings with which his name is specially identified.
+There are twenty-four subjects from the Old Testament, from the
+"Invention of Wine by Noah" to the "Visit of the Queen of Sheba to
+Solomon." He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten
+ducats each--a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to L100 at the
+present day. It appears, however, that this contract was not strictly
+adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was only three pictures in
+two years. Perhaps the great multitude of figures and accessories was
+accepted as a set-off against the slower rate of production. By January
+1470 he had executed the fresco of "Noah and his Family,"--followed by
+the "Curse of Ham," the "Building of the Tower of Babel" (which contains
+portraits of Cosmo de' Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and others),
+the "Destruction of Sodom," the "Victory of Abraham," the "Marriages of
+Rebecca and of Rachel," the "Life of Moses," &c. In the Cappella
+Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo Santo, he painted also an
+"Adoration of the Magi," wherein appears a portrait of himself. All this
+enormous mass of work, in which Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi
+Macchiavelli, was performed, in addition to several other pictures
+during his stay in Pisa (we need only specify the "Glory of St Thomas
+Aquinas," now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to 1485. This
+is the latest date which can with certainty be assigned to any work from
+his hand, although he is known to have been alive up to 1498. In 1478
+the Pisan authorities had given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb
+in the Campo Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and
+houses and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have
+been worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico.
+
+The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contemporaries
+either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently attractive by
+its sense of what is rich, winning, lively and abundant in the aspects
+of men and things. His landscapes, thronged with birds and quadrupeds,
+especially dogs, are more varied, circumstantial and alluring than those
+of any predecessor; his compositions are crowded with figures, more
+characteristically true when happily and gracefully occupied than when
+the demands of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or
+turmoil of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive.
+Gozzoli's genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than
+vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable
+imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations, and in
+the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings. In fresco-painting
+he used the methods of tempera, and the decay of his works has been
+severe in proportion. Of his untiring industry the recital of his
+labours and the number of works produced are the most forcible
+attestation.
+
+  Vasari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authorities,
+  can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate _Life_ of
+  him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes's Art library.
+       (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAAFF REINET, a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail N.W. by N. of Port
+Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, of whom 4055 were whites. The town lies
+2463 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Sunday river,
+which rises a little farther north on the southern slopes of the
+Sneeuwberg, and here ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is
+a handsome stone building with seating accommodation for 1500 people.
+The college is an educational centre of some importance; it was rebuilt
+in 1906. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for agricultural produce,
+the district being noted for its mohair industry, its orchards and
+vineyards.
+
+The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named after the
+then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff, and his wife. In 1795
+the burghers, smarting under the exactions of the Dutch East India
+Company proclaimed a republic. Similar action was taken by the burghers
+of Swellendam. Before the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive
+measures against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to
+capitulate to the British. The burghers having endeavoured,
+unsuccessfully, to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay
+surrendered to Colonel (afterwards General Sir) J. O. Vandeleur. In
+January 1799 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1795,
+again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo and
+nineteen others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle. After trial,
+Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced to death and others to
+banishment. The sentences were not carried out and the prisoners were
+released, March 1803, on the retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In
+1801 there had been another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the
+conciliatory measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape)
+peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican
+government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished large
+numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a strong Dutch
+centre.
+
+  See J. C. Voight, _Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in South
+  Africa 1795-1845_, vol. i. (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH (1801-1836), German dramatist, was born at
+Detmold on the 11th of December 1801. Entering the university of Leipzig
+in 1819 as a student of law, he continued the reckless habits which he
+had begun at Detmold, and neglected his studies. Being introduced into
+literary circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote
+the drama _Herzog Theodor von Gothland_ (1822). This, though showing
+considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and is morally
+repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the young author, pointed out
+its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed
+to Berlin University, and in 1824 passed his advocate's examination. He
+now settled in his native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a
+_Militarauditeur_. In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken
+habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his wife,
+visited Dusseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl Immermann.
+After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned to Detmold, where,
+as a result of his excesses, he died on the 12th of September 1836.
+
+Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain fine
+passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely reflect his own
+life and character, and are characterized by cynicism and indelicacy.
+Their construction also is defective and little suited to the
+requirements of the stage. The boldly conceived _Don Juan und Faust_
+(1829) and the historical dramas _Friedrich Barbarossa_ (1829),
+_Heinrich VI._ (1830), and _Napoleon oder die Hundert Tage_ (1831), the
+last of which places the battle of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best
+works. Among others are the unfinished tragedies _Marius and Sulla_
+(continued by Erich Korn, Berlin, 1890); and _Hannibal_ (1835,
+supplemented and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1901); and the patriotic
+_Hermannsschlacht_ or the battle between Arminius and Varus
+(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by E. Duller, 1838).
+
+  Grabbe's works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols., 1875), and
+  E. Grisebach (4 vols., 1902). For further notices of his life, see K.
+  Ziegler, _Grabbes Leben und Charakter_ (1855); O. Blumenthal,
+  _Beitrage zur Kenntnis Grabbes_ (1875); C. A. Piper, _Grabbe_ (1898),
+  and A. Ploch, _Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Literatur_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+GRABE, JOHN ERNEST (1666-1711), Anglican divine, was born on the 10th of
+July 1666, at Konigsberg, where his father, Martin Sylvester Grabe, was
+professor of theology and history. In his theological studies Grabe
+succeeded in persuading himself of the schismatical character of the
+Reformation, and accordingly he presented to the consistory of Samland
+in Prussia a memorial in which he compared the position of the
+evangelical Protestant churches with that of the Novatians and other
+ancient schismatics. He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a
+commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written argument
+and called his attention to the English Church as apparently possessing
+that apostolic succession and manifesting that fidelity to ancient
+institutions which he desired. He came to England, settled in Oxford,
+was ordained in 1700, and became chaplain of Christ Church. His
+inclination was towards the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours
+to which the remainder of his life was devoted were rewarded with an
+Oxford degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November 1711,
+and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward Harley, earl of
+Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried in St Pancras Church,
+London.
+
+  Some account of Grabe's life is given in R. Nelson's _Life of George
+  Bull_, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet
+  against W. Whiston's _Collection of Testimonies against the True_
+  _Deity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost_. His works, which show him
+  to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in critical
+  acumen, include a _Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum_
+  (1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries of
+  the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of the
+  second. A second edition of this work was published in 1714. He
+  brought out an edition of Justin Martyr's _Apologia prima_ (1700), of
+  Irenaeus, _Adversus omnes haereses_ (1702), of the Septuagint, and of
+  Bishop Bull's Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septuagint was
+  based on the _Codex Alexandrinus_; it appeared in 4 volumes
+  (1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George Wigan.
+
+
+
+
+GRACCHUS, in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family of the
+Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives were the famous
+tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and
+(5) below, usually called simply "the Gracchi."
+
+1. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, consul in 238 B.C., carried on
+successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers, and, at the
+conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war, was in command of the
+fleet which at the invitation of the insurgents took possession of the
+island of Sardinia.
+
+2. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, probably the son of (1), distinguished
+himself during the second Punic war. Consul in 215, he defeated the
+Capuans who had entered into an alliance with Hannibal, and in 214
+gained a signal success over Hanno near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the
+_volones_ (slave-volunteers), to whom he had promised freedom in the
+event of victory. In 213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried
+on the war in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward
+to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed into
+the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank, who had
+formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected with Gracchus
+himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell fighting bravely; his body
+was sent to Hannibal, who accorded him a splendid burial.
+
+3. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (c. 210-151 B.C.), father of the
+tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter of the elder Scipio
+Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius Sempronius Gracchus who was
+tribune in 189. Although a determined political opponent of the two
+Scipios (Asiaticus and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on
+their behalf when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the
+king of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission
+sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes II. of
+Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule aedileship (182) he
+celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale that the burdens imposed
+upon the Italian and extra-Italian communities led to the official
+interference of the senate. In 181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain,
+and, after gaining signal successes in the field, applied himself to the
+pacification of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic
+attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the land had
+rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177, he was occupied in
+putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought back so many prisoners
+that _Sardi venales_ (Sardinians for sale) became a proverbial
+expression for a drug in the market. In 169 Gracchus was censor, and
+both he and his colleague (C. Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves
+determined opponents of the capitalists. They deeply offended the
+equestrian order by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts
+under the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently
+enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes, which
+completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In 165 and 161 he
+went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes, with whom he established
+friendly relations. Amongst the places visited by him was Rhodes, where
+he delivered a speech in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he
+was again consul.
+
+4. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (163-133 B.C.), son of (3), was the
+elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother were brought up by
+their mother Cornelia, assisted by the rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene
+and the Stoic Blossius of Cumae. In 147 he served under his
+brother-in-law the younger Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war,
+and was the first to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When
+quaestor in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to
+Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved from
+annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom alone the
+Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the memory of his
+father. The senate refused to ratify the agreement; Mancinus was handed
+over to the enemy as a sign that it was annulled, and only personal
+popularity saved Tiberius himself from punishment. In 133 he was
+tribune, and championed the impoverished farmer class and the lower
+orders. His proposals (see AGRARIAN LAWS) met with violent opposition,
+and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally,
+secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who had been
+persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate put every obstacle
+in the way of the three commissioners appointed to carry out the
+provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in view of the bitter enmity he had
+aroused, saw that it was necessary to strengthen his hold on the popular
+favour. The legacy to the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of
+Attalus III. of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the
+money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided, for the
+purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to whom assignments of
+land had been made under the new law. He is also said to have brought
+forward measures for shortening the period of military service, for
+extending the right of appeal from the _judices_ to the people, for
+abolishing the exclusive privilege of the senators to act as jurymen,
+and even for admitting the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen
+his position further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as
+tribune for the following year. The senate declared that it was illegal
+to hold this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this
+objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people, he appeared
+in mourning, and appealed for protection for his wife and children, and
+whenever he left his house he was accompanied by a bodyguard of 3000
+men, chiefly consisting of the city rabble. The meeting of the tribes
+for the election of tribunes broke up in disorder on two successive
+days, without any result being attained, although on both occasions the
+first divisions voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate
+that he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head with
+his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal to the consul
+P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death at once having
+failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola was acting
+treacherously towards the state, and called upon those who agreed with
+him to take up arms and follow him. During the riot that followed,
+Tiberius attempted to escape, but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol
+and was beaten to death with the end of a bench. At night his body, with
+those of 300 others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly
+assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a
+commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius, many
+of whom were banished and others put to death. Even the moderate
+Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica was justified in his
+action; and it was reported that Scipio, when he heard at Numantia of
+his brother-in-law's death, repeated the line of Homer--"So perish all
+who do the like again."
+
+  See Livy, _Epit._ 58; Appian, _Bell. civ._ i. 9-17; Plutarch,
+  _Tiberius Gracchus_; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3.
+
+5. GAIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (153-121 B.C.), younger brother of (4), was
+a man of greater abilities, bolder and more passionate, although
+possessed of considerable powers of self-control, and a vigorous and
+impressive orator. When twenty years of age he was appointed one of the
+commissioners to carry out the distribution of land under the provisions
+of his brother's agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius's death, Gaius
+was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but probably
+returned to Rome in the following year (132). In 131 he supported the
+bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of which was to make it legal for
+a tribune to offer himself as candidate for the office in two
+consecutive years, and thus to remove one of the chief obstacles that
+had hampered Tiberius. The bill was then rejected, but appears to have
+subsequently passed in a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected
+without any disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal,
+and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For the next few
+years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion pointed him out as the
+man to avenge his brother's death and carry out his plans, and the
+aristocratic party, warned by the example of Tiberius, were anxious to
+keep him away from Rome. In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius
+Orestes as quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made
+himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the command of
+Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to remain there in his
+capacity of quaestor. But he returned to Rome without the permission of
+the senate, and, when called to account by the censors, defended himself
+so successfully that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The
+disappointed aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of
+being implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways
+unsuccessfully endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then
+decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became a candidate
+for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined opposition of the
+aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123, although only fourth on
+the list. The legislative proposals[1] brought forward by him had for
+their object:--the punishment of his brother's enemies; the relief of
+distress and the attachment to himself of the city populace; the
+diminution of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the
+_equites_; the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and
+provincials.
+
+  A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in a matter
+  affecting his life or political status unless the people had
+  previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius
+  Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the
+  adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate who had
+  been deprived of office by decree of the people should be
+  incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against M.
+  Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate through
+  Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was withdrawn at the
+  earnest request of Cornelia.
+
+  He revived his brother's agrarian law, which, although it had not been
+  repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his _Lex Frumentaria_ every
+  citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain amount of corn at
+  about half the usual price; as the distribution only applied to those
+  living in the capital, the natural result was that the poorer country
+  citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the number of Gaius's
+  supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to serve in the army before
+  the commencement of his eighteenth year, and his military outfit was
+  to be supplied by the state, instead of being deducted from his pay.
+  Gaius also proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy (at
+  Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the site of Carthage 6000
+  colonists to found the new city of Junonia, the inhabitants of which
+  were to possess the rights of Roman citizens; this was the first
+  attempt at over-sea colonization. A new system of roads was
+  constructed which afforded easier access to Rome. Having thus gained
+  over the city proletariat, in order to secure a majority in the
+  comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with the system of voting in the
+  comitia centuriata, whereby the five property classes in each tribe
+  gave their votes one after another, and introduced promiscuous voting
+  in an order fixed by lot.
+
+  The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of particular
+  offences (the most important of which was that dealing with the trial
+  of provincial magistrates for extortion, _de repetundis_) were in
+  future to be chosen from the equites (q.v.), not as hitherto from the
+  senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be let out by
+  the censors to Roman _publicani_ (who belonged to the equestrian
+  order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of collecting them. It
+  is obvious that this afforded the equites extensive opportunities for
+  money-making and extortion, while the alteration in the appointment of
+  the judices gave them the same practical immunity and perpetuated the
+  old abuses, with the difference that it was no longer senators, but
+  equites, who could look forward with confidence to being leniently
+  dealt with by men belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected
+  that this moneyed aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate
+  against Tiberius, would now support him against it. It was enacted
+  that the provinces to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined
+  before, instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves
+  had to settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of
+  them would take.[2]
+
+These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity, and during
+the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered the absolute
+ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second time for the year
+122. To this period is probably to be assigned his proposal that the
+franchise should be given to all the Latin communities and that the
+status of the Latins should be conferred upon the Italian allies. In 125
+M. Fulvius Flaccus had brought forward a similar measure, but he was got
+out of the way by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This
+proposal, more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally
+opposed by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius's popularity
+amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the prospect of an
+increase in the number of Roman citizens. The senate put up M. Livius
+Drusus to outbid him, and his absence from Rome while superintending the
+organization of the newly-founded colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken
+advantage of by his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he
+found his popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship for
+the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected consul. The
+latter at once decided to propose the abandonment of the new colony,
+which was to occupy the site cursed by Scipio, while its foundation had
+been attended by unmistakable manifestations of the wrath of the gods.
+On the day when the matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named
+Antyllius, who had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to
+death. This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was
+declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with dictatorial
+powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their position in the temple of
+Diana on the Aventine, offered little resistance to the attack ordered
+by Opimius. Gaius managed to escape across the Tiber, where his dead
+body was found on the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side
+of that of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself.
+The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple of Concord
+erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath the inscription
+recording the occasion on which the temple had been built some one
+during the night wrote the words: "The work of Discord makes the temple
+of Concord."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Livy, _Epit._ 60; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 21;
+  Plutarch, _Gaius Gracchus_; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3, xi. 10.
+  For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng.
+  trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, _Geschichte Roms wahrend
+  des Verfalles der Republik_ (1881); A. H. J. Greenidge, _History of
+  Rome_ (1904); E. Meyer, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Gracchen_
+  (1894); G. E. Underhill, Plutarch's _Lives of the Gracchi_ (1892); W.
+  Warde Fowler in _English Historical Review_ (1905), pp. 209 and 417;
+  Long, _Decline of the Roman Republic_, chs. 10-13, 17-19, containing a
+  careful examination of the ancient authorities; G. F. Hertzberg in
+  Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; C. W. Oman, _Seven Roman
+  Statesmen of the later Republic_ (1902); T. Lau, _Die Gracchen und
+  ihre Zeit_ (1854). The exhaustive monograph by C. W. Nitzsch, _Die
+  Gracchen und ihre nachsten Vorganger_ (1847), also contains an account
+  of the other members of the family, with full references to ancient
+  authorities in the notes.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological
+    order, nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his
+    second tribuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in _Eng. Hist. Review_, 1905.
+    pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq.
+
+  [2] It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed to add
+    a certain number of _equites_ to the senate, thereby increasing it to
+    900, but the plan was never carried out.
+
+
+
+
+GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848-   ), English cricketer, was born at
+Downend, Gloucestershire, on the 18th of July 1848. He found himself in
+an atmosphere charged with cricket, his father (Henry Mills Grace) and
+his uncle (Alfred Pocock) being as enthusiastic over the game as his
+elder brothers, Henry, Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace
+the family name first became famous. A younger brother, George
+Frederick, also added to the cricket reputation of the family. "W. G."
+witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years old, the
+occasion being a game between W. Clarke's All-England Eleven and
+twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was endowed by nature with a
+splendid physique as well as with powers of self-restraint and
+determination. At the acme of his career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in.,
+being powerfully proportioned, loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker,
+and very moderate in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the
+year round, shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the
+cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds. over 20
+hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted as proof of his
+stamina that on the 30th of July 1866 he scored 224 not out for England
+_v._ Surrey, and two days later won a race in the National and Olympian
+Association meeting at the Crystal Palace. The title of "champion" was
+well earned by one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was
+actively engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was
+invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the Players,
+and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to play for the mother
+country. As late as 1899 he played in the first of the five
+international contests; in 1900 he played against the players at the
+Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he scored nearly 1300 runs in
+first-class cricket, made 100 runs and over on three different occasions
+and could claim an average of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs
+were achieved when only the very best cricket grounds received serious
+attention; when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher
+standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two brothers,
+E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made Gloucestershire in
+one season a first-class county; and it was he who first enabled the
+amateurs of England to meet the paid players on equal terms and to beat
+them. There was hardly a "record" connected with the game which did not
+stand to his credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England,
+in his earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later
+times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine thrower,
+fast runner and safe "catch." As a bowler he was long in the first
+flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times adopting a slower
+and more tricky style, frequently very effective. By profession he was a
+medical man. In later years he became secretary and manager of the
+London County Cricket Club. He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day,
+and one of his sons played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was
+the recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to
+L1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a cheque at
+Lord's ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd of July 1879; the
+second, collected by the M.C.C., the county of Gloucestershire, the
+_Daily Telegraph_ and the _Sportsman_, amounted to about L10,000, and
+was presented to him in 1896. He visited Australia in 1873-1874
+(captain), and in 1891-1892 with Lord Sheffield's Eleven (captain); the
+United States and Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald's team.
+
+  Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863, when, being only
+  fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven and
+  the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores which first
+  made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz. 170 and 56 not out for
+  the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen of Sussex. It was in 1865
+  that he first took an active part in first-class cricket, being then 6
+  ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight, and playing twice for the
+  Gentlemen _v._ the Players, but his selection was mainly due to his
+  bowling powers, the best exposition of which was his aggregate of 13
+  wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of
+  the South. His highest score was 400 not out, made in July 1876
+  against twenty-two of Grimsby; but on three occasions he was twice
+  dismissed without scoring in matches against odds, a fate that never
+  befell him in important cricket. In first-class matches his highest
+  score was 344, made for the M.C.C. v. Kent at Canterbury, in August
+  1876; two days later he made 177 for Gloucestershire _v._ Notts, and
+  two days after this 318 not out for Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire,
+  the two last-named opposing counties being possessed of exceptionally
+  strong bowling; thus in three consecutive innings Grace scored 839
+  runs, and was only got out twice. His 344 was the third highest
+  individual score made in a big match in England up to the end of 1901.
+  He also scored 301 for Gloucestershire _v._ Sussex at Bristol, in
+  August 1896. He made over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable
+  perhaps being in 1871, when he performed the feat twice, each time in
+  benefit matches, and each time in the second innings, having been each
+  time got out in the first over of the first innings. He scored over
+  100 runs on 121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at
+  Bristol for Gloucestershire _v._ Somersetshire in 1895. He made every
+  figure from 0 to 100, on one occasion "closing" the innings when he
+  had made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits. In
+  1871 he made ten "centuries," ranging from 268 to 116. In the matches
+  between the Gentlemen and Players he scored "three figures" fifteen
+  times, and at every place where these matches have been played. He
+  made over 100 in each of his "first appearances" at Oxford and
+  Cambridge. Three times he made over 100 in each innings of the same
+  match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v. North of the Thames,
+  130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887, for Gloucestershire _v._
+  Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton, in 1888, for
+  Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869, playing at the
+  Oval for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of the South,
+  Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first wicket, Grace
+  scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and Scotton put on 170 runs
+  for the first wicket of England _v._ Australia; this occurred at the
+  Oval in August, and Grace's total score was 170. In consecutive
+  innings against the Players from 1871 to 1873 he scored 217, 77 and
+  112, 117, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored over 100 in a big
+  match in Australia, nor did he ever make 200 at Lord's, his highest
+  being 196 for the M.C.C. _v._ Cambridge University in 1894. His
+  highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876), 2346 (1895), 2139
+  (1873), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored three successive
+  centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874 and 1876.
+  Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1895, he was batting, bowling or
+  fielding during the whole time the game was in progress, his scores
+  being 257 and 73 not out. He scored over 1000 runs and took over 100
+  wickets in seven different seasons, viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129
+  wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 192 wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124
+  wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, 179 wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153
+  wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs, 118 wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122
+  wickets. He never captured 200 wickets in a season, his highest record
+  being 192 in 1875. Playing against Oxford University in 1886, he took
+  all the wickets in the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he
+  not only made his hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in
+  the month of May alone, his chief scores in that month being 103, 288,
+  256, 73 and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made
+  during that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not out, his
+  aggregate for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of
+  118 was made against the Players (at Lord's), the chief bowlers being
+  Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his partner,
+  A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making 151
+  before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This may
+  fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1898 the
+  match between Gentlemen _v._ Players was, as a special compliment,
+  arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birthday, and he
+  celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out, though handicapped
+  by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty-six different seasons he
+  scored over 1000 runs, in three of these years being the only man to
+  do so and five times being one out of two.
+
+  During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored nearly
+  51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took more than
+  2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per wicket. He made
+  his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his highest average (78) in
+  1871; his average for the decade 1868-1877 was 57 runs. His style as a
+  batsman was more commanding than graceful, but as to its soundness and
+  efficacy there were never two opinions; the severest criticism ever
+  passed upon his powers was to the effect that he did not play slow
+  bowling quite as well as fast.     (W. J. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRACE (Fr. _grace_, Lat. _gratia_, from _gratus_, beloved, pleasing;
+formed from the root _cra-_, Gr. [Greek: chas-] cf. [Greek: chairo,
+charma, charis]), a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting
+the idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others or that
+which one shows to others. The _New English Dictionary_ groups the
+meanings of the word under three main heads: (1) Pleasing quality,
+gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3) gratitude, thanks.
+
+It is in the second general sense of "favour bestowed" that the word has
+its most important connotations. In this sense it means something given
+by superior authority as a concession made of favour and goodwill, not
+as an obligation or of right. Thus, a concession may be made by a
+sovereign or other public authority "by way of grace." Previous to the
+Revolution of 1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known
+in constitutional law as "Graces." "Letters of Grace" (_gratiae,
+gratiosa rescripta_) is the name given to papal rescripts granting
+special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In the
+language of the universities the word still survives in a shadow of this
+sense. The word "grace" was originally a dispensation granted by the
+congregation of the university, or by one of the faculties, from some
+statutable conditions required for a degree. In the English universities
+these conditions ceased to be enforced, and the "grace" thus became an
+essential preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the
+meaning of (_a_) the licence granted by congregation to take a degree,
+(_b_) other decrees of the governing body (originally dispensations from
+statutes), all such degrees being called "graces" at Cambridge, (_c_)
+the permission which a candidate for a degree must obtain from his
+college or hall.
+
+To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses of the word
+in such phrases as "do me this grace," "to be in some one's good graces"
+and certain meanings of "the grace of God." The style "by the grace of
+God," borne by the king of Great Britain and Ireland among other
+sovereigns, though, as implying the principle of "legitimacy," it has
+been since the Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the
+addition of "and the will of the people," means in effect no more than
+the "by Divine Providence," which is the style borne by archbishops. To
+the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the phrases implying
+the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling certain obligations,
+e.g. "a fortnight's grace." In law the "days of grace" are the period
+allowed for the payment of a bill of exchange, after the term for which
+it has been drawn (in England three days), or for the payment of an
+insurance premium, &c. In religious language the "Day of Grace" is the
+period still open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of
+clemency or mercy, too, "grace" is still, though rarely used: "an Act of
+Grace" is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted by act of
+parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative of the great,
+"Your Grace," "His Grace," &c., became dutiful paraphrases for the
+simple "you" and "he." Formerly used in the royal address ("the King's
+Grace," &c.), the style is in England now confined to dukes and
+archbishops, though the style of "his most gracious majesty" is still
+used. In Germany the equivalent, _Euer Gnaden_, is the style of princes
+who are not _Durchlaucht_ (i.e. Serene Highness), and is often used as a
+polite address to any superior.
+
+In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the word is
+used in several of the above senses, "grace" (Gr. [Greek: charis]) has
+special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous, unmerited
+activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners, and the Divine
+influence operating in man for his regeneration and sanctification.
+Those thus regenerated and sanctified are said to be in a "state of
+grace." In the New Testament grace is the forgiving mercy of God, as
+opposed to any human merit (Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &c.); it
+is applied also to certain gifts of God freely bestowed, e.g. miracles,
+tongues, &c. (Rom. xv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Eph. iii. 8, &c.), to the
+Christian virtues, gifts of God also, e.g. charity, holiness, &c. (2
+Cor. viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally,
+as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; 1 Pet. v. 12, &c.);
+connected with this is the use of the term "year of grace" for a year of
+the Christian era.
+
+The word "grace" is the central subject of three great theological
+controversies: (1) that of the nature of human depravity and
+regeneration (see PELAGIUS), (2) that of the relation between grace and
+free-will (see CALVIN, JOHN, and ARMINIUS, JACOBUS), (3) that of the
+"means of grace" between Catholics and Protestants, i.e. whether the
+efficacy of the sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is _ex opere
+operato_ or dependent on the faith of the recipient.
+
+In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed, "grace"
+survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or after meals. The
+word was originally used in the plural, and "to do, give, render, yield
+graces" was said, in the general sense of the French _rendre graces_ or
+Latin _gratias agere_, of any giving thanks. The close, and finally
+exclusive, association of the phrase "to say grace" with thanksgiving at
+meals was possibly due to the formula "Gratias Deo agamus" ("let us give
+thanks to God") with which the ceremony began in monastic refectories.
+The custom of saying grace, which obtained in pre-Christian times among
+the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and was adopted universally by Christian
+peoples, is probably less widespread in private houses than it used to
+be. It is, however, still maintained at public dinners and also in
+schools, colleges and institutions generally. Such graces are generally
+in Latin and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, e.g. "Laus
+Deo," "Benedictus benedicat," and sometimes, as at the Oxford and
+Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In some countries grace has
+sunk to a polite formula; in Germany, e.g. it is usual before and after
+meals to bow to one's neighbours and say "Gesegnete Malzeit!" (May your
+meal be blessed), a phrase often reduced in practice to "Malzeit"
+simply.
+
+
+
+
+GRACES, THE, (Gr. [Greek: Charites], Lat. _Gratiae_), in Greek
+mythology, the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in
+moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to a number
+or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the _Iliad_ one Charis is
+the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised wife of Sleep, while the
+plural Charites often occurs. The Charites are usually described as
+three in number--Aglaia (brightness), Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia
+(bloom)--daughters of Zeus and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus),
+or of Helios and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta
+(noise) and Phaenna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and Hegemone
+(queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with whom they live on Mount
+Olympus, and the companions of Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of
+persuasion, and of Hermes, the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm
+is an indispensable adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist
+is indicated by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient
+seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest images,
+in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up in their temple.
+Their worship was said to have been instituted by Eteocles, whose three
+daughters fell into a well while dancing in their honour. At Orchomenus
+nightly dances took place, and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by
+musical contests, was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated
+without music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while
+sacrificing to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son
+Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the Eumenides; at
+Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane, were held at the
+entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo, Hegemone and Agraulos, the
+daughter of Cecrops, that young Athenians, on first receiving their
+spear and shield, took the oath to defend their country. In works of art
+the Charites were represented in early times as beautiful maidens of
+slender form, hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery;
+later, the conception predominated of three naked figures gracefully
+intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the rose and musical
+instruments. In Rome the Graces were never the objects of special
+religious reverence, but were described and represented by poets and
+artists in accordance with Greek models.
+
+  See F. H. Krause, _Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen_ (1871), and the
+  articles by Stoll and Furtwangler in Roscher's _Lexikon der
+  Mythologie_, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire
+  des antiquites_, with the bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR (1601-1658), Spanish prose writer, was born
+at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of January 1601. Little is known of his
+personal history except that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of
+Jesus, and that ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at
+Tarazona, where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal
+works are _El Heroe_ (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic phrases
+the qualities of the ideal man; the _Arte de ingenio, tratado de la
+Agudeza_ (1642), republished six years afterwards under the title of
+_Agudeza, y arte de ingenio_ (1648), a system of rhetoric in which the
+principles of _conceptismo_ as opposed to culteranismo are inculcated;
+_El Discreto_ (1645), a delineation of the typical courtier; _El Oraculo
+manual y arte de prudencia_ (1647), a system of rules for the conduct of
+life; and _El Criticon_ (1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical
+allegory of human existence. The only publication which bears Gracian's
+name is _El Comulgatorio_ (1655); his more important books were issued
+under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracian (possibly a brother of the
+writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones. Gracian was
+punished for publishing without his superior's permission _El Criticon_
+(in which Defoe is alleged to have found the germ of _Robinson Crusoe_);
+but no objection was taken to its substance. He has been excessively
+praised by Schopenhauer, whose appreciation of the author induced him to
+translate the _Oraculo manual_, and he has been unduly depreciated by
+Ticknor and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his
+systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories.
+
+  See Karl Borinski, _Baltasar Gracian und die Hoflitteratur in
+  Deutschland_ (Halle, 1894); Benedetto Croce, _I Trattatisti italiani
+  del "concettismo" e Baltasar Gracian_ (Napoli, 1899); Narciso Jose
+  Linan y Heredia, _Baltasar Gracian_ (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer and
+  Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the _Oraculo manual_ into
+  German and English.
+
+
+
+
+GRACKLE (Lat. _Gracculus_ or _Graculus_), a word much used in
+ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to members of
+the families _Sturnidae_ belonging to the Old World and _Icteridae_
+belonging to the New. Of the former those to which it has been most
+commonly applied are the species known as mynas, mainas, and minors of
+India and the adjacent countries, and especially the _Gracula religiosa_
+of Linnaeus, who, according to Jerdon and others, was probably led to
+confer this epithet upon it by confounding it with the _Sturnus_ or
+_Acridotheres tristis_,[1] which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to
+Ram Deo, one of their deities, while the true _Gracula religiosa_ does
+not seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in. in
+length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple and green
+reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the quill-feathers of
+the wings. The bill is orange and the legs yellow, but the bird's most
+characteristic feature is afforded by the curious wattles of bright
+yellow, which, beginning behind the eyes, run backwards in form of a
+lappet on each side, and then return in a narrow stripe to the top of
+the head. Beneath each eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This
+species is common in southern India, and is represented farther to the
+north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by cognate forms.
+They are all frugivorous, and, being easily tamed and learning to
+pronounce words very distinctly, are favourite cage-birds.[2]
+
+[Illustration: _Gracula religiosa._]
+
+In America the name Grackle has been applied to several species of the
+genera _Scolecophagus_ and _Quiscalus_, though these are more commonly
+called in the United States and Canada "blackbirds," and some of them
+"boat-tails." They all belong to the family _Icteridae_. The best known
+of these are the rusty grackle, _S. ferrugineus_, which is found in
+almost the whole of North America, and _Q. purpureus_, the purple
+grackle or crow-blackbird, of more limited range, for though abundant
+in most parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear
+on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer's or the blue-headed grackle,
+_S. cyanocephalus_, which has a more western range, not occurring to the
+eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth species, _Q. major_, inhabits
+the Atlantic States as far north as North Carolina. All these birds are
+of exceedingly omnivorous habit, and though destroying large numbers of
+pernicious insects are in many places held in bad repute from the
+mischief they do to the corn-crops.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] By some writers the birds of the genera _Acridotheres_ and
+    _Temenuchus_ are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of
+    _Gracula_ are called "hill mynas" by way of distinction.
+
+  [2] For a valuable monograph on the various species of _Gracula_ and
+    its allies see Professor Schlegel's "Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het
+    Geschlacht Beo'" (_Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde_ i.
+    1-9).
+
+
+
+
+GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Gorz and Gradisca, 10 m.
+S.W. of Gorz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly Italians. It is situated
+on the right bank of the Isonzo and was formerly a strongly fortified
+place. Its principal industry is silk spinning. Gradisca originally
+formed part of the margraviate of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of
+Aquileia in 1028, and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca
+was fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to the
+emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory, including
+Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected into a separate
+countship in favour of Johann Anton von Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On
+the extinction of his line in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was
+completely incorporated with Gorz in 1754. The name was revived by the
+constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Gorz and
+Gradisca.
+
+
+
+
+GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 11 m. W. by
+N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a left-hand tributary of
+the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grado is built in the midst of a
+mountainous, well-wooded and fertile region. It has some trade in
+timber, live stock, cider and agricultural produce. The nearest railway
+station is that of the Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and
+small-arms factory, 5 m. S.E.
+
+
+
+
+GRADUAL (Med. Lat. _gradualis_, of or belonging to steps or degrees;
+_gradus_, step), advancing or taking place by degrees or step by step;
+hence used of a slow progress or a gentle declivity or slope, opposed to
+steep or precipitous. As a substantive, "gradual" (Med. Lat. _graduale_
+or _gradale_) is used of a service book or antiphonal of the Roman
+Catholic Church containing certain antiphons, called "graduals," sung at
+the service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle.
+This antiphon received the name either because it was sung on the steps
+of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the steps of the ambo for
+the reading or singing of the Gospel. For the so-called Gradual Psalms,
+cxx.-cxxxiv., the "songs of degrees," LXX. [Greek: ode ana bathmon], see
+PSALMS, BOOK OF.
+
+
+
+
+GRADUATE (Med. Lat. _graduare_, to admit to an academical degree,
+_gradus_), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the academical sense
+intransitively, i.e. "to take or proceed to a university degree," and
+figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, or proficiency in, anything. The
+original transitive sense of "to confer or admit to a degree" is,
+however, still preserved in America, where the word is, moreover, not
+strictly confined to university degrees, but is used also of those
+successfully completing a course of study at any educational
+establishment. As a substantive, a "graduate" (Med. Lat. _graduatus_) is
+one who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have matriculated
+at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are known as
+"undergraduates." The word "student," used of undergraduates e.g. in
+Scottish universities, is never applied generally to those of the
+English and Irish universities. At Oxford the only "students" are the
+"senior students" (i.e. fellows) and "junior students" (i.e.
+undergraduates on the foundation, or "scholars") of Christ Church. The
+verb "to graduate" is also used of dividing anything into degrees or
+parts in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application
+see GRADUATION below. It may also mean "to arrange in gradations" or "to
+adjust or apportion according to a given scale." Thus by "a graduated
+income-tax" is meant the system by which the percentage paid differs
+according to the amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.
+
+
+
+
+GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE), the art of dividing straight scales,
+circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required number of equal
+parts. It is the most important and difficult part of the work of the
+mathematical instrument maker, and is required in the construction of
+most physical, astronomical, nautical and surveying instruments.
+
+The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the teeth of
+their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was confined to
+them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in its performance was
+required. This only arose when astronomy began to be seriously studied,
+and the exact position of the heavenly bodies to be determined, which
+created the necessity for strictly accurate means of measuring linear
+and angular magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art
+which required special talents and training, and the best artists gave
+great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments. Of these
+may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John Bird (1709-1776), John
+Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward
+Troughton (1753-1835), William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross.
+
+The first graduated instrument must have been done by the hand and eye
+alone, whether it was in the form of a straight-edge with equal
+divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but, once in the possession of
+one such divided instrument, it was a comparatively easy matter to
+employ it as a standard. Hence graduation divides itself into two
+distinct branches, _original graduation_ and _copying_, which latter may
+be done either by the hand or by a machine called a dividing engine.
+Graduation may therefore be treated under the three heads of _original
+graduation_, _copying_ and _machine graduation_.
+
+_Original Graduation._--In regard to the graduation of straight scales
+elementary geometry provides the means of dividing a straight line into
+any number of equal parts by the method of continual bisection; but the
+practical realization of the geometrical construction is so difficult as
+to render the method untrustworthy. This method, which employs the
+common diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius,
+which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read to
+minutes--a result, according to Thomson and Tait (_Nat. Phil._), "giving
+no greater accuracy than is now attainable by the pocket sextants of
+Troughton and Simms, the radius of whose arc is little more than an
+inch."
+
+  The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the
+  method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection
+  the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as
+  possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked
+  off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks
+  coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as
+  will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is
+  carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The
+  same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on
+  in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8,
+  16, &c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of
+  stepping the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately
+  as possible, by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off,
+  by successive steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any
+  error at starting will be multiplied at each division by the number of
+  that division. Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being
+  put either back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch
+  guided by a magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as
+  the dots, when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably
+  large and shapeless.
+
+The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle as
+the graduation of straight lines.
+
+  The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was
+  graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Observatory in
+  1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96.85 and 95.8 in.
+  respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On the inner of
+  these the arc of 90 deg. was to be divided into degrees and 12th parts
+  of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided into 96
+  equal parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for adopting
+  the latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the divisions
+  could be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in Graham's
+  opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate method, and would
+  thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the divisions of the outer
+  arc. With the same distance on the beam-compass as was used to
+  describe the inner arc, laid off from 0 deg., the point 60 deg. was at
+  once determined. With the points 0 deg. and 60 deg. as centres
+  successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very nearly bisecting
+  the arc of 60 deg., two slight marks were made on the arc; the
+  distance between these marks was divided by the hand aided by a lens,
+  and this gave the point 30 deg. The chord of 60 deg. laid off from the
+  point 30 deg. gave the point 90 deg., and the quadrant was now divided
+  into three equal parts. Each of these parts was similarly bisected,
+  and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving 18 parts of 5 deg.
+  each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the 12th parts of
+  which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as before. The outer
+  arc was divided by continual bisection alone, and a table was
+  constructed by which the readings of the one arc could be converted
+  into those of the other. After the dots indicating the required
+  divisions were obtained, either straight strokes all directed towards
+  the centre were drawn through them by the dividing knife, or sometimes
+  small arcs were drawn through them by the beam-compass having its
+  fixed point somewhere on the line which was a tangent to the
+  quadrantal arc at the point where a division was to be marked.
+
+  The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in 1767. His
+  quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided into degrees and
+  12th parts of a degree. He employed the method of continual bisection
+  aided by chords taken from an exact scale of equal parts, which could
+  read to .001 of an inch, and which he had previously graduated by
+  continual bisections. With the beam-compass an arc of radius 95.938
+  in. was first drawn. From this radius the chords of 30 deg., 15 deg.,
+  10 deg. 20', 4 deg. 40[min] and 42 deg. 40' were computed, and each of
+  them by means of the scale of equal parts laid off on a separate
+  beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off from 0 deg. gave the
+  point 60 deg.; by the chord of 30 deg. the arc of 60 deg. was
+  bisected; from the point 30 deg. the radius laid off gave the point 90
+  deg.; the chord of 15 deg. laid off backwards from 90 deg. gave the
+  point 75 deg.; from 75 deg. was laid off forwards the chord of 10 deg.
+  20'; and from 90 deg. was laid off backwards the chord of 4 deg. 40';
+  and these were found to coincide in the point 85 deg. 20'. Now 85 deg.
+  20' being = 5' X 1024 = 5' X 2^10, the final divisions of 85 deg. 20'
+  were found by continual bisections. For the remainder of the quadrant
+  beyond 85 deg. 20', containing 56 divisions of 5' each, the chord of
+  64 such divisions was laid off from the point 85 deg. 40', and the
+  corresponding arc divided by continual bisections as before. There was
+  thus a severe check upon the accuracy of the points already found,
+  viz. 15 deg., 30 deg., 60 deg., 75 deg., 90 deg., which, however, were
+  found to coincide with the corresponding points obtained by continual
+  bisections. The short lines through the dots were drawn in the way
+  already mentioned.
+
+  The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers John
+  and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a means of
+  graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without the aid of such
+  a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His method was as follows:
+  The radius of the quadrant laid off from 0 deg. gave the point 60 deg.
+  This arc bisected and the half laid off from 60 deg. gave the point 90
+  deg. The arc between 60 deg. and 90 deg. bisected gave 75 deg.; the
+  arc between 75 deg. and 90 deg. bisected gave the point 82 deg. 30',
+  and the arc between 82 deg. 30' and 90 deg. bisected gave the point 86
+  deg. 15'. Further, the arc between 82 deg. 30' and 86 deg. 15'
+  trisected, and two-thirds of it taken beyond 82 deg. 30', gave the
+  point 85 deg., while the arc between 85 deg. and 86 deg. 15' also
+  trisected, and one-third part laid off beyond 85 deg., gave the point
+  85 deg. 25'. Lastly, the arc between 85 deg. and 85 deg. 25' being
+  quinquesected, and four-fifths taken beyond 85 deg., gave 85 deg. 20',
+  which as before is = 5' X 2^10, and so can be finally divided by
+  continual bisection.
+
+  The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Troughton is
+  fully described in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1809, as
+  employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The
+  circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and
+  outer edges. A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it
+  revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round the
+  outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots, was
+  attached to a frame-work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly,
+  along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of
+  frictional contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after
+  having been properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as
+  possible into 16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the
+  frame carrying the roller was moved once round along the circle, the
+  points of contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were
+  accurately observed by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of
+  which (which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near
+  its edge, which was to receive the divisions and the other viewed the
+  roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked
+  with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256 very
+  nearly equal parts.
+
+  The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the errors
+  of these dots, which are called _apparent_ errors, in consequence of
+  the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition that its
+  neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two microscopes (which we
+  shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires and micrometer
+  adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided into 100
+  divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite
+  direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires
+  respectively bisected the dots 0 and 128, which were supposed to be
+  diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way round on
+  its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A, and, should
+  dot 0 be found to coincide with B, then the two dots were 180 deg.
+  apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coincided with
+  dot 0, and the number of divisions of the micrometer head noted. Half
+  this number gave clearly the error of dot 128, and it was tabulated +
+  or - according as the arcual distance between 0 and 128 was found to
+  exceed or fall short of the remaining part of the circumference. The
+  microscope B was now shifted, A remaining opposite dot 0 as before,
+  till its wire bisected dot 64, and, by giving the circle one quarter
+  of a turn on its axis, the difference of the arcs between dots 0 and
+  64 and between 64 and 128 was obtained. The half of this difference
+  gave the apparent error of dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper
+  sign. With the microscope A still in the same position the error of
+  dot 192 was obtained, and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the
+  errors of dots 32, 96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In
+  this way the apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.
+
+  From this table of apparent errors a table of _real_ errors was drawn
+  up by employing the following formula:--
+
+    1/2(x(a) + x(c)) + z = the real error of dot b,
+
+  where x(a) is the real error of dot a, x(c) the real error of dot c,
+  and z the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got
+  the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives
+  the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots.
+
+  The last part of Troughton's process was to employ them to cut the
+  final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5' each. Now
+  the mean interval between any two dots is 360 deg./256 = 5' X 16-7/8,
+  and hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into
+  16-7/8 equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a
+  subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and had
+  a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable as
+  to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis, and
+  rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional
+  adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow of
+  its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting the
+  roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to the
+  mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must pass over
+  16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle represented by
+  360 deg. X 16/256 = 22 deg. 30'. This interval was therefore divided
+  by 16-7/8, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was laid
+  off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each
+  equal to 1 deg. 20'; and, to provide for the necessary 7/8ths of a
+  division, there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the
+  16 equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts.
+  A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on
+  the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions, just
+  as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle. Before
+  the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was brought
+  under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle indicated
+  by H, which also coincided with the dot 0. The frame was then slipped
+  along the circle by the slow screw motion provided for the purpose,
+  till the first sector-division, by the action of the roller, was
+  brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the circle at the
+  point indicated by H. That the marks thus obtained are 5' apart is
+  evident when we reflect that the distance between them must be 1/16th
+  of a division on the section which by construction is 1 deg. 20'. In
+  this way the first 16 divisions were cut; but before cutting the 17th
+  it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires of H to the real error
+  of dot 1, as indicated by the table, and bring back the sector, not to
+  zero, but to 1/8th short of zero. Starting from this position the
+  divisions between dots 1 and 2 were filled in, and then H was adjusted
+  to the real error of dot 2, and the sector brought back to its proper
+  division before commencing the third course. Proceeding in this manner
+  through the whole circle, the microscope H was finally found with its
+  wire at zero, and the sector with its 16th division under its
+  microscope indicating that the circle had been accurately divided.
+
+_Copying._--In graduation by copying the pattern must be either an
+accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately divided circle,
+commonly called a _dividing plate_.
+
+In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided, usually
+called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their upper faces in
+the same plane. The dividing square, which closely resembles an ordinary
+joiner's square, is then laid across both, and the point of the dividing
+knife dropped into the zero division of the pattern. The square is now
+moved up close to the point of the knife; and, while it is held firmly
+in this position by the left hand, the first division on the work is
+made by drawing the knife along the edge of the square with the right
+hand.
+
+It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale are either
+greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet this case, and still
+use the same pattern, the work must be fixed at a certain angle of
+inclination with the pattern. This angle is found in the following way.
+Take the exact ratio of a division on the pattern to the required
+division on the scale. Call this ratio [alpha]. Then, if the required
+divisions are longer than those of the pattern, the angle is cos^-1
+[alpha], but, if shorter, the angle is sec^-1 [alpha]. In the former
+case two operations are required before the divisions are cut: first,
+the square is laid on the pattern, and the corresponding divisions
+merely notched very faintly on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the
+square is applied to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite
+each faint notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is sec^-1
+[alpha], the dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions
+cut when the edge of the square coincides with the end of each division
+on the pattern.
+
+In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This is a circular
+plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully graduated near
+its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has a steel pin fixed in
+its centre, and at right angles to its plane. For guiding the dividing
+knife an instrument called an index is employed. This is a straight bar
+of thin steel of length equal to the radius of the plate. A piece of
+metal, having a V notch with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one
+end of the bar in such a position that the vertex of the notch is
+exactly in a line with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the
+index is laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the
+straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The work to
+be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed by two clamps
+in a position exactly concentric with it. The index is now laid on, with
+its edge coinciding with any required division on the dividing plate,
+and the corresponding division on the work is cut by drawing the
+dividing knife along the straight edge of the index.
+
+_Machine Graduation._--The first dividing engine was probably that of
+Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly used by him for
+cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was followed shortly after by an
+engine devised by the duc de Chaulnes; but the first notable engine was
+that made by Ramsden, of which an account was published by the Board of
+Longitude in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of L300, and
+a further sum of L315 was given to him on condition that he would
+divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other makers. The
+essential principles of Ramsden's machine have been repeated in almost
+all succeeding engines for dividing circles.
+
+  Ramsden's machine consisted of a large brass prate 45 in. in diameter,
+  carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge of the plate
+  was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent screw worked, by
+  means of which the plate could be made to turn through any required
+  angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved the plate through 1 deg., and
+  1/60th of a turn through 1/360th of a degree. On the axis of the
+  tangent screw was placed a cylinder having a spiral groove cut on its
+  surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60 teeth was attached to this
+  cylinder, and was so arranged that, when the cylinder moved in one
+  direction, it carried the tangent screw with it, and so turned the
+  plate, but when it moved in the opposite direction, it left the
+  tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary. Round the spiral
+  groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound, one end of which was
+  attached to a treadle and the other to a counterpoise weight. When the
+  treadle was depressed the tangent screw turned round, and when the
+  pressure was removed it returned, in obedience to the weight, to its
+  former position without affecting the screw. Provision was also made
+  whereby certain stops could be placed in the way of the screw, which
+  only allowed it the requisite amount of turning. The work to be
+  divided was firmly fixed on the plate, and made concentric with it.
+  The divisions were cut, while the screw was stationary, by means of a
+  dividing knife attached to a swing frame, which allowed it to have
+  only a radial motion. In this way the artist could divide very rapidly
+  by alternately depressing the treadle and working the dividing knife.
+
+Ramsden also constructed a linear dividing engine on essentially the
+same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular plate with its
+notches stretched out into a straight line and made movable in a
+straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c., remaining as before, we get a
+very good idea of the linear engine.
+
+In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing engine, of which
+the plate was smaller than in Ramsden's, and which differed considerably
+in simplifying matters of detail. The plate was originally divided by
+Troughton's own method, already described, and the divisions so obtained
+were employed to ratch the edge of the plate for receiving the tangent
+screw with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (_Trans. Soc. Arts_, 1830-1831)
+constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably from those of
+Ramsden and Troughton.
+
+  The essential point of difference is that, in Ross's engine, the
+  tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an
+  independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is only
+  to stop the plate after it has passed through the required angular
+  interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated. Round the
+  circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which just look as
+  if the circumference had been divided into as many deep and somewhat
+  peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through each of these teeth a hole
+  is bored parallel to the plane of the plate and also to a tangent to
+  its circumference. Into these holes are screwed steel screws with
+  capstan heads and flat ends. The tangent screw consists only of a
+  single turn of a large square thread which works in the teeth or
+  notches of the plate. This thread is pierced by 90 equally distant
+  holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw, and at the same distance
+  from it. Into each of these holes is inserted a steel screw exactly
+  similar to those in the teeth, but with its end rounded. It is the
+  rounded and flat ends of these sets of screws coming together that
+  stop the engine plate at the desired position, and the exact point can
+  be nicely adjusted by suitably turning the screws.
+
+[Illustration: Dividing Engine.]
+
+A description is given of a dividing engine made by William Simms in the
+_Memoirs of the Astronomical Society_, 1843. Simms became convinced that
+to copy upon smaller circles the divisions which had been put upon a
+large plate with very great accuracy was not only more expeditious but
+more exact than original graduation. His machine involved essentially
+the same principle as Troughton's. The accompanying figure is taken by
+permission.
+
+  The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal cast
+  in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5' divisions--one very faint on
+  an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun-metal.
+  These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the plan of Edward
+  Troughton. One very great improvement in this engine is that the axis
+  B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this hollow is to receive
+  the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it can be fixed flat to
+  the plate by the clamps E, without having first to be detached from
+  the axis and other parts to which it has already been carefully
+  fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting, which can hardly be
+  done without some error. D is the tangent screw, and F the frame
+  carrying it, which turns on carefully polished steel pivots. The screw
+  is pressed against the edge of the plate by a spiral spring acting
+  under the end of the lever G, and by screwing the lever down the screw
+  can be altogether removed from contact with the plate. The edge of the
+  plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which were cut opposite the original
+  division by a circular cutter attached to the screw frame. H is the
+  spiral barrel round which the catgut band is wound, one end of which
+  is attached to the crank L on the end of the axis J and the other to a
+  counterpoise weight not seen. On the other end of J is another crank
+  inclined to L and carrying a band and counterpoise weight seen at K.
+  The object of this weight is to balance the former and give steadiness
+  to the motion. On the axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which
+  move the rod I, which, by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to
+  the box N, gives motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an
+  eccentric for moving the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying
+  the cutter. Between the eccentric and the point of the screw P is an
+  undulating plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting
+  apparatus is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be
+  elevated or depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting
+  apparatus can be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit
+  circles of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R,
+  and the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope
+  joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand or
+  by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in or out of
+  gear at once by a handle seen at S.
+
+Mention may be made of Donkin's linear dividing engine, in which a
+compensating arrangement is employed whereby great accuracy is obtained
+notwithstanding the inequalities of the screw used to advance the
+cutting tool. Dividing engines have also been made by Reichenbach,
+Repsold and others in Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other
+astronomical instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts &
+Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the _Monthly Not. R. A. S._, January
+1909.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Bird, _Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments_
+  (London, 1767); Duc de Chaulnes, _Nouvelle Methode pour diviser les
+  instruments de mathematique et d'astronomie_ (1768); Ramsden,
+  _Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments_
+  (London, 1777); Troughton's memoir, _Phil. Trans._ (1809); _Memoirs of
+  the Royal Astronomical Society_, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35. See
+  also J. E. Watkins, "On the Ramsden Machine," _Smithsonian Rep._
+  (1890), p. 721; and L. Ambronn, _Astronomische Instrumentenkunde_
+  (1899).     (J. Bl.)
+
+
+
+
+GRADUS, or GRADUS AD PARNASSUM (a step to Parnassus), a Latin (or Greek)
+dictionary, in which the quantities of the vowels of the words are
+marked. Synonyms, epithets and poetical expressions and extracts are
+also included under the more important headings, the whole being
+intended as an aid for students in Greek and Latin verse composition.
+The first Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler
+(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus by C. D.
+Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and H. G. Wintle (1890);
+Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby (1815), bishop of Durham.
+
+
+
+
+GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish historian of modern
+times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died at Munich in 1891. He received
+a desultory education, and was largely self-taught. An important stage
+in his development was the period of three years that he spent at
+Oldenburg as assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened
+orthodoxy was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz
+proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau was then
+becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the leader of Jewish
+reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger's attitude, and though he
+subsequently took radical views of the Bible and tradition (which made
+him an opponent of Hirsch), Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform.
+He contended for freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for
+freedom of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the
+rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years he
+supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute by his
+published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the fourth volume of
+his history of the Jews made him famous. This fourth volume (the first
+to be published) dealt with the Talmud. It was a brilliant resuscitation
+of the past. Graetz's skill in piecing together detached fragments of
+information, his vast learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were
+equalled by his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book
+of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and Graetz won at
+a bound the position he still occupies as recognized master of Jewish
+history. His _Geschichte der Juden_, begun in 1853, was completed in
+1875; new editions of the several volumes were frequent. The work has
+been translated into many languages; it appeared in English in five
+volumes in 1891-1895. The _History_ is defective in its lack of
+objectivity; Graetz's judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular
+he lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work of genius.
+Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv. Graetz was appointed on
+the staff of the new Breslau Seminary, of which the first director was
+Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the remainder of his life in this office; in
+1869 he was created professor by the government, and also lectured at
+the Breslau University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a
+biblical critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the
+date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books. His
+critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief contribution to
+biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor Bacher edited Graetz's
+_Emendationes_ to many parts of the Hebrew scriptures.
+
+  A full bibliography of Graetz's works is given in the _Jewish
+  Quarterly Review_, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found
+  there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the "index" volume of the
+  _History_ in the American re-issue of the English translation in six
+  volumes (Philadelphia, 1898).     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAEVIUS (properly GRAVE or GREFFE), JOHANN GEORG (1632-1703). German
+classical scholar and critic, was born at Naumburg, Saxony, on the 29th
+of January 1632. He was originally intended for the law, but having made
+the acquaintance of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer,
+under his influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He
+completed his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the
+Protestant theologians A. Morus and D. Blondel at Amsterdam. During his
+residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel's influence he abandoned
+Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church; and in 1656 he was called by
+the elector of Brandenburg to the chair of rhetoric in the university of
+Duisburg. Two years afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he
+was chosen to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was
+translated to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the
+chair of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January 11th, 1703)
+that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high reputation as
+a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded by pupils, many of them of
+distinguished rank, from all parts of the civilized world. He was
+honoured with special recognition by Louis XIV., and was a particular
+favourite of William III. of England, who made him historiographer
+royal.
+
+  His two most important works are the _Thesaurus antiquitatum
+  Romanarum_ (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the _Thesaurus antiquitatum
+  et historiarum Italiae_ published after his death, and continued by
+  the elder Burmann (1704-1725). His editions of the classics, although
+  they marked a distinct advance in scholarship, arc now for the most
+  part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667), Lucian, _Pseudosophista_
+  (1668), Justin, _Historiae Philippicae_ (1669), Suetonius (1672),
+  Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and several of the works of
+  Cicero (his best production). He also edited many of the writings of
+  contemporary scholars. The _Oratio funebris_ by P. Burmann (1703)
+  contains an exhaustive list of the works of this scholar; see also P.
+  H. Kulb in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_, and J. E.
+  Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GRAF, ARTURO (1848-   ), Italian poet, of German extraction, was born at
+Athens. He was educated at Naples University and became a lecturer on
+Italian literature in Rome, till in 1882 he was appointed professor at
+Turin. He was one of the founders of the _Giornale della letteratura
+italiana_, and his publications include valuable prose criticism; but he
+is best known as a poet. His various volumes of verse--_Poesie e
+novelle_ (1874), _Dopo il tramonto versi_ (1893), &c.--give him a high
+place among the recent lyrical writers of his country.
+
+
+
+
+GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815-1869), German Old Testament scholar and
+orientalist, was born at Mulhausen in Alsace on the 28th of February
+1815. He studied Biblical exegesis and oriental languages at the
+university of Strassburg under E. Reuss, and, after holding various
+teaching posts, was made instructor in French and Hebrew at the
+Landesschule of Meissen, receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He
+died on the 16th of July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old
+Testament criticism. In his principal work, _Die geschichtlichen Bucher
+des Alten Testaments_ (1866), he sought to show that the priestly
+legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin than the
+book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the accepted view, that the
+Elohistic narratives formed part of the _Grundschrift_ and therefore
+belonged to the oldest portions of the Pentateuch. The reasons urged
+against the contention that the priestly legislation and the Elohistic
+narratives were separated by a space of 500 years were so strong as to
+induce Graf, in an essay, "Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs,"
+published shortly before his death, to regard the whole _Grundschrift_
+as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch. The idea had
+already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since Graf was the first to
+introduce it into Germany, the theory, as developed by Julius
+Wellhausen, has been called the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis.
+
+  Graf also wrote, _Der Segen Moses Deut. 33_ (1857) and _Der Prophet
+  Jeremia erklart_ (1862). See T. K. Cheyne, _Founders of Old Testament
+  Criticism_ (1893); and Otto Pfleiderer's book translated into English
+  by J. F. Smith as _Development of Theology_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist, son of Karl Ferdinand
+von Grafe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1828. At an early age
+he manifested a preference for the study of mathematics, but this was
+gradually superseded by an interest in natural science, which led him
+ultimately to the study of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at
+Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and
+devoting special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice
+as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution for the
+treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many similar ones in
+Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was appointed teacher of
+ophthalmology in Berlin university; in 1858 he became extraordinary
+professor, and in 1866 ordinary professor. Grafe contributed largely to
+the progress of the science of ophthalmology, especially by the
+establishment in 1855 of his _Archiv fur Ophthalmologie_, in which he
+had Ferdinand Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as
+collaborators. Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his
+method of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He was
+also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves and brain. He
+died at Berlin on the 20th of July 1870.
+
+  See _Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Grafe_ (Halle, 1870) by
+  his cousin, Alfred Grafe (1830-1899), also a distinguished
+  ophthalmologist, and the author of _Das Sehen der Schielenden_
+  (Wiesbaden, 1897); and E. Michaelis, _Albrecht von Grafe. Sein Leben
+  und Wirken_ (Berlin, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868), German educationist, was born at Buttstadt
+in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802. He studied mathematics and
+theology at Jena, and in 1823 obtained a curacy in the town church of
+Weimar. He was transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825;
+in 1840 he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science of
+education (Padagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he became head of
+the _Burgerschule_ (middle class school) in Cassel. After reorganizing
+the schools of the town, he became director of the new _Realschule_ in
+1843; and, devoting himself to the interests of educational reform in
+electoral Hesse, he became in 1849 a member of the school commission,
+and also entered the house of representatives, where he made himself
+somewhat formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated
+in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular
+minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission, he was
+condemned to three years' imprisonment, a sentence afterwards reduced to
+one of twelve months. On his release he withdrew to Geneva, where he
+engaged in educational work till 1855, when he was appointed director of
+the school of industry at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of
+July 1868.
+
+  Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional papers on
+  educational subjects, he wrote _Das Rechisverhaltnis der Volksschule
+  von innen und aussen_ (1829); _Die Schulreform_ (1834); _Schule und
+  Unterricht_ (1839); _Allgemeine Padagogik_ (1845); _Die deutsche
+  Volksschule_ (1847). Together with Naumann, he also edited the _Archiv
+  fur das praktische Volksschulwesen_ (1828-1835).
+
+
+
+
+GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787-1840), German surgeon, was born at
+Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He studied medicine at Halle and
+Leipzig, and after obtaining licence from the Leipzig university, he was
+in 1807 appointed private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg.
+In 1811 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical
+clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was
+superintendent of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded in
+1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed
+physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a director of
+the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy.
+He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840 at Hanover, whither he had been
+called to operate on the eyes of the crown prince. Grafe did much to
+advance the practice of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment
+of wounds. He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was
+chiefly due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted
+students from all parts of Europe.
+
+  The following are his principal works: _Normen fur die Ablosung
+  grosser Gliedmassen_ (Berlin, 1812); _Rhinoplastik_ (1818); _Neue
+  Beitrage zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen_
+  (1821); _Die epidemisch-kontagiose Augenblennorrhoe Agyptens in den
+  europaischen Befreiungsheeren_ (1824); and _Jahresberichte uber das
+  klinisch-chirurgisch-augenarztliche Institut der Universitat zu
+  Berlin_ (1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the
+  _Journal fur Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde_. See E. Michaelis, _Karl
+  Ferdinand von Grafe in seiner 30 jahrigen Wirken fur Staat und
+  Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1840).
+
+
+
+
+GRAFFITO, plural _graffiti_, the Italian word meaning "scribbling" or
+"scratchings" (_graffiare_, to scribble, Gr. [Greek: graphein]), adopted
+by archaeologists as a general term for the casual writings, rude
+drawings and markings on ancient buildings, in distinction from the more
+formal or deliberate writings known as "inscriptions." These "graffiti,"
+either scratched on stone or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a
+nail, or, more rarely, written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found
+in great abundance, e.g. on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The
+best-known "graffiti" are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and
+elsewhere in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci (_Graffiti di
+Pompei_, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra ("Graffiti di Roma" in _Bolletino
+della commissione municipale archaeologica_, Rome, 1893; see also _Corp.
+Ins. Lat._ iv., Berlin, 1871). The subject matter of these scribblings
+is much the same as that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys,
+street idlers and the casual "tripper." The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote
+out lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for
+memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, "sportsmen"
+scribbled the names of horses they had been "tipped," and wrote those of
+their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse is frequent, and rude
+caricatures are found, such as that of one Peregrinus with an enormous
+nose, or of Naso or Nasso with hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes
+up his election address and appeals to the _pilicrepi_ or ball-players
+for their votes for him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for
+lovers in dejection or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius
+appear to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt the
+nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome near the _Porta
+Portuensis_ has been found an inscription begging people not to scribble
+(_scariphare_) on the walls.
+
+Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to the
+philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the various
+alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasionally guide the
+archaeologist to the date of the building on which they appear, but they
+are chiefly valuable for the light they throw on the everyday life of
+the "man in the street" of the period, and for the intimate details of
+customs and institutions which no literature or formal inscriptions can
+give. The graffiti dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in
+this respect particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of
+the _secutor_ caught in the net of the _retiarius_ and lying entirely at
+his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents of these
+shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci, _op. cit._,
+Pls. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, _Pompeii in Leben und Kunst_, 2nd ed., 1908, ch.
+xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome, near the church of S.
+Crisogono, was discovered the guardhouse (_excubitorium_) of the seventh
+cohort of the city police (_vigiles_), the walls being covered by the
+scribblings of the guards, illustrating in detail the daily routine, the
+hardships and dangers, and the feelings of the men towards their
+officers (W. Henzen, "L' Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili"
+in _Bull. Inst._ 1867, and _Annali Inst._, 1874; see also R. Lanciani,
+_Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries_, 230, and _Ruins and
+Excavations of Ancient Rome_, 1897, 548). The most famous graffito yet
+discovered is that generally accepted as representing a caricature of
+Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the Domus Gelotiana on the
+Palatine in 1857, and now preserved in the Kircherian Museum of the
+Collegio Romano. Deeply scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad
+in the short _tunica_ with one hand upraised in salutation to another
+figure, with the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a
+cross; beneath is written in rude Greek letters "Anaxamenos worships
+(his) god." It has been suggested that this represents an adherent of
+some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal-headed deities of Egypt
+(see Ferd. Becker, _Das Spottcrucifix der romischen Kaiserpalaste_,
+Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, _Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin_, Freiburg in
+Breisgau, 1872; and Visconti and Lanciani, _Guida del Palatino_).
+
+  There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti, in
+  the _Edinburgh Review_, October 1859, vol. cx.     (C. We.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAFLY, CHARLES (1862-   ), American sculptor, was born at Philadelphia,
+Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December 1862. He was a pupil of the schools
+of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri
+M. Chapu and Jean Dampt, and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He
+received an Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his
+"Mauvais Presage," now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal
+at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893, Atlanta,
+1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor, Pennsylvania Academy of
+the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he became instructor in sculpture at the
+Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at
+the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1905. His better-known works include:
+"General Reynolds," Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; "Fountain of Man"
+(made for the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo); "From Generation to
+Generation"; "Symbol of Life"; "Vulture of War," and many portrait
+busts.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFRATH, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach, 14 m. E. of
+Dusseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop. (1905) 9030. It has a
+Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, and there was an abbey here
+from 1185 to 1803. The principal industries are iron and steel, while
+weaving is carried on in the town.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier "graff," through the French from
+the Late Lat. _graphium_, a stylus or pencil), a small branch, shoot or
+"scion," transferred from one plant or tree to another, the "stock," and
+inserted in it so that the two unite (see HORTICULTURE). The name was
+adopted from the resemblance in shape of the "graft" to a pencil. The
+transfer of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another
+part of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows is
+also known as "grafting," and is frequently practised in modern surgery.
+The word is applied, in carpentry, to an attachment of the ends of
+timbers, and, as a nautical term, to the "whipping" or "pointing" of a
+rope's end with fine twine to prevent unravelling. "Graft" is used as a
+slang term, in England, for a "piece of hard work." In American usage
+Webster's _Dictionary_ (ed. 1904) defines the word as "the act of any
+one, especially an official or public employe, by which he procures
+money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position; also the
+surreptitious gain thus procured." It is thus a word embracing blackmail
+and illicit commission. The origin of the English use of the word is
+probably an obsolete word "graft," a portion of earth thrown up by a
+spade, from the Teutonic root meaning "to dig," seen in German _graben_,
+and English "grave."
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton are descended from HENRY
+FITZROY (1663-1690), the natural son of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers
+(countess of Castlemaine and duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was
+married to the daughter and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created
+earl of Euston; in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought
+up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg in
+1684. At James II.'s coronation he was lord high constable. In the
+rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the royal troops in
+Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill (duke of Marlborough),
+and joined William of Orange against the king. He died of a wound
+received at the storming of Cork, while leading William's forces, being
+succeeded as 2nd duke by his son Charles (1682-1757).
+
+AUGUSTUS HENRY FITZROY, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811), one of the
+leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the 2nd duke, and
+was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He first became known in
+politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in 1765 he was secretary of state
+under the marquis of Rockingham; but he retired next year, and Pitt
+(becoming earl of Chatham) formed a ministry in which Grafton was first
+lord of the treasury (1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham's
+illness at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective
+leader, but political differences and the attacks of "Junius" led to his
+resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy seal in Lord North's
+ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being in favour of conciliatory
+action towards the American colonists. In the Rockingham ministry of
+1782 he was again lord privy seal. In later years he was a prominent
+Unitarian.
+
+Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous other
+children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitzroy (1764-1829),
+whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858), governor of New South Wales,
+and Robert Fitzroy (q.v.), the hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th
+duke's son, who succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th
+dukes.
+
+  The 3rd duke left in manuscript a _Memoir_ of his public career, of
+  which extracts have been printed in Stanhope's _History_, Walpole's
+  _Memories of George III._ (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell's _Lives
+  of the Chancellors_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, RICHARD (d. 1572). English printer and chronicler, was probably
+born about 1513. He received the freedom of the Grocers' Company in
+1534. Miles Coverdale's version of the Bible had first been printed in
+1535. Grafton was early brought into touch with the leaders of religious
+reform, and in 1537 he undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch,
+to produce a modified version of Coverdale's text, generally known as
+Matthew's Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris to reprint Coverdale's
+revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch and he began to print the folio
+known as the Great Bible by special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from
+the French government. Suddenly, however, the work was officially
+stopped and the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell
+eventually bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed
+in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under his
+direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton and Whitchurch
+secured the exclusive right of printing church service books, and on the
+accession of Edward VI. he was appointed king's printer, an office which
+he retained throughout the reign. In this capacity he produced _The
+Booke of the Common Praier and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and
+other Rites and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche
+of Englande_ (1549 fol.), and _Actes of Parliament_ (1552 and 1553). In
+1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey's proclamation and signed himself the
+queen's printer. For this he was imprisoned for a short time, and he
+seems thereafter to have retired from active business. His historical
+works include a continuation (1543) of Hardyng's Chronicle from the
+beginning of the reign of Edward IV. down to Grafton's own times. He is
+said to have taken considerable liberties with the original, and may
+practically be regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in
+1548 Edward Hall's _Union of the ... Families of Lancastre and Yorke_,
+adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After he retired from
+the printing business he published _An Abridgement of the Chronicles of
+England_ (1562), _Manuell of the Chronicles of England_ (1565),
+_Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the Affayres of England_
+(1568). In these books he chiefly adapted the work of his predecessors,
+but in some cases he gives detailed accounts of contemporary events. His
+name frequently appears in the records of St Bartholomew's and Christ's
+hospitals, and in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King
+Edward's foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the City
+in Parliament, and in 1562-1563 he sat for Coventry.
+
+  An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A.
+  Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers' Company, with the title
+  _Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &c._, in continuation
+  of _Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton_ (1895). His
+  _Chronicle at large_ was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales, lying on both sides
+of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m. from its mouth, 342 m.
+N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901) 4174, South Grafton, 976. The two
+sections, North Grafton and South Grafton, form separate municipalities.
+The river is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate
+burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The entrance
+to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton is the seat of the
+Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton and Armidale, and of a Roman
+Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which have fine cathedrals.
+Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are important industries, and there are
+several sugar-mills in the neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also,
+are bred for the Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and
+fruits are also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney.
+There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a
+municipality in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052; (1910) 5705. It is served by the New York, New
+Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban
+electric lines. The township contains several villages (including
+Grafton, North Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville);
+the principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The
+villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many summer
+residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public library. There is
+ample water power from the Blackstone river and its tributaries, and
+among the manufactures of Grafton are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c.
+Within what is now Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of
+Hassanamesit. John Eliot, the "apostle to the Indians," visited it soon
+after 1651, and organized the third of his bands of "praying Indians"
+there; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of the kind
+in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massachusetts General
+Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive use, a tract of about
+4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole proprietors until 1718, when
+they sold a small farm to Elisha Johnson, the first permanent white
+settler in the neighbourhood. In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro,
+Sudbury, Concord and Stowe, with the permission of the General Court,
+bought from the Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to
+establish forty English families on the tract within three years, and to
+maintain a church and school of which the Indians should have free use.
+The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour of the
+2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded Indians died about
+1825.
+
+
+
+
+GRAFTON, a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West Virginia,
+U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of Wheeling. Pop.
+(1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign-born and 162 negroes;
+(1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions of the Baltimore & Ohio
+railway, which maintains extensive car shops here. The city is about
+1000 ft. above sea-level. It has a small national cemetery, and about 4
+m. W., at Pruntytown, is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is
+situated near large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among
+its manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window glass and
+pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill products. The first
+settlement was made about 1852, and Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and
+chartered as a city in 1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city
+were increased by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900,
+796), of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831-1899), British general, was born on the 27th of
+June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was educated at Dresden and Woolwich
+Academy, and entered the Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with
+distinction through the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the
+battles of the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches
+before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry at
+the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism on numerous occasions.
+He also received the Legion of Honour, and was promoted to a brevet
+majority. In the China War of 1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho
+and Tang-ku, the storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely
+wounded, and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and
+C.B.). Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties until
+1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works for barracks at
+the war office, a position he held until his promotion to major-general
+in 1881. In command of the advanced force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the
+brunt of the fighting, was present at the action of Magfar, commanded at
+the first battle of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his
+brigade at Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received
+the K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the expedition
+to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful battles of El Teb and
+Tamai. On his return home he received the thanks of parliament and was
+made a lieutenant-general for distinguished service in the field. In
+1885 he commanded the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin
+and Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the
+expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.). In 1896 he
+was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant Royal Engineers. He died
+on the 17th of December 1899. He published in 1875 a translation of
+Goetze's _Operations of the German Engineers in 1870-1871_, and in 1887
+_Last Words with Gordon_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792-1861), British statesman,
+son of a baronet, was born at Naworth, Cumberland, on the 1st of June
+1792, and was educated at Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting
+the university, while making the "grand tour" abroad, he became private
+secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England in
+1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the Whig
+interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820. In 1824 he
+succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered parliament as
+representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon exchanged for the
+county of Cumberland. In the same year he published a pamphlet entitled
+"Corn and Currency," which brought him into prominence as a man of
+advanced Liberal opinions; and he became one of the most energetic
+advocates in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl
+Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the
+admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he sat for the
+eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dissensions on the Irish
+Church question led to his withdrawal from the ministry in 1834, and
+ultimately to his joining the Conservative party. Rejected by his former
+constituents in 1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841
+for Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert Peel
+as secretary of state for the home department, a post he retained until
+1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable odium in Scotland, by
+his unconciliating policy on the church question prior to the
+"disruption" of 1843; and in 1844 the detention and opening of letters
+at the post-office by his warrant raised a storm of public indignation,
+which was hardly allayed by the favourable report of a parliamentary
+committee of investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but
+in the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord of
+the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short time in the
+Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of a select committee of
+inquiry into the conduct of the Russian war ultimately led to his
+withdrawal from official life. He continued as a private member to
+exercise a considerable influence on parliamentary opinion. He died at
+Netherby, Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.
+
+  His _Life_, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851), American dietarian, was born in Suffield,
+Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst College, and was ordained to
+the Presbyterian ministry in 1826, but he seems to have preached but
+little. He became an ardent advocate of temperance reform and of
+vegetarianism, having persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause
+of abnormal cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he
+died at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 11th of September 1851. His
+name is now remembered because of his advocacy of unbolted (Graham)
+flour, and as the originator of "Graham bread." But his reform was much
+broader than this. He urged, primarily, physiological education, and in
+his _Science of Human Life_ (1836; republished, with biographical
+memoir, 1858) furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had
+carefully planned a complete regimen including many details besides a
+strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding House was opened in New
+York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath Nicholson, who published _Nature's
+Own Book_ (2nd ed., 1835) giving Graham's rules for boarders; and in
+Boston a Graham House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.
+
+  There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American
+  Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly
+  called _The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to
+  illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science
+  of human life as taught by Sylvester Graham_, edited by David
+  Campbell. Graham wrote _Essay on Cholera_ (1832); _The Esculapian
+  Tablets of the Nineteenth Century_ (1834); _Lectures to Young Men on
+  Chastity_ (2nd ed., 1837); and _Bread and Bread Making_; and projected
+  a work designed to show that his system was not counter to the Holy
+  Scriptures.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805-1869), British chemist, born at Glasgow on the 20th
+of December 1805, was the son of a merchant of that city. In 1819 he
+entered the university of Glasgow with the intention of becoming a
+minister of the Established Church. But under the influence of Thomas
+Thomson (1773-1852), the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste
+for experimental science and especially for molecular physics, a subject
+which formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After
+graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of Professor T.
+C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow gave lessons in
+mathematics, and subsequently chemistry, until the year 1829, when he
+was appointed lecturer in the Mechanics' Institute. In 1830 he succeeded
+Dr Andrew Ure (1778-1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian
+Institution, and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was
+transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College, London.
+There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir John Herschel as
+Master of the Mint, a post he held until his death on the 16th of
+September 1869. The onerous duties his work at the Mint entailed
+severely tried his energies, and in quitting a purely scientific career
+he was subjected to the cares of official life, for which he was not
+fitted by temperament. The researches, however, which he conducted
+between 1861 and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he
+engaged. Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, and a
+corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847, while Oxford
+made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part in the foundation of
+the London Chemical and the Cavendish societies, and served as first
+president of both, in 1841 and 1846. Towards the close of his life the
+presidency of the Royal Society was offered him, but his failing health
+caused him to decline the honour.
+
+Graham's work is remarkable at once for its originality and for the
+simplicity of the methods employed obtaining most important results. He
+communicated papers to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow before the
+work of that society was recorded in _Transactions_, but his first
+published paper, "On the Absorption of Gases by Liquids," appeared in
+the _Annals of Philosophy_ for 1826. The subject with which his name is
+most prominently associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first
+paper on this subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment
+had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of gases.
+"Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in interesting
+speculations, the experimental information we possess on the subject
+amounts to little more than the well-established fact that gases of a
+different nature when brought into contact do not arrange themselves
+according to their density, but they spontaneously diffuse through each
+other so as to remain in an intimate state of mixture for any length of
+time." For the fissured jar of J. W. Dobereiner he substituted a glass
+tube closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple
+appliance he developed the law now known by his name "that the diffusion
+rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their density." (See
+DIFFUSION.) He further studied the passage of gases by transpiration
+through fine tubes, and by effusion through a minute hole in a platinum
+disk, and was enabled to show that gas may enter a vacuum in three
+different ways: (1) by the molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of
+which a gas penetrates through the pores of a disk of compressed
+graphite; (2) by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a
+platinum disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being
+similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is usually
+carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity many thousand
+times as great as is demonstrable by the latter; and (3) by the peculiar
+rate of passage due to transpiration through fine tubes, in which the
+ratios appear to be in direct relation with no other known property of
+the same gases--thus hydrogen has exactly double the transpiration rate
+of nitrogen, the relation of those gases as to density being as 1:14. He
+subsequently examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions
+of india-rubber, unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as
+palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa neither by
+diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue of a
+selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the gases in
+contact with them. By this means ("atmolysis") he was enabled partially
+to separate oxygen from air.
+
+His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine the
+spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the experiments he
+divided bodies into two classes--crystalloids, such as common salt, and
+colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type--the former having high and the
+latter low diffusibility. He also proved that the process of liquid
+diffusion causes partial decomposition of certain chemical compounds,
+the potassium sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium
+sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt. He also
+extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids, adopting the
+method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poiseuille. He found that
+dilution with water does not effect proportionate alteration in the
+transpiration velocities of different liquids, and a certain
+determinable degree of dilution retards the transpiration velocity.
+
+With regard to Graham's more purely chemical work, in 1833 he showed
+that phosphoric anhydride and water form three distinct acids, and he
+thus established the existence of polybasic acids, in each of which one
+or more equivalents of hydrogen are replaceable by certain metals (see
+ACID). In 1835 he published the results of an examination of the
+properties of water of crystallization as a constituent of salts. Not
+the least interesting part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain
+definite salts with alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of
+alcoholates was given. A brief paper entitled "Speculative Ideas on the
+Constitution of Matter" (1863) possesses special interest in connexion
+with work done since his death, because in it he expressed the view that
+the various kinds of matter now recognized as different elementary
+substances may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecule in
+different conditions of movement.
+
+  Graham's _Elements of Chemistry_, first published in 1833, went
+  through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled
+  under J. Otto's direction. His _Chemical and Physical Researches_ were
+  collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and printed "for
+  presentation only" at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith contributing to the
+  volume a valuable preface and analysis of its contents. See also T. E.
+  Thorpe, _Essays in Historical Chemistry_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAME, JAMES (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in Glasgow on the
+22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful lawyer. After completing his
+literary course at Glasgow university, Grahame went in 1784 to
+Edinburgh, where he qualified as writer to the signet, and subsequently
+for the Scottish bar, of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his
+preferences had always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four
+he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton,
+Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works include a
+dramatic poem, _Mary Queen of Scots_ (1801), _The Sabbath_ (1804),
+_British Georgics_ (1804), _The Birds of Scotland_ (1806), and _Poems on
+the Abolition of the Slave Trade_ (1810). His principal work, _The
+Sabbath_, a sacred and descriptive poem in blank verse, is characterized
+by devotional feeling and by happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In
+the notes to his poems he expresses enlightened views on popular
+education, the criminal law and other public questions. He was
+emphatically a friend of humanity--a philanthropist as well as a poet.
+He died in Glasgow on the 14th of September 1811.
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM'S DYKE (or SHEUGH = trench), a local name for the Roman fortified
+frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road, which ran across the
+narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth to the Clyde (about 36 m.),
+and formed from A.D. 140 till about 185 the northern frontier of Roman
+Britain. The name is locally explained as recording a victorious assault
+on the defences by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been
+connected with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term _groma_.
+But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke (Fordun,
+A.D. 1385), it is the same as the term Grim's Ditch which occurs several
+times in England in connexion with early ramparts--for example, near
+Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between Berkhampstead (Herts) and
+Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might
+be credited with the wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short
+periods of time. By antiquaries the Graham's Dyke is usually styled the
+Wall of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus Pius,
+in whose reign it was constructed. See further BRITAIN: _Roman_.
+     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAHAM'S TOWN, a city of South Africa, the administrative centre for the
+eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail N.E. of Port Elizabeth
+and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred. Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom
+7283 were whites and 1837 were electors. The town is built in a basin of
+the grassy hills forming the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above
+sea-level. It is a pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy
+climate, and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The
+streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the High Street
+are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St George, built from
+designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemoration Chapel, the chief place
+of worship of the Wesleyans, erected by the British emigrants of 1820.
+The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the
+left of the High Street. The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a
+square clock tower built on arches over the pavement. Graham's Town is
+one of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides the
+public schools and the Rhodes University College (which in 1904 took
+over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St Andrew's College),
+scholastic institutions are maintained by religious bodies. The town
+possesses two large hospitals, which receive patients from all parts of
+South Africa, and the government bacteriological institute. It is the
+centre of trade for an extensive pastoral and agricultural district.
+Owing to the sour quality of the herbage in the surrounding _zuurveld_,
+stock-breeding and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent
+replaced by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham's Town is the
+most important entrepot. Dairy farming is much practised in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters of the
+British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape Colony from
+the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after Colonel John Graham
+(1778-1821), then commanding the forces. (Graham had commanded the light
+infantry battalion at the taking of the Cape by the British in the
+action of the 6th of January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in
+Italy and Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was
+made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham's Town, and 10,000 men attacked
+it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which numbered not more than
+320 men, infantry and artillery, under Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards
+General Sir) Thomas Willshire. In 1822 the town was chosen as the
+headquarters of the 4000 British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony
+in 1820. It has maintained its position as the most important inland
+town of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape
+parliament met in Graham's Town, the only instance of the legislature
+sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed by a municipality.
+The rateable value in 1906 was L891,536 and the rate levied 2-1/2d. in
+the pound.
+
+  See T. Sheffield, _The Story of the Settlement ..._ (2nd ed., Graham's
+  Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, _British South Africa ... with notices of
+  some of the British Settlers of 1820_ (London, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GRAIL, THE HOLY, the famous talisman of Arthurian romance, the object of
+quest on the part of the knights of the Round Table. It is mainly, if
+not wholly, known to English readers through the medium of Malory's
+translation of the French _Quete du Saint Graal_, where it is the cup or
+chalice of the Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the
+wounds of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved.
+Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these texts
+an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature and origin of
+the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to determine the precise
+value of these differing versions.[1] Broadly speaking the Grail
+romances have been divided into two main classes: (1) those dealing with
+the search for the Grail, the _Quest_, and (2) those relating to its
+early history. These latter appear to be dependent on the former, for
+whereas we may have a _Quest_ romance without any insistence on the
+previous history of the Grail, that history is never found without some
+allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its
+successful termination. The _Quest_ versions again fall into three
+distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero who is
+respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most important and
+interesting group is that connected with Perceval, and he was regarded
+as the original Grail hero, Gawain being, as it were, his understudy.
+Recent discoveries, however, point to a different conclusion, and
+indicate that the _Gawain_ stories represent an early tradition, and
+that we must seek in them rather than in the _Perceval_ versions for
+indications as to the ultimate origin of the Grail.
+
+The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will be seen
+from the following summary.
+
+1. GAWAIN, included in the continuation to Chretien's _Perceval_ by
+Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman, who is
+probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus Cambrensis, and
+considerably earlier than Chretien de Troyes. Here the Grail is a
+food-providing, self-acting talisman, the precise nature of which is not
+specified; it is designated as the "rich" Grail, and serves the king and
+his court _sans serjant et sans seneschal_, the butlers providing the
+guests with wine. In another version, given at an earlier point of the
+same continuation, but apparently deriving from a later source, the
+Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called the
+"holy" Grail, but no details as to its history or character are given.
+In a third version, that of _Diu Crone_, a long and confused romance,
+the origin of which has not been determined, the Grail appears as a
+reliquary, in which the Host is presented to the king, who once a year
+partakes alike of it and of the blood which flows from the lance.
+Another account is given in the prose _Lancelot_, but here Gawain has
+been deposed from his post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be
+expected from the treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit
+ends in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with the
+atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the _Quete_, and
+is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These are the _Gawain_
+versions.
+
+2. PERCEVAL.--The most important _Perceval_ text is the _Conte del
+Grael_, or _Perceval le Galois_ of Chretien de Troyes. Here the Grail is
+wrought of gold richly set with precious stones; it is carried in solemn
+procession, and the light issuing from it extinguishes that of the
+candles. What it is is not explained, but inasmuch as it is the vehicle
+in which is conveyed the Host on which the father of the Fisher king
+depends for nutriment, it seems not improbable that here, as in _Diu
+Crone_, it is to be understood as a reliquary. In the _Parzival_ of
+Wolfram von Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with
+that of Chretien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a
+precious stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the
+guardianship of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a
+body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and youth
+preserving talisman--no man may die within eight days of beholding it,
+and the maiden who bears it retains perennial youth--and an oracle
+choosing its own servants, and indicating whom the Grail king shall wed.
+The sole link with the Christian tradition is the statement that its
+virtue is renewed every Good Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven.
+The discrepancy between this and the other Grail romances is most
+startling.
+
+In the short prose romance known as the "Didot" _Perceval_ we have, for
+the first time, the whole history of the relic logically set forth. The
+_Perceval_ forms the third and concluding section of a group of short
+romances, the two preceding being the _Joseph of Arimathea_ and the
+_Merlin_. In the first we have the precise history of the Grail, how it
+was the dish of the Last Supper, confided by our Lord to the care of
+Joseph, whom he miraculously visited in the prison to which he had been
+committed by the Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his
+brother-in-law Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the
+final winner and guardian of the relic. The _Merlin_ forms the
+connecting thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and the
+chivalric atmosphere of Arthur's court; and finally, in the _Perceval_,
+the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned by Merlin of the
+quest which awaits him and which he achieves after various adventures.
+
+In the _Perlesvaus_ the Grail is the same, but the working out of the
+scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea, Josephe, is
+introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar to that used so
+effectively in the _Parzival_.
+
+3. GALAHAD.--The _Quete du Saint Graal_, the only romance of which
+Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion of the _Lancelot_
+development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot, as lover of Guinevere,
+could not be permitted to achieve so spiritual an emprise, yet as
+leading knight of Arthur's court it was impossible to allow him to be
+surpassed by another. Hence the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by
+the Grail king's daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the
+quest, foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his
+father's fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-winner, could
+not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail, the chalice of the
+Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the _Gawain_ stories,
+self-acting and food-supplying.
+
+The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and the early
+history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and dealing only with the
+early history, is the _Grand Saint Graal_, a work of interminable
+length, based upon the _Joseph of Arimathea_, which has undergone
+numerous revisions and amplifications: its precise relation to the
+_Lancelot_, with which it has now much matter in common, is not easy to
+determine.
+
+To be classed also under the head of early history are certain
+interpolations in the MSS. of the _Perceval_, where we find the _Joseph_
+tradition, but in a somewhat different form, e.g. he is said to have
+caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of receiving the holy blood.
+With this account is also connected the legend of the _Volto Santo_ of
+Lucca, a crucifix said to have been carved by Nicodemus. In the
+conclusion to Chretien's poem, composed by Manessier some fifty years
+later, the Grail is said to have _followed_ Joseph to Britain, how, is
+not explained. Another continuation by Gerbert, interpolated between
+those of Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought to
+Britain by Perceval's mother in the companionship of Joseph.
+
+It will be seen that with the exception of the _Grand Saint Graal_,
+which has now been practically converted into an introduction to the
+_Quete_, no two versions agree with each other; indeed, with the
+exception of the oldest _Gawain-Grail_ visit, that due to Bleheris, they
+do not agree with themselves, but all show, more or less, the influence
+of different and discordant versions. Why should the vessel of the Last
+Supper, jealously guarded at Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur's court
+independently? Why does a sacred relic provide purely material food?
+What connexion can there be between a precious stone, a _baetylus_, as
+Dr Hagen has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such
+questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn.
+
+Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems, and to
+construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so far the
+difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would admit of the
+practically simultaneous existence of apparently contradictory features.
+At one time considered as an introduction from the East, the theory of
+the Grail as an Oriental talisman has now been discarded, and the expert
+opinion of the day may be said to fall into two groups: (1) those who
+hold the Grail to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel
+which has accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained,
+acquired certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on
+the contrary, that the Grail is _aborigine_ folk-lore and Celtic, and
+that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather than an
+essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth in the work
+of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of Mr Alfred Nutt, the
+two constituting the only _travaux d'ensemble_ which have yet appeared
+on the subject. It now seems probable that both are in a measure
+correct, and that the ultimate solution will be recognized to lie in a
+blending of two originally independent streams of tradition. The
+researches of Professor Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in
+England have amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on
+popular thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation
+worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called mysteries
+of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature and progression of the
+seasons were symbolized under the figure of the death and resuscitation
+of the god. These rites are found all over the world, and in his
+monumental work, _The Golden Bough_, Dr Frazer has traced a host of
+extant beliefs and practices to this source. The earliest form of the
+Grail story, the _Gawain_-Bleheris version, exhibits a marked affinity
+with the characteristic features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we
+have a castle on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of
+which is never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted
+country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the dead man,
+and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester asks the meaning
+of the marvels he beholds (the two features of the weeping women and the
+wasted land being retained in versions where they have no significance);
+finally the mysterious food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common
+feast--one and all of these features may be explained as survivals of
+the Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key to
+the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature myth:
+Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero; Dr Lewis Mott has
+pointed out the correspondence between the so-called Round Table sites
+and the ritual of nature worship; but it is only with the discovery of
+the existence of Bleheris as reputed authority for Arthurian tradition,
+and the consequent recognition that the Grail story connected with his
+name is the earliest form of the legend, that we have secured a solid
+basis for such theories.
+
+With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research has
+again aided us--we know now that a legend similar in all respects to the
+Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely current at least a century
+before our earliest Grail texts. The story with Nicodemus as protagonist
+is told of the _Saint-Sang_ relic at Fecamp; and, as stated already, a
+similar origin is ascribed to the _Volto Santo_ at Lucca. In this
+latter case the legend professes to date from the 8th century, and
+scholars who have examined the texts in their present form consider that
+there may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable
+that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form, existed
+long anterior to any extant text, and there is no improbability in
+holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries which had assumed
+the form of a popular folk-tale, became finally Christianized by
+combination with an equally popular ecclesiastical legend, the point of
+contact being the vessel of the common ritual feast. Nor can there be
+much doubt that in this process of combination the Fecamp legend played
+an important role. The best and fullest of the _Perceval_ MSS. refer to
+a book written at Fecamp as source for certain _Perceval_ adventures.
+What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that certain
+special Fecamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail procession of
+the _Parzival_, it seems most probable that it was a _Perceval_-Grail
+story. The relations between the famous Benedictine abbey and the
+English court both before and after the Conquest were of an intimate
+character. Legends of the part played by Joseph of Arimathea in the
+conversion of Britain are closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks
+of which foundation showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary
+activity, and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the
+present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glastonbury
+elaborating ideas borrowed from Fecamp. This much is certain, that
+between the _Saint-Sang_ of Fecamp, the _Volto Santo_ of Lucca, and the
+Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link, the precise nature of
+which has yet to be determined. The two former were popular objects of
+pilgrimage; was the third originally intended to serve the same purpose
+by attracting attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of
+the Grail, Joseph of Arimathea?
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin edition of
+  the _Perceval_, which, however, only gives the Bleheris version; the
+  second visit is found in the best and most complete MSS., such as
+  12,576 and 12,577 (_Fonds francais_) of the Paris library. _Diu
+  Crone_, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852). vol. vi. of _Arthurian
+  Romances_ (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, _Diu Crone_ and
+  _Prose Lancelot_ visits.
+
+  The _Conte del Graal_, or _Perceval_, is only accessible in the
+  edition of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which
+  this has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and
+  untrustworthy text. _Parzival_, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been
+  frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877), in
+  _Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters_, contains full notes and a
+  glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K.
+  Lachmann (1891), Leitzmann (1902-1903) and E. Martin (1903). There are
+  modern German translations by Simrock (very close to the original) and
+  Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with notes and appendices
+  by J. L. Weston. "Didot" _Perceval_, ed. Hucher, _Le Saint Graal_
+  (1875-1878), vol. i. _Perlesvaus_ was printed by Potvin, under the
+  title of _Perceval le Gallois_, in vol. i. of the edition above
+  referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS. was published with
+  translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols., 1876-1892). Under the title
+  of _The High History of the Holy Grail_ a fine version was published
+  by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple Classics (2 vols., 1898). The
+  _Grand Saint Graal_ was published by Hucher as given above; this
+  edition includes the _Joseph of Arimathea_. A 15th century metrical
+  English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich, was printed by Dr Furnivall
+  for the Roxburghe Club 1861-1863; a new edition was undertaken for the
+  Early English Text Society. _Quete du Saint Graal_ can best be studied
+  in Malory's somewhat abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the
+  _Morte Arthur_. It has also been printed by Dr Furnivall for the
+  Roxburghe Club, from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these
+  texts is, however, very good, and the student who can decipher old
+  Dutch would do well to read it in the metrical translation published
+  by Joenckbloet, _Roman van Lanceloet_, as the original here was
+  considerably fuller.
+
+  For general treatment of the subject see _Legend of Sir Perceval_, by
+  J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906); _Studies on the Legend
+  of the Holy Grail_, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise treatment of
+  the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of _Popular Studies_ (1902);
+  Professor Birch-Hirschfeld's _Die Sage vom Gral_ (1877). The late
+  Professor Heinzel's _Die alt-franzosischen Gral-Romane_ contains a
+  mass of valuable matter, but is very confused and ill-arranged. For
+  the Fecamp legend see Leroux de Lincey's _Essai sur l'abbaye de
+  Fescamp_ (1840); for the _Volto Santo_ and kindred legends, Ernest von
+  Dobschutz, _Christus-Bilder_ (Leipzig, 1899).     (J. L. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The etymology of the O. Fr. _graal_ or _greal_, of which "grail"
+    is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original,
+    _gradale_ or _grasale_, a flat dish or platter, has generally been
+    taken to represent a diminutive _cratella_ of _crater_, bowl, or a
+    lost _cratale_, formed from the same word (see W. W. Skeat, Preface
+    to _Joseph of Arimathie_, Early Eng. Text Soc).--ED.
+
+
+
+
+GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. _granum_, seed, from an
+Aryan root meaning "to wear down," which also appears in the common
+Teutonic word "corn"), a word particularly applied to the seed, in
+botanical language the "fruit," of cereals, and hence applied, as a
+collective term to cereal plants generally, to which, in English, the
+term "corn" is also applied (see GRAIN TRADE). Apart from this, the
+chief meaning, the word is used of the malt refuse of brewing and
+distilling, and of many hard rounded small particles, resembling the
+seeds of plants, such as "grains" of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, &c.
+"Grain" is also the name of the smallest unit of weight, both in the
+United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its origin is supposed
+to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and gathered from the middle
+of the ear. The troy grain = 1/5760 of a lb., the avoirdupois grain =
+1/7000 of a lb. In diamond weighing the grain = 1/4 of the carat, =
+.7925 of the troy grain. The word "grains" was early used, as also in
+French, of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the
+berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see COCHINEAL
+and KERMES). From the Fr. _en graine_, literally in dye, comes the
+French verb _engrainer_, Eng. "engrain" or "ingrain," meaning to dye in
+any fast colour. From the further use of "grain" for the texture of
+substances, such as wood, meat, &c., "engrained" or "ingrained" means
+ineradicable, impregnated, dyed through and through. The "grain" of
+leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the hair has been
+removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different kinds of woods
+is known as "graining" (see PAINTER-WORK). "Grain," or more commonly in
+the plural "grains," construed as a singular, is the name of an
+instrument with two or more barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This
+word is Scandinavian in origin, and is connected with Dan. _green_,
+Swed. _gren_, branch, and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the
+prongs of a fork, &c. It is not connected with "groin," the inguinal
+parts of the body, which in its earliest forms appears as _grynde_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAINS OF PARADISE, GUINEA GRAINS, or MELEGUETA PEPPER (Ger.
+_Paradieskorner_, Fr. _graines de Paradis_, _maniguette_), the seeds of
+_Amomum Melegueta_, a reed-like plant of the natural order
+_Zingiberaceae_. It is a native of tropical western Africa, and of
+Prince's and St Thomas's islands in the Gulf of Guinea, is cultivated in
+other tropical countries, and may with ease be grown in hothouses in
+temperate climates. The plant has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth,
+nearly sessile, narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves; large,
+white, pale pink or purplish flowers; and an ovate-oblong fruit,
+ensheathed in bracts, which is of a scarlet colour when fresh, and
+reaches under cultivation a length of 5 in. The seeds are contained in
+the acid pulp of the fruit, are commonly wedge-shaped and bluntly
+angular, are about 1-1/4 lines in diameter and have a glossy dark-brown
+husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous caruncle at the base and
+a white kernel. They contain, according to Fluckiger and Hanbury, 0.3%
+of a faintly yellowish neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not
+acrid taste, and a specific gravity at 15.5 deg. C of 0.825, and giving
+on analysis the formula C20H32O, or C10H16 + C10H16O; also 5.83% of an
+intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin.
+
+Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British pharmacopoeias,
+and in the 13th and succeeding centuries were used as a drug and a
+spice, the wine known as hippocras being flavoured with them and with
+ginger and cinnamon. In 1629 they were employed among the ingredients of
+the twenty-four herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the
+city of Norwich, ordained to be carried to court by the lord of the
+manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, _Chem. of Common Life_, p. 355,
+1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought overland from West
+Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the Barbary states, to be shipped
+for Italy. They are now exported almost exclusively from the Gold Coast.
+Grains of paradise are to some extent used illegally to give a
+fictitious strength to malt liquors, gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III.
+c. 58, no brewer or dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use
+grains of paradise, under a penalty of L200 for each offence; and no
+druggist shall sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of L500. They
+are, however, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and are much
+esteemed as a spice by the natives of Guinea.
+
+  See Bentley and Trimen, _Medicinal Plants_, tab. 268; Lanessan, _Hist.
+  des Drogues_, pp. 456-460 (1878).
+
+
+
+
+GRAIN TRADE. The complexity of the conditions of life in the 20th
+century may be well illustrated from the grain trade of the world. The
+ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represents, for example, produce of
+nearly every country in the world outside the tropics.
+
+
+  General considerations.
+
+Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a wild state it is
+practically unknown. It is alleged to have been found growing wild
+between the Euphrates and the Tigris; but the discovery has never been
+authenticated, and, unless the plant be sedulously cared for, the
+species dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern
+experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Garton Brothers
+have evolved the most extraordinary "sports," showing, it is claimed,
+that the plant has probably passed through stages of which until the
+present day there had been no conception. The tales that grains of wheat
+found in the cerements of Egyptian mummies have been planted and come to
+maturity are no longer credited, for the vital principle in the wheat
+berry is extremely evanescent; indeed, it is doubtful whether wheat
+twenty years old is capable of reproduction. The Garton artificial
+fertilization experiments have shown endless deviations from the
+ordinary type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk to
+big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless. It is
+conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a degenerate form of
+something much finer which flourished thousands of years ago, and that
+possibly it may be restored to its pristine excellence, yielding an
+increase twice or thrice as large as it now does, thus postponing to a
+distant period the famine doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his
+presidential address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well
+repays careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled
+Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincolnshire
+farm, the former with its average yield of 8 bushels, the latter with
+its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality, as regards the quantity
+and flavour of the flour from a fine sample of British wheat, such as is
+on sale at almost every agricultural show in Great Britain, with the
+produce of an Egyptian or Syrian field; the difference is so great as to
+cause one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species.
+
+It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in Great Britain
+is made from wheat grown in the following countries in the proportions
+named:--
+
+  +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+
+  |U.S.A.| U.K.|Russia.|Argen-|British|Canada.|Rumania- |Austr-|  Other   |
+  |      |     |       | tina.|India. |       |Bulgaria.| alia.|Countries.|
+  +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+
+  |  Oz. | Oz. |  Oz.  | Oz.  |  Oz.  |  Oz.  |   Oz.   | Oz.  |   Oz.    |
+  |  26  | 13      9   |  5   |   4   |   3   |    2    |  1   |    1     |
+  |                Or expressed in percentages as follows:--              |
+  |  40  | 20  |  14   |  8   |   6   |   5   |    3    |  2   |    2     |
+  +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+
+
+For details connected with grain and its handling see AGRICULTURE, CORN
+LAWS, GRANARIES, FLOUR, BAKING, WHEAT, &c.
+
+Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food-stuff. Rice,
+which shares with millet the distinction of being the principal
+food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings, is not grown nearly
+as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the white races. Wheat grows
+as far south as Patagonia, and as far north as the edge of the Arctic
+Circle; it flourishes throughout Europe, and across the whole of
+northern Asia and in Japan; it is cultivated in Persia, and raised
+largely in India, as far south as the Nizam's dominions. It is grown
+over nearly the whole of North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop
+was raised in the autumn of 1898 as far north as the mission at Fort
+Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 62 deg.--or less
+than 200 m. south of the latitude of Dawson City--the period between
+seed-time and harvest having been ninety-one days. In Africa it was an
+article of commerce in the days of Jacob, whose son Joseph may be said
+to have run the first and only successful "corner" in wheat. For many
+centuries Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat
+from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison on one of his
+shipwrecks, as was also, in all probability, that of the "ship of
+Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux," named in the same
+narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated that the Sudan if
+properly settled would be capable of feeding the whole of Europe. Along
+the north coast of Africa are areas which, if properly irrigated, as was
+done in the days of Carthage, could produce enough wheat to feed half of
+the Caucasian race. For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area
+of 400,000 sq. m., or three times the extent of Great Britain and
+Ireland, according to the opinion of a British consul, could raise
+millions of acres of wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high
+plateaus of South Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambezi. Land is being
+extensively put under wheat in the pampas of South America and in the
+prairies of Siberia.
+
+In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level the volume
+of the world's crop would be trebled, another fact which Sir William
+Crookes seems to have overlooked. The experiments of the late Sir J. B.
+Lawes in Hertfordshire have proved that the natural fruitfulness of the
+wheat plant can be increased threefold by the application of the proper
+fertilizer. The results of these experiments will be found in a
+compendium issued from the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station.
+
+It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest number
+of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a miller's
+standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness and strength
+of the flour are with him important considerations, too often overlooked
+by the farmer when buying his seed. Nevertheless it is the deficient
+quantity of the wheat raised in the British Islands, and not the quality
+of the grain, which has been the cause of so much anxiety to economists
+and statesmen.
+
+
+  Freight rates.
+
+Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion that
+arable land in Great Britain would always command a substantial rent of
+at least 30s. per acre. His figures were based on the assumption that
+wheat was imported duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage
+from abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of
+good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 30s. per ton.
+But freights had come down by 1900 to half the rates predicated by
+Caird; indeed, during a portion of the interval they ruled very close to
+zero, as far as steamer freights from America were concerned. In 1900 an
+all-round freight rate for wheat might be taken at 15s. _per ton_ (a ton
+representing approximately the produce of an acre of good wheat land in
+England), say from 10s. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 30s. for
+Pacific American and Australian; about midway between these two extremes
+we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk coming at about the 15s.
+rate. Inferior land bearing less than 4-1/2 quarters per acre would not
+be protected to the same extent, and moreover, seeing that a portion of
+the British wheat crop has to stand a charge as heavy for land carriage
+across a county as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an
+ocean, the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make
+out. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges for the
+railway and other transportation services issued by the Division of
+Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A. (Miscellaneous series,
+Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable reference book. From its pages are
+culled the following facts relating to the changes in the rates of
+freight up to the year 1897.[1] In Table 3 the average rates per ton per
+mile in cents are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate
+for that year was 4.523 cents per ton per mile, since when a great and
+almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897, the latest
+year given, the rate had declined to .870 of a cent per ton per mile.
+The railway which shows the greatest fall is the Chesapeake & Ohio, for
+the charge has fallen from over 7 cents in 1862 and 1863 to .419 of a
+cent in 1897, whereas the Erie rates have fallen only from 1.948 in 1852
+to .609 in 1897. Putting the rates of the twelve returning railways
+together, we find the average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was
+3.006 cents per ton per mile, and that in 1896-1897 the average rate had
+fallen to .797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large
+compared with the smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates on grain,
+we find (in Table 23) a record for the forty years 1858-1897 of the
+charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via all rail from 1858, and
+via lake and rail since 1868, the authority being the secretary of the
+Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858 to 1862 the rate varied between 42.37
+and 34.80 cents per bushel for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the
+average rate in the quinquennium being 38.43. In the five years
+immediately prior to the time at which Sir J. Caird expressed the
+opinion that the cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the
+British grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York
+was 17.76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was 13.17
+cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the table, had fallen
+to 12.50 and 7.42 respectively. The rates have been as follows in
+quinquennial periods, via all rail:--
+
+_Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel._
+
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | 1858- | 1863- | 1868- | 1873- | 1878- | 1883- | 1888- | 1893- |
+  | 1862. | 1867. | 1872. | 1877. | 1882. | 1887. | 1892. | 1897. |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | 38.43 | 31.42 | 27.91 | 21.29 | 16.77 | 14.67 | 14.52 | 12.88 |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny, and eight bushels to
+the quarter, the above would appear in English currency as follows:--
+
+_Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter._
+
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+
+  | 1858- | 1863- | 1868- | 1873- | 1878- |  1883- | 1888- | 1893- |
+  | 1862. | 1867. | 1872. | 1877. | 1882. |  1887. | 1892. | 1897. |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+
+  | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. |s.  d.  | s. d. | s. d. |
+  | 12 8  | 10 6  | 9  3  | 7  1  | 5  7  |4 10-1/2| 4  10 | 4  3  |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+
+
+Another table (No. 38) shows the average rates from Chicago to New York
+by lakes, canal and river. These in their quinquennial periods are given
+for the season as follows:--
+
+_In Cents per Bushel of_ 60 lb.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |   22.15  |   10.47  |   4.92   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+
+_In Shillings and Pence per Quarter of_ 480 lb.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |  s.  d.  |  s.  d.  |  s.  d.  |
+  |  7   4   |  3   6   |  1   7   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+
+_In Shillings and Pence per Ton of_ 2240 lb.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+  |  s.   d. | s.   d.  |  s.  d.  |
+  |  34   6  | 16   6   |  7   6   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+
+
+This latter mode is the cheapest by which grain can be carried to the
+eastern seaboard from the American prairies, and it can now be done at a
+cost of 7s. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has to be added before the
+grain can be delivered free on the quay at Liverpool. A rate from New
+York to Liverpool of 2-1/2d. per bushel, or 7s. 10d. per ton, a low
+rate, reached in Dec. 1900, is yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to
+leave a profit; indeed, there have frequently been times when the rate
+was as low as 1d. per bushel, or 3s. 1d. per ton; and in periods of
+great trade depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as
+ballast, being paid for by the ship-owner. Another route worked more
+cheaply than formerly is that by river, from the centre of the winter
+wheat belt, say at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence by steamer to
+Liverpool. The river rate has fallen below five cents per bushel, or
+7s. per ton, 2240 lb. In Table No. 71 the cost of transportation is
+compared year by year with the export price of the two leading cereals
+in the States as follows:--
+
+_Wheat and Corn--Export Prices and Transportation Rates compared._
+
+  +------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+  |      |              Wheat.              |              Corn.               |
+  |      +---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+
+  |      |         |             |  Number  |         |             |  Number  |
+  |      |         |Rate, Chicago|of Bushels|         |Rate, Chicago|of Bushels|
+  | Year.| Export  | to New York |  carried | Export  | to New York | carried  |
+  |      |Price per|   by Lake   | for Price|Price per|   by Lake   | for Price|
+  |      | Bushel. | and Canal,  |  of One  | Bushel. |  and Canal, |  of One  |
+  |      |         | per Bushel. |  Bushel. |         | per Bushel. |  Bushel. |
+  +------+---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+
+  |      |         |    Cents.   |          |         |    Cents.   |          |
+  | 1867 |  $0.92  |    15.95    |   5.77   |$0.72    |    14.58    |   4.94   |
+  | 1868 |   1.36  |    16.23    |   8.38   |  .84.1  |    13.57    |   6.20   |
+  | 1869 |   1.05  |    17.20    |   6.10   |  .72.8  |    14.98    |   4.86   |
+  | 1870 |   1.12  |    14.85    |   7.54   |  .80.5  |    13.78    |   5.84   |
+  | 1871 |   1.18  |    17.75    |   6.65   |  .67.9  |    16.53    |   4.11   |
+  | 1872 |   1.31  |    21.55    |   6.08   |  .61.8  |    19.62    |   3.15   |
+  | 1873 |   1.15  |    16.89    |   6.81   |  .54.3  |    15.39    |   3.53   |
+  | 1874 |   1.29  |    12.75    |  10.12   |  .64.7  |    11.29    |   5.73   |
+  | 1875 |    .97  |     9.90    |   9.80   |  .73.8  |     8.93    |   8.26   |
+  | 1876 |   1.11  |     8.63    |  12.86   |  .60.3  |     7.93    |   7.60   |
+  | 1877 |   1.12  |    10.76    |  10.41   |  .56.0  |     9.41    |   5.95   |
+  | 1878 |   1.33  |     9.10    |  14.62   |  .55.8  |     8.27    |   6.75   |
+  | 1879 |   1.07  |    11.60    |   9.22   |  .47.1  |    10.43    |   4.52   |
+  | 1880 |   1.25  |    12.27    |  10.19   |  .54.3  |    11.14    |   4.87   |
+  | 1881 |   1.11  |     8.19    |  13.55   |  .55.2  |     7.26    |   7.60   |
+  | 1882 |   1.19  |     7.89    |  15.08   |  .66.8  |     7.23    |   9.24   |
+  | 1883 |   1.13  |     8.37    |  13.50   |  .68.4  |     7.66    |   8.93   |
+  | 1884 |   1.07  |     6.31    |  16.96   |  .61.1  |     5.64    |  10.83   |
+  | 1885 |    .86  |     5.87    |  14.65   |  .54.0  |     5.38    |  10.04   |
+  | 1886 |    .87  |     8.71    |   9.99   |  .49.8  |     7.98    |   6.24   |
+  | 1887 |    .89  |     8.51    |  10.46   |  .47.9  |     7.88    |   6.08   |
+  | 1888 |    .85  |     5.93    |  14.33   |  .55.0  |     5.41    |  10.17   |
+  | 1889 |    .90  |     6.89    |  13.06   |  .47.4  |     6.19    |   7.66   |
+  | 1890 |    .83  |     5.86    |  14.16   |  .41.8  |     5.10    |   8.20   |
+  | 1891 |    .93  |     5.96    |  15.60   |  .57.4  |     5.36    |  10.71   |
+  | 1892 |   1.03  |     5.61    |  18.36   |  .55    |     5.03    |  10.93   |
+  | 1893 |    .80  |     6.31    |  12.68   |  .53    |     5.71    |   9.28   |
+  | 1894 |    .67  |     4.44    |  15.09   |  .46    |     3.99    |  11.53   |
+  | 1895 |    .58  |     4.11    |  14.11   |  .53    |     3.71    |  14.29   |
+  | 1896 |    .65  |     5.38    |  12.08   |  .38    |     4.94    |   7.69   |
+  | 1897 |    .75  |     4.35    |  17.24   |  .31    |     3.79    |   8.18   |
+  +------+---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+
+
+The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly increased
+output from Canada--the cost of transport from that country to England
+being much the same as from the United States. So much improved is the
+position of the farmer in North America compared with what it was about
+1870, that the transport companies in 1901 carried 17-1/4 bushels of his
+grain to the seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas
+in 1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the
+service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if he had
+improved his position; for he has to send his wheat to greater
+distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers or their
+removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen only to a very
+small extent; again the farmer's wheat is worth only half of what it was
+formerly; it may be said that the British farmer has to give up one
+bushel in nine to the railway company for the purpose of transportation,
+whereas in the 'seventies he gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has
+been said to prove that the advantage of position claimed for the
+British farmer by Caird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the
+Kansas or Minnesota farmer's wheat does not have to pay for carriage to
+Liverpool more than 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per ton in excess of the rate
+paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does not go very
+far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes and rates and taxes.
+
+The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods requires
+consideration if a proper understanding of the working of the foreign
+grain trade is to be obtained. Only a very small proportion of the
+decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due to cheapened transport
+rates; for while the mileage rate has been falling, the length of
+haulage has been extending, until in 1900 the principal wheat fields of
+America were 2000 m. farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case
+in 1870, and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate
+of 50 to 75%, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly as much to have
+its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did then. The
+difference in the cost of the operation is shown in the following
+tabular statement, both the cost in the aggregate on a year's imports
+and the cost per quarter:--
+
+_Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the United
+Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 1900, together
+with the average rate of freight._
+
+    1900.
+
+  +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                      |             | Ocean Freight | Total Cost |
+  | Countries of Origin. | Quantities. |   to United   |  of Ocean  |
+  |                      | Qrs. 480 lb.|    Kingdom.   |  Carriage. |
+  |                      |             |   Per 480 lb. |            |
+  +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                      |             |      s. d.    |     L      |
+  | Atlantic America     | 11,171,100  |      2  3     |  1,257,100 |
+  | South Russia         |    569,000  |      2  2     |     62,000 |
+  | Pacific America      |  2,389,900  |      8  1     |    966,000 |
+  | Canada               |  1,877,100  |      2  8     |    250,000 |
+  | Rumania              |    176,400  |      2  6     |     22,000 |
+  | Argentina and Uruguay|  4,322,300  |      4 10     |  1,045,000 |
+  | France               |    251,900  |      1  3     |     16,000 |
+  | Bulgaria and Rumelia |     30,600  |      2  6     |      4,000 |
+  | India                |      2,200  |      4  0     |        400 |
+  | Austria-Hungary      |    389,300  |      1  9     |     34,000 |
+  | Chile                |        600  |       ..      |     ..     |
+  | North Russia         |    462,700  |      1  6     |     35,000 |
+  | Germany              |    438,700  |      1  6     |     33,000 |
+  | Australasia          |    883,900  |      6  5     |    284,000 |
+  | Minor Countries      |    225,100  |      2  6     |     28,000 |
+  |                      +-------------+---------------+------------+
+  |     Total            | 23,190,800  |Average 3s. 6d.| L4,036,500 |
+  +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+
+
+Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year 1872, the
+most remote year for which similar facts are available, it will be found
+that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean carriage has not much
+decreased.
+
+_Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the United
+Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 1872, together
+with the average rate of freight._
+
+    1872.
+
+  +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+
+  |                       |           | Ocean Freight |            |
+  |  Countries of Origin. |Quantities.|   to United   | Total Cost |
+  |                       |    Qrs.   |    Kingdom.   |of Carriage.|
+  |                       |           |     Per qr.   |            |
+  +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+
+  |                       |           |      s. d.    |      L     |
+  | South Russia          | 3,678,000 |      8  6     |  1,563,000 |
+  | United States         | 2,030,000 |      6  6     |    659,000 |
+  | Germany               |   910,000 |      2  0     |     91,000 |
+  | France                |   660,000 |      3  0     |     99,000 |
+  | Egypt                 |   536,000 |      4  6     |    120,000 |
+  | North Russia          |   490,000 |      2  0     |     49,000 |
+  | Canada                |   400,000 |      7  6     |    150,000 |
+  | Chile                 |   330,000 |     12  0     |    198,000 |
+  | Turkey                |   195,000 |      7  6     |     72,000 |
+  | Spain                 |   130,000 |      3  6     |     23,000 |
+  | Scandinavia           |   160,000 |      2  0     |     16,000 |
+  |                       +-----------+---------------+------------+
+  | Total, Chief Countries| 9,519,000 |Average 6s. 5d.| L3,040,000 |
+  +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+
+
+_N.B._--A trifling quantity of Californian and Australian wheat was
+imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade records do
+not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot be given. The
+freight in that year from those countries averaged about 13s. per
+quarter.
+
+The exact difference between the average freight for the years 1872 and
+1900 amounts to about 2s. 11d. per quarter (480 lb.), a trifle in
+comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat during the same
+years.
+
+The following data bearing upon the subject, for selected periods, are
+partly taken from the _Corn Trade Year-Book_:--
+
+  +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+
+  |      | United Kingdom |Ocean Freight|              |
+  | Year.| Annual Imports.|  to United  |Aggregate Cost|
+  |      |Wheat and Flour.|   Kingdom.  | of Carriage. |
+  |      |      Qrs.      |   Per qr.   |              |
+  +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+
+  |      |                |     s. d.   |       L      |
+  | 1872 |    9,469,000   |     6  5    |   3,040,000  |
+  | 1882 |   14,850,000   |     7  4    |   5,420,000  |
+  | 1894 |   16,229,000   |     3  9    |   3,041,000  |
+  | 1895 |   25,197,000   |     3  0    |   3,825,000  |
+  | 1896 |   23,431,000   |     2  9    |   3,258,000  |
+  | 1900 |   23,196,000   |     3  6    |   4,036,000  |
+  +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+
+
+In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years, from
+1871 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 56s. per quarter (or 7s. per
+bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. 5d. per quarter,
+whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28s. (or 3s. 6d. per
+bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was 3s. 6d. per quarter; the
+ocean transport companies carried eight bushels of wheat across the seas
+in 1901 for the value of one bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in
+1872.
+
+The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean freight is to
+be explained by the greater length of the present ocean voyage, which
+now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of Europe's importation of white
+wheat from the Pacific Coast of the United States and Australia, in
+contrast with the short voyage from the Black Sea or across the English
+Channel or German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this
+phase of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the
+error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price of
+wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable to the
+lessened cost of transport.
+
+
+  WHEAT PRICES
+
+  The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year of
+  English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T. Smith,
+  Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905:
+
+  _Price per Quarter_
+
+    +------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------+
+    |      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.||      | s.  d.|
+    | 1656 | 38  2 || 1706 | 23  1 || 1756 | 40  1 || 1806 | 79  1 || 1856 | 69  2 |
+    | 1657 | 41  5 || 1707 | 25  4 || 1757 | 53  4 || 1807 | 75  4 || 1857 | 56  4 |
+    | 1658 | 57  9 || 1708 | 36 10 || 1758 | 44  5 || 1808 | 84  4 || 1858 | 44  2 |
+    | 1659 | 58  8 || 1709 | 69  9 || 1759 | 35  3 || 1809 | 97  4 || 1859 | 43  9 |
+    | 1660 | 50  2 || 1710 | 69  4 || 1760 | 32  5 || 1810 |106  5 || 1860 | 53  3 |
+    | 1661 | 62  2 || 1711 | 48  0 || 1761 | 26  9 || 1811 | 95  3 || 1861 | 55  4 |
+    | 1662 | 65  9 || 1712 | 41  2 || 1762 | 34  8 || 1812 |126  6 || 1862 | 55  5 |
+    | 1663 | 50  8 || 1713 | 45  4 || 1763 | 36  1 || 1813 |109  9 || 1863 | 44  9 |
+    | 1664 | 36  0 || 1714 | 44  9 || 1764 | 41  5 || 1814 | 74  4 || 1864 | 40  2 |
+    | 1665 | 43 10 || 1715 | 38  2 || 1765 | 48  0 || 1815 | 65  7 || 1865 | 41 10 |
+    | 1666 | 32  0 || 1716 | 42  8 || 1766 | 43  1 || 1816 | 78  6 || 1866 | 49 11 |
+    | 1667 | 32  0 || 1717 | 40  7 || 1767 | 57  4 || 1817 | 96 11 || 1867 | 64  5 |
+    | 1668 | 35  6 || 1718 | 34  6 || 1768 | 53  9 || 1818 | 86  3 || 1868 | 63  9 |
+    | 1669 | 39  5 || 1719 | 31  1 || 1769 | 40  7 || 1819 | 74  6 || 1869 | 48  2 |
+    | 1670 | 37  0 || 1720 | 32 10 || 1770 | 43  6 || 1820 | 67 10 || 1870 | 46 11 |
+    | 1671 | 37  4 || 1721 | 33  4 || 1771 | 47  2 || 1821 | 56  1 || 1871 | 56  8 |
+    | 1672 | 36  5 || 1722 | 32  0 || 1772 | 50  8 || 1822 | 44  7 || 1872 | 57  0 |
+    | 1673 | 41  5 || 1723 | 30 10 || 1773 | 51  0 || 1823 | 53  4 || 1873 | 58  8 |
+    | 1674 | 61  0 || 1724 | 32 10 || 1774 | 52  8 || 1824 | 63 11 || 1874 | 55  9 |
+    | 1675 | 57  5 || 1725 | 43  1 || 1775 | 48  4 || 1825 | 68  6 || 1875 | 45  2 |
+    | 1676 | 33  9 || 1726 | 40 10 || 1776 | 38  2 || 1826 | 58  8 || 1876 | 46  2 |
+    | 1677 | 37  4 || 1727 | 37  4 || 1777 | 45  6 || 1827 | 60  6 || 1877 | 56  9 |
+    | 1678 | 52  5 || 1728 | 48  5 || 1778 | 42  0 || 1828 | 60  5 || 1878 | 46  5 |
+    | 1679 | 53  4 || 1729 | 41  7 || 1779 | 33  8 || 1829 | 66  3 || 1879 | 43 10 |
+    | 1680 | 40  0 || 1730 | 32  5 || 1780 | 35  8 || 1830 | 64  3 || 1880 | 44  4 |
+    | 1681 | 41  5 || 1731 | 29  2 || 1781 | 44  8 || 1831 | 66  4 || 1881 | 45  4 |
+    | 1682 | 39  1 || 1732 | 23  8 || 1782 | 47 10 || 1832 | 58  8 || 1882 | 45  1 |
+    | 1683 | 35  6 || 1733 | 25  2 || 1783 | 52  8 || 1833 | 52 11 || 1883 | 41  7 |
+    | 1684 | 39  1 || 1734 | 34  6 || 1784 | 48 10 || 1834 | 46  2 || 1884 | 35  8 |
+    | 1685 | 41  5 || 1735 | 38  2 || 1785 | 51 10 || 1835 | 49  4 || 1885 | 32 10 |
+    | 1686 | 30  2 || 1736 | 35 10 || 1786 | 38 10 || 1836 | 48  6 || 1886 | 31  0 |
+    | 1687 | 22  4 || 1737 | 33  9 || 1787 | 41  2 || 1837 | 55  0 || 1887 | 32  6 |
+    | 1688 | 40 10 || 1738 | 31  6 || 1788 | 45  0 || 1838 | 64  7 || 1888 | 31 10 |
+    | 1689 | 26  8 || 1739 | 34  2 || 1789 | 51  2 || 1839 | 70  8 || 1889 | 29  9 |
+    | 1690 | 30  9 || 1740 | 45  1 || 1790 | 54  9 || 1840 | 66  4 || 1890 | 31 11 |
+    | 1691 | 30  2 || 1741 | 41  5 || 1791 | 48  7 || 1841 | 64  4 || 1891 | 37  0 |
+    | 1692 | 41  5 || 1742 | 30  2 || 1792 | 43  0 || 1842 | 57  3 || 1892 | 30  3 |
+    | 1693 | 60  1 || 1743 | 22  1 || 1793 | 49  3 || 1843 | 50  1 || 1893 | 26  4 |
+    | 1694 | 56 10 || 1744 | 22  1 || 1794 | 52  3 || 1844 | 51  3 || 1894 | 22 10 |
+    | 1695 | 47  1 || 1745 | 24  5 || 1795 | 75  2 || 1845 | 50 10 || 1895 | 23  1 |
+    | 1696 | 63  1 || 1746 | 34  8 || 1796 | 78  7 || 1846 | 54  8 || 1896 | 26  2 |
+    | 1697 | 53  4 || 1747 | 30 11 || 1797 | 53  9 || 1847 | 69  9 || 1897 | 30  2 |
+    | 1698 | 60  9 || 1748 | 32 10 || 1798 | 51 10 || 1848 | 50  6 || 1898 | 34  0 |
+    | 1699 | 56 10 || 1749 | 32 10 || 1799 | 69  0 || 1849 | 44  3 || 1899 | 25  8 |
+    | 1700 | 35  6 || 1750 | 28 10 || 1800 |113 10 || 1850 | 40  3 || 1900 | 26 11 |
+    | 1701 | 33  5 || 1751 | 34  2 || 1801 |119  6 || 1851 | 38  6 || 1901 | 26  9 |
+    | 1702 | 26  2 || 1752 | 37  2 || 1802 | 69 10 || 1852 | 40  9 || 1902 | 28  1 |
+    | 1703 | 32  0 || 1753 | 39  8 || 1803 | 58 10 || 1853 | 53  3 || 1903 | 26  9 |
+    | 1704 | 41  4 || 1754 | 30  9 || 1804 | 62  3 || 1854 | 72  5 || 1904 | 28  4 |
+    | 1705 | 26  8 || 1755 | 30  1 || 1805 | 89  9 || 1855 | 74  8 || 1905 | 29  8 |
+    +------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------+
+    |Average       ||              ||              ||              ||              |
+    |  50    42 10 ||        36  0 ||        51  9 ||        65 10 ||       *42  7 |
+    | years        ||              ||              ||              ||              |
+    +--------------++--------------++--------------++--------------++--------------+
+      * Average for 46 years only.
+
+Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat may be,
+it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of rail or ocean
+freights. Incidental charges are lower than they were in 1870; handling
+charges, brokers' commissions and insurance premiums have been in many
+instances reduced, but all these economies when combined only amount to
+about 2s. per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the
+rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive at an
+aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third of the actual
+difference between the average price of wheat in 1872 and 1900. To what
+the remaining difference was due it is difficult to say with certitude;
+there are some who argue that the tendency of prices to fall is
+inherent, and that the constant whittling away of intermediaries'
+profits is sufficient explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained
+that the phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German
+government in demonetizing silver in 1872.
+
+
+  FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Valuable information will also be found in Bulletin No. 38
+    (1905), "Crop Export Movement and Port Facilities on the Atlantic and
+    Gulf Coasts"; in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), "Cost of Hauling Crops from
+    Farms to Shipping Points"; and in Bulletin No. 69 (1908), "European
+    Grain Trade."
+
+
+
+
+GRAM, or CHICK-PEA, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal gram (from Port.
+_grao_, formerly _gram_, Lat. _granum_, Hindi _Chana_, Bengali _Chhola_,
+Ital. _cece_, Span. _garbanzo_), the _Cicer arietinum_ of Linnaeus, so
+named from the resemblance of its seed to a ram's head. It is a member
+of the natural order Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in
+the south of Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not
+known undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose
+branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves, with
+small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The flowers are
+borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half the length of the
+leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the corolla is blue-purple. The
+inflated pod, 1 to 1-1/2 in. long, contains two roundish seeds. It was
+cultivated by the Greeks in Homer's time under the name _erebinthos_,
+and is also referred to by Dioscorides as _krios_ from the resemblance
+of the pea to the head of a ram. The Romans called it _cicer_, from
+which is derived the modern names given to it in the south of Europe.
+Names, more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the
+peoples of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there
+is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in modern
+Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in Egypt from the
+beginning of the Christian era, but there is no proof that it was known
+to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de Candolle (_Origin of Cultivated
+Plants_, p. 325) suggests that the plant originally grew wild in the
+countries to the south of the Caucasus and to the north of Persia. "The
+western Aryans (Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into
+southern Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was
+also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India." Gram is
+largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw or cooked
+in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition, and when
+roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as ordinary flour. In
+Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient in soups. They contain, in
+100 parts without husks, nitrogenous substances 22.7, fat 3.76, starch
+63.18, mineral matters 2.6 parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in
+Parkes's _Hygiene_). The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs
+clothing the leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the
+cold season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of
+oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by means of
+cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in domestic medicine.
+The steam of water in which the fresh plant is immersed is in the Deccan
+resorted to by the Portuguese for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The
+seed of _Phaseolus Mungo_, or green gram (Hind. and Beng. _moong_), a
+form of which plant with black seeds (_P. Max_ of Roxburgh) is termed
+black gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes
+in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is stated by
+Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu bath. A variety,
+var. _radiatus_ (_P. Roxburghii_, W. and Arn., or _P. radiatus_, Roxb.)
+(vern. _urid_, _mashkalai_), also known as green gram, is perhaps the
+most esteemed of the leguminous plants of India, where the meal of its
+seed enters into the composition of the more delicate cakes and dishes.
+Horse gram, _Dolichos biflorus_ (vern. _kulthi_), which supplies in
+Madras the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is
+extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in South India,
+where also it is eaten in curries.
+
+  See W. Elliot, "On the Farinaceous Grains and the various kinds of
+  Pulses used in Southern India," _Edin. New Phil. Journ._ xvi. (1862)
+  16 sq.; H. Drury, _The Useful Plants of India_ (1873); U. C. Dutt,
+  _Materia Medica of the Hindus_ (Calcutta, 1877); G. Watt, _Dictionary
+  of the Economic Products of India_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMAR (from Lat. _grammatica_, sc. _ars_; Gr. [Greek: gramma], letter,
+from [Greek: graphein], to write). By the grammar of a language is meant
+either the relations borne by the words of a sentence and by sentences
+themselves one to another, or the systematized exposition of these. The
+exposition may be, and frequently is, incorrect; but it always
+presupposes the existence of certain customary uses of words when in
+combination. In what follows, therefore, grammar will be generally
+employed in its primary sense, as denoting the mode in which words are
+connected in order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in
+logic, a proposition.
+
+
+  Scope of grammar.
+
+The object of language is to convey thought, and so long as this object
+is attained the machinery for attaining it is of comparatively slight
+importance. The way in which we combine our words and sentences matters
+little, provided that our meaning is clear to others. The expressions
+"horseflesh" and "flesh of a horse" are equally intelligible to an
+Englishman and therefore are equally recognized by English grammar. The
+Chinese manner of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word
+before that which it defines, as in _koue jin_, "man of the kingdom,"
+literally "kingdom man," and the only reason why it would be incorrect
+in French or Italian is that such a combination would be unintelligible
+to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is evident that the grammatical
+correctness or incorrectness of an expression depends upon its
+intelligibility, that is to say, upon the ordinary use and custom of a
+particular language. Whatever is so unfamiliar as not to be generally
+understood is also ungrammatical. In other words, it is contrary to the
+habit of a language, as determined by common usage and consent.
+
+In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar of a
+cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the same country so
+frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West Somerset, _thee_ is
+the nominative of the second personal pronoun, while in cultivated
+English the plural accusative _you_ (A.-S. _eow_) has come to represent
+a nominative singular. Both are grammatically correct within the sphere
+of their respective dialects, but no further. _You_ would be as
+ungrammatical in West Somerset as _thee_ is in classical English; and
+both _you_ and _thee_, as nominatives singular, would have been equally
+ungrammatical in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing more
+than the established usage of a particular body of speakers at a
+particular time in their history.
+
+It follows from this that the grammar of a people changes, like its
+pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early English grammar is
+not the grammar of Modern English, any more than Latin grammar is the
+grammar of modern Italian; and to defend an unusual construction or
+inflexion on the ground that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is
+as wrong as to import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the
+grammar of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different
+languages will have different grammars, and that the differences will be
+more or less according to the nearer or remoter relationship of the
+languages themselves and the modes of thought of those who speak them.
+Consequently, to force the grammatical framework of one language upon
+another is to misconceive the whole nature of the latter and seriously
+to mislead the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be
+understood until we discard, not only the terminology of European
+grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while the
+polysynthetic idioms of America defy all attempts to discover in them
+"the parts of speech" and the various grammatical ideas which occupy so
+large a place in our school-grammars. The endeavour to find the
+distinctions of Latin grammar in that of English has only resulted in
+grotesque errors, and a total misapprehension of the usage of the
+English language.
+
+
+  Subdivision of grammar.
+
+It is to the Latin grammarians--or, more correctly, to the Greek
+grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin writers were
+based--that we owe the classification of the subjects with which grammar
+is commonly supposed to deal. The grammar of Dionysius Thrax, which he
+wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time of Pompey, has formed the
+starting-point for the innumerable school-grammars which have since seen
+the light, and suggested that division of the matter treated of which
+they have followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with
+the language of literary men, and as divided into six parts--accentuation
+and phonology, explanation of figurative expressions, definition,
+etymology, general rules of flexion and critical canons. Of these,
+phonology and accentuation, or prosody, can properly be included in
+grammar only in so far as the construction of a sentence and the
+grammatical meaning of a word are determined by accent or letter-change;
+the accentual difference in English, for example, between _incense_ and
+_incense_ belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a
+difference between noun and verb; and the changes of vowel in the Semitic
+languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are distinguished
+from one another, constitute a very important part of their grammatical
+machinery. But where accent and pronunciation do not serve to express the
+relations of words in a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology,
+not of grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again, must be
+left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer; the
+grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with the canons of
+criticism.
+
+In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the grammarians
+of Rome and Alexandria, must be given up and a new one put in its place.
+What grammar really deals with are all those contrivances whereby the
+relations of words and sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is
+position, sometimes phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition,
+sometimes flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the
+speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be
+intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided into the
+three departments of composition or "word-building," syntax and
+accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the means adopted by
+language for expressing the relations of grammar when recourse is not
+had to composition or simple position.
+
+
+  Modes of treatment.
+
+A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for the purely
+practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a foreign language. In
+this case all that is necessary is a correct and complete statement of
+the facts. But a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no
+means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight. The facts will be
+distorted by a false theory in regard to them, while they will certainly
+not be presented in a complete form if the grammarian is ignorant of the
+true theory they presuppose. The Semitic verb, for example, remains
+unintelligible so long as the explanation of its forms is sought in the
+conjugation of the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense
+of the word, but denotes relation and not time.
+
+A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be based on a
+correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds, and a correct
+appreciation of the facts is only possible where they are examined and
+co-ordinated in accordance with the scientific method. A practical
+grammar ought, wherever it is possible, to be preceded by a scientific
+grammar.
+
+Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and a scientific
+grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative method has been
+applied to the relations of speech. If we would understand the origin
+and real nature of grammatical forms, and of the relations which they
+represent, we must compare them with similar forms in kindred dialects
+and languages, as well as with the forms under which they appeared
+themselves at an earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a
+comparative grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted
+to tracing the history of grammatical forms and usages in the same
+language. Of course, an historical grammar is only possible where a
+succession of written records exists; where a language possesses no
+older literature we must be content with a comparative grammar only, and
+look to cognate idioms to throw light upon its grammatical
+peculiarities. In this case we have frequently to leave whole forms
+unexplained, or at most conjecturally interpreted, since the machinery
+by means of which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often
+changed so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its
+earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover, our area of
+comparison must be as wide as possible; where we have but two or three
+languages to compare, we are in danger of building up conclusions on
+insufficient evidence. The grammatical errors of the classical
+philologists of the 18th century were in great measure due to the fact
+that their area of comparison was confined to Latin and Greek.
+
+The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which traces the
+grammatical forms and usages of the language as far back as documentary
+evidence allows, affords material to the comparative grammarian, whose
+task it is to compare the grammatical forms and usages of an allied
+group of tongues and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and
+senses. The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian within a
+particular family of languages is made use of by universal grammar, the
+object of which is to determine the ideas that underlie all grammar
+whatsoever, as distinct from those that are peculiar to special families
+of speech. Universal grammar is sometimes known as "the metaphysics of
+language," and it has to decide such questions as the nature of gender
+or of the verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin
+of grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered by
+comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment of the
+grammars of various groups of language. What historical grammar is to
+comparative grammar, comparative grammar is to universal grammar.
+
+
+  Universal grammar.
+
+Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific study of
+speech, is thus essentially different from that "universal grammar" so
+much in vogue at the beginning of the 19th century, which consisted of a
+series of a priori assumptions based on the peculiarities of European
+grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal grammar, as
+conceived by modern science, is as yet in its infancy; its materials are
+still in the process of being collected. The comparative grammar of the
+Indo-European languages is alone in an advanced state, those of the
+Semitic idioms, of the Finno-Ugrian tongues and of the Bantu dialects of
+southern Africa are still in a backward condition; and the other
+families of speech existing in the world, with the exception of the
+Malayo-Polynesian and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet
+been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an
+historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar of Basque,
+endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting language by a
+comparison of its various dialects; but in both cases the area of
+comparison is too small for more than a limited success to be
+attainable. Instead of attempting the questions of universal grammar,
+therefore, it will be better to confine our attention to three
+points--the fundamental differences in the grammatical conceptions of
+different groups of languages, the main results of a scientific
+investigation of Indo-European grammar, and the light thrown by
+comparative philology upon the grammar of our own tongue.
+
+
+  Differences in grammar of unallied languages.
+
+The proposition or sentence is the unit and starting-point of speech,
+and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations of its several
+parts one to another, together with the expression of them. These
+relations may be regarded from various points of view. In the
+polysynthetic languages of America the sentence is conceived as a whole,
+not composed of independent words, but, like the thought which it
+expresses, one and indivisible. What we should denote by a series of
+words is consequently denoted by a single long compound--_kuligatchis_
+in Delaware, for instance, signifying "give me your pretty little paw,"
+and _aglekkigiartorasuarnipok_ in Eskimo, "he goes away hastily and
+exerts himself to write." Individual words can be, and often are,
+extracted from the sentence; but in this case they stand, as it were,
+outside it, being represented by a pronoun within the sentence itself.
+Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only _ni-sotsi-temoa_, "I look for
+flowers," but also _ni-k-temoa sotsitl_, where the interpolated guttural
+is the objective pronoun. As a necessary result of this conception of
+the sentence the American languages possess no true verb, each act being
+expressed as a whole by a single word. In Cherokee, for example, while
+there is no verb signifying "to wash" in the abstract, no less than
+thirteen words are used to signify every conceivable mode and object of
+washing. In the incorporating languages, again, of which Basque may be
+taken as a type, the object cannot be conceived except as contained in
+the verbal action. Hence every verbal form embodies an objective
+pronoun, even though the object may be separately expressed. If we pass
+to an isolating language like Chinese, we find the exact converse of
+that which meets us in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition
+or thought is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over
+against one another as so many independent words. The relations of
+grammar are consequently denoted by position, the particular position of
+two or more words determining the relation they bear to each other. The
+analysis of the sentence has not been carried so far in agglutinative
+languages like Turkish. In these the relations of grammar are
+represented by individual words, which, however, are subordinated to the
+words expressing the main ideas intended to be in relation to one
+another. The defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, are,
+in a large number of instances, placed after the words which they
+define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu languages
+of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from the opposite point of
+view, the defining words being prefixed. The inflexional languages call
+in the aid of a new principle. The relations of grammar are denoted
+symbolically either by a change of vowel or by a change of termination,
+more rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each idea, together
+with the relation which it bears to the other ideas of a proposition, is
+thus represented by a single word; that is to say, the ideas which make
+up the elements of a sentence are not conceived severally and
+independently, as in Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion
+with one another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become
+analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea to
+which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is never
+altogether discarded, and traces of flexion remain even in English and
+Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language which has wholly
+forsaken the conception of the sentence and the relation of its elements
+with which it started, although each class of languages occasionally
+trespasses on the grammatical usages of the others. In language, as
+elsewhere in nature, there are no sharp lines of division, no sudden
+leaps; species passes insensibly into species, class into class. At the
+same time the several types of speech--polysynthetic, isolating,
+agglutinative and inflexional--remain clear and fixed; and even where
+two languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an
+Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group, or a
+Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group, we find no
+certain example of grammatical interchange. A mixed grammar, in which
+the grammatical procedure of two distinct families of speech is
+intermingled, is almost, if not altogether, unknown.
+
+It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest and most
+important basis for a classification of languages. Words may be borrowed
+freely by one dialect from another, or, though originally unrelated,
+may, by the action of phonetic decay, come to assume the same forms,
+while the limited number of articulate sounds and conceptions out of
+which language was first developed, and the similarity of the
+circumstances by which the first speakers were everywhere surrounded,
+naturally produce a resemblance between the roots of many unconnected
+tongues. Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and the
+machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we may have no
+hesitation in inferring a common origin.
+
+
+  Forms of Indo-European grammar.
+
+The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and primitive
+meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar may be summed up as
+follows. We start with stems or themes, by which are meant words of two
+or more syllables which terminate in a limited number of sounds. These
+stems can be classed in groups of two kinds, one in which the groups
+consist of stems of similar meanings and similar initial syllables, and
+another in which the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case
+we have what are termed roots, the simplest elements into which words
+can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper, which may be
+described as consisting of suffixes attached to roots. Roots, therefore,
+are merely the materials out of which speech can be made, the
+embodiments of isolated conceptions with which the lexicographer alone
+has to deal, whereas stems present us with words already combined in a
+sentence and embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly
+understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive it as
+having been expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems, and in
+the order according to which the stems were arranged in a sentence. In
+other words, the relations of grammar were denoted partly by
+juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes of stems.
+
+These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather clothed with
+vague significations, which changed according to the place occupied in
+the sentence by the stem to which they were joined. Gradually this
+vagueness of signification disappeared, and particular suffixes came to
+be set apart to represent particular relations of grammar. What had
+hitherto been expressed by mere position now attached itself to the
+terminations or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown
+words. Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is to
+say, were flexions; others were classificatory, serving to distinguish
+nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects from agents and the
+like; while others, again, remained unmeaning adjuncts of the root. This
+origin of the flexions explains the otherwise strange fact that the same
+suffix may symbolize wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin,
+for instance, the context and dictionary will alone tell us that
+_mus-as_ is the accusative plural of a noun, and _am-as_ the second
+person singular of a verb, or that _mus-a_ is the nominative singular of
+a feminine substantive, _bon-a_ the accusative plural of a neuter
+adjective. In short, the flexions were originally merely the
+terminations of stems which were adapted to express the various
+relations of words to each other in a sentence, as these gradually
+presented themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what
+had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same suffix
+might be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a flexional
+sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all. In the Greek
+dative-locative [Greek: pod-es-si], for example, the suffix [Greek: -es]
+is classificatory; in the nominative [Greek: pod-es] it is flexional.
+
+When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a special sense,
+it would be separated in thought from the stem to which it belonged, and
+attached in the same sense to other stems and other terminations. Thus
+in modern English we can attach the suffix -ize to almost any word
+whatsoever, in order to give the latter a transitive meaning, and the
+Gr. [Greek: podessi], quoted above, really contains no less than three
+suffixes, [Greek: -es], [Greek: -su] and [Greek: -i], the last two both
+denoting the locative, and coalescing, through [Greek: swi], into a
+single syllable [Greek: -si]. The latter instance shows us how two or
+more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may be tacked on one to
+another, if the original force and signification of the first of them
+comes to be forgotten. Thus, in O. Eng. _sang-estre_ was the feminine of
+_sang-ere_, "singer," but the meaning of the termination has so entirely
+died out of the memory that we have to add the Romanic _-ess_ to it if
+we would still distinguish it from the masculine _singer_. A familiar
+example of the way in which the full sense of the exponent of a
+grammatical idea fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new
+exponent is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English
+to denote the superlative. "Very warm" expresses little more than the
+positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings the Englishman
+has recourse to such expressions as "awfully warm" like the Ger.
+"schrecklich warm."
+
+Such words as "very," "awfully," "schrecklich," illustrate a second mode
+in which Indo-European grammar has found means of expression. Words may
+lose their true signification and become the mere exponents of
+grammatical ideas. Professor Earle divides all words into _presentive_
+and _symbolic_, the former denoting objects and conceptions, the latter
+the relations which exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are
+what the Chinese grammarians call "empty words"--words, that is, which
+have been divested of their proper signification and serve a grammatical
+purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of the flexional
+suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown to have had this origin.
+Thus the suffix _tar_, which denotes names of kinship and agency, seems
+to come from the same root as the Lat. _terminus_ and _trans_, our
+_through_, the Sans. _tar-ami_, "I pass over," and to have primarily
+signified "one that goes through" a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. _head_ or
+_hood_, in words like _godhead_ and _brotherhood_, is the A.-S. _had_,
+"character" or "rank"; _dom_, in kingdom, the A.-S. _dom_, "judgment";
+and _lock_ or _ledge_, in _wedlock_ and _knowledge_, the A.-S. _lac_,
+"sport" or "gift." In all these cases the "empty words," after first
+losing every trace of their original significance, have followed the
+general analogy of the language and assumed the form and functions of
+the suffixes with which they had been confused.
+
+A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is by the symbolic
+use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for instance, the distinction
+between the reduplicated present [Greek: didomi] and the reduplicated
+perfect [Greek: dedoka] is indicated by a distinction of vowel, and in
+primitive Aryan grammar the vowel _a_ seems to have been set apart to
+denote the subjunctive mood just as _ya_ or _i_ was set apart to denote
+the potential. So, too, according to M. Hovelacque, the change of _a_
+into _i_ or _u_ in the parent Indo-European symbolized a change of
+meaning from passive to active. This symbolic use of the vowels, which
+is the purest application of the principle of flexion, is far less
+extensively carried out in the Indo-European than in the Semitic
+languages. The Semitic family of speech is therefore a much more
+characteristic type of the inflexional languages than is the
+Indo-European.
+
+The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight
+cases--nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative, genitive,
+ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted to show that the first
+three of these, the "strong cases" as they are termed, are really
+abstracts formed by the suffixes _-as_ (_-s_), _-an, -m, -t, -i, -a_ and
+_-ya_ (_-i_), the plural being nothing more than an abstract singular,
+as may be readily seen by comparing words like the Gr. [Greek: epo-s],
+and [Greek: ope-s], which mean precisely the same. The remaining "weak"
+cases, formed by the suffixes _-sma, -sya, -sya, -ya, -i, -an, -t, -bhi,
+-su, -i, -a_ and _-a_, are really adjectives and adverbs. No
+distinction, for example, can be drawn between "a cup of gold" and "a
+golden cup," and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the
+locative are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb.
+The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent of the
+stem to which they are suffixed; the suffixes of the weak cases, on the
+other hand, generally draw the accent upon themselves.
+
+According to Hubschmann, the nominative, accusative and genitive cases
+are purely grammatical, distinguished from one another through the
+exigencies of the sentence only, whereas the locative, ablative and
+instrumental have a logical origin and determine the logical relation
+which the three other cases bear to each other and the verb. The nature
+of the dative is left undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in
+a place, the ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the
+means or concomitance of an action. The dative Hubschmann regards as
+"the case of the participant object." Like Hubschmann, Holzweissig
+divides the cases into two classes--the one grammatical and the other
+logical; and his analysis of their primitive meaning is the same as that
+of Hubschmann, except as regards the dative, the primary sense of which
+he thinks to have been motion towards a place. This is also the view of
+Delbruck, who makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbruck,
+however, holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of
+separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance, while
+there was a double locative, one used like the ablative absolute in
+Latin, the other being a locative of the object.
+
+The dual was older than the plural, and after the development of the
+latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which most of the
+Indo-European languages contrived in time to get rid. There are still
+many savage idioms in which the conception of plurality has not advanced
+beyond that of duality. In the Bushman dialects, for instance, the
+plural, or rather that which is more than one, is expressed by repeating
+the word; thus _tu_ is "mouth," _tutu_ "mouths." It may be shown that
+most of the suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more
+primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of them by
+the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases, on the other
+hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical with the singular of
+abstract nouns; so far as both form and meaning are concerned, no
+distinction can be drawn between [Greek: opes] and [Greek: epos].
+Similarly, _humanity_ and _men_ signify one and the same thing, and the
+use of English words like _sheep_ or _fish_ for both singular and plural
+shows to what an extent our appreciation of number is determined by the
+context rather than by the form of the noun. The so-called "broken
+plurals" of Arabic and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed
+to denote the plural.
+
+Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic decay. In
+many languages, such as Eskimo and Choctaw, its place is taken by a
+division of objects into animate and inanimate, while in other languages
+they are separated into rational and irrational. There are many
+indications that the parent Indo-European in an early stage of its
+existence had no signs of gender at all. The terminations of the names
+of _father_ and _mother_, _pater_ and _mater_, for example, are exactly
+the same, and in Latin and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as
+stems in _i_ or _ya_ and u (like [Greek: naus] and [Greek: nekus],
+[Greek: polis] and [Greek: lis]), may be indifferently masculine and
+feminine. Even stems in _o_ and _a_ (of the second and first
+declensions), though the first are generally masculine and the second
+generally feminine, by no means invariably maintain the rule; and
+feminines like _humus_ and [Greek: hodos], or masculines like _advena_
+and [Greek: polites], show that there was a time when these stems also
+indicated no particular gender, but owed their subsequent adaptation,
+the one to mark the masculine and the other to mark the feminine, to the
+influence of analogy. The idea of gender was first suggested by the
+difference between man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many
+languages at the present day, was represented not by any outward sign
+but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived at, the
+conception of gender was extended to other objects besides those to
+which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo-European did not
+distinguish between subject and object, but personified objects by
+ascribing to them the motives and powers of living beings. Accordingly
+they were referred to by different pronouns, one class denoting the
+masculine and another class the feminine, and the distinction that
+existed between these two classes of pronouns was after a time
+transferred to the nouns. As soon as the preponderant number of stems in
+_o_ in daily use had come to be regarded as masculine on account of
+their meaning, other stems in _o_, whatever might be their
+signification, were made to follow the general analogy and were
+similarly classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix _i_ or _ya_
+acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the feminine
+gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were not satisfied with
+these two genders, masculine and feminine. As soon as object and
+subject, patient and agent, were clearly distinguished from each other,
+there arose a need for a third gender, which should be neither masculine
+nor feminine, but denote things without life. This third gender was
+fittingly expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative
+(e.g. _regnum_), or by a stem without any case ending at all (e.g.
+_virus_).
+
+The adverbial meaning of so many of the cases explains the readiness
+with which they became crystallized into adverbs and prepositions. An
+adverb is the attribute of an attribute--"the rose smells sweetly," for
+example, being resolvable into "the rose has the attribute of scent with
+the further attribute of sweetness." In our own language _once_,
+_twice_, _needs_, are all genitives; _seldom_ is a dative. The Latin and
+Greek _humi_ and [Greek: chamai] are locatives, _facillime_
+(_facillumed_) and [Greek: eutychos] ablatives, [Greek: pante] and
+[Greek: hama] instrumentals, [Greek: paros], [Greek: hexes] and [Greek:
+telou] genitives. The frequency with which particular cases of
+particular nouns were used in a specifically attributive sense caused
+them to become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in
+question passing out of use, and the original force of those that were
+retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions are adverbs employed to
+define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives. Their appearance in the
+Indo-European languages is comparatively late, and the Homeric poems
+allow us to trace their growth in Greek. The adverb, originally intended
+to define the verb, came to be construed with the noun, and the
+government of the case with which it was construed was accordingly
+transferred from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the
+_Odyssey_(iv. 43), [Greek: autous d eisegon theion domon], we see that
+[Greek: eis] is still an adverb, and that the accusative is governed by
+the verb; it is quite otherwise, however, with a line like [Greek:
+Atreides de gerontas aolleas egen Achaion es klisien] (Il. i. 89) where
+the adverb has passed into a preposition. The same process of
+transformation is still going on in English, where we can say
+indifferently, "What are you looking at?" using "at" as an adverb, and
+governing the pronoun by the verb, and "At what are you looking?" where
+"at" has become a preposition. With the growth and increase of
+prepositions the need of the case-endings diminished, and in some
+languages the latter disappeared altogether.
+
+Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs used in a
+demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the conjunctions are
+petrified cases of pronouns. The relation between two sentences was
+originally expressed by simply setting them side by side, afterwards by
+employing a demonstrative at the beginning of the second clause to refer
+to the whole preceding one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have
+been in the first instance a demonstrative; indeed, we can still use
+_that_ in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative at the
+beginning of the second clause represented the first clause, and was
+consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand in some case,
+and this case became a conjunction. How closely allied the adverb and
+the conjunction are may be seen from Greek and Latin, where [Greek: hos]
+or _quum_ can be used as either the one or the other. Our own _and_, it
+may be observed, has probably the same root as the Greek locative adverb
+[Greek: eti], and originally signified "going further."
+
+Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force of which
+appears clearly in such a phrase as "A wonderful thing to see." Various
+cases, such as the locative, the dative or the instrumental, are
+employed in Vedic Sanskrit in the sense of the infinitive, besides the
+bare stem or neuter formed by the suffixes _man_ and _van_. In Greek the
+neuter stem and the dative case were alone retained for the purpose. The
+first is found in infinitives like [Greek: domen] and [Greek: ferein]
+(for an earlier [Greek: fere-wen]), the second in the infinitives in
+[Greek: -ai]. Thus the Gr. [Greek: dounai] answers letter for letter to
+the Vedic dative _davane_, "to give," and the form [Greek: pseudesthai]
+is explained by the Vedic _vayodhai_, for _vayas-dhai_, literally "to do
+living," _dhai_ being the dative of a noun from the root _dha_, "to
+place" or "do." When the form [Greek: pseudesthai] had once come into
+existence, analogy was ready to create such false imitations as [Greek:
+grapsasthai] or [Greek: graphthesesthai]. The Latin infinitive in _-re_
+for _-se_ has the same origin, _amare_, for instance, being the dative
+of an old stem _amas_. In _fieri_ for _fierei_ or _fiesei_, from the
+same root as our English _be_, the original length of the final syllable
+is preserved. The suffix in _-um_ is an accusative, like the
+corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin of the
+infinitive explains the Latin construction of the accusative and
+infinitive. When the Roman said, "Miror te ad me nihil scribere," all
+that he meant at first was, "I wonder at you for writing nothing to me,"
+where the infinitive was merely a dative case used adverbially.
+
+The history of the infinitive makes it clear how little distinction must
+have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb. Indeed, the
+growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a time in the history
+of Indo-European speech when it had not as yet risen to the
+consciousness of the speaker, and in the period when the noun did not
+possess a plural there was as yet also no verb. The attachment of the
+first and second personal pronouns, or of suffixes resembling them, to
+certain stems, was the first stage in the development of the latter.
+Like the Semitic verb, the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have
+denoted relation only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the
+subject. The idea of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses
+were created, the one expressing a present or continuous action, the
+other an aoristic or momentary one. The distinction of sense was
+symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable of the
+aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present. This
+abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent (which
+was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination), and this change
+again was probably occasioned by the prefixing of the so-called augment
+to the aorist, which survived into historical times only in Sanskrit,
+Zend and Greek, and the origin of which is still a mystery. The weight
+of the first syllable in the aorist further caused the person-endings to
+be shortened, and so two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary
+and secondary, sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable
+of the present tense a perfect was formed; but originally no distinction
+was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs like [Greek:
+didomi] and [Greek: heko] are memorials of a time when the difference
+between "I am come" and "I have come" was not yet felt. Reduplication
+was further adapted to the expression of intensity and desire (in the
+so-called intensive and desiderative forms). By the side of the aorist
+stood the imperfect, which differed from the aorist, so far as outward
+form was concerned, only in possessing the longer and more original stem
+of the present. Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was
+primitively an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and
+imperfect is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of
+certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the accent,
+and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote a difference
+between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect which was beginning to
+be felt. After the analogy of the imperfect, a pluperfect was created
+out of the perfect by prefixing the augment (of which the Greek [Greek:
+ememekon] is an illustration); though the pluperfect, too, was
+originally an imperfect formed from the reduplicated present.
+
+Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive Indo-European
+verb, recourse being had to symbolization for the purpose. The
+imperative was represented by the bare stem, like the vocative, the
+accent being drawn back to the first syllable, though other modes of
+denoting it soon came into vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the
+attachment of the suffix _-ya_ to the stem, probability by the
+attachment of _-a_ and _-a_, and in this way the optative and
+conjunctive moods first arose. The creation of a future by the help of
+the suffix _-sya_ seems to belong to the same period in the history of
+the verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form a
+large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek [Greek: hippoio]
+for [Greek: hipposio]); in this case future time will have been regarded
+as an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for
+instance, between "rising sun" and "the sun will rise." It is possible,
+however, that the auxiliary verb _as_, "to be," enters into the
+composition of the future; if so, the future will be the product of the
+second stage in the development of the Indo-European verb when new forms
+were created by means of composition. The sigmatic or first aorist is in
+favour of this view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European
+unity, and may be a compound of the verbal stem with the auxiliary _as_.
+
+After the separation of the Indo-European languages, composition was
+largely employed in the formation of new tenses. Thus in Latin we have
+perfects like _scrip-si_ and _ama-vi_, formed by the help of the
+auxiliaries _as (sum)_ and _fuo_, while such forms as _amaveram
+(amavi-eram)_ or _amarem (ama-sem)_ bear their origin on their face. So,
+too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic (_amabo_, Irish _carub_) is
+based upon the substantive verb _fuo_, "to be," and the English
+preterite in _-ed_ goes back to a suffixed _did_, the reduplicated
+perfect of _do_. New tenses and moods, however, were created by the aid
+of suffixes as well as by the aid of composition, or rather were formed
+from nouns whose stems terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in
+Greek we have aorists and perfects in [Greek: -ka], and the
+characteristics of the two passive aorists, _ye_ and _the_, are more
+probably the suffixes of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs
+_ya_, "to go," and _dha_, "to place," as Bopp supposed. How late some of
+these new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric poems
+are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative future, and
+the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future passive occurs but
+once and the desiderative but twice. On the other hand, many of the
+older tenses were disused and lost. In classical Sanskrit, for instance,
+of the modal aorist forms the precative and benedictive almost alone
+remain, while the pluperfect, of which Delbruck has found traces in the
+Veda, has wholly disappeared.
+
+The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European speech. No
+need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as "I am pleased" could be
+as well represented by "This pleases me," or "I please myself." It was
+long before the speaker was able to imagine an action without an object,
+and when he did so, it was a neuter or substantival rather than a
+passive verb that he formed. The passive, in fact, grew out of the
+middle or reflexive, and, except in the two aorists, continued to be
+represented by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second person
+plural is really the middle participle with _estis_ understood, and the
+whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that the
+characteristic _r_ which Latin shares with Celtic could have had at the
+outset no passive force.
+
+Much light has been thrown on the character and construction of the
+primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax. In
+contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows that which
+is defined, the Indo-European languages place that which is defined
+after that which defines it; and Bergaigne has made it clear that the
+original order of the sentence was (1) object, (2) verb, and (3)
+subject. Greater complication of thought and its expression, the
+connexion of sentences by the aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical
+inversion caused that dislocation of the original order of the sentence
+which reaches its culminating point in the involved periods of Latin
+literature. Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax
+of the parent Indo-European when it sets both adjective and genitive
+before the nouns which they define. In course of time a distinction came
+to be made between an attribute used as a mere qualificative and an
+attribute used predicatively, and this distinction was expressed by
+placing the predicate in opposition to the subject and accordingly after
+it. The opposition was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical
+copula or substantive verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly
+stood for the latter at first signified "existence," and it was only
+through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like _Deus bonus est_,
+"God exists as good," came to mean simply "God is good." It is needless
+to observe that neither of the two articles was known to the parent
+Indo-European; indeed, the definite article, which is merely a decayed
+demonstrative pronoun, has not yet been developed in several of the
+languages of the Indo-European family.
+
+
+  Investigation of English grammar.
+
+We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific investigation
+of English grammar and the modifications they necessitate in our
+conception of it. The idea that the free use of speech is tied down by
+the rules of the grammarian must first be given up; all that the
+grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses of his time, which
+are determined by habit and custom, and are accordingly in a perpetual
+state of flux. We must next get rid of the notion that English grammar
+should be modelled after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall
+never understand even the elementary principles upon which it is based.
+We cannot speak of declensions, since English has no genders except in
+the pronouns of the third person, and no cases except the genitive and a
+few faint traces of an old dative. Its verbal conjugation is essentially
+different from that of an inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be
+compressed into the same categories. In English the syntax has been
+enlarged at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place
+of forms. To speak of an adjective "agreeing" with its substantive is as
+misleading as to speak of a verb "governing" a case. In fact, the
+distinction between noun and adjective is inapplicable to English
+grammar, and should be replaced by a distinction between objective and
+attributive words. In a phrase like "this is a cannon," _cannon_ is
+objective; in a phrase like "a cannon-ball," it is attributive; and to
+call it a substantive in the one case and an adjective in the other is
+only to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative, the
+various forms of the noun are all attributive; there is no difference,
+for example, between "doing a thing" and "doing badly." Apart from the
+personal pronouns, the accusative of the classical languages can be
+represented only by position; but if we were to say that a noun which
+follows a verb is in the accusative case we should have to define "king"
+as an accusative in such sentences as "he became king" or "he is king."
+In conversational English "it is me" is as correct as "c'est moi" in
+French, or "det er mig" in Danish; the literary "it is I" is due to the
+influence of classical grammar. The combination of noun or pronoun and
+preposition results in a compound attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has
+well said that "the really characteristic feature of the English finite
+verb is its inability to stand alone without a pronominal prefix." Thus
+"dream" by itself is a noun; "I dream" is a verb. The place of the
+pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry and vulgar
+English frequently insert the pronoun even when the noun precedes. The
+number of inflected verbal forms is but small, being confined to the
+third person singular and the special forms of the preterite and past
+participle, though the latter may with more justice be regarded as
+belonging to the province of the lexicographer rather than to that of
+the grammarian. The inflected subjunctive (_be, were, save_ in "God save
+the King," &c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms, however,
+are coming into existence; at all events, we have as good a right to
+consider _wont, shant, cant_ new inflected forms as the French _aimerai
+(amare habeo), aimerais (amare habebam)_. If the ordinary grammars are
+correct in treating forms like "I am loving," "I was loving," "I did
+love," as separate tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting
+to notice the equally important emphatic form "I do love" or the
+negative form "I do not love" ("I don't love"), as well as the
+semi-inflexional "I'll love," "he's loving." It is true that these
+latter contracted forms are heard only in conversation and not seen in
+books; but the grammar of a language, it must be remembered, is made by
+those who speak it and not by the printers.
+
+
+  History of formal grammar.
+
+Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received from Greece and
+Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the Sophists to investigate
+the structure of the Greek language, and to them was accordingly due the
+first analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished the three
+genders and the verbal moods, while Prodicus busied himself with the
+definition of synonyms. Aristotle, taking the side of Democritus, who
+had held that the meaning of words is put into them by the speaker, and
+that there is no necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down
+that words "symbolize" objects according to the will of those who use
+them, and added to the [Greek: onoma] or "noun," and the [Greek: rhema]
+or "verb," the [Greek: sundesmos] or "particle." He also introduced the
+term [Greek: ptosis], "case," to denote any flexion whatsoever. He
+further divided nouns into simple and compound, invented for the neuter
+another name than that given by Protagoras, and starting from the
+termination of the nominative singular, endeavoured to ascertain the
+rules for indicating a difference of gender. Aristotle was followed by
+the Stoics, who separated the [Greek: arthron] or "article" from the
+particles, determined a fifth part of speech, [Greek: pandektes] or
+"adverb," confined the term "case" to the flexions of the nouns,
+distinguishing the four principal cases by names, and divided the verb
+into its tenses, moods and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics
+were studying the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing
+it with the language of their own day, the result being a minute
+examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of
+grammarians sprang up--the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus, who held
+that a strict law of analogy existed between idea and word, and refused
+to admit exceptions to the grammatical rules they laid down, and the
+Anomalists, who denied general rules of any kind, except in so far as
+they were consecrated by custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was
+Crates of Mallos, the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe
+the first formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts
+obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, as well as an
+attempt to reform Greek orthography. The immediate cause of this grammar
+seems to have been a comparison of Latin with Greek, Crates having
+lectured on the subject while ambassador of Attalus at Rome in 159 B.C.
+The zeal with which the Romans threw themselves into the study of Greek
+resulted in the school grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of
+Aristarchus, which he published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which
+is still in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it, and
+the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek grammarians
+into Latin was productive of numerous blunders which have been
+perpetuated to our own day. Thus _tenues_ is a mistranslation of the
+[Greek: psila], "unaspirated"; _genetivus_ of [Greek: genike], the case
+"of the genus"; _accusativus_ of [Greek: aitiatike], the case "of the
+object"; _infinitivus_ of [Greek: aparemphatos], "without a secondary
+meaning" of tense or person. New names were coined to denote forms
+possessed by Latin and not by Greek; _ablative_, for instance, was
+invented by Julius Caesar, who also wrote a treatise _De analogia_. By
+the 2nd century of the Christian era the dispute between the Anomalists
+and the Analogists was finally settled, analogy being recognized as the
+principle that underlies language, though every rule admits of
+exceptions. Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus
+and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies of their
+predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin grammar composed
+by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and the eighteen books on grammar
+compiled by Priscian in the age of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus
+dominated the schools of the middle ages, and, along with the
+productions of Priscian, formed the type and source of the Latin and
+Greek school-grammars of modern Europe.
+
+
+  Learning of grammar of foreign languages.
+
+A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the bearing of a
+scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of teaching and
+learning foreign languages. The grammar of a language is not to be
+confined within the rules laid down by grammarians, much less is it the
+creation of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode of making the
+pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules and paradigms not only gives a
+false idea of what grammar really is, but also throws obstacles in the
+way of acquiring it. The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with
+the sentence therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the
+pupil should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has been,
+so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them into their
+component parts, to show the relations that these bear to one another,
+and to indicate the nature and varieties of the latter. In this way the
+learner will be prevented from regarding grammar as a piece of dead
+mechanism or a Chinese puzzle, of which the parts must be fitted
+together in accordance with certain artificial rules, and will realize
+that it is a living organism which has a history and a reason of its
+own. The method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would
+learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did our
+mother-tongue, by first mastering the expression of a complete thought
+and then breaking up this expression into its several elements.
+     (A. H. S.)
+
+  See PHILOLOGY, and articles on the various languages. Also Steinthal,
+  _Charakteristik der hauptsachlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues_ (Berlin,
+  1860); Schleicher, _Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the
+  Indo-European Languages_, translated by H. Bendall (London, 1874);
+  Pezzi, _Aryan Philology according to the most recent Researches_,
+  translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce, _Introduction to
+  the Science of Language_ (London, 1879); Lersch, _Die
+  Sprachphilosophie der Alten_ (Bonn, 1838-1841); Steinthal, _Geschichte
+  der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Romern mit besonderer
+  Rucksicht auf die Logik_ (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); Delbruck,
+  _Ablativ localis instrumentalis im Altindischen, Lateinischen,
+  Griechischen, und Deutschen_ (Berlin, 1864); Jolly, _Ein Kapitel
+  vergleichender Syntax_ (Munich, 1873); Hubschmann, _Zur Casuslehre_
+  (Munich, 1875); Holzweissig, _Wahrheit und Irrthum der localistischen
+  Casustheorie_ (Leipzig, 1877); Draeger, _Historische Syntax der
+  lateinischen Sprache_ (Leipzig, 1874-1876); Sweet, _Words, Logic, and
+  Grammar_ (London, 1876); P. Giles, _Manual of Comp. Philology_ (1901);
+  C. Abel, _Agypt.-indo-eur. Sprachverwandschaft_ (1903); Brugmann and
+  Delbruck, _Grundriss d. vergl. Gram. d. indogerm. Spr._ (1886-1900);
+  Fritz Mauthner, _Beitrage zu einer Kritik der Sprache_ vol. iii.
+  (1902); T. G. Tucker, _Introd. to a Nat. Hist. of Language_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMICHELE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, 55 m. S.W. of
+it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 15,075. It was built in 1693,
+after the destruction by an earthquake of the old town of Occhiala to
+the north; the latter, on account of the similarity of name, is
+generally identified with Echetla, a frontier city between Syracusan and
+Carthaginian territory in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have
+been originally a Sicel city in which Greek civilization prevailed from
+the 5th century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine of
+Demeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered.
+
+  See _Mon. Lincei_, vii. (1897), 201; _Not. degli scavi_ (1902), 223.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMONT (the Flemish name _Gheeraardsbergen_ more clearly reveals its
+etymology _Gerardi-mons_), a town in East Flanders, Belgium, near the
+meeting point with the provinces of Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the
+Dender almost due south of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the
+charter of Grammont given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders, in A.D.
+1068 was the first of its kind. This charter has been styled "the most
+ancient written monument of civil and criminal laws in Flanders." The
+modern town is a busy industrial centre. Pop. (1904) 12,835.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED, DUC DE, DUC DE GUICHE, PRINCE DE BIDACHE
+(1819-1880), French diplomatist and statesman, was born at Paris on the
+14th of August 1819, of one of the most illustrious families of the old
+_noblesse_, a cadet branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name
+from the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine Louis
+Marie, duc de Gramont (1755-1836), had emigrated during the Revolution,
+and his father, Antoine Heraclius Genevieve Agenor (1789-1855), duc de
+Gramont and de Guiche, fought under the British flag in the Peninsular
+War, became a lieutenant-general in the French army in 1823, and in 1830
+accompanied Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however,
+were Bonapartist in sympathy; Gramont's cousin Antoine Louis Raymond,
+comte de Gramont (1787-1825), though also the son of an _emigre_, served
+with distinction in Napoleon's armies, while Antoine Agenor, duc de
+Gramont, owed his career to his early friendship for Louis Napoleon.
+
+Educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, Gramont early gave up the army for
+diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd
+of December 1851, which made Louis Napoleon supreme in France, that he
+became conspicuous as a diplomat. He was successively minister
+plenipotentiary at Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853),
+ambassador at Rome (1857) and at Vienna (1861). On the 15th of May 1870
+he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the Ollivier cabinet,
+and was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible for the bungling
+of the negotiations between France and Prussia arising out of the
+candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain,
+which led to the disastrous war of 1870-71. The exact share of Gramont
+in this responsibility has been the subject of much controversy. The
+last word may be said to have been uttered by M. Emile Ollivier himself
+in his _L'Empire liberal_ (tome xii., 1909, _passim_). The famous
+declaration read by Gramont in the Chamber on the 6th of July, the
+"threat with the hand on the sword-hilt," as Bismarck called it, was the
+joint work of the whole cabinet; the original draft presented by Gramont
+was judged to be too "elliptical" in its conclusion and not sufficiently
+vigorous; the reference to a revival of the empire of Charles V. was
+suggested by Ollivier; the paragraph asserting that France would not
+allow a foreign power to disturb to her own detriment the actual
+equilibrium of Europe was inserted by the emperor. So far, then, as this
+declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsibility must
+be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues (Ollivier _op. cit._
+xii. 107; see also the two _projets de declaration_ given on p. 570). It
+is clear, however that he did not share the "passion" of his colleagues
+for "peace with honour," clear also that he wholly misread the
+intentions of the European powers in the event of war. That he reckoned
+upon the active alliance of Austria was due, according to M. Ollivier,
+to the fact that for nine years he had been a _persona grata_ in the
+aristocratic society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the
+humiliation of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him
+less disposed than many of his colleagues to make the best of the
+renunciation of the candidature made, on behalf of his son, by the
+prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It was Gramont who pointed out to
+the emperor, on the evening of the 12th, the dubious circumstances of
+the act of renunciation, and on the same night, without informing M.
+Ollivier, despatched to Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding
+the king of Prussia's guarantee that the candidature would not be
+revived. The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the
+emperor, "who imposed it by an exercise of personal power on the only
+one of his ministers who could have lent himself to such a forgetfulness
+of the safeguards of a parliamentary regime." As for Gramont, he had "no
+conception of the exigencies of this regime; he remained an ambassador
+accustomed to obey the orders of his sovereign; in all good faith he had
+no idea that this was not correct, and that, himself a parliamentary
+minister, he had associated himself with an act destructive of the
+authority of parliament."[1] "On his part," adds M. Ollivier, "it was
+the result only of obedience, not of warlike premeditation" (_op. cit._
+p. 262). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To France and to
+the world Gramont was responsible for the policy which put his country
+definitely into the wrong in the eyes of Europe, and enabled Bismarck to
+administer to her the "slap in the face" (_soufflet_)--as Gramont called
+it in the Chamber--by means of the mutilated "Ems telegram," which was
+the immediate cause of the French declaration of war on the 15th.
+
+After the defeat of Weissenburg (August 4) Gramont resigned office with
+the rest of the Ollivier ministry (August 9), and after the revolution
+of September he went to England, returning after the war to Paris, where
+he died on the 18th of January 1880. His marriage in 1848 with Miss
+Mackinnon, a Scottish lady, remained without issue. During his
+retirement he published various apologies for his policy in 1870,
+notably _La France et la Prusse avant la guerre_ (Paris, 1872).
+
+  Besides M. Ollivier's work quoted in the text, see L. Thouvenel, _Le
+  Secret de l'empereur, correspondance ... echangee entre M. Thouvenel,
+  le duc de Gramont, et le general comte de Flahaut 1860-1863_ (2nd ed.,
+  2 vols., 1889). A small pamphlet containing his _Souvenirs 1848-1850_
+  was published in 1901 by his brother Antoine Leon Philibert Auguste de
+  Gramont, duc de Lesparre.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Compare with this Bismarck's remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe,
+    _Denkwurdigkeiten_, ii. 71): "When Gramont was made minister,
+    Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor was
+    meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made so stupid
+    a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor knew too little
+    of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor had once described
+    Gramont to him as 'un ancien bellatre.'"
+
+
+
+
+GRAMONT, PHILIBERT, COMTE DE (1621-1707), the subject of the famous
+_Memoirs_, came of a noble Gascon family, said to have been of Basque
+origin. His grandmother, Diane d'Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was "la
+belle Corisande," one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson
+assumed that his father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was
+the son of Henry IV., and regretted that he had not claimed the
+privileges of royal birth. Philibert de Gramont was the son of Antoine
+II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency, and was born in
+1621, probably at the family seat of Bidache. He was destined for the
+church, and was educated at the _college_ of Pau, in Bearn. He refused
+the ecclesiastical life, however, and joined the army of Prince Thomas
+of Savoy, then besieging Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under
+his elder half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince of
+Conde. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and also served with
+distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 and 1648. He favoured Conde's
+party at the beginning of the Fronde, but changed sides before he was
+too severely compromised. In spite of his record in the army he never
+received any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps
+because of an incurable levity in his outlook, He was, however, made a
+governor of the Pays d'Aunis and lieutenant of Bearn. During the
+Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662 he was exiled from Paris
+for paying court to Mademoiselle de la Motte Houdancourt, one of the
+king's mistresses. He went to London, where he found at the court of
+Charles II. an atmosphere congenial to his talents for intrigue,
+gallantry and pleasure. He married in London, under pressure from her
+two brothers, Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer.
+She was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was,
+according to her brother's optimistic account, able to fix the count's
+affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and held her own at the
+court of Louis XIV., but her husband pursued his gallant exploits to the
+close of a long life, being, said Ninon de l'Enclos, the only old man
+who could affect the follies of youth without being ridiculous. In 1664
+he was allowed to return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in
+connexion with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688
+he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II. on the birth of an
+heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he succeeded in obtaining
+considerable profits, being destitute of scruples whenever money was in
+question. At the age of seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during
+which he became reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to
+have survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied his
+brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (q.v.), with the materials for his
+_Memoires_. Hamilton said that they had been dictated to him, but there
+is no doubt that he was the real author. The account of Gramont's early
+career was doubtless provided by himself, but Hamilton was probably more
+familiar with the history of the court of Charles II., which forms the
+most interesting section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a
+reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to suppose
+that he was capable of producing a work which remains a masterpiece of
+style and of witty portraiture. When the _Memoires_ were finished it is
+said that Gramont sold the MS. for 1500 francs, and kept most of the
+money himself. Fontenelle, then censor of the press, refused to license
+the book from considerations of respect to the strange old man, whose
+gambling, cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But
+Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition was
+removed. He died on the 10th of January 1707, and the _Memoires_
+appeared six years later.
+
+Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he relates the
+story of his hero without comment, and no condemnation of the prevalent
+code of morals is allowed to appear, unless in an occasional touch of
+irony. The portrait is drawn with such skill that the count, in spite of
+his biographer's candour, imposes by his grand air on the reader much as
+he appears to have done on his contemporaries. The book is the most
+entertaining of contemporary memoirs, and in no other book is there a
+description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court of
+Charles II. There are other and less flattering accounts of the count.
+His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he was a privileged person
+who was allowed to state even the most unpleasing truths to Louis XIV.
+Saint-Simon in his memoirs describes the relief that was felt at court
+when the old man's death was announced.
+
+  _Memoires de la vie du comte de Grammont contenant particulierement
+  l'histoire amoureuse de la cour d'Angleterre sous le regne de Charles
+  II_ was printed in Holland with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other
+  editions followed in 1715 and 1716. _Memoirs of the Life of Count de
+  Grammont ... translated out of the French by Mr [Abel] Boyer_ (1714),
+  was supplemented by a "compleat key" in 1719. The _Memoires_
+  "augmentees de notes et d'eclaircissemens" was edited by Horace
+  Walpole in 1772. In 1793 appeared in London an edition adorned with
+  portraits engraved after originals in the royal collection. An English
+  edition by Sir Walter Scott was published by H. G. Bohn (1846), and
+  this with additions was reprinted in 1889, 1890, 1896, &c. Among other
+  modern editions are an excellent one in the _Bibliotheque Charpentier_
+  edited by M. Gustave Brunet (1859); _Memoires ..._ (Paris, 1888) with
+  etchings by L. Boisson after C. Delort and an introduction by H.
+  Gausseron; _Memoirs ..._ (1889), edited by Mr H. Vizetelly; and
+  _Memoirs ..._ (1903), edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed on an inversion of "phonogram";
+[Greek: phone], sound, [Greek: gramma], letter), an instrument for
+recording and reproducing sounds. It depends on the same general
+principles as the phonograph (q.v.), but it differs in certain details
+of construction, especially in having the sound-record cut spirally on a
+flat disk instead of round a cylinder.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMPIANS, THE, a mass of mountains in central Scotland. Owing to the
+number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult to assign their
+precise limits, but they may be described as occupying the area between
+a line drawn from Dumbartonshire to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the
+valley of the Spey or even Glenmore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend
+is from south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural
+division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the shires of
+Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Banff
+and Inverness. Among the highest summits are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui, and
+Cairngorms, Ben Lawers, Ben More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachan and Ben
+Lomond. The principal rivers flowing from the watershed northward are
+the Findhorn, Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the
+South Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass is
+wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, affording
+excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain some of the
+finest deer-forests in Scotland. They are crossed by the Highland, West
+Highland and Callander to Oban railways, and present some of the finest
+scenery in the kingdom. The rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss,
+schists, quartzite, porphyry and diorite. Their fastnesses were
+originally inhabited by the northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under
+Galgacus, were defeated by Agricola in A.D. 84 at Mons Graupius--the
+false reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name of
+the mountains--the site of which has not been ascertained. Some
+authorities place it at Ardoch; others near the junction of the Tay and
+Isla, or at Dalginross near Comrie; while some, contending for a
+position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site in west Forfarshire
+or to Raedykes near Stonehaven.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMPOUND, a small market town in the mid-parliamentary division of
+Cornwall, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Truro, and 2 m. from its station
+(Grampound Road) on the Great Western railway. It is situated on the
+river Fal, and has some industry in tanning. It retains an ancient town
+hall; there is a good market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the
+Fal, are several early earthworks.
+
+Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graundpond) and the
+hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly so closely associated
+that in 1400 the former is found styled the vill of Grauntpond called
+Tibeste. At the time of the Domesday Survey Tibeste was amongst the most
+valuable of the manors granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic
+character of Ponsmure first appears in 1299. Thirty-five years later
+John of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Grauntpount.
+This grant was confirmed in 1378 when its extent and jurisdiction were
+defined. It was provided that the hundred court of Powdershire should
+always be held there and two fairs at the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra
+and St Barnabas, both of which are still held, and a Tuesday market (now
+held on Friday) and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly
+rent to the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parliament by
+Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an indefinite number of
+freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nominated by the mayor and
+corporation, which existed by prescription. The venality of the electors
+became notorious. In 1780 L3000 was paid for a seat: in 1812 each
+supporter of one of the candidates received L100. The defeat of this
+candidate in 1818 led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a
+system of wholesale corruption, and in 1821 the borough was
+disfranchised. A former woollen trade is extinct.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMPUS (_Orca gladiator_, or _Orca orca_), a cetacean belonging to the
+_Delphinidae_ or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded head
+without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical teeth. The
+upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and the under parts white,
+with a strip of the same colour over each eye. The O. Fr. word was
+_grapois_, _graspeis_ or _craspeis_, from Med. Lat. _crassus piscis_,
+fat fish. This was adapted into English as _grapeys_, _graspeys_, &c.,
+and in the 16th century becomes _grannie pose_ as if from _grand
+poisson_. The final corruption to "grampus" appears in the 18th century
+and was probably nautical in origin. The animal is also known as the
+"killer," in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which
+consists largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its
+fierceness is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a
+specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen seals and
+thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested state, while
+the animal appeared to have been choked in the endeavour to swallow
+another seal, the skin of which was found entangled in its teeth. These
+cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs or schools, and commit great havoc
+among the belugas or white whales, which occasionally throw themselves
+ashore to escape their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of
+northern seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been
+caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean. There are
+numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts. (See CETACEA.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and ascetic writer, born
+of poor parents named Sarria at Granada. He lost his father at an early
+age and his widowed mother was supported by the charity of the
+Dominicans. A child of the Alhambra, he entered the service of the
+alcalde as page, and, his ability being discovered, received his
+education with the sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the
+Dominican convent and in 1525 took the vows; and, with the leave of his
+prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He was sent
+to Valladolid to continue his studies and then was appointed procurator
+at Granada. Seven years after he was elected prior of the convent of
+Scala Caeli in the mountains of Cordova, which after eight years he
+succeeded in restoring from its ruinous state, and there he began his
+work as a zealous reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the
+orator Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish
+preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became provincial of
+his order, declining the offer of the archbishopric of Braga but
+accepting the position of confessor and counsellor to Catherine, the
+queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure of the provincialship, he
+retired to the Dominican convent at Lisbon, where he lived till his
+death on the last day of 1588. Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical
+writings, at development of the religious view, the danger of the times
+as he saw it was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an
+outside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken among
+the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith was not understood
+by the people, and that their ignorance was the pressing danger. He fell
+under the suspicion of the Inquisition; his mystical teaching was said
+to be heretical, and his most famous book, the _Guia de Peccadores_,
+still a favourite treatise and one that has been translated into nearly
+every European tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisition,
+together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great opponent was the
+restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who stigmatized the second book
+as containing grave errors smacking of the heresy of the Alumbrados and
+manifestly contradicting Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the
+prohibition was removed and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by
+St Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St
+Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain of
+his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics excels Luis de
+Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety of illustration and
+soberness of statement.
+
+  The last collected edition of his works is that published in 9 vols.
+  at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, _La Vida y virtudes de
+  Luis de Granada_ (Madrid, 1639); a study of his system by P. Rousselot
+  in _Mystiques espagnoles_ (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, _History of Spanish
+  Literature_ (vol. iii.), and Fitzmaurice Kelly, _History of Spanish
+  Literature_, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, the capital of the department of Granada, Nicaragua; 32 m. by
+rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the republic. Pop. (1900) about
+25,000. Granada is built on the north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua,
+of which it is the principal port. Its houses are of the usual central
+American type, constructed of adobe, rarely more than one storey high,
+and surrounded by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs,
+scattered over a large area, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied by
+Indians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches and
+convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof is inlaid
+with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the railway station
+and the adjacent wharves with the market, about 1 m. distant. Ice,
+cigars, hats, boots and shoes are manufactured, but the characteristic
+local industry is the production of "Panama chains," ornaments made of
+thin gold wire. In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations;
+and the city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton,
+native tobacco and indigo.
+
+Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez de Cordoba. It became
+one of the wealthiest of central American cities, although it had always
+a keen commercial rival in Leon, which now surpasses it in size and
+importance. In the 17th century it was often raided by buccaneers,
+notably in 1606, when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured
+and partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see CENTRAL AMERICA:
+_History_).
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of
+districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with the central parts
+of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop. (1900) 492,460; area, 4928 sq.
+m. Granada is bounded on the N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by
+Murcia and Almeria, S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It
+includes the western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (q.v.), a
+vast ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest
+altitudes in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta
+(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges, such as the
+Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana, adjoin the main ridge.
+From this central watershed the three principal rivers of the province
+take their rise, viz.: the Guadiana Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in
+a northerly direction, falls into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood
+of Ubeda; the Genil which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of
+Granada, leaves the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins
+the Guadalquivir between Cordova and Seville; and the Rio Grande or
+Guadalfeo, which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The coast is
+little indented and none of its three harbours, Almunecar, Albunol and
+Motril, ranks high in commercial importance. The climate in the lower
+valleys and the narrow fringe along the coast is warm, but on the higher
+grounds of the interior is somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies
+accordingly from the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains
+is very productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the
+richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it has been
+systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield in great abundance
+and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine, oil, sugar, flax,
+cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit. In the mountains
+immediately surrounding the city of Granada occur many kinds of
+alabaster, some very fine; there are also quantities of jasper and other
+precious stones. Mineral waters chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are
+abundant, the most important springs being those of Alhama, which have a
+temperature of 112 deg. F. There are valuable iron mines, and small
+quantities of zinc, lead and mercury are obtained. The cane and beet
+sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja, at Motril, and
+in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of the Spanish West Indies
+and the Philippine Islands in 1898, with the consequent decrease in
+competition. There are also tanneries, foundries and manufactories of
+woollen, linen, cotton, and rough frieze stuffs, cards, soap, spirits,
+gunpowder and machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the
+province, which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The
+railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and bifurcates
+north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward to Almeria, the other
+westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras. Baza is the terminus of a
+railway from Lorca. The chief towns include Granada, the capital (pop.
+1900, 75,900) with Alhama de Granada (7697), Baza (12,770), Guadix
+(12,652), Loja (19,143), Montefrio (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These
+are described in separate articles. Other towns with upwards of 7000
+inhabitants are Albunol (8646), Almunecar (8022), Cullar de Baza (8007),
+Huescar (7763), Illora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique (7420). The
+history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from that of the city of
+Granada (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+GRANADA, the capital of the province, and formerly of the kingdom of
+Granada, in southern Spain; on the Madrid-Granada-Algeciras railway.
+Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnificently situated, 2195 ft. above
+the sea, on the north-western slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking
+the fertile lowlands known as the Vega de Granada on the west and
+overshadowed by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421
+ft.) on the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river
+Genil, the Roman _Singilis_ and Moorish _Shenil_, a swift stream flowing
+westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume of water in
+summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary the Darro, the Roman
+_Salon_ and Moorish _Hadarro_, enters Granada on the east, flows for
+upwards of a mile from east to west, and then turns sharply southward to
+join the main river, which is spanned by a bridge just above the point
+of confluence. The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation
+works along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized
+and partly covered with a roof.
+
+Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequeruela, the Albaicin
+(or Albaycin), and Granada properly so-called. The first division,
+founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410, consists of the districts
+enclosed by the Darro, besides a small area on its right, or western
+bank. It is bounded on the east by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra
+(q.v.), the most celebrated of all the monuments left by the Moors. The
+Albaicin (Moorish _Rabad al Bayazin_, "Falconers' Quarter") lies
+north-west of the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with
+that of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by
+citizens of Baeza, who fled hither in 1246, after the capture of their
+town by the Christians. It was long the favourite abode of the Moorish
+nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by gipsies and artisans. Granada,
+properly so-called, is north of the Antequeruela, and west of the
+Albaicin. The origin of its name is obscure; it has been sometimes,
+though with little probability, derived from _granada_, a pomegranate,
+in allusion to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood.
+A pomegranate appears on the city arms. The Moors, however, called
+Granada _Karnattah_ or _Karnattah-al-Yahud_, and possibly the name is
+composed of the Arabic words _kurn_, "a hill," and _nattah_,
+"stranger,"--the "city" or "hill of strangers."
+
+Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the architecture
+of its more ancient quarters has many Moorish characteristics. The
+streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved and irregular; but there
+are several fine squares and avenues, such as the Bibarrambla, where
+tournaments were held by the Moors; the spacious Plaza del Trionfo,
+adjoining the bull-ring, on the north; the Alameda, planted with plane
+trees, and the Paseo del Salon. The business centre of the city is the
+Puerta Real, a square named after a gate now demolished.
+
+Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its cathedral, which commemorates
+the reconquest of southern Spain from the Moors, is a somewhat heavy
+classical building, begun in 1529 by Diego de Siloe, and only finished
+in 1703. It is profusely ornamented with jasper and coloured marbles,
+and surmounted by a dome. The interior contains many paintings and
+sculptures by Alonso Cano (1601-1667), the architect of the fine west
+facade, and other artists. In one of the numerous chapels, known as the
+Chapel Royal (_Capilla Real_), is the monument of Philip I. of Castile
+(1478-1506), and his queen Joanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452-1516). The church of
+Santa Maria (1705-1759), which may be regarded as an annexe of the
+cathedral, occupies the site of the chief mosque of Granada. This was
+used as a church until 1661. Santa Ana (1541) also replaced a mosque;
+Nuestra Senora de las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine
+towers, and the rich decoration of its high altar. The convent of San
+Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella, was
+converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains the tomb of the
+famous captain Gonsalvo or Gonzalo de Cordova (1453-1515). The Cartuja,
+or Carthusian monastery north of the city, was built in 1516 on
+Gonzalo's estate, and in his memory. It contains several fine paintings,
+and an interesting church of the 17th and 18th centuries.
+
+After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the Generalife and
+Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described in connexion with it,
+the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada are the 13th-century villa
+known as the Cuarto Real de San Domingo, admirably preserved, and
+surrounded by beautiful gardens; the Alcazar de Genil, built in the
+middle of the 14th century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the
+Casa del Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a
+warehouse in the 19th century. Few Spanish cities possess a greater
+number of educational and charitable establishments. The university was
+founded by Charles V. in 1531, and transferred to its present buildings
+in 1769. It is attended by about 600 students. In 1900, the primary
+schools of Granada numbered 22, in addition to an ecclesiastical
+seminary, a training-school for teachers, schools of art and
+jurisprudence, and museums of art and archaeology. There were twelve
+hospitals and orphanages for both sexes, including a leper hospital in
+one of the convents. Granada has an active trade in the agricultural
+produce of the Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse
+linen and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once extensively carried on,
+and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy, France, Germany and
+even America, but this industry died during the 19th century.
+
+_History._--The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of _Iliberris_
+or _Iliberri_, which afterwards became a flourishing Roman colony, has
+never been fully established; but Roman tombs, coins, inscriptions, &c.,
+have been discovered in the neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia,
+as a result of the great invasion from the north in the 5th century,
+Granada fell to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of Cordova,
+onwards from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and
+ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which, after the
+fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 1031, or, according to some authorities,
+1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen and others as an independent
+principality. The family of the Zeri, Ziri or Zeiri maintained itself as
+the ruling dynasty until 1090; it was then displaced by the Almohades,
+who were in turn overthrown by the Almoravides, in 1154. The dominion of
+the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of one year
+(1160-1161), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada formed part of the
+kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named year it passed into the hands
+of Abu Abdullah Mahommed Ibn Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the
+dynasty of the Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but
+united Granada, Almeria and Malaga under his sceptre, and, as the
+fervour of the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily
+abated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christians to
+vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time he offered
+asylum to refugees from Valencia, Murcia and other territories in which
+the Moors had been overcome. Al Ahmar and his successors ruled over
+Granada until 1492, in an unbroken line of twenty-five sovereigns who
+maintained their independence partly by force, and partly by payment of
+tribute to their stronger neighbours. Their encouragement of
+commerce--notably the silk trade with Italy--rendered Granada the
+wealthiest of Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and
+science attracted many learned Moslems, such as the historian Ibn
+Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and resulted in a
+brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is the supreme monument.
+
+The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other Moorish states in
+Spain, fell at last through dynastic rivalries and a harem intrigue. The
+two noble families of the Zegri and the Beni Serraj (better known in
+history and legend as the _Abencerrages_) encroached greatly upon the
+royal prerogatives during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis
+arose in 1462, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted in
+the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his son, Muley
+Abu'l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of Mulhacen, the loftiest
+peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score of legends. Muley Hassan
+weakened his position by resigning Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and
+incurred the enmity of his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful
+Spanish slave, Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and
+taken the name of Zorayah, "morning star." Aisha or Ayesha, who thus saw
+her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommed (Boabdil) and Yusuf in danger of being
+supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages, whose leaders, according to
+tradition, paid for their sympathy with their lives (see ALHAMBRA). In
+1482 Boabdil succeeded in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but
+the gradual advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella
+forced him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands of
+Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-1486). In 1491 after the loss of these
+leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten; Boabdil, who had already been
+twice captured and liberated by the Spaniards, was compelled to sign
+away his kingdom; and on the 2nd of January 1492 the Spanish army
+entered Granada, and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign
+had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when the news
+reached London a special thanksgiving service was held in St Paul's
+Cathedral by order of Henry VII.
+
+
+
+
+GRANADILLA, the name applied to _Passiflora quadrangularis_, Linn., a
+plant of the natural order _Passifloreae_, a native of tropical America,
+having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate leaves; petioles bearing from
+4 to 6 glands; an emetic and narcotic root; scented flowers; and a
+large, oblong fruit, containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid
+edible pulp. The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses. The
+fruits of several other species of _Passiflora_ are eaten. _P.
+laurifolia_ is the "water lemon," and _P. maliformis_ the "sweet
+calabash" of the West Indies.
+
+
+
+
+GRANARIES. From ancient times grain has been stored in greater or lesser
+bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice of preserving grain in years
+of plenty against years of scarcity, and probably Joseph only carried
+out on a large scale an habitual practice. The climate of Egypt being
+very dry, grain could be stored in pits for a long time without sensible
+loss of quality. The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a
+favourite way of storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental
+lands. In Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when
+comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons of
+dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta a relatively
+large stock of wheat is always preserved in some hundreds of pits
+(silos) cut in the rock. A single silo will store from 60 to 80 tons of
+wheat, which, with proper precautions, will keep in good condition for
+four years or more. The silos are shaped like a cylinder resting on a
+truncated cone, and surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit
+is round and small and covered by a stone slab, and the inside is lined
+with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally taken from
+the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any signs of fermentation
+the granary is cleared and the wheat turned over, but such is the
+dryness of these silos that little trouble of this kind is experienced.
+
+Towards the close of the 19th century warehouses specially intended for
+holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain, but America is the
+home of great granaries, known there as elevators. There are climatic
+difficulties in the way of storing grain in Great Britain on a large
+scale, but these difficulties have been largely overcome. To preserve
+grain in good condition it must be kept as much as possible from
+moisture and heat. New grain when brought into a warehouse has a
+tendency to sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the
+heating is allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An
+effectual remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a
+floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thoroughly. Grain
+can thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is reason to think
+that grain in a sound and dry condition can be better stored in bins or
+dry pits than in the open air; from a series of experiments carried out
+on behalf of the French government it would seem that grain exposed to
+the air is decomposed at 3-1/2 times the rate of grain stored in silo or
+other bins.
+
+In comparing the grain-storage system of Great Britain with that of
+North America it must be borne in mind that whereas Great Britain raises
+a comparatively small amount of grain, which is more or less rapidly
+consumed, grain-growing is one of the greatest industries of the United
+States and of Canada. The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced
+in America can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage
+as has grown up there since the middle of the 19th century. The American
+farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate rate, and can get an
+advance on his warrant if he is in need of money. A holder of wheat in
+Chicago can withdraw a similar grade of wheat from a New York elevator.
+
+Modern granaries are all built on much the same plan. The mechanical
+equipment for receiving and discharging grain is very similar in all
+modern warehouses. A granary is usually erected on a quay at which large
+vessels can lie and discharge. On the land side railway sidings connect
+the warehouse with the chief lines in its district; accessibility to a
+canal is an advantage. Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators
+which are dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic
+elevators are substituted (see CONVEYORS). A travelling band with
+throw-off carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain. Band
+conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging the bins. Bins
+are invariably provided with hopper bottoms, and any bin can be
+effectively cleared by the band, which runs underneath, either in a
+cellar or in a specially constructed tunnel. All granaries should be
+provided with a sufficient plant of cleaning machinery to take from the
+grain impurities as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing
+qualities. Chief among such machines are the warehouse separators which
+work by sieves and air currents (see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE).
+
+The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of chambers for
+grain storage which are known as silos, and may be built of wood, brick,
+iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos are usually square, made of flat
+strips of wood nailed one on top of the other, and so overlapping each
+other at the corners that alternately a longitudinal and a transverse
+batten extends past the corner. The gaps are filled by short pieces of
+timber securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type
+of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain drawbacks, such
+as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt to harbour in the
+interstices unless lime washing is practised. Bricks and cement are good
+materials for constructing silos of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep
+foundations and substantial walls. Iron silos of circular form are used
+to some extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and South
+America. In their case the walls are much thinner than with any other
+material, but the condensation against the inner wall in wet weather is
+a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical tank silos have also been made
+of fire-proof tiles. Ferro-concrete silos have been built on both the
+Monier and the Hennebique systems. In the earlier type the bin was made
+of an iron or steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent
+structures are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement.
+Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if properly
+constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even in case of
+uneven expansion of the material. With brick silos collapses through
+pressure of the stored material are not unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+
+    Port Arthur, Canada.
+
+  One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or warehouses in
+  the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway Company, and was
+  erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in 1901-1904. It has a total storage
+  capacity of 7,000,000 bushels, or 875,000 qrs. of 480 lb. The range of
+  buildings and bins forms an oblong, and consists of two storage
+  houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses A and
+  D (fig. 1). The receiving houses are fed by railway sidings. House A,
+  for example, has two sidings, one running through it and the other
+  beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a receiving
+  elevator of 10,000 lb. capacity per minute, or 60,000 bushels per
+  hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five elevators of 12,000
+  bushels per hour on the other side of the house serve five warehouse
+  separators, and all the grain received or discharged is weighed, there
+  being ten sets of automatic scales in the upper part of the house,
+  known as the cupola. The hopper of each weigher can take a charge of
+  1400 bushels (84,000 lb.). Grain can be conveyed either vertically or
+  horizontally to any part of the house, into any of the bins in the
+  annex B, or into any truck or lake steamer. This house is constructed
+  of timber and roofed with corrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36
+  in. wide; those at the top of the house are provided with throw-off
+  carriages. The dust from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected
+  and spouted to the furnace under the boiler house, where it is
+  consumed. The cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of
+  hollow tiles of burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The
+  tiles are laid on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 in. to
+  6 in. in thickness according to the size of the bin. Each alternate
+  course consists of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous
+  groove or belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting
+  as a tension member and resisting the lateral pressure of the grain.
+  The steel bands once in position, the groove is completely filled with
+  cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually the
+  bottoms of the bins are furnished with self-discharging hoppers of
+  weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar. For the
+  foundation or supporting floor reinforced concrete is frequently used.
+  The tiles already described are faced with tiles 1/2 to 1 in. thick,
+  which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole exterior of
+  the bin. Any damage to the facing tiles can easily be repaired since
+  they can be removed and replaced without affecting the main bin walls.
+  It is claimed that these facers constitute the best possible
+  protection against fire. A steel framework, covered with tiles, crowns
+  these circular bins and contains the conveyors and spouts which are
+  used to fill the bins. Five tunnels in the concrete bedding that
+  supports the bins carry the belt conveyors which bring back the grain
+  to the working house for cleaning or shipment. There are altogether in
+  each of the storage houses 80 circular bins, each 21 ft. in diameter,
+  and so grouped as to form 63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in
+  all. Each bin will store grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole
+  group has a capacity of 2,500,000 bushels. These bins were all
+  constructed by the Barnett & Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota,
+  U.S.A., in accordance with the Johnson & Record patent system of
+  fire-proof tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working
+  houses is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not
+  only their own contents but also the other working house, and in the
+  event of its disablement or destruction the remaining one can be
+  easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their
+  contents.
+
+
+    Barrow-in-Furness.
+
+  Circular tank silos have not been extensively adopted in Great
+  Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley &
+  Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at
+  Barrow-in-Furness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steel
+  plates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill warehouse.
+  A covered gantry, through which passes a band conveyor, runs from the
+  mill warehouse to the working silo house which stands in the central
+  space amid the four steel tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a
+  diameter of 45 ft., and rest on foundations of concrete and steel.
+  Each has a separate conical roof and they are flat-bottomed, the grain
+  resting directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load
+  of the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed is
+  considered a point of importance. Each tank can hold about 2500 tons
+  of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of
+  over 45,000 qrs. of 480 lb. Attached to the mill warehouse is a skip
+  elevator with a discharging capacity of 75 tons an hour. The grain is
+  cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the vessel to be
+  unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence it
+  is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic weigher
+  capable of taking a charge of 1 ton. From the weighing machine it can
+  be taken, with or without a preliminary cleaning, to any floor of the
+  warehouse, which has a total storing capacity of 8000 tons, or it can
+  be carried by the band conveyor through the gantry to the working
+  house of the silo installation and distributed to any one of the four
+  tank silos. There is also a connexion by a band conveyor running
+  through a covered gantry into the mill, which stands immediately in
+  the rear. It is perfectly easy to turn over the contents of any tank
+  into any other tank. The whole intake and wheat handling plant is
+  moved by two electro-motors of 35 H.P. each, one installed in the
+  warehouse and the other in the silo working house. Steel silo tanks
+  have the advantage of storing a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively
+  small capital outlay. On an average an ordinary silo bin will not hold
+  more than 500 to 1000 qrs., but each of the bins at Barrow will
+  contain 2500 tons or over 1100 qrs. The steel construction also
+  reduces the risk of fire and consequently lessens the fire premium.
+
+
+    Liverpool.
+
+  The important granaries at the Liverpool docks date from 1868, but
+  have since been brought up to modern requirements. The warehouses on
+  the Waterloo docks have an aggregate storage area of 11-3/4 acres,
+  while the sister warehouses on the Birkenhead side, which stand on the
+  margin of the great float, have an area of 11 acres. The total
+  capacity of these warehouses is about 200,000 qrs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+
+    Manchester.
+
+  The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Trafford wharf is
+  locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a great
+  extent on the model of an American elevator. Some of the mechanical
+  equipment was supplied by a Chicago firm. The total capacity is
+  1,500,000 bushels or 40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226
+  separate bins. The granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side
+  of the dock, but is directly connected with the receiving tower, which
+  rises at the water's edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry.
+  The main building is 448 ft. long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the
+  superstructure was constructed of wood with an external casing of
+  brickwork and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket
+  elevator capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the
+  level of the hold to be unloaded. The elevator has the large unloading
+  capacity of 350 tons per hour, assuming it to be working in a full
+  hold. It is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system)
+  which can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly in dealing with
+  parcels of grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary
+  elevator cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator
+  as well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of
+  horizontal Corliss compound engines of 500 H.P. jointly, which are fed
+  by two Galloway boilers working at 100 lb. pressure. The pneumatic
+  elevator is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines of
+  600 H.P. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 160 lb. The
+  grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From the
+  receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where it is
+  at once elevated to the top of a central tower, and is thence
+  distributed to any of the bins by band conveyors in the usual way. The
+  mechanical equipment of this warehouse is very complete, and the
+  following several operations can be simultaneously effected:
+  discharging grain from vessels in the dock at the rate of 350 tons
+  per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain into the warehouse
+  and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain from bin to
+  bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously weighing in
+  bulk at the rate of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain, weighing and
+  loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and 10 carts simultaneously;
+  loading grain from the warehouse into barges or coasting craft at the
+  rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks per hour. This
+  warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American construction, which can
+  deal with 50 tons of damp grain at one time, and is connected with the
+  whole bin system so that grain can be readily moved from any bin to
+  the dryer or conversely.
+
+
+    London.
+
+  A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the
+  London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity of
+  about 25,000 qrs. or 200,000 bushels. It is over 100 ft. high, and is
+  built on the American plan of interlaced timbers resting on iron
+  columns. The walls are externally cased with steel plates. The grain
+  is stored in 56 silos, most of which are about 10 ft. square by 50 ft.
+  deep. The intake plant has a capacity of 100 tons of wheat an hour,
+  and includes six automatic grain scales, each of which can weigh off
+  one sack at a time. The main delivery floor of the warehouse is at a
+  convenient height above the ground level. Portable automatic weighing
+  machines can be placed under any bin. The whole of the plant is driven
+  by electric motors, one being allotted to each machine.
+
+  The transit silos of the London Grain Elevator Company, also at the
+  Victoria docks, consist of four complete and independent installations
+  standing on three tongues of land which project into the water (figs.
+  2 and 3). Each silo house is furnished with eight bins, each of which,
+  12 ft. square by 80 ft. deep, has a capacity of 1000 qrs. of grain. A
+  kind of well in the middle of each silo house contains the necessary
+  elevators, staircases, &c. The silo bins in each granary are erected
+  on a massive cast iron tank forming a sort of cellar, which rests on a
+  concrete foundation 6 ft. thick. The base of the tank is 30 ft. below
+  the water level. The silos are formed of wooden battens nailed one on
+  top of the other, the pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders resting
+  on cast iron columns support the silos. To ensure a clean discharge
+  the hopper bottoms were designed so as to avoid joints and thus to be
+  free from rivets or similar protuberances. The exterior of each silo
+  house is covered with corrugated iron, and the same material is used
+  for the roofing. No conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators
+  which rise above the tops of the silos can feed any one of them by
+  gravity. There are three delivery elevators to each granary, one with
+  a capacity of 120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour.
+  Each silo house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120
+  tons per hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the
+  house. The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which
+  there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines. Each
+  charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks, which
+  are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is provided with a
+  conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying sacks from the
+  weighing sheds to railway trucks or for carrying grain in bulk to
+  barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical mechanical
+  equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with its fellow
+  warehouse. All operations in connexion with the silo houses are
+  effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a fleet of
+  twenty-six of Philip's patent self-discharging lighters. These craft
+  are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of the ordinary
+  type, running between the double keelson of the lighter and delivering
+  into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By this means
+  little trimming is required after the barge, which holds about 200
+  tons of grain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such draft as to
+  preclude their entry into any of the up river docks are cleared at
+  Tilbury by these lighters. It is said that grain loaded at Tilbury
+  into these lighters can be delivered from the transit silos to railway
+  trucks or barges in about six hours. The total storage capacity of the
+  silos amounts to 32,000 qrs. The motive power is furnished by 14 gas
+  engines of a total capacity of 366 H.P.
+
+
+    Rumania.
+
+  Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are situated
+  at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in Rumania, and
+  serve for both the reception and discharge of grain. At the edge of
+  the quay on which these warehouses are built there are rails with a
+  gauge of 11-1/2 ft., upon which run two mechanical loading and
+  unloading appliances. The first consists of a telescopic elevator
+  which raises the grain and delivers it to one of the two band
+  conveyors at the head of the apparatus. Each of these bands feeds
+  automatic weighing machines with an hourly capacity of 75 tons. From
+  these weighers the grain is either discharged through a manhole in the
+  ground to a band conveyor running in a tunnel parallel to the quay
+  wall, or it is raised by a second elevator (part of the same unloading
+  apparatus), set at an inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient
+  height to load railway trucks on the siding running parallel to the
+  quay. A turning gear is provided so as to reverse, if required, the
+  operation of the whole apparatus, that the portion overhanging the
+  water can be turned to the land side. The unloading capacity is 150
+  tons of grain per hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic
+  elevator has only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15
+  wells, which can be filled up with grain from the land side. The
+  capacity of each granary is 233,333 qrs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.
+
+  Transit Silos of the London Grain Elevator Co. Ltd., Victoria Docks,
+  London.
+
+    A. Barge Elevators
+    B. Receiving Elevators
+    C. Silo Bins
+    D. Delivery Elevators
+    E. Weigh Houses
+    F. Automatic Scales
+    G. Sack, Band Gantry
+
+  Longitudinal Elevation looking towards Barge Elevators.
+
+  Cross Section through Transit Silos.]
+
+
+    Stuttgart.
+
+  Many large granaries have been built, in which grain is stored on open
+  floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the warehouse of
+  the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of seven floors, including
+  a basement and entresol. An engine house accommodates two gas engines
+  as well as an hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is
+  received by an elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a
+  weighing machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the
+  top storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the
+  building. A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of
+  the band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be
+  shot to any floor. A second band conveyor is installed in the entresol
+  floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator, if it is
+  desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed. A
+  second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is
+  provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered into
+  the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain passes into
+  a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher; directly under
+  this weigher the grain is sacked.
+
+
+    Mannheim.
+
+  A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin and floor
+  storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim on the Rhine,
+  which has the storage capacity of 2100 tons. The building is 370 ft.
+  in length, 78 ft. wide and 78 ft. high, and by means of transverse
+  walls it is divided into three sections; of these one contains silos,
+  in another section grain is stored on open floors, while the third,
+  which is situated between the other two, is the grain-cleaning
+  department. This granary stands by the quay side, and a ship elevator
+  of great capacity, which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly
+  clear any ship or barge beneath. The central or screening house
+  section contains machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as
+  well as wheat. The barley plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour.
+  There are four main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve
+  the screen house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off
+  carriages are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of
+  pipes which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute
+  it at any required point. The plant is operated by electric motors. If
+  desired the floors of the non-silo section can be utilized for storing
+  other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of 1
+  ton runs from the basement to the top storey. The combined capacity
+  of the elevators and conveyors is 100 tons of grain per hour. The
+  mechanical equipment is so complete that four distinct operations are
+  claimed as possible. A ship may be unloaded into silos or into the
+  granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either from silos or
+  floors with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may be discharged
+  either into silos or upon the floors, and simultaneously the grain may
+  be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vessel, mixed with other
+  grain already received, and then distributed to any desired point.
+  With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended with other
+  varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and transferred
+  from one ship to another.
+
+
+    Dortmund.
+
+  A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay at
+  Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick on a
+  base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of timber. It is 78 ft.
+  high and consists of seven floors, including basement and attic. Here
+  again there are two sections, the larger being devoted to the storage
+  of grain in low bins, while the smaller section consists of an
+  ordinary silo house. Grain in sacks may be stored in the basement of
+  the larger section which has a capacity of 1675 tons as compared with
+  825 tons in the silo department. Thus the total storage capacity is
+  2500 tons. In the silo house the bins, constructed of planks nailed
+  one over the other, are of varying size and are capable of storing
+  grain to a depth of 42 to 47 ft. Some of the bins have been specially
+  adapted for receiving damp grain by being provided internally with
+  transverse wooden arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections.
+  The object of this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored
+  grain. The arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at
+  the base so as to bring a current of air into direct contact with the
+  grain. The air can be warmed if necessary. The other and larger
+  section of the granary is provided with 105 bins of moderate height
+  arranged in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and
+  attic. On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor each bin lies
+  exactly under the bin above. Grain is not stored in these bins to a
+  greater depth than 5 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side
+  walls, and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated for half
+  the area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements for
+  distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The uncleaned
+  grain is taken by the receiving elevator, with a lifting capacity of
+  20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is passed
+  through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or spouted to
+  the main elevator (capacity 25 tons per hour) and elevated to the
+  attic. From the head of this main elevator the grain can either be fed
+  to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors, or shot to one of
+  the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is carried by a
+  spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turntables, as the
+  appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute through spouts the
+  grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alternatively, the grain
+  may be shot into the basement and there fed back into the main
+  elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the grain may be turned over
+  as often as it is deemed necessary. At the bottom of each bin are four
+  apertures connected by spouts, both with the bin below and with the
+  central vertical pipe which passes down through the centre of each
+  group of bins. To regulate the course of the grain from bin to bin or
+  from bin to central pipe, the connecting spouts are fitted with valves
+  of ingenious yet simple construction which deflect the grain in any
+  desired direction, so that the contents of two or more bins may be
+  blended, or grain may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bin
+  on a lower floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are
+  controlled by chains from the basement.
+
+  With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be observed
+  that there are granaries built on a similar principle in the United
+  Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height are more suitable
+  for storing grain containing a considerable amount of moisture than
+  deep silos, whether made of wood, ferro-concrete or other material.
+  For one thing floor bins of the Dortmund pattern can be more
+  effectually aerated than deep silos. German wheat has many
+  characteristics in common with British, and, especially in north
+  Germany, is not infrequently harvested in a more or less damp
+  condition. In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer & Co., of Melksham,
+  have erected several granaries on the floor-bin principle, and have
+  adopted an ingenious system of "telescopic" spouting, by means of
+  which grain may be discharged from one bin to another or at any
+  desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins either with level
+  floors or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged one above the
+  other on the different floors, and is so constructed that an opening
+  can be effected at certain points by simply sliding upwards a section
+  of the spout.
+
+_National Granaries._--Wheat forms the staple food of a large proportion
+of the population of the British Isles, and of the total amount consumed
+about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks normally held in the country
+being limited, serious consequences might result from any interruption
+of the supply, such as might occur were Great Britain involved in war
+with a power or powers commanding a strong fleet. To meet this
+contingency it has been suggested that the State should establish
+granaries containing a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency,
+or should adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &c.,
+to hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production of
+home-grown wheat.
+
+
+  Amount of stocks.
+
+Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight of
+wheat) are held by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants' stocks are
+kept in granaries at ports of importation and are known as first-hand
+stocks. Stocks of wheat and flour in the hands of millers and of flour
+held by bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers' stocks only
+consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made of
+first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be possible
+in the case of farmers' stocks, but second-hand stocks are more
+difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the 19th century the
+storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased. As the
+number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the bigger ones has
+increased, and proportionately their warehousing accommodation has been
+enlarged. At the present time first-hand stocks tend to diminish because
+a larger proportion of millers' holdings are in mill granaries and silo
+houses. The immense preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in
+the grain trade has also had the effect of greatly diminishing stocks.
+With his cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to
+a day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British
+merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in preference
+to British warehouses. The merchant's risk is thereby lessened to a
+certain extent. When his wheat has been brought into a British port, to
+send it farther afield means extra expense. But wheat in an American or
+Argentine elevator may be ordered wherever the best price can be
+obtained for it. Options or "futures," too, have helped to restrict the
+size of wheat stocks in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of
+wheat on passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market
+value of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, he sells
+an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option serving
+as insurance against loss. This is why the British corn trade finds it
+less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting itself by option
+deals, than to store large quantities which may depreciate and involve
+their owners in loss.
+
+Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks' supply of
+breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various seasons of the
+year. A table compiled by the secretary of the National Association of
+British and Irish Millers from returns for 1902 made by 170 milling
+firms showed 4.7, 4.9, 4.9 and 5 weeks' supply at the end of March,
+June, September and December respectively. These 170 mills were said to
+represent 46% of the milling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed
+to have ground 12,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled in 1902.
+These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the other mills
+would not have shown anything like such a proportion of stock of either
+raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the stocks normally held by
+millers and bakers throughout the United Kingdom would be about four
+weeks' supply. First-hand stocks vary considerably, but the limits are
+definite, ranging from 1,000,000 to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a
+high figure. The tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two
+weeks' supply must be a minimum. Farmers' stocks necessarily vary with
+the size of the crop and the period of the year; they will range from 9
+or 10 weeks on the 1st of September to a half week on the 1st of August.
+Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional for the stock of
+breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks' supply. Between the cereal years
+1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of 570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds
+fell below 7 weeks' supply in only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were
+between the beginning of June and the end of August 1898. This was
+immediately after the Leiter collapse. In seven of these eleven years
+there is no instance of stocks falling below 8 weeks' supply. In 21 out
+of these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks dropped
+below 7-1/2 and 8 weeks' supply respectively. Roughly speaking the stock
+of wheat available for bread-making varies from a two to four months'
+supply and is at times well above the latter figure.
+
+
+  National reserve.
+
+The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at the disposal
+of the state in case of urgent need during war, is beset by many
+practical difficulties. The father of the scheme was probably _The
+Miller_, a well-known trade journal. In March and April 1886 two
+articles appeared in that paper under the heading "Years of Plenty and
+State Granaries," in which it was urged that to meet the risk of hostile
+cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be desirable to lay up in
+granaries on British soil and under government control a stock of wheat
+sufficient for 12 or alternatively 6 months' consumption. This was to be
+national property, not to be touched except when the fortune of war sent
+up the price of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The
+State holding this large stock--a year's supply of foreign grain would
+have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about L25,000,000
+exclusive of warehousing--was in peace time to sell no wheat except when
+it became necessary to part with stock as a precautionary measure. In
+that case the wheat sold was to be replaced by the same amount of new
+grain. The idea was to provide the country with a supply of wheat until
+sufficient wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically
+self-sufficing in respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell quite
+flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper on "Great
+Britain's Corn Supplies in War," before the London Chamber of Commerce,
+and accepted national granaries as the only practicable safeguard
+against what appeared to him a great peril. The representatives of the
+shipping interest opposed the scheme, probably because it appeared to
+them likely to divert the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy.
+The corn trade opposed the project on account of its great practical
+difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat acreage kept
+the question alive, and during the earlier half of the 'nineties it was
+a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some influential members of
+parliament pressed the matter on the government, who, acting, no doubt,
+on the advice of their military and naval experts, refused either a
+royal commission or a departmental committee. While the then technical
+advisers of the government were divided on the advisability of
+establishing national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of
+expert opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then
+commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great Britain
+might in war be starved into submission as "unmitigated humbug."
+
+
+  Yerburgh committee.
+
+In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued, and early
+in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated Chambers of
+Agriculture, at the suggestion to a great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh,
+M.P., nominated a committee to examine the question of national wheat
+stores. This committee held thirteen sittings and examined fifty-four
+witnesses. Its report, which was published (L. G. Newman & Co., 12
+Finsbury Square, London, E.C.) with minutes of the evidence taken,
+practically recommended that a national reserve of wheat on the lines
+already sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and
+that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the appointment
+of a royal commission, comprising representatives of agriculture, the
+corn trade, shipping, and the army and navy, to conduct an exhaustive
+inquiry into the whole subject of the national food-supply in case of
+war. This recommendation was ultimately carried into effect, but not
+till nearly five years had elapsed. Of two schemes for national
+granaries put before the Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Mr
+Seth Taylor, a London miller and corn merchant, who reckoned that a
+store of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average
+cost of 40s. per qr.--this was in the Leiter year of high prices--and
+distributed in six specially constructed granaries to be erected at
+London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and Dublin. The cost of the
+granaries was put at L7,500,000. Mr Taylor's scheme, all charges
+included, such as 2-1/2% interest on capital, cost of storage (at 6d.
+per qr.), and 2s. per qr. for cost of replacing wheat, involved an
+annual expenditure of L1,250,000. The Yerburgh committee also considered
+a proposal to stimulate the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to
+farmers for every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken
+different shapes; some have suggested that a bounty should be given on
+every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would only allow the
+bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition up to a certain date,
+say the beginning of the following harvest. It is obvious that a bounty
+on the area of land covered by wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a
+premium on poor farming, and might divert to wheat-growing land
+unsuitable for that purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say 3s.
+to 5s. per qr. for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands
+on a different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of 5s. might
+expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to 9,000,000
+qrs., which would mean that a bounty of L2,250,000 per annum, plus costs
+of administration, had secured an extra home production of 2,000,000
+qrs. Whether such a price would be worth paying is another matter; the
+Yerburgh committee's conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has
+also been suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent
+of 2s. 6d. per sack of 280 lb. per annum on condition that each
+maintained a minimum supply of two months' flour. This may be taken to
+mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over and above his usual
+output a miller would be entitled to an annual subsidy of 2s. 6d. per
+sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000 sacks might be thus kept up at an
+annual cost of L1,250,000, plus the expenditure of administration, which
+would probably be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very
+probable that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse
+accommodation and depots all over the country would be ready to keep up
+a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill of 10,000 sacks'
+capacity per week, which habitually maintains a total stock of 50,000
+sacks, might bring up its stock to 150,000 sacks. Such a mill, being a
+good customer to railways, could get from them the storage it required
+for little or nothing. But the bulk of the mills have no such
+advantages. They have little or no spare warehousing room, and are not
+accustomed to keep any stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as
+it is milled. It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 2s. 6d. per sack
+would have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks,
+sufficient for two to three months' bread consumption.
+
+
+  Royal commission, 1903-1905.
+
+The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission appointed in
+1903, to which was also referred the importation of raw material in war
+time. Its report appeared in 1905. To the question whether the
+unquestioned dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted supply
+of sea-borne breadstuffs renders it advisable or not to maintain at all
+times a six months' stock of wheat and flour, it returned no decided
+answer, or perhaps it would be more correct to say that the commission
+was hopelessly divided. The main report was distinctly optimistic so far
+as the liability of the country to harass and distress at the hands of a
+hostile naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But there
+were several dissentients, and there was hardly any portion of the
+report in chief which did not provoke some reservation or another. That
+a maritime war would cause freights and insurance to rise in a high
+degree was freely admitted, and it was also admitted that the price of
+bread must also rise very appreciably. But, provided the navy did not
+break down, the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the
+proposals for providing national granaries or inducing merchants and
+millers to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and
+unnecessary. The commission was, however, inclined to consider more
+favourably a suggestion for providing free storage for wheat at the
+expense of the State. The idea was that if the State would subsidize any
+large granary company to the extent of 6d. or 5d. per qr., grain now
+warehoused in foreign lands would be attracted to the British Isles. But
+on the whole the commission held that the main effect of the scheme
+would be to saddle the government with the rent of all grain stored in
+public warehouses in the United Kingdom without materially increasing
+stocks. The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stocks for a
+longer period and to grow more wheat met with equally little favour.
+
+To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming any sort of
+disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve of even six months'
+wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks would prevent panic prices.
+On the other hand, the difficulties in the way of forming and
+administering such a reserve are very great. The world grows no great
+surplus of wheat, and to form a six months', much more a twelve months',
+stock would be the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat
+would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending up prices with a
+rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when they let go a certain
+amount of stock they would be bound to sell cheaply. A stock once formed
+might be held by the State with little or no disturbance of the corn
+market, although the existence of such an emergency stock would hardly
+encourage British farmers to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting,
+equipping and keeping in good order the necessary warehouses would be,
+probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate hitherto made by
+advocates of national granaries.     (G. F. Z.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, MARQUESS OF (1721-1770), British soldier, was the
+eldest son of the third duke of Rutland. He was born in 1721 and
+educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was returned as
+member of parliament for Grantham in 1741. Four years later he received
+a commission as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in
+and about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745.
+This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granby went to the
+front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland's staff, and saw active
+service in the last stages of the insurrection. Very soon his regiment
+was disbanded. He continued in parliament, combining with it military
+duties, making the campaign of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general
+in 1755, three years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse
+Guards (Blues). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke of
+Somerset, and in 1754 had begun his parliamentary connexion with
+Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death. The same year
+that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues, saw also the despatch of a
+considerable British contingent to Germany. Minden was Granby's first
+great battle. At the head of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders
+halted at the critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that
+officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut.-General Lord Granby succeeded
+to the command of the British contingent in Ferdinand's army, having
+32,000 men under his orders at the beginning of 1760. In the remaining
+campaigns of the Seven Years' War the English contingent was more
+conspicuous by its conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 31st of
+July 1760 Granby brilliantly stormed Warburg at the head of the British
+cavalry, capturing 1500 men and ten pieces of artillery. A year later
+(15th of July 1761) the British defended the heights of Vellinghausen
+with what Ferdinand himself styled "indescribable bravery." In the last
+campaign, at Gravenstein und Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, Granby's
+men bore the brunt of the fighting and earned the greatest share of the
+glory.
+
+Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself the popular
+hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited his arrival at all the
+home ports to offer him the choice of the Ordnance or the Horse Guards.
+His appointment to the Ordnance bore the date of the 1st of July 1763,
+and three years later he became commander-in-chief. In this position he
+was attacked by "Junius," and a heated discussion arose, as the writer
+had taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member of the
+Grafton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political and financial
+trouble, resigned all his offices, except the colonelcy of the Blues. He
+died at Scarborough on the 18th of October 1770. He had been made a
+privy councillor in 1760, lord lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and
+LL.D. of Cambridge in 1769.
+
+  Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, one of
+  which is now in the National Gallery. His contemporary popularity is
+  indicated by the number of inns and public-houses which took his name
+  and had his portrait as sign-board.
+
+
+
+
+GRAN CHACO, an extensive region in the heart of South America belonging
+to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20 deg. to 29 deg S. lat., and
+divided between the republics of Argentine, Bolivia and Paraguay, with a
+small district of south-western Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is
+estimated at from 250,000 to 425,000 sq. m., but the true Chaco region
+probably does not exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with
+marshes, lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still
+unexplored. On its southern and western borders there are extensive
+tracts of open woodland, intermingled with grassy plains, while on the
+northern side in Bolivia are large areas of open country subject to
+inundations in the rainy season. In general terms the Gran Chaco may be
+described as a great plain sloping gently to the S.E., traversed in the
+same direction by two great rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, whose
+sluggish courses are not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of
+overturned trees and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This
+excludes that part of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin,
+which is sometimes described as part of the Chaco. The greater part of
+its territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians, some of whom are
+still unsubdued, while others, like the Matacos, are sometimes to be
+found on neighbouring sugar estates and estancias as labourers during
+the busy season. The forest wealth of the Chaco region is incalculable
+and apparently inexhaustible, consisting of a great variety of palms and
+valuable cabinet woods, building timber, &c. Its extensive tracts of
+"quebracho Colorado" (_Loxopterygium Lorentzii_) are of very great value
+because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its extract are
+largely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining footholds in this
+region along the southern and eastern borders.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE (alternatively called the War of the League
+of Augsburg), the third[1] of the great aggressive wars waged by Louis
+XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire, Great Britain, Holland and
+other states. The two earlier wars, which are redeemed from oblivion by
+the fact that in them three great captains, Turenne, Conde and
+Montecucculi, played leading parts, are described in the article DUTCH
+WARS. In the third war the leading figures are: Henri de
+Montmorency-Boutteville, duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of
+Conde and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of Orange, who
+had fought against both Conde and Luxemburg in the earlier wars, and was
+now king of England; Vauban, the founder of the sciences of
+fortification and siegecraft, and Catinat, the follower of Turenne's
+cautious and systematic strategy, who was the first commoner to receive
+high command in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these
+men--except Vauban--are overshadowed by the great figures of the
+preceding generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes,
+the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and manoeuvres.
+
+It was within these years that the art and practice of war began to
+crystallize into the form called "linear" in its strategic and tactical
+aspect, and "cabinet-war" in its political and moral aspect. In the
+Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that preceded the formation of the
+League of Augsburg, there were still survivals of the loose
+organization, violence and wasteful barbarity typical of the Thirty
+Years' War; and even in the War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier
+years) occasional brutalities and devastations showed that the old
+spirit died hard. But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery
+in the old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the fierce
+Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally understood that
+barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating popular sympathies, but
+also as rendering operations a physical impossibility for want of
+supplies.
+
+
+  Character of the war.
+
+Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people into
+submission, armies systematically conciliated them by paying cash and
+bringing trade into the country. Formerly, wars had been fought to
+compel a people to abjure their faith or to change sides in some
+personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no longer been the
+case. The Peace of Westphalia established the general relationship of
+kings, priests and peoples on a basis that was not really shaken until
+the French Revolution, and in the intervening hundred and forty years
+the peoples at large, except at the highest and gravest moments (as in
+Germany in 1689, France In 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from
+active participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of the
+theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only, and that
+intervention in it by the civil population was a punishable offence.
+Thus wars became the business of the professional soldiers in the king's
+own service, and the scarcity and costliness of these soldiers combined
+with the purely political character of the quarrels that arose to reduce
+a campaign from an "intense and passionate drama" to a humdrum affair,
+to which only rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour,
+and which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small
+expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between a prince
+and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred the average
+man--the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English Revolution--but
+foreign wars were "a stronger form of diplomatic notes," as Clausewitz
+called them, and were waged with the object of adding a codicil to the
+treaty of peace that had closed the last incident.
+
+Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war. Campaigns
+were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty thousand men. Large
+regular armies had come into fashion, and, as Guibert points out,
+instead of small armies charged with grand operations we find grand
+armies charged with small operations. The average general, under the
+prevailing conditions of supply and armament, was not equal to the task
+of commanding such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces
+that Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of the question, and the
+field armies split into six or eight independent fractions, each charged
+with operations on a particular theatre of war. From such a policy
+nothing remotely resembling the crushing of a great power could be
+expected to be gained. The one tangible asset, in view of future peace
+negotiations, was therefore a fortress, and it was on the preservation
+or capture of fortresses that operations in all these wars chiefly
+turned. The idea of the decisive battle for its own sake, as a
+settlement of the quarrel, was far distant; for, strictly speaking,
+there was no quarrel, and to use up highly trained and exceedingly
+expensive soldiers in gaining by brute force an advantage that might
+equally well be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish.
+
+The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent value to
+a state at war. A century of constant warfare had impoverished middle
+Europe, and armies had to spread over a large area if they desired to
+"live on the country." This was dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf.
+the Peninsular War), and it was also uneconomical. The only way to
+prevent the country people from sending their produce into the
+fortresses for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be
+paid, at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises
+rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether on supplies
+brought up from the home country and stored in magazines (which had to
+be guarded) or on local resources, an army had as a rule to maintain or
+to capture a large fortress. Sieges, therefore, and manoeuvres are the
+features of this form of war, wherein armies progressed not with the
+giant strides of modern war, but in a succession of short hops from one
+foothold to the next. This was the procedure of the average commander,
+and even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the
+Luxemburgs and Marlboroughs it was but momentary and spasmodic.
+
+The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine-tenths of its
+marches and manoeuvres can be almost "taken as read"; the remaining
+tenth, the exceptional and abnormal part of it, alone possesses an
+interest for modern readers.
+
+In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV. sent his
+troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest, into that
+country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding parties plundered
+the country as far south as Augsburg, for the political intent of their
+advance suggested terrorism rather than conciliation as the best method.
+The league of Augsburg at once took up the challenge, and the addition
+of new members (Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the "Grand
+Alliance" of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian states,
+Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg, &c.
+
+"Those who condemned the king for raising up so many enemies, admired
+him for having so fully prepared to defend himself and even to forestall
+them," says Voltaire. Louvois had in fact completed the work of
+organizing the French army on a regular and permanent basis, and had
+made it not merely the best, but also by far the most numerous in
+Europe, for Louis disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and
+60,000 sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket
+bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The only relic of
+the old armament was the pike, which was retained for one-quarter of the
+foot, though it had been discarded by the Imperialists in the course of
+the Turkish wars described below. The first artillery regiment was
+created in 1684, to replace the former semi-civilian organization by a
+body of artillerymen susceptible of uniform training and amenable to
+discipline and orders.
+
+
+  Devastation of the Palatinate, 1689.
+
+In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany, which had
+executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not in a position to
+resist the principal army of the coalition so far from support. Louvois
+therefore ordered it to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of
+the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, Oppenheim and Worms was
+pitilessly and methodically carried into effect in January and February.
+There had been devastations in previous wars, even the high-minded
+Turenne had used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population
+or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the great
+war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces of their passage
+that it took a century to remove. But here the devastation was a purely
+military measure, executed systematically over a given strategic front
+for no other purpose than to delay the advance of the enemy's army. It
+differed from the method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers
+were not those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to
+submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It differed
+from Wellington's laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in that it was not
+done for the defence of the Palatinate against a national enemy, but
+because the Palatinate was where it was. The feudal theory that every
+subject of a prince at war was an armed vassal, and therefore an enemy
+of the prince's enemy, had in practice been obsolete for two centuries
+past; by 1690 the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its
+instruments had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it had
+become thoroughly understood that the army alone was concerned with the
+army's business. Thus it was that this devastation excited universal
+reprobation; and that, in the words of a modern French writer, the
+"idea of Germany came to birth in the flames of the Palatinate."
+
+As a military measure this crime was, moreover, quite unprofitable; for
+it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French commander, to hold
+out on the east side of the middle Rhine, and he could think of nothing
+better to do than to go farther south and to ravage Baden and the
+Breisgau, which was not even a military necessity. The grand army of the
+Allies, coming farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of
+Lorraine and the elector of Bavaria--lately comrades in the Turkish war
+(see below)--invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn. The
+latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, shelled the town
+uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and overpowering its
+French garrison, an incident not calculated to advance the nascent idea
+of German unity. Mainz, valiantly defended by Nicolas du Ble, marquis
+d'Uxelles, had to surrender on the 8th of September. The governor of
+Bonn, baron d'Asfeld, not in the least intimidated by the bombardment,
+held out till the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of
+Brandenburg, and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered him
+by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the 12th of
+October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender on the
+16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the elector,
+escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufflers, with another of Louis's
+armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured by the French in 1684 and
+since held) and Trarbach towards the Rhine, but in spite of a minor
+victory at Kochheim on the 21st of August, he was unable to relieve
+either Mainz or Bonn.
+
+In the Low Countries the French marshal d'Humieres, being in superior
+force, had obtained _special permission_ to offer battle to the Allies.
+Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to amuse the Spaniards, he
+hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the Dutch, who from Namur had advanced
+slowly on Philippeville. Coming upon their army (which was commanded by
+the prince of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an
+advanced post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his
+advanced guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to
+clear the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th August).
+After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt, he drew back. For a
+few days the two armies remained face to face, cannonading one another
+at intervals, but no further fighting occurred. Humieres returned to the
+region of the Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the
+others of Louis' six armies the year's campaign passed off quite
+uneventfully.
+
+
+    The war in Ireland, 1689-1691.
+
+  Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was being
+  fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with desultory
+  engagements between the Orangemen of the north and the Irish regular
+  army, most of which the earl of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for
+  King James. The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into
+  the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former place,
+  begun by James himself and carried on by the French general Rosen,
+  lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges of the continent,
+  this was resisted by the townsmen themselves, under the leadership of
+  the clergyman George Walker. But the relieving force (consisting of
+  two frigates, a supply ship and a force under Major-general Percy
+  Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not until the defenders were in the
+  last extremity that Kirke actually broke through the blockade (July
+  31st). Enniskillen was less closely invested, and its inhabitants,
+  organized by Colonel Wolseley and other officers sent by Kirke,
+  actually kept the open field and defeated the Jacobites at Newtown
+  Butler (July 31st). A few days later the Jacobite army withdrew from
+  the north. But it was long before an adequate army could be sent over
+  from England to deal with it. Marshal Schomberg (q.v.), one of the
+  most distinguished soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from
+  the French service as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but
+  the army he brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits,
+  and when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its
+  work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James failed
+  to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the north,
+  and the relics of Schomberg's army wintered in security, covered by
+  the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however, more troops,
+  this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark and Brandenburg,
+  were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and Major-general
+  Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized and equipped the
+  field army, King William assumed the command himself. Five days after
+  his arrival he began his advance from Loughbrickland near Newry, and
+  on the 1st of July he engaged James's main army on the river Boyne,
+  close to Drogheda. Schomberg was killed and William himself wounded,
+  but the Irish army was routed.
+
+  No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin or in the
+  Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French auxiliary
+  corps in James's army, and Tyrconnel both discountenanced any attempt
+  to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces had reassembled; but
+  Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the spokesman of the younger and
+  more ardent of the Irish officers, pleaded for its retention. He was
+  left, therefore, to hold Limerick, while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved
+  northward into Galway. Here, as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the
+  active sympathies of the people against the invader, and Sarsfield not
+  only surprised and destroyed the artillery train of William's army,
+  but repulsed every assault made on the walls that Lauzun had said
+  "could be battered down by rotten apples." William gave up the siege
+  on the 30th of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a
+  measure by the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord
+  Marlborough, which captured Cork and Kinsale, and next year (1691) the
+  Jacobite cause was finally crushed by William's general Ginckell
+  (afterwards earl of Athlone) in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July
+  12th), in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the
+  Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, besieged
+  Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing the
+  defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as by
+  land. After six weeks' resistance the defenders offered to capitulate,
+  and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the 1st of October
+  the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfield and the most energetic of King
+  James's supporters retired to France and were there formed into the
+  famous "Irish brigade." Sarsfield was killed at the battle of
+  Neerwinden two years later.
+
+The campaign of 1690 on the continent of Europe is marked by two
+battles, one of which, Luxemburg's victory of Fleurus, belongs to the
+category of the world's great battles. It is described under FLEURUS,
+and the present article only deals summarily with the conditions in
+which it was fought. These, though they in fact led to an encounter that
+could, in itself, fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with
+the general spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of
+them.
+
+Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had consequently been
+allotted only an insignificant part in the first campaign. But after the
+disasters of 1689 Louis re-arranged the commands on the north-east
+frontier so as to allow Humieres, Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine for
+united action. "I will take care that Louvois plays fair," Louis said to
+the duke when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently
+Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination himself, as
+senior officer he would automatically take command if it came about. The
+whole force available was probably close on 100,000, but not half of
+these were present at the decisive battle, though Luxemburg certainly
+practised the utmost "economy of force" as this was understood in those
+days (see also NEERWINDEN). On the remaining theatres of war, the
+dauphin, assisted by the duc de Lorge, held the middle Rhine, and
+Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, &c., as before.
+Catinat's operations are briefly described below. Those of the others
+need no description, for though the Allies formed a plan for a grand
+concentric advance on Paris, the preliminaries to this advance were so
+numerous and so closely interdependent that on the most favourable
+estimate the winter would necessarily find the Allied armies many
+leagues short of Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when
+Charles of Lorraine died (17th April), and the reconquest of his lost
+duchy ceased to be a direct object of the war.
+
+
+  Fleurus, 1690.
+
+Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre country, where
+he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt and "eating up" the
+country between Oudenarde and Ghent in the face of a Spanish army
+concentrated at the latter place (15th May-12th June). He then left
+Humieres with a containing force in the Scheldt region and hurried back
+to the Sambre to interpose between the Allied army under Waldeck and the
+fortress of Dinant which Waldeck was credited with the intention of
+besieging. His march from Tournay to Gerpinnes was counted a model of
+skill--the _locus classicus_ for the maxim that ruled till the advent of
+Napoleon--"march always in the order in which you encamp, or purpose to
+encamp, or fight." For four days the army marched across country in
+close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring cavalry and
+advanced, flank and rear guards. Under these conditions eleven miles a
+day was practically forced marching, and on arriving at
+Jeumont-sur-Sambre the army was given three days' rest. Then followed a
+few leisurely marches in the direction of Charleroi, during which a
+detachment of Boufflers's army came in, and the cavalry explored the
+country to the north. On news of the enemy's army being at Trazegnies,
+Luxemburg hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this
+proved to be a detachment only, and soon information came in that
+Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon Luxemburg, without
+consulting his subordinate generals, took his army to Velaine. He knew
+that the enemy was marking time till the troops of Liege and the
+Brandenburgers from the Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the
+Dinant enterprise, and he was determined to fight a battle at once. From
+Velaine, therefore, on the morning of the 1st of July, the army moved
+forward to Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant victories in
+the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg was not allowed to pursue
+his advantage. He was ordered to hold his army in readiness to besiege
+either Namur, Mons, Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders
+dictated; and to send back the borrowed regiments to Boufflers, who was
+being pressed back by the Brandenburg and Liege troops. Thus Waldeck
+reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where William III. of England
+soon afterwards assumed command of the Allied forces in the Netherlands,
+and Luxemburg and the other marshals stood fast for the rest of the
+campaign, being forbidden to advance until Catinat--in Italy--should
+have won a battle.
+
+
+  Staffarda.
+
+In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy had long
+disquieted the French court. His personal connexions with the imperial
+family and his resentment against Louvois, who had on some occasion
+treated him with his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join
+the Allies, while on the other hand he could hope for extensions of his
+scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of this doubtful
+condition of affairs the French army under Catinat had for some time
+been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and in the summer of 1690 Louis
+XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor Amadeus to compel him to take one side
+or the other actively and openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel
+threw in his lot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards
+and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced into Piedmont,
+and won, principally by virtue of his own watchfulness and the high
+efficiency of his troops, the important victory of Staffarda (August
+18th, 1690). This did not, however, enable him to overrun Piedmont, and
+as the duke was soon reinforced, he had to be content with the
+methodical conquest of a few frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a
+small French army under the duc de Noailles passed into Catalonia and
+there lived at the enemy's expense for the duration of the campaign.
+
+In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion of the
+German princes prevented vigorous action, the following year, 1691, was
+uneventful. But in the Netherlands there were a siege, a war of
+manoeuvres and a cavalry combat, each in its way somewhat remarkable.
+The siege was that of Mons, which was, like many sieges in the former
+wars, conducted with much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and
+Vauban under him. On the surrender of the place, which was hastened by
+red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and divided his
+army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former of whom departed to the
+Meuse. There he attempted by bombardment to enforce the surrender of
+Liege, but had to desist when the elector of Brandenburg threatened
+Dinant. The principal armies on either side faced one another under the
+command respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies were
+first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg hurried thither,
+but neither party found any tempting opportunity for battle, and when
+the cavalry had consumed all the forage available in the district, the
+two armies edged away gradually towards Flanders. The war of manoeuvre
+continued, with a slight balance of advantage on Luxemburg's side,
+until September, when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in
+command of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter
+quarters amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary opportunity
+for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze (20th Sept.) he fell
+upon the cavalry of Waldeck's rearguard and drove it back in disorder
+with heavy losses until the pursuit was checked by the Allied infantry.
+
+In 1692[2] the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than before, although
+Lorge made a successful raid into Wurttemberg in September and foraged
+his cavalry in German territory till the approach of winter. The Spanish
+campaign was unimportant, but on the Alpine side the Allies under the
+duke of Savoy drove back Catinat into Dauphine, which they ravaged with
+fire and sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms than
+the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry--amongst whom figured the
+heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708), daughter of the marquis
+de la Charce--they beset every road with such success that the small
+regular army of the invaders was powerless. Brought practically to a
+standstill, the Allies soon consumed the provisions that could be
+gathered in, and then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes
+behind them, they retreated.
+
+
+  Siege of Namur, 1692.
+
+  Steenkirk.
+
+In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a great siege.
+Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th of May. The place was
+defended by the prince de Barbancon (who had been governor of Luxemburg
+when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoorn (q.v.), Vauban's
+rival in the science of fortification. Luxemburg, with a small army,
+manoeuvred to cover the siege against William III.'s army at Louvain.
+The place fell on the 5th of June,[3] after a very few days of Vauban's
+"regular" attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as
+before, Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg to
+"preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing the enemy's
+enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense." This negative
+policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-fought battle. William,
+employing a common device, announced his intention of retaking Namur,
+but set his army in motion for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses
+held by the French. Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the
+Scheldt, and the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg
+about Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then formed the plan
+of surprising Luxemburg's right wing before it could be supported by the
+rest of his army, relying chiefly on false information that a detected
+spy at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke. But
+Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread net of outposts as
+well as a secret service, and although ill in bed when William's advance
+was reported, he shook off his apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by
+his outpost reports to divine his opponent's plan, he met it (3rd
+August) by a swift concentration of his army, against which the Allies,
+whose advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless (see
+STEENKIRK). In this almost accidental battle both sides suffered
+enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about, or even to risk,
+a second resultless trial of strength. Boufflers's army returned to the
+Sambre and Luxemburg and William established themselves for the rest of
+the season at Lessines and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both
+armies had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered Boufflers
+to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombardment failed to
+intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies began to re-assemble, the
+attempt was given up (19th-21st Oct.). This failure was, however,
+compensated by the siege and capture of Furnes (28th Dec. 1692-7th Jan.
+1693).
+
+In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It began, as
+mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at least indicated the
+aggressive spirit of the French generals. The king promoted his admiral,
+Tourville, and Catinat, the _roturier_, to the marshalship, and founded
+the military order of St Louis on the 10th of April. The grand army in
+the Netherlands this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William III.
+had only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning of operations
+Louis, after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, broke it up, in
+order to send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany, where Lorge had
+captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if reinforced, to overrun south
+Germany. But the imperial general Prince Louis of Baden took up a
+position near Heilbronn so strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not
+venture to attack him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream,
+and for the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed,
+of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge by his
+letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action as a
+sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And, before the
+event falsified predictions, there was much to be said for the course he
+took, which accorded better with the prevailing system of war than a
+Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system of war the rival armies, as
+armies, were almost in a state of equilibrium, and more was to be
+expected from an army dealing with something dissimilar to itself--a
+fortress or a patch of land or a convoy--than from its collision with
+another army of equal force.
+
+
+  Neerwinden.
+
+Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity. He was still
+superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had the advantage of
+position. The former, authorized by his master this year "_non seulement
+d'empecher les ennemis de rien entreprendre, mais d'emporter quelques
+avantages sur eux_," threatened Liege, drew William over to its defence
+and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however, retired to another
+position, between the Great and Little Geete rivers, and there, in a
+strongly entrenched position around Neerwinden, they were attacked by
+Luxemburg on the 29th of July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the
+greatest victories ever won by the French army, is briefly described
+under NEERWINDEN. It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but
+Luxemburg's exhausted army did not pursue; William was as unshaken and
+determined as ever; and the campaign closed, not with a treaty of peace,
+but with a few manoeuvres which, by inducing William to believe in an
+attack on Ath, enabled Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi
+(October).
+
+
+  Marsaglia.
+
+Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year. Catinat,
+advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of Pinerolo
+(Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was besieging, took up a position in
+formal order of battle north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the
+4th of October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army, front
+to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency of the French,
+and Catinat's minute attention to details[4] in arraying them, gave the
+new marshal a victory that was a not unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The
+Piedmontese and their allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded
+and prisoners, as against Catinat's 1800. But here, too, the results
+were trifling, and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the
+year in which "people perished of want to the accompaniment of _Te
+Deums_."
+
+  In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and
+  famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The armies
+  were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William offered no
+  further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In September, after
+  inducing William to desist from his intention of besieging Dunkirk by
+  appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry,[5] which had ridden
+  from the Meuse, 100 m., in 4 days, Luxemburg gave up his command. He
+  died on the 4th of January following, and with him the tradition of
+  the Conde school of warfare disappeared from Europe. In Catalonia the
+  marshal de Noailles won a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the
+  ford of the Ter (Torroella, 5 m. above the mouth of the river), and
+  in consequence captured a number of walled towns.
+
+
+    Later campaigns of the war.
+
+  In 1695 William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable opponent
+  than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in keeping him in
+  Flanders while a corps of the Allies invested Namur. Coehoorn directed
+  the siege-works, and Boufflers the defence. Gradually, as in 1692, the
+  defenders were dislodged from the town, the citadel outworks and the
+  citadel itself, the last being assaulted with success by the "British
+  grenadiers," as the song commemorates, on the 30th of August.
+  Boufflers was rewarded for his sixty-seven days' defence by the grade
+  of marshal.
+
+  By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague and
+  indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his efforts
+  to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding campaigns. In
+  this new policy he met with much success. Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles
+  and even the incompetent Villeroi held the field in their various
+  spheres of operations without allowing the Allies to inflict any
+  material injury, and also (by having recourse again to the policy of
+  living by plunder) preserving French soil from the burden of their own
+  maintenance. In this, as before, they were powerfully assisted by the
+  disunion and divided counsels of their heterogeneous enemies. In
+  Piedmont, Catinat crowned his work by making peace and alliance with
+  the duke of Savoy, and the two late enemies having joined forces
+  captured one of the fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was
+  in 1697. Catinat and Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the
+  most regular and methodical of the great engineer's career. It lasted
+  23 days and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir
+  from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to
+  attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendome, Noailles' successor,
+  captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on the 30th of
+  October, closed this war by practically restoring the _status quo
+  ante_; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand Alliance that
+  opposed them ceased to have force, and three years later the struggle
+  began anew (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE).
+
+
+    Austro-Turkish wars, 1682-1699.
+
+  Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been engaged in a
+  much more serious war on his eastern marches against the old enemy,
+  the Turks. This war arose in 1682 out of internal disturbances in
+  Hungary. The campaign of the following year is memorable for all time
+  as the last great wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommed IV. advanced from
+  Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove back the small imperial army
+  of Prince Charles of Lorraine, and early in July invested Vienna
+  itself. The two months' defence of Vienna by Count Rudiger Starhemberg
+  (1635-1701) and the brilliant victory of the relieving army led by
+  John Sobieski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles on the 12th of
+  September 1683, were events which, besides their intrinsic importance,
+  possess the romantic interest of an old knightly crusade against the
+  heathen.
+
+  But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed,
+  differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe. Turkey
+  figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as the
+  "infidel," and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were
+  characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk
+  which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as
+  methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign. In 1684
+  Charles of Lorraine gained a victory at Waitzen on the 27th of June
+  and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and unsuccessfully
+  besieged Budapest.
+
+  In 1685 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory at
+  Gran (August 16th) and the storming of Neuhausel (August 19th) were
+  the only outstanding incidents. In 1686 Charles, assisted by the
+  elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Budapest (Sept.
+  2nd). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great victory at
+  Mohacz (Aug. 12th). In 1688 the Austrians advanced still further, took
+  Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia. The margrave Louis of
+  Baden, who afterward became one of the most celebrated of the
+  methodical generals of the day, won a victory at Derbent on the 5th of
+  September 1688, and next year, in spite of the outbreak of a general
+  European war, he managed to win another battle at Nisch (Sept. 24th),
+  to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to advance to the Balkans, but in
+  1690, more troops having to be withdrawn for the European war, the
+  imperialist generals lost Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the
+  other. There was, however, no repetition of the scenes of 1683, for in
+  1691 Louis won the battle of Szlankamen (Aug. 19th). After two more
+  desultory if successful campaigns he was called to serve in western
+  Europe, and for three years more the war dragged on without result,
+  until in 1697 the young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the
+  imperialists and won a great and decisive victory at Zenta on the
+  Theiss (Sept. 11th). This induced a last general advance of the
+  Germans eastward, which was definitively successful and brought about
+  the peace of Carlowitz (January 1699).     (C. F. A.)
+
+
+NAVAL OPERATIONS
+
+The naval side of the war waged by the powers of western Europe from
+1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King Louis XIV., was not
+marked by any very conspicuous exhibition of energy or capacity, but it
+was singularly decisive in its results. At the beginning of the struggle
+the French fleet kept the sea in face of the united fleets of Great
+Britain and Holland. It displayed even in 1690 a marked superiority over
+them. Before the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port, and
+though its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the
+French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to make a
+proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king's ministers
+to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most effective aims,
+were largely responsible for the result.
+
+When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still suffering
+from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II., which had been only
+in part corrected during the short reign of James II. The first
+squadrons were sent out late and in insufficient strength. The Dutch,
+crushed by the obligation to maintain a great army, found an increasing
+difficulty in preparing their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a
+despotic monarch, with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his
+power to strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting
+one. Ireland was still loyal to King James II., and would therefore have
+afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French fleet. No serious
+attempt was made to profit by the advantage thus presented. In March
+1689 King James was landed and reinforcements were prepared for him at
+Brest. A British squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert
+(afterwards Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached the French
+port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted the
+convoy off the Old Head of Kinsale on the 10th of May. The French
+admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay, and an indecisive
+encounter took place on the 11th of May. The troops and stores for King
+James were successfully landed. Then both admirals, the British and the
+French, returned home, and neither in that nor in the following year was
+any serious effort made by the French to gain command of the sea between
+Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet entered the
+Channel, and gained a success over the combined British and Dutch fleets
+on the 10th of July 1690 (see BEACHY HEAD, BATTLE OF), which was not
+followed up by vigorous action. In the meantime King William III. passed
+over to Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following
+year, while the cause of King James was being finally ruined in Ireland,
+the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of Biscay, principally for
+the purpose of avoiding battle. During the whole of 1689, 1690 and 1691,
+British squadrons were active on the Irish coast. One raised the siege
+of Londonderry in July 1689, and another convoyed the first British
+forces sent over under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy
+Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition
+under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took Cork and
+reduced a large part of the south of the island. In 1691 the French did
+little more than help to carry away the wreckage of their allies and
+their own detachments. In 1692 a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to
+employ their fleet to cover an invasion of England (see LA HOGUE, BATTLE
+OF). It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel.
+The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval power of
+King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. In the next year, 1693, he
+was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies. The important
+Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and Holland, called for convenience
+the Smyrna convoy, having been delayed during the previous year, anxious
+measures were taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the
+arrangements of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They
+made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps to
+discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port. The convoy
+was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet. But as the French
+admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits of Gibraltar with a
+powerful force and had been joined by a squadron from Toulon, the whole
+convoy was scattered or taken by him, in the latter days of June, near
+Lagos. But though this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat
+at La Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis
+XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his fleet up. The
+allies were now free to make full use of their own, to harass the French
+coast, to intercept French commerce, and to co-operate with the armies
+acting against France. Some of the operations undertaken by them were
+more remarkable for the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of
+the results. The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the
+attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active French
+privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A British attack on
+Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy loss. The scheme had been
+betrayed by Jacobite correspondents. Yet the inability of the French
+king to avert these enterprises showed the weakness of his navy and the
+limitations of his power. The protection of British and Dutch commerce
+was never complete, for the French privateers were active to the end.
+But French commerce was wholly ruined.
+
+It was the misfortune of the allies that their co-operation with armies
+was largely with the forces of a power so languid and so bankrupt as
+Spain. Yet the series of operations directed by Russel in the
+Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695 demonstrated the superiority of
+the allied fleet, and checked the advance of the French in Catalonia.
+Contemporary with the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises
+against the French in the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy,
+with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance
+from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain Lawrence
+Wright in 1690-1691, and ended with that of Admiral Nevil in 1696-1697.
+It cannot be said that they attained to any very honourable achievement,
+or even did much to weaken the French hold on their possessions in the
+West Indies and North America. Some, and notably the attack made on
+Quebec by Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British
+colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant as the plunder
+of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman Pointis, in 1697, at the
+head of a semi-piratical force. Too often there was absolute misconduct.
+In the buccaneering and piratical atmosphere of the West Indies, the
+naval officers of the day, who were still infected with the corruption
+of the reign of Charles II., and who calculated on distance from home to
+secure them immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and
+buccaneers. The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its
+ignorance of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the
+case of Admiral Nevil's squadron, the admiral himself and all his
+captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships were
+unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused these expeditions to
+fail, and not the strength of the French defence. When the war ended,
+the navy of King Louis XIV. had disappeared from the sea.
+
+  See Burchett, _Memoirs of Transactions at Sea during the War with
+  France, 1688-1697_ (London, 1703); Lediard, _Naval History_ (London,
+  1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in his notes. For the
+  West Indian voyages, Tronde, _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris,
+  1867); De Yonghe, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen_
+  (Haarlem, 1860).     (D. H.)
+
+
+  FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name "Grand Alliance" is applied to the coalition against
+    Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not only
+    waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only
+    slight modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the
+    war of the Spanish Succession (q.v.) that followed.
+
+  [2] Louvois died in July 1691.
+
+  [3] A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put an
+    end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at
+    Versailles.
+
+  [4] Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first,
+    instances of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry.
+
+  [5] Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A
+    regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the
+    Austrian service.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
+part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop.
+(1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand Canary, the most fertile island of
+the group, is nearly circular in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a
+circumference of 75 m. The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines
+radiating to the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large
+tracts are covered with native pine (_P. canariensis_). There are
+several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,517), the
+capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978), the second
+place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded by palm trees. At
+Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas, the making of earthenware
+vessels employs some hundreds of people, who inhabit holes made in the
+tufa.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND CANYON, a profound gorge in the north-west corner of Arizona, in
+the south-western part of the United States of America, carved in the
+plateau region by the Colorado river. Of it Captain Dutton says: "Those
+who have long and carefully studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do
+not hesitate for a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all
+earthly spectacles"; and this is also the verdict of many who have only
+viewed it in one or two of its parts.
+
+The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams, the
+Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky Mountains. It
+has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage area of 255,000 sq. m.,
+emptying into the head of the Gulf of California. In its course the
+Colorado passes through a mountain section; then a plateau section; and
+finally a desert lowland section which extends to its mouth. It is in
+the plateau section that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface
+of the country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a
+tableland region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions,
+flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of stratified
+rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position, though profoundly
+faulted here and there, and with some moderate folding. For a thousand
+miles the river has cut a series of canyons, bearing different names,
+which reach their culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the
+contiguous Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther
+down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from 2000 to
+6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest and deepest
+canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth is the work of the
+Colorado river, with accompanying weathering, through long ages; and the
+river is still engaged in deepening it as it rushes along the canyon
+bottom.
+
+The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient rainfall for
+forests, whose growth is also made possible in part by the cool climate
+and consequently retarded evaporation; but the less elevated portions
+have an arid climate, while the climate in the canyon bottom is that of
+the true desert. Thus the canyon is really in a desert region, as is
+shown by the fact that only two living streams enter the river for a
+distance of 500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand
+Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand Canyon itself.
+This, moreover, is dry during most of the year. In spite of this lack of
+tributaries, a large volume of water flows through the canyon at all
+seasons of the year, some coming from the scattered tributaries, some
+from springs, but most from the rains and snows of the distant mountains
+about the headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon
+walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility of the
+long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea across a vast
+stretch of arid land.
+
+The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown depth, and
+at times of flood has a greatly increased volume. The river varies in
+width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow Granite Gorges, where it bathes
+both rock walls, to 500 or 600 ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of
+the Marble and Grand Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point
+has a fall of 210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20
+or more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and
+rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the Green and
+Grand.
+
+Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude of lateral
+canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy rain. As Powell says,
+the region "is a composite of thousands, and tens of thousands of
+gorges." There are "thousands of gorges like that below Niagara Falls,
+and there are a thousand Yosemites." The largest of all, the Grand
+Canyon, has an average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4-1/2 to 12 m.
+For a long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth is
+6000 ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower gorge sunk
+in the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow gorge is in some
+places no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top. To illustrate the depth of
+the Grand Canyon, Powell writes: "Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft.
+high) by the roots to the level of the sea, and drop it head first into
+the Grand Canyon, and the dam will not force its waters over the wall."
+
+While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon from point to
+point, the main elements are much alike throughout its length and are
+due to the succession of rock strata revealed in the canyon walls. At
+the base, for some 800 ft., there is a complex of crystalline rocks of
+early geological age, consisting of gneiss, schist, slate and other
+rocks, greatly plicated and traversed by dikes and granite intrusions.
+This is an ancient mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it
+rest a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal,
+forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this come first
+500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of bedded sandstone and
+limestone strata, some massive and some thin, which on weathering form a
+series of alcoves. These beds, like those above, are in nearly
+horizontal position. Above this comes 1600 ft. of limestone--often a
+beautiful marble, as in the Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon
+stained a brilliant red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above
+this "red wall" are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds
+looking "like vast ribbons of landscape." At the top of the canyon is
+1000 ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted for the pinnacles and
+towers which denudation has developed. It is these different rock beds,
+with their various colours, and the differences in the effect of
+weathering upon them, that give the great variety and grandeur to the
+canyon scenery. There are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves,
+cliffs, ledges, crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its
+characteristic colour and form according to the set of strata in which
+it lies. The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash;
+innumerable side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering
+has etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy
+colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur here and
+weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell puts the case
+graphically when he writes: "A wall of homogeneous granite like that in
+the Yosemite is but a naked wall, whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high.
+Hundreds and thousands of feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand
+in a meaningless front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high
+has but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of snow
+1000 ft. high--it is but more of the same thing; but a facade of seven
+systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied sevenfold."
+
+To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at present
+inaccessible, for, as Powell states, "a year scarcely suffices to see it
+all"; and "it is a region more difficult to traverse than the Alps or
+the Himalayas." But a part of the canyon is now easily accessible to
+tourists. A trail leads from the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway at
+Flagstaff, Arizona; and a branch line of the railway extends from
+Williams, Arizona, to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The
+plateau, which in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in
+elevation, but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace
+tops with steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and,
+especially near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain, with
+much evidence of former volcanic activity, including numerous cinder
+cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the edge of the canyon, at whose
+bottom, over a mile below, is seen the silvery thread of water where the
+muddy torrent rushes along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way
+into the depths of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and
+terraced slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m.
+distant.
+
+Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain system,
+formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth, then worn to an
+almost level condition through untold ages of slow denudation. Slowly,
+then, the mountains sank beneath the level of the sea, and in the
+Carboniferous Period--about the time of the formation of the
+coal-beds--sediments began to bury the ancient mountains. This lasted
+through other untold ages until the Tertiary Period--through much of the
+Palaeozoic and all of the Mesozoic time--and a total of from 12,000 to
+16,000 ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been
+dominant, and the river has eaten its way down to, and into, the deeply
+buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read, like the pages of a
+book. In some parts of the plateau region as much as 30,000 ft. of rock
+have been stripped away, and over an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average
+of over 6000 ft. has been removed.
+
+The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G. L. de Cardenas in 1540,
+but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region prevented its
+exploration. Various people visited parts of it or made reports
+regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858 contains a report upon the
+canyon written by Prof. J. S. Newberry. But it was not until 1869 that
+the first real exploration of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year
+Major J. W. Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the
+Grand Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction of
+the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand Canyon. This
+hazardous journey ranks as one of the most daring and remarkable
+explorations ever undertaken in North America; and Powell's descriptions
+of the expedition are among the most fascinating accounts of travel
+relating to the continent. Powell made another expedition in 1871, but
+did not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey
+conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts of the canyon,
+and C. E. Dutton carried on extensive studies of the canyon and the
+contiguous plateau region. In 1890 Robert B. Stanton, with six
+associates, went through the canyon in boats, making a survey to
+determine the feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two
+other parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond) the
+other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have made the journey
+through the canyon. So far as there is record these are the only four
+parties that have ever made the complete journey through the Grand
+Canyon. It has sometimes been said that James White made the passage of
+the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no real basis.
+
+  For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W. Powell,
+  _Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries_
+  (Washington, 1875); J. W. Powell, _Canyons of the Colorado_
+  (Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, _The Romance of the
+  Colorado River_ (New York, 1902); Capt. C. E. Dutton, _Tertiary
+  History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas_ (Washington, 1882),
+  being Monograph No. 2, U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent
+  topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes and
+  published by the U.S. Geological Survey.     (R. S. T.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAND-DUKE (Fr. _grand-duc_, Ital. _granduca_, Ger. _Grossherzog_), a
+title borne by princes ranking between king and duke. The dignity was
+first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke Cosimo I. of Florence,
+his son Francis obtaining the emperor's confirmation in 1576; and the
+predicate "Royal Highness" was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created
+his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same
+year the title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the
+elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric of
+Wurzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany) on joining the
+Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time, according to the
+decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is borne by the sovereigns
+of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand-duke of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of
+Hesse-Darmstadt and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his
+titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king of
+Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen. The title is
+also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of Tuscany.
+
+Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of the Russian
+_velikiy knyaz_, more properly "grand-prince" (Ger. Grossfurst), at one
+time the title of the rulers of Russia, who, as the eldest born of the
+house of Rurik, exercised overlordship over the _udyelniye knyazi_ or
+local princes. On the partition of the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest
+of each branch assumed the title of grand-prince. Under the domination
+of the Golden Horde the right to bestow the title _velikiy knyaz_ was
+reserved by the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In
+Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and it
+passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with the Polish
+republic. The style of the emperor of Russia now includes the titles of
+grand-duke (_velikiy knyaz_) of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia
+and Finland. Until 1886 this title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the
+style "Imperial Highness," was borne by all descendants of the imperial
+house. It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and
+sisters, and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of the
+imperial house bear the title of prince (_knyaz_) and princess
+(_knyaginya_, if married, _knyazhna_, if unmarried) with the style of
+"Highness." The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, also bears this
+title as "grand-duke" of Transylvania, which was erected into a
+"grand-princedom" (Grossfurstentum) in 1765 by Maria Theresa.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDEE (Span. _Grande_), a title of honour borne by the highest class
+of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have been originally assumed
+by the most important nobles to distinguish them from the mass of the
+_ricos hombres_, or great barons of the realm. It was thus, as Selden
+points out, not a general term denoting a class, but "an additional
+dignity not only to all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also"
+(_Titles of Honor_, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain
+privileges; notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until
+the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the territorial
+nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more important rights,
+e.g. freedom from taxation, immunity from arrest save at the king's
+express command, and even--in certain cases--the right to renounce their
+allegiance and make war on the king. Their number and privileges were
+further restricted by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved
+to the crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were
+further divided into three classes: (1) those who spoke to the king and
+received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those who addressed him
+uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his answer; (3) those who
+awaited the permission of the king before covering themselves. All
+grandees were addressed by the king as "my cousin" (_mi primo_), whereas
+ordinary nobles were only qualified as "my kinsman" (_mi pariente_). The
+title of "grandee," abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived
+in 1834, when by the _Estatudo real_ grandees were given precedence in
+the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however, purely titular,
+and implies neither privilege nor power.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND FORKS, a city in the Boundary district of British Columbia;
+situated at the junction of the north and south forks of the Kettle
+river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop. (1908) about 2500. It
+is in a good agricultural district, but owes its importance largely to
+the erection here of the extensive smelting plant of the Granby
+Consolidated Company, which smelts the ores obtained from the various
+parts of the Boundary country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and
+Old Ironsides mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great
+Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent railway
+communication with the south and east.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND FORKS, a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks county, North
+Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river (of the North) and Red
+Lake river (whence its name), about 80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652,
+of whom 2781 were foreign-born; (1905) 10,127; (1910) 27,888. It is
+served by the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has
+a considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a
+channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand Forks. At
+University, a small suburb, is the University of North Dakota
+(co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with it is Wesley College
+(Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks (with a campus adjoining that
+of the University), but formerly the Red River Valley University at
+Wahpeton, North Dakota. In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors
+and 861 students; its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000
+pamphlets. At Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard's Ursuline Academy
+(Roman Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the city's
+principal buildings are the public library, the Federal building and a
+Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great wheat valley of the Red
+river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour and agricultural machinery
+and implements, as well as large jobbing interests. There are railway
+car-shops here, and among the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks
+and tiles and cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an
+electric lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d.
+1804) erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur Company on
+the site of the present city; it afterwards became a trading post of the
+Hudson's Bay Company. The first permanent settlement was made in 1871,
+and Grand Forks was reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a
+city in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Ottawa
+county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of Grand river,
+30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and 78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900)
+4743, of whom 1277 were foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (1910) 5856. It is
+served by the Grand Trunk and the Pere Marquette railways, and by
+steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is
+connected with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The city
+manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and leather; is a
+centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and has valuable fisheries
+near--fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially whitefish, are shipped in
+considerable quantities. Grand Haven is the port of entry for the
+Customs District of Michigan, and has a small export and import trade.
+The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
+plant. A trading post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the
+American Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not
+begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836, and was
+chartered as a city in 1867.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDIER, URBAN (1590-1634), priest of the church of Sainte Croix at
+Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was accused of witchcraft in
+1632 by some hysterical novices of the Carmelite Convent, where the
+trial, protracted for two years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and
+burnt alive at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND ISLAND, a city and the county-seat of Hall county, Nebraska,
+U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S. of Omaha. Pop. (1900)
+7554 (1339 foreign-born); (1910) 10,326. It is served by the Union
+Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand
+Island railways, being the western terminus of the last-named line and a
+southern terminus of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated
+on a slope skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river,
+in the midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist;
+co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island Business
+and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat of a state Sailors'
+and Soldiers' Home, established in 1888. Grand Island has a large
+wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c.; is an important horse-market,
+and has large stock-yards. There are shops of the Union Pacific in the
+city, and among its manufactures are beet-sugar--Grand Island is in one
+of the principal beet-sugar-growing districts of the state--brooms, wire
+fences, confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry of
+the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle. A "Grand
+Island" was founded in 1857, and was named from a large island (nearly
+50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site; but the present city was
+laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866. It was chartered as a city in
+1873.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDMONTINES, a religious order founded by St Stephen of Thiers in
+Auvergne towards the end of the 11th century. St Stephen was so
+impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he saw in Calabria that he
+desired to introduce the same manner of life into his native country. He
+was ordained, and in 1073 obtained the pope's permission to establish an
+order. He betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near
+Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived there for
+some time in complete solitude. A few disciples gathered round him, and
+a community was formed. The rule was not reduced to writing until after
+Stephen's death, 1124. The life was eremitical and very severe in regard
+to silence, diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule
+of the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from the
+Augustinian canons. The superior was called the "Corrector." About 1150
+the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled in the neighbouring
+desert of Grandmont, whence the order derived its name. Louis VII.
+founded a house at Vincennes near Paris, and the order had a great vogue
+in France, as many as sixty houses being established by 1170, but it
+seems never to have found favour out of France; it had, however, a
+couple of cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The
+system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the
+management of the temporals was in great measure left in their hands;
+the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels between the lay
+brothers and the choir monks were a constant source of weakness. Later
+centuries witnessed mitigations and reforms in the life, and at last the
+order came to an end just before the French Revolution. There were two
+or three convents of Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part
+in history.
+
+  See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55; Max
+  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896). i. S 31; and the art.
+  in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in Herzog,
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3).     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Kent county, Michigan,
+U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river, about 30 m. from
+Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900)
+87,565, of whom 23,896 were foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910
+census) 112,571. Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were
+Hollanders; 3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from
+German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is served by the
+Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk,
+the Pere Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana railways, and by
+electric interurban railways. The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a
+range of hills on either side, and about midway between these hills the
+river flows over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in 1 m. Factories
+and mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all along
+the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences command
+picturesque views from the hills farther back, the residences on the W.
+side being less pretentious and standing on bottom-lands. The principal
+business thoroughfares are Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the
+important buildings are the United States Government building (Grand
+Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial
+district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city hall,
+the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of Chicago), the
+Manufacturer's building, the _Evening Press_ building, the Michigan
+Trust building and several handsome churches. The principal charitable
+institutions are the municipal Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city
+hospital; the Union Benevolent Association, which maintains a home and
+hospital for the indigent, together with a training school for nurses;
+Saint John's orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the Dominican
+Sisters); Saint Mary's hospital (in charge of the Sisters of Mercy);
+Butterworth hospital (with a training school for nurses); the Woman's
+Home and Hospital, maintained largely by the Woman's Christian
+Temperance Union; the Aldrich Memorial Deaconess' Home; the D. A.
+Blodgett Memorial Children's Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home. About
+1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan Soldiers'
+Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E. limits of the city is Reed's
+Lake, a popular resort during the summer season. The city is the see of
+Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through
+the efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused
+in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for a "city
+plan," and flood walls were completed for the protection of the lower
+parts of the city from inundation. The large quantities of fruit,
+cereals and vegetables from the surrounding country, and ample
+facilities for transportation by rail and by the river, which is
+navigable from below the rapids to its mouth, make the commerce and
+trade of Grand Rapids very important. The manufacturing interests are
+greatly promoted by the fine water-power, and as a furniture centre the
+city has a world-wide reputation--the value of the furniture
+manufactured within its limits in 1904 amounted to $9,409,097, about
+5.5% of the value of all furniture manufactured in the United States.
+Grand Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers--a large proportion of the
+whole world's product,--flour and grist mill products, foundry and
+machine-shop products, planing-mill products, school seats, wood-working
+tools, fly paper, calcined plaster, barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons,
+agricultural implements and bricks and tile. The total factory product
+in 1904 was valued at $31,032,589, an increase of 39.6% in four years.
+
+On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large Ottawa
+Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a Baptist mission
+was established in 1824. Two years later a trading post joined the
+mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for the next few years the
+growth was rapid. The settlement was organized as a town in 1834, was
+incorporated as a village in 1838, and was chartered as a city in 1850,
+the city charter being revised in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905.
+
+
+
+
+GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about 137 m. N.W. of
+Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073 were foreign-born; (1905)
+6157; (1910) 6521. It is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste
+Marie, the Green Bay & Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the
+Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing
+centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds, hubs
+and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and flour. The
+public buildings include a post office, court house, city hall, city
+hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892). The city owns
+and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting and telephone
+companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was first chartered as a city
+in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on the west bank of the Wisconsin
+river was formerly the city of Centralia (pop. in 1890, 1435); it was
+annexed in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GRANDSON (Ger. _Grandsee_), a town in the Swiss canton of Vaud, near the
+south-western end of the Lake of Neuchatel, and by rail 20 m. S.W. of
+Neuchatel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon. Its population in 1900 was 1771,
+mainly French-speaking and Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the
+home of a noted race of barons, while in the very old church (once
+belonging to a Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman
+columns, &c., from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory.
+Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle
+was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles the
+Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy. It was
+retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison put to death. The
+Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in a famous battle (2nd March
+1476) defeated Charles with great loss, capturing much booty. The scene
+of the battle was between Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town,
+and is marked by several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was
+thenceforward till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and then
+was given to the canton du Leman, which in 1803 became that of Vaud.
+
+  See F. Chabloz, _La Bataille de Grandson_ (Lausanne, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS (1777-1849), French painter, was born at Aix in
+Provence, on the 17th of December 1777; his father was a small builder.
+The boy's strong desires led his parents to place him--after some
+preliminary teaching from a passing Italian artist--in a free school of
+art directed by M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation.
+In 1793 Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon, at
+the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in the arsenal.
+Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance of the young comte de
+Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet, in the year 1797, went to Paris.
+De Forbin was one of the pupils of David, and Granet entered the same
+studio. Later he got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins,
+which, having served for a manufactory of assignats during the
+Revolution, was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists. In
+the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the Capuchins,
+Granet found the materials for that one picture to the painting of
+which, with varying success, he devoted his life. In 1802 he left Paris
+for Rome, where he remained until 1819, when he returned to Paris,
+bringing with him besides various other works one of fourteen
+repetitions of his celebrated Choeur des Capucins, executed in 1811. The
+figures of the monks celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a
+substantive part of the architectural effect, and this is the case with
+all Granet's works, even with those in which the figure subject would
+seem to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest.
+"Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall," 1810 (Leuchtenberg
+collection); "Sodoma a l'hopital," 1815 (Louvre); "Basilique basse de St
+Francois d'Assise," 1823 (Louvre); "Rachat de prisonniers," 1831
+(Louvre); "Mort de Poussin," 1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among
+his principal works; all are marked by the same peculiarities,
+everything is sacrificed to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated
+Granet, and afterwards named him Chevalier de l'Ordre St Michel, and
+Conservateur des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of the
+institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the ties which
+bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre, Granet
+constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to Aix, immediately
+lost his wife, and died himself on the 21st of November 1849. He
+bequeathed to his native town the greater part of his fortune and all
+his collections, now exhibited in the Musee, together with a very fine
+portrait of the donor painted by Ingres in 1811.
+
+
+
+
+GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. _graunge_, from the Med. Lat. _granea_, a
+place for storing grain, _granum_), properly a granary or barn. In the
+middle ages a "grange" was a detached portion of a manor with
+farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to a religious house; in it
+the crops could be conveniently stored for the purpose of collecting
+rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often known as "tithe-barns." In
+many cases a chapel was included among the buildings or stood apart as a
+separate edifice. The word is still used as a name for a superior kind
+of farm-house, or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and
+agricultural land attached to it.
+
+Architecturally considered, the "grange" was usually a long building
+with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or columns into a sort
+of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly buttressed. Sometimes these
+granges were of very great extent; one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was
+originally 225 ft. long by 75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft.
+long) existed at Chertsey. Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist
+at Glastonbury, Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary's Abbey, York, and at Coxwold.
+A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of the 19th
+century. In France there are many examples in stone of the 12th, 13th
+and 14th centuries; some divided into a central and two side aisles by
+arcades in stone. Externally granges are noticeable on account of their
+great roofs and the slight elevation of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only
+in height. In the 15th century they were sometimes protected by moats
+and towers. At Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long;
+Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys; at
+Perrieres, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all in
+Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of fine examples.
+Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near Paris, is one of the
+best-preserved granges in France, with walls in stone and internally
+divided into three aisles in oak timber of extremely fine construction.
+
+In the social economic movement in the United States of America, which
+began in 1867 and was known as the "Farmers' Movement," "grange" was
+adopted as the name for a local chapter of the Order of the Patrons of
+Husbandry, and the movement is thus often known as the "Grangers'
+Movement" (see FARMERS' MOVEMENT). There are a National Grange at
+Washington, supervising the local divisions, and state granges in most
+states.
+
+
+
+
+GRANGEMOUTH, a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore of the estuary of the
+Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also of Grange Burn, a right-hand
+tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E. of Falkirk by the North British and
+Caledonian railways. It is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal,
+from the opening of which (1789) its history may be dated. The principal
+buildings are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public
+institute and free library, and there is a public park presented by the
+marquess of Zetland. Since 1810, when it became a head port, it has
+gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth west of
+Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second (1859) and the third
+(1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber ponds of 44 acres and a
+total quayage of 2500 yards. New docks, 93 acres in extent, with an
+entrance from the firth, were opened in 1905 at a cost of more than
+L1,000,000. The works rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the
+Grange from the Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are
+the leading imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The
+industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron founding.
+There is regular steamer communication with London, Christiania,
+Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experiments in steam navigation were
+carried out in 1802 with the "Charlotte Dundas" on the Forth and Clyde
+Canal at Grangemouth. Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a
+seat of the marquess of Zetland.
+
+
+
+
+GRANGER, JAMES (1723-1776), English clergyman and print-collector, was
+born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford, and then entered holy orders,
+becoming vicar of Shiplake; but apart from his hobby of
+portrait-collecting, which resulted in the principal work associated
+with his name, and the publication of some sermons, his life was
+uneventful. Yet a new word was added to the language--"to
+grangerize"--on account of him. In 1769 he published in two quarto
+volumes a _Biographical History of England_ "consisting of characters
+dispersed in different classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of
+engraved British heads"; this was "intended as an essay towards reducing
+our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge of portraits."
+The work was supplemented in later editions by Granger, and still
+further editions were brought out by the Rev. Mark Noble, with additions
+from Granger's materials. Blank leaves were left for the filling in of
+engraved portraits for extra illustration of the text, and it became a
+favourite pursuit to discover such illustrations and insert them in a
+_Granger_, so that "grangerizing" became a term for such an
+extra-illustration of any work, especially with cuts taken from other
+books. The immediate result of the appearance of Granger's own work was
+the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out and
+inserted in collector's copies.
+
+
+
+
+GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. _granito_, grained; Lat. _granum_,
+grain), the group designation for a family of igneous rocks whose
+essential characteristics are that they are of acid composition
+(containing high percentages of silica), consist principally of quartz
+and felspar, with some mica, hornblende or augite, and are of
+holocrystalline or "granitoid" structure. In popular usage the term is
+given to almost any crystalline rock which resembles granite in
+appearance or properties. Thus syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases,
+porphyries, gneiss, and even limestones and dolomites, are bought and
+sold daily as "granites." True granites are common rocks, especially
+among the older strata of the earth's crust. They have great variety in
+colour and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others
+are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state of
+preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant minerals,
+and partly also on the relative proportion in which they contain biotite
+and other dark coloured silicates. Many granites have large rounded or
+angular crystals of felspar (Shap granite, many Cornish granites), well
+seen on polished faces. Others show an elementary foliation or banding
+(e.g. Aberdeen granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear
+in the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group.
+
+In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering wide
+areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular and may be 20
+m. in diameter or more. In the same district separate areas or "bosses"
+of granite may be found, all having much in common in their
+mineralogical and structural features, and such groups have probably all
+proceeded from the same focus or deep-seated source. Towards their
+margins these granite outcrops often show modifications by which they
+pass into diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also be finer grained (like
+porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of
+pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out into the
+surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is intrusive and has
+forced its way upwards by splitting apart the strata among which it
+lies. Further evidence of this is afforded by the alteration which the
+granite has produced through a zone which varies from a few yards to a
+mile or more in breadth around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites
+slates become converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite
+or andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; limestones
+recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their composition,
+are more or less profoundly modified in such a way as to prove that they
+have been raised to a high temperature by proximity to the molten
+intrusive mass. Where exposed in cliffs and other natural sections many
+granites have a rudely columnar appearance. Others weather into large
+cuboidal blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean
+masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature. These
+differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks which traverse
+the rock and are opened up by the action of frost and weathering.
+
+The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their principal
+component minerals may be identified in the hand specimens by the
+unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white or pink, with smooth cleaved
+surfaces; the quartz is usually transparent, glassy with rough irregular
+fractures; the micas appear as shining black or white flakes. Very
+coarse granites are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine
+granites are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also
+been applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly scales of
+white mica; others contain dark green or black hornblende in small
+prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet are occasionally visible.
+In the tourmaline granites prisms of black schorl occur either singly or
+in stellate groups. The parallel banded structures of many granites,
+which may be original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the
+granite gneisses or orthogneisses.
+
+Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with perthite or
+microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase (ranging from oligoclase
+to albite) is practically never absent. These minerals are often clouded
+by a deposit of fine mica and kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is
+transparent, irregular in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled
+with very small cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and
+sometimes a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in
+parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale green in
+section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless. Tourmaline may be
+brown, yellow or blue, and often the same crystal shows zones of
+different colours. Apatite, zircon and iron oxides, in small crystals,
+are always present. Among the less common accessories may be mentioned
+pinkish garnets; andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless
+grains of topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which
+weather to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl,
+tinstone, orthite and pyrites.
+
+The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal type, and
+may be ascertained by observing the perfection with which the different
+minerals have crystallized and the order in which they enclose one
+another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides are the first; their crystals
+are small, very perfect and nearly free from enclosures; they are
+followed by hornblende and biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds
+the brown mica. Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and
+forms well-shaped crystals of which the central parts may be more basic
+than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline and
+micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left between the
+earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are unusual; sometimes the
+first of the felspars have preceded the hornblende or biotite which may
+envelop them in ophitic manner. An earlier generation of felspar, and
+occasionally also of quartz, may be represented by large and perfect
+crystals of these minerals giving the rock a porphyritic character.
+
+Many granites have suffered modification by the action of vapours
+emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric emanations exert a
+profound influence on granitic rocks; their felspar is resolved into
+aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and quartz; tourmaline appears, largely
+replacing the brown mica; topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the
+rotten granite or china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over
+considerable areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable
+sources of china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may
+traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable quantities.
+These veins are the principal sources of tin in Cornwall, but the same
+changes may appear in the body of the granite without being restricted
+to veins, and tinstone occurs also as an original constituent of some
+granite pegmatites.
+
+Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals tend to lose
+their original forms and to break into mosaics of interlocking grains.
+The latter structure is very well seen in the quartz, which is a brittle
+mineral under stress. White mica develops in the felspars. The larger
+crystals are converted into lenticular or elliptical "augen," which may
+be shattered throughout or may have a peripheral seam of small detached
+granules surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of
+"granulitic" or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock,
+giving it a roughly foliated character.
+
+The interesting structural variation of granite in which there are
+spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known as "orbicular
+granite." The spheroids range from a fraction of an inch to a foot in
+diameter, and may have a felspar crystal at the centre. Around this
+there may be several zones, alternately lighter and darker in colour,
+consisting of the essential minerals of the rock in different
+proportions. Radiate arrangement is sometimes visible in the crystals of
+the whole or part of the spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are
+found in Sweden, Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are
+simply dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably
+due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as they
+separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its crystallization.
+The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many round or ovoidal felspar
+crystals scattered through a granitic matrix. These larger felspars have
+no crystalline outlines and consist of orthoclase or microcline
+surrounded by borders of white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark
+crystals of biotite and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these
+granites contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite
+masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks, it is
+common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous materials
+which are more or less dissolved and permeated by the granitic magma.
+
+  The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts of the
+  world is given below:--
+
+    +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |     | SiO2. | Al2O3.| Fe2O3.| FeO. | MgO. | CaO. | Na2O.| K2O. |
+    +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |  I. | 74.69 | 16.21 |  ..   | 1.16 | 0.48 | 0.28 | 1.18 | 3.64 |
+    | II. | 71.33 | 11.18 | 3.96  | 1.45 | 0.88 | 2.10 | 3.51 | 3.49 |
+    |III. | 72.93 | 13.87 | 1.94  | 0.79 | 0.51 | 0.74 | 3.68 | 3.74 |
+    | IV. | 76.12 | 12.18 | 1.21  | 0.72 | 1.12 | 1.54 | 2.55 | 3.21 |
+    |  V. | 73.90 | 13.65 | 0.28  | 0.42 | 0.14 | 0.23 | 2.53 | 7.99 |
+    | VI. | 68.87 | 16.62 | 0.43  | 2.72 | 1.60 | 0.71 | 1.80 | 6.48 |
+    +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana
+  (Harrison); III. Rodo, near Alno, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holmquist);
+  IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch); V. Pikes
+  Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near Omeo, Victoria
+  (Howitt).
+
+  Only the most important components are shown in the table, but all
+  granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium oxide,
+  phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium, manganese and
+  water. These are in all cases less than 1%, and usually much less than
+  this, except the water, which may be 2 or 3% in weathered rocks. From
+  the chemical composition it may be computed that granites contain, on
+  an average, 35 to 55% of quartz, 20 to 30% of orthoclase, 20 to 30% of
+  plagioclase felspar (including the albite of microperthite) and 5 to
+  10% of ferromagnesian silicates and minor accessories such as
+  apatite, zircon, sphene and iron oxides. The aplites, pegmatites,
+  graphic granites and muscovite granites are usually richest in silica,
+  while with increase of biotite and hornblende, augite and enstatite
+  the analyses show the presence of more magnesia, iron and lime.
+
+  In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change; the
+  felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, muscovite
+  and secondary quartz, while chlorite, quartz and calcite replace the
+  biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes a rusty brown
+  colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and the decomposed
+  mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade; where the granite
+  has been cut by joint planes not too close together weathering
+  proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks may be left
+  embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water in the rock
+  increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in solution; they
+  form valuable sources of mineral food to plants. The chemical changes
+  are shown by the following analyses:
+
+    +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |     | H2O. | SiO2. | TiO2.| Al2O3.| FeO. |Fe2O3.| CaO. | MgO. | Na2O.| K2O. | P2O5. |
+    +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |  I. | 1.22 | 69.33 | n.d. | 14.33 | 3.60 |  ..  | 3.21 | 2.44 | 2.70 | 2.67 | 0.10  |
+    | II. | 3.27 | 66.82 | n.d. | 15.62 | 1.69 | 1.88 | 3.13 | 2.76 | 2.58 | 2.44 |  n.d. |
+    |III. | 4.70 | 65.69 | 0.31 | 15.23 |  ..  | 4.39 | 2.63 | 2.64 | 2.12 | 2.00 | 0.06  |
+    +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+  Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm granite;
+  III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the same mass (anal.
+  G. P. Merrill).
+
+The differences are surprisingly small and are principally an increase
+in the water and a diminution in the amount of alkalis and lime together
+with the oxidation of the ferrous oxide.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA ("Great Rock of Italy"), a mountain of the Abruzzi,
+Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines, 9560 ft. in height. In
+formation it resembles the limestone Alps of Tirol and there are on its
+elevated plateaus a number of _doline_ or funnel-shaped depressions into
+which the melted snow and the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow
+for the greater part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno,
+as it is sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a
+magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit is still the
+home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense woods of beech and
+pine. The group has numerous other lofty peaks, of which the chief are
+the Pizzo d'Intermesole (8680 ft.), the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the
+Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The
+most convenient starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of
+Aquila, at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has
+erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a special
+guidebook (E. Abbate, _Guida al Gran Sasso d' Italia_, Rome, 1888). The
+view from the summit extends to the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the
+mountains of Dalmatia on the east in clear weather. The ascent was first
+made in 1794 by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the
+interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150, with later
+alterations (see Gavini, in _L' Arte_, 1901, 316, 391).
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British scholar and
+educationalist, was born in New York on the 13th of September 1826.
+After a childhood spent in the West Indies, he was educated at Harrow
+and Oxford. He entered Oxford as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently
+held a fellowship at Oriel from 1849 to 1860. He made a special study of
+the Aristotelian philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the
+_Ethics_ (4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford. In
+1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service, and in
+1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the latter year he
+succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to Madras with Sir Charles
+Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector of schools; the next year he
+removed to Bombay, to fill the post of Professor of History and
+Political Economy in the Elphinstone College. Of this he became
+Principal in 1862; and, a year later, vice-chancellor of Bombay
+University, a post he held from 1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to
+1868. In 1865 he took upon himself also the duties of Director of Public
+Instruction for Bombay Presidency. In 1868 he was appointed a member of
+the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of Sir David
+Brewster, he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh University, which had
+conferred an honorary LL.D. degree upon him in 1865. From that time till
+his death (which occurred in Edinburgh on the 30th of November 1884) his
+energies were entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The
+institution of the medical school in the University was almost solely
+due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival, celebrated in
+1884, was the result of his wisely directed enthusiasm. In that year he
+published _The Story of the University of Edinburgh during its First
+Three Hundred Years_. He was created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and
+an honorary fellow of Oriel College in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known as Mrs Grant
+of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 21st of February 1755. Her
+childhood was spent in America, her father, Duncan MacVicar, being an
+army officer on service there. In 1768 the family returned to Scotland,
+and in 1779 Anne married James Grant, an army chaplain, who was also
+minister of the parish of Laggan, near Fort Augustus, Inverness, where
+her father was barrack-master. On her husband's death in 1801 she was
+left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she published by
+subscription a volume of _Original Poems, with some Translations from
+the Gaelic_, which was favourably received. In 1806 her _Letters from
+the Mountains_, with their spirited description of Highland scenery and
+legends, awakened much interest. Her other works are _Memoirs of an
+American Lady, with Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as they
+existed previous to the Revolution_ (1808), containing reminiscences of
+her childhood; _Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of
+Scotland_ (1811); and _Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem_ (1814). In
+1810 she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her
+life she received a pension from government. She died on the 7th of
+November 1838.
+
+  See _Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited by her
+  son J. P. Grant_ (3 vols., 1844).
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823), British politician, was born at Aldourie,
+Inverness-shire, on the 16th of April 1746, the day on which his father,
+Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting for the Jacobites at
+Culloden. When a young man Charles went to India, where he became
+secretary, and later a member of the board of trade. He returned to
+Scotland in 1790, and in 1802 was elected to parliament as member for
+the county of Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests
+were in Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility
+to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen chairman
+of the directors of the East India Company and he retired from
+parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce, Grant was a
+prominent member of the evangelical party in the Church of England; he
+was a generous supporter of the church's missionary undertakings. He was
+largely responsible for the establishment of the East India college,
+which was afterwards erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the
+31st of October 1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in
+1835 as Baron Glenelg.
+
+  See Henry Morris, _Life of Charles Grant_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878), English portrait-painter, fourth son of
+Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born at Edinburgh in 1803.
+He was educated for the bar, but at the age of twenty-four he began at
+Edinburgh systematically to study the practice of art. On completing a
+course of instruction he removed to London, and as early as 1843
+exhibited at the Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he
+utilized his sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses
+and hounds, such as the "Meet of H.M. Staghounds" and the "Melton Hunt";
+but his position in society gradually made him a fashionable
+portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste of a connoisseur, and
+rendered the minutest details of costume with felicitous accuracy. In
+female portraiture he achieved considerable success, although rather in
+depicting the high-born graces and external characteristics than the
+true personality. Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned
+Lady Glenlyon, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs
+Beauclerk. In his portraits of generals and sportsmen he proved himself
+more equal to his subjects than in those of statesmen and men of
+letters. He painted many of the principal celebrities of the time,
+including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart, Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby,
+Palmerston and Russell, his brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir
+Edwin Landseer. From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In
+1842 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 an
+Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C. Eastlake in the
+post of president, for which his chief recommendations were his social
+distinction, tact, urbanity and friendly and liberal consideration of
+his brother artists. Shortly after his election as president he was
+knighted, and in 1870 the degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the
+university of Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835-1902), principal of Queen's University,
+Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835. He was educated at
+Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant academic career; and having
+entered the ministry of the Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada
+and obtained a pastoral charge in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held
+from 1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher and
+as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada was
+confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most strongly opposed
+to federal union. Grant threw the whole weight of his great influence in
+favour of confederation, and his oratory played an important part in
+securing the success of the movement. When the consolidation of the
+Dominion by means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872,
+Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers who
+surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his book _Ocean
+to Ocean_ (1873) was one of the first things that opened the eyes of
+Canadians to the value of the immense heritage they enjoyed. He never
+lost an opportunity, whether in the pulpit or on the platform, of
+pressing on his hearers that the greatest future for Canada lay in unity
+with the rest of the British Empire; and his broad statesman-like
+judgment made him an authority which politicians of all parties were
+glad to consult. In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen's
+University, Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence
+expanded from a small denominational college into a large and
+influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an exceptionally
+able body of professors whose influence in speculation and research was
+widely felt during the quarter of a century that he remained at its
+head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the
+effect of this experience being to strengthen still further the
+Imperialism which was the guiding principle of his political opinions.
+On the outbreak of the South African War in 1899 Grant was at first
+disposed to be hostile to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr
+Chamberlain; but his eyes were soon opened to the real nature of
+President Kruger's government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and
+supported the national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions
+of the Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa.
+Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occurring
+at Kingston on the 10th of May 1902. At the time of his death _The
+Times_ observed that "it is acknowledged on all hands that in him the
+Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it has yet produced." He
+was the author of a number of works, of which the most notable besides
+_Ocean to Ocean_ are, _Advantages of Imperial Federation_ (1889), _Our
+National Objects and Aims_ (1890), _Religions of the World in Relation
+to Christianity_ (1894) and volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant
+married in 1872 Jessie, daughter of William Lawson of Halifax.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, JAMES (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in Edinburgh on the
+1st of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was a captain in the 92nd
+Gordon Highlanders and had served through the Peninsular War. For
+several years James Grant was in Newfoundland with his father, but in
+1839 he returned to England, and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In
+1843 he resigned his commission and devoted himself to writing, first
+magazine articles, but soon a profusion of novels, full of vivacity and
+incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters. His
+best stories, perhaps, were _The Romance of War_ (his first, 1845),
+_Bothwell_ (1851), _Frank Hilton; or, The Queen's Own_ (1855), _The
+Phantom Regiment_ and _Harry Ogilvie_ (1856), _Lucy Arden_ (1858), _The
+White Cockade_ (1867), _Only an Ensign_ (1871), _Shall I Win Her?_
+(1874), _Playing with Fire_ (1887). Grant also wrote _British Battles on
+Land and Sea_ (1873-1875) and valuable books on Scottish history.
+Permanent value attaches to his great work, in three volumes, on _Old
+and New Edinburgh_ (1880). He was the founder and energetic promoter of
+the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875
+he became a Roman Catholic. He died on the 5th of May 1887.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827-1892), Scottish explorer of eastern
+equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father was the parish
+minister, on the 11th of April 1827. He was educated at the grammar
+school and Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1846 joined the Indian
+army. He saw active service in the Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout
+the mutiny of 1857, and was wounded in the operations for the relief of
+Lucknow. He returned to England in 1858, and in 1860 joined J. H. Speke
+(q.v.) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of the Nile
+sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860 and reached
+Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch with civilization,
+in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but Grant carried out several
+investigations independently and made valuable botanical collections. He
+acted throughout in absolute loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he
+published, as supplementary to Speke's account of their journey, _A Walk
+across Africa_, in which he dealt particularly with "the ordinary life
+and pursuits, the habits and feelings of the natives" and the economic
+value of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron's
+medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1866 given the
+Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in the
+expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the Abyssinian
+expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I. and received the
+Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he retired from the army with
+the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He had married in 1865, and he now
+settled down at Nairn, where he died on the 11th of February 1892. He
+made contributions to the journals of various learned societies, the
+most notable being the "Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition" in
+vol. xxix. of the _Transactions of the Linnaean Society_.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808-1875), English general, fifth and youngest
+son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, and brother of Sir
+Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd of July 1808. He entered the
+army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828
+and captain in 1835. In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the
+Chinese War, and specially distinguished himself at the capture of
+Chin-Kiang, after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In
+the first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon; and
+in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded the 9th Lancers, and won
+high reputation in the battles of Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat).
+He was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the
+same substantive rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856
+brigadier of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the
+Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command of the cavalry
+division, and afterwards of a movable column of horse and foot. After
+rendering valuable service in the operations before Delhi and in the
+final assault on the city, he directed the victorious march of the
+cavalry and horse artillery despatched in the direction of Cawnpore to
+open up communication with the commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell,
+whom he met near the Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of
+brigadier-general, and placed the whole force under his command during
+what remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the
+residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly aided in
+effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by making a detour
+which threatened their rear; and following in pursuit with a flying
+column, he defeated them with the loss of nearly all their guns at
+Serai Ghat. He also took part in the operations connected with the
+recapture of Lucknow, shortly after which he was promoted to the rank of
+major-general, and appointed to the command of the force employed for
+the final pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied
+energy, and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring,
+rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification was
+quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was appointed, with the
+local rank of lieutenant-general, to the command of the British land
+forces in the united French and British expedition against China. The
+object of the campaign was accomplished within three months of the
+landing of the forces at Pei-tang (1st of August 1860). The Taku Forts
+had been carried by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the
+open and Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called
+the "most successful and the best carried out of England's little wars,"
+he received the thanks of parliament and was gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he
+was made lieutenant-general and appointed commander-in-chief of the army
+of Madras; on his return to England in 1865 he was made
+quartermaster-general at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to
+the command of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in
+the reform of the educational and training systems of the forces, which
+followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of annual army
+manoeuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant. In 1872 he was gazetted
+general. He died in London on the 7th of March 1875.
+
+  _Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private
+  Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B., together with some
+  explanatory chapters by Capt. H. Knollys, Royal Artillery_, was
+  published in 1873, and _Incidents in the China War of 1860_ appeared
+  posthumously under the same editorship in 1875.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895), British field marshal, was the second
+son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair, Inverness-shire,
+where he was born on the 11th of September 1804. He entered the Bengal
+native infantry as ensign in 1820, and became captain in 1832. He served
+in Oudh from 1834 to 1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry.
+Employed in the adjutant-general's department of the Bengal army from
+1838 until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served under Sir
+Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843, winning a brevet
+majority, was adjutant-general of the army at the battles of Moodkee in
+1845 (twice severely wounded), and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846,
+receiving the C.B. and the brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took
+part in the battles of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining
+further promotion, and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He
+served also in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted
+major-general in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army from
+1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General Anson's death
+was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme command of the army in India.
+From Calcutta he directed the operations against the mutineers, sending
+forces under Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow,
+until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as
+commander-in-chief, when he returned to Madras. On leaving India in 1861
+he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted lieutenant-general in
+1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to 1872, was made G.C.M.G. in
+1868, promoted general in 1870, field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the
+Royal Horse Guards and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He
+married as his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh
+(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal Hospital, Chelsea,
+from 1874 until his death there on the 28th of March 1895.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born at Grantown,
+Scotland, on the 17th of June 1814. At the age of thirteen the promise
+of a brilliant career was clouded by a prolonged illness of such a
+serious character as to incapacitate him from all school-work for six
+years. At twenty, however, his health greatly improved, and he set
+himself resolutely, without assistance, to repair his earlier
+disadvantages by the diligent study of Greek, Latin, Italian and
+mathematics. Astronomy also occupied his attention, and it was
+stimulated by the return of Halley's comet in 1835, as well as by his
+success in observing the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May
+1836. After a short course at King's College, Aberdeen, he obtained in
+1841 employment in his brother's counting-house in London. During this
+period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of physical
+astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he had to search,
+amongst other records, those of the French Academy, and for that purpose
+took up his residence in Paris in 1845, supporting himself by giving
+lessons in English. He returned to London in 1847. _The History of
+Physical Astronomy from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the
+Nineteenth Century_ was first published in parts in _The Library of
+Useful Knowledge_, but after the issue of the ninth part this mode of
+publication was discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852.
+The main object of the work is, in the author's words, "to exhibit a
+view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a knowledge
+of the mechanical principles which regulate the movements of the
+celestial bodies, and in explaining the various phenomena relative to
+their physical constitution which observation with the telescope has
+disclosed." The lucidity and completeness with which a great variety of
+abstruse subjects were treated, the extent of research and the maturity
+of judgment it displayed, were the more remarkable, when it is
+remembered that this was the first published work of one who enjoyed no
+special opportunities, either for acquiring materials, or for discussing
+with others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of. The
+book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature, and earned
+for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal Astronomical Society's
+gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John Pringle Nichol as professor of
+astronomy in the University of Glasgow. From time to time he contributed
+astronomical papers to the _Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten,
+Comptes rendus_ and other scientific serials; but his principal work at
+Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large number of stars
+with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory. The results of these
+labours, extending over twenty-one years, are contained in the _Glasgow
+Catalogue of 6415 Stars_, published in 1883. This was followed in 1892
+by the _Second Glasgow Catalogue of 2156 Stars_, published a few weeks
+after his death, which took place on the 24th of October 1892.
+
+  See _Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin);
+  _Nature_, Nov. 10, 1892; _The Times_, Nov. 2, 1892; _Roy. Society's
+  Catalogue of Scient. Papers_.     (A. A. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885), American soldier, and eighteenth
+president of the United States, was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the
+27th of April 1822. He was a descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman,
+who settled in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years
+were spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in Ohio.
+In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military academy at West
+Point, and it was then that his name assumed the form by which it is
+generally known. He was christened Hiram, after an ancestor, with
+Ulysses for a middle name. As he was usually called by his middle name,
+the congressman who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his
+first name, and added thereto the name of his mother's family, Simpson.
+Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took a respectable place
+in mathematics, but at his graduation in 1843 he only ranked
+twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In September 1845 he went with
+his regiment to join the forces of General Taylor in Mexico; there he
+took part in the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Monterey,
+and, after his transfer to General Scott's army, which he joined in
+March 1847, served at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey
+and at the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant for
+gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at Chapultepec. In
+August 1848, after the close of the war, he married Julia T. Dent
+(1826-1902), and was for a while stationed in California and Oregon, but
+in 1854 he resigned his commission. His reputation in the service had
+suffered from allegations of intemperate drinking, which, whether well
+founded or not, certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the
+next six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty
+subsistence by farming and dealings in real estate. In 1860 he removed
+to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept by his
+father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to have exceeded
+$800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends as a broken and
+disappointed man. He was living at Galena at the outbreak of hostilities
+between the North and South.
+
+
+  Grant's Civil War career.
+
+[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant's battles and campaigns,
+the reader is referred to the article AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. To the "call
+to arms" of 1861 Grant promptly responded. After some delay he was
+commissioned colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment and soon afterwards
+brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to a territorial command on
+the Mississippi, and first won distinction by his energy in seizing, on
+his own responsibility, the important point of Paducah, Kentucky,
+situated at the confluence of the two great waterways of the Tennessee
+and the Ohio (6th Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his
+first battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if it
+failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him to be a
+capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was entrusted by General H.
+W. Halleck with the command of a large force to clear the lower reaches
+of the Cumberland and the Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be
+passed on the general strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his
+able and energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant
+success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced to
+capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were promoted to the rank
+of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, but Grant's own fortunes
+suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a disagreement with Halleck. When,
+after being virtually under arrest, he rejoined his army, it was
+concentrated about Savannah on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign
+towards Corinth, Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on
+Grant's camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (q.v.). After two days'
+desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the combined attack
+of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the Army of the Ohio under
+Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee had been on the verge of
+annihilation on the evening of the first day, and Grant's leadership
+throughout was by no means equal to the emergency, though he displayed
+his usual personal bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of
+Halleck's armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all
+important duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole
+force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace. But
+Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and Grant took
+command of his old army and of Rosecrans' Army of the Mississippi. Two
+victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won in the autumn of 1862, but the
+credit of both fell to Rosecrans, who commanded in the field, and the
+nadir of Grant's military fortunes was reached when the first advance on
+Vicksburg (q.v.), planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a
+series of political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the
+original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly Springs
+and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862).
+
+It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other unsuccessful
+generals into retirement, had he not shown that, whatever his mistakes
+or failures, and whether he was or was not sober and temperate in his
+habits, he possessed the iron determination and energy which in the eyes
+of Lincoln and Stanton,[1] and of the whole Northern people, was the
+first requisite of their generals. He remained then with his army near
+Vicksburg, trying one plan after another without result, until at last
+after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was crowned with
+success--a success directly consequent upon a strange and bizarre
+campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring and vigour were more
+conspicuous than ever before. On the 4th of July 1863 the great fortress
+surrendered with 29,491 men, this being one of the most important
+victories won by the Union arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made
+a major-general in the regular army. A few months later the great
+reverse of Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with
+the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg and
+Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga, to decide the
+fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second battle. Four armies were
+placed under his command, and three of these concentrated at
+Chattanooga. On the 25th of November 1863 a great three-days' battle
+ended with the crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day
+had no foothold in the centre and west.
+
+After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all the Union
+forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and the rank of
+lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864). Grant's headquarters
+henceforth accompanied the Army of the Potomac, and the
+lieutenant-general directed the campaign in Virginia. This, with Grant's
+driving energy infused into the best army that the Union possessed,
+resolved itself into a series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible
+battles. Tactically the Confederates were almost always victorious,
+strategically, Grant, disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back
+Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and
+Petersburg, while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of
+"attrition," the Federal leader used his men with a merciless energy
+that has few, if any, parallels in modern history. At Cold Harbor six
+thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting an hour, and after two
+months the Union armies lay before Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but
+had lost no fewer than 72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his
+determination. "I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all
+summer," was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the
+chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he never relaxed
+his hold on Lee's army, and, in spite of repeated partial reverses, that
+would have been defeats for his predecessors, he gradually wore down his
+gallant adversary. The terrible cost of these operations did not check
+him: only on one occasion of grave peril were any troops sent from his
+lines to serve elsewhere, and he drew to himself the bulk of the men
+whom the Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final
+effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely supervised by
+Grant, preoccupied though he was with the operations against his own
+adversary. At a critical moment he actually left the Virginian armies to
+their own commanders, and started to take personal command in a
+threatened quarter, and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman
+and Thomas, who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the
+centre. That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command
+of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating many
+hundreds of miles apart from each other, while at the same time he
+watched and manoeuvred against a great captain and a veteran army in one
+field of the war, must be the greatest proof of Grant's powers as a
+general. In the end complete success rewarded the sacrifices and efforts
+of the Federals on every theatre of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in
+personal control, the merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee's army
+until a mere remnant was left for the final surrender.
+
+Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was universally
+regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful study of the history of
+the war thoroughly bears out the popular view. There were soldiers more
+accomplished, as was McClellan, more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and
+more exact, as was Buell, but it would be difficult to prove that these
+generals, or indeed any others in the service, could have accomplished
+the task which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be
+supposed that Grant learned little from three years' campaigning in
+high command. There is less in common than is often supposed between the
+buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the grim plodding
+determination that led him to Vicksburg and to Appomattox. Shiloh
+revealed to Grant the intensity of the struggle, and after that battle,
+appreciating to the full the material and moral factors with which he
+had to deal, he gradually trained his military character on those lines
+which alone could conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose,
+and relentless vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the
+qualities necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing
+the Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree that
+he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical finesse he was
+surpassed by many of his predecessors and his subordinates, he had the
+most important qualities of a great captain, courage that rose higher
+with each obstacle, and the clear judgment to distinguish the essential
+from the minor issues in war.--(C. F. A.)]
+
+
+  Presidency, 1868.
+
+After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was shown by
+his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with the Confederate
+leaders, and it was understood that indictments for treason were to be
+brought against General Lee and others. Grant, however, insisted that
+the United States government was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and
+his army at Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his
+commission if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic
+action on Grant's part saved the United States from a foul stain upon
+its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was created, for the
+first time since the organization of the government, and Grant was
+promoted to that position. In the following year he became involved in
+the deadly quarrel between President Johnson and Congress. To tie the
+president's hands Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act,
+forbidding the president to remove any cabinet officer without the
+consent of the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended
+Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war _ad interim_
+until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained. Grant accepted
+the appointment under protest, and held it until the following January,
+when the Senate refused to confirm the president's action, and Secretary
+Stanton resumed his office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the
+readiness with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a
+bitter controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto Grant had
+taken little part in politics. The only vote which he had ever cast for
+a presidential candidate was in 1856 for James Buchanan; and leading
+Democrats, so late as the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their
+candidate in the election of that year; but the effect of the
+controversy with President Johnson was to bring Grant forward as the
+candidate of the Republican party. At the convention in Chicago on the
+20th of May 1868 he was unanimously nominated on the first ballot. The
+Democratic party nominated the one available Democrat who had the
+smallest chance of beating him--Horatio Seymour, lately governor of New
+York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless as a candidate
+because of his attitude during the war. The result of the contest was at
+no time in doubt; Grant received 214 electoral votes and Seymour 80.
+
+The most important domestic event of Grant's first term as president was
+the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution on the 30th
+of March 1870, providing that suffrage throughout the United States
+should not be restricted on account of race, colour or previous
+condition of servitude. The most important event in foreign policy was
+the treaty with Great Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as
+the Treaty of Washington, whereby several controversies between the
+United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions as to
+damage inflicted upon the United States by the "Alabama" and other
+Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England, were referred to
+arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo Domingo (or the Dominican
+Republic) expressed a wish for annexation by the United States, and such
+a step was favoured by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in
+view failed to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In
+May 1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious
+Reconstruction laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed by
+Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The Amnesty Bill
+restored civil rights to all persons in the South, save from 300 to 500
+who had held high positions under the Confederacy. As early as 1870
+President Grant recommended measures of civil service reform, and
+succeeded in obtaining an act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service
+commission. A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the
+politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty years
+since Crawford's Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820, the country
+had been growing more and more familiar with the spectacle of corruption
+in high places. The evil rose to alarming proportions during Grant's
+presidency, partly because of the immense extension of the civil
+service, partly because of the growing tendency to alliance between
+spoilsmen and the persons benefited by protective tariffs, and partly
+because the public attention was still so much absorbed in Southern
+affairs that little energy was left for curbing rascality in the North.
+The scandals, indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in
+close relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping with
+the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high intellectual
+powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of nature charming in
+itself, but often calculated to render him the easy prey of sharpers. He
+found it almost impossible to believe that anything could be wrong in
+persons to whom he had given his friendship, and on several occasions
+such friends proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely
+prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure government in
+the United States demanded that President Grant should not be elected to
+a second term. This feeling led a number of high-minded gentlemen to
+form themselves into an organization under the name of Liberal
+Republicans. They held a convention at Cincinnati in May with the
+intention of nominating for the presidency Charles Francis Adams, who
+had ably represented the United States at the court of St James's during
+the Civil War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians who
+converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating Horace Greeley,
+editor of the _New York Tribune_, who represented almost anything rather
+than the object for which the convention had been called together. The
+Democrats had despaired of electing a candidate of their own, and hoped
+to achieve success by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove
+to be an eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in
+1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them wisdom; it was
+still in their power to make a gallant fight by nominating a person for
+whom Republican reformers could vote. But with almost incredible
+fatuity, they adopted Greeley as their candidate. As a natural result
+Grant was re-elected by an overwhelming majority.
+
+
+  Second presidency.
+
+The most important event of his second term was his veto of the
+Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the Resumption Act in
+the following year. The country was still labouring under the curse of
+an inconvertible paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act of
+1862. There was a considerable party in favour of debasing the currency
+indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with that object was passed by
+Congress in April 1874. It was promptly vetoed by President Grant, and
+two months later he wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones
+of Nevada advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of
+the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his consistent
+advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high credit as for his
+victories in the field. In spite of these great services, popular
+dissatisfaction with the Republican party rapidly increased during the
+years 1874-1876. The causes were twofold: firstly, there was great
+dissatisfaction with the troubles in the Southern states, owing to the
+harsh Reconstruction laws and the robberies committed by the carpet-bag
+governments which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at
+Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue, awakened
+lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near to President
+Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid the suspicion that
+he was himself implicated, and never perhaps was his hold upon popular
+favour so slight as in the summer and autumn of 1876.
+
+
+  Later life.
+
+After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant started on
+a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife and one son. He was
+received with distinguished honours in England and on the continent of
+Europe, whence he made his way to India, China and Japan. After his
+return to America in September 1880 he went back to his old home in
+Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers of the Republican party
+attempted to secure his nomination for a third term as president, and in
+the convention at Chicago in June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300
+during 36 consecutive ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such
+effective use of the popular prejudice against third terms that the
+scheme was defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881
+General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His income was
+insufficient for the proper support of his family, and accordingly he
+had become partner in a banking house in which one of his sons was
+interested along with other persons. The name of the firm was Grant and
+Ward. The ex-president invested in it all his available property, but
+paid no attention to the management of the business. His facility in
+giving his confidence to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire
+calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was discovered that
+two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic and gigantic
+frauds. This severe blow left General Grant penniless, just at the time
+when he was beginning to suffer acutely from the disease which finally
+caused his death. Down to this time he had never made any pretensions to
+literary skill or talent, but on being approached by the _Century
+Magazine_ with a request for some articles he undertook the work in
+order to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and
+led to the writing of his _Personal Memoirs_, a frank, modest and
+charming book, which ranks among the best standard military biographies.
+The sales earned for the general and his family something like half a
+million dollars. The circumstances in which it was written made it an
+act of heroism comparable with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier.
+During most of the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the
+throat, and it was only four days before his death that he finished the
+manuscript. In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him a
+general on the retired list; and in the summer he was removed to a
+cottage at Mount M'Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed the last five
+weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of July 1885. His body
+was placed in a temporary tomb in Riverside Drive, in New York City,
+overlooking the Hudson river.[2]
+
+Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was a charming
+side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times almost like that of
+a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindliness and generosity, and if
+there was anything especially difficult for him to endure, it was the
+sight of human suffering, as was shown on the night at Shiloh, where he
+lay out of doors in the icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room
+where the surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as
+his sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as
+president, especially in his triumphant fight against the greenback
+monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings, Grant was a massive,
+noble and lovable personality, well fit to be remembered as one of the
+heroes of a great nation. (J. Fi.)
+
+General Grant's son, FREDERICK DENT GRANT (b. 1850), graduated at the
+U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de-camp to General Philip
+Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from the army in 1881, after having
+attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was U.S. minister to Austria
+in 1889-1893, and police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He
+served as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American War
+of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-general in the
+regular army in February 1901 and major-general in February 1906.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Adam Badeau's _Military History of U. S. Grant_ (3
+  vols., New York, 1867-1881), and _Grant in Peace_ (Hartford, 1887),
+  are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William Conant
+  Church's _Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Preservation and
+  Reconstruction_ (New York, 1897) is a good succinct account. Hamlin
+  Garland's _Ulysses S. Grant, His Life and Character_ (New York, 1898)
+  gives especial attention to the personal traits of Grant and abounds
+  in anecdote. See also Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ (2 vols., New York,
+  1885-1886); J. G. Wilson's _Life and Public Services of U. S. Grant_
+  (New York, 1886); J. R. Young's _Around the World with General Grant_
+  (New York, 1880); Horace Porter's _Campaigning with Grant_ (New York,
+  1897); James Ford Rhodes's _History of the United States_ (vols.
+  iii.-vii., New York, 1896-1906); James K. Hosmer's _Appeal to Arms and
+  Outcome of the Civil War_ (New York, 1907); John Eaton's _Grant,
+  Lincoln, and the Freedmen_ (New York, 1907), and various works
+  mentioned in the articles AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN, &c.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] President Lincoln was Grant's most unwavering supporter. Many
+    amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations which
+    waited upon him to ask for Grant's removal. On one occasion he asked
+    the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by Grant, so
+    that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The question of
+    Grant's abstemiousness was and is of little importance. The cause at
+    stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the United States,
+    since the war, have been in general content to leave the question
+    alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908, when President
+    Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant's tomb.
+
+  [2] The permanent tomb is of white granite and white marble and is
+    150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building 90 ft.
+    on the side and 72 ft. high; the sarcophagus, in the centre of the
+    building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone was laid by
+    President Harrison in 1892, and the tomb was dedicated on the 27th of
+    April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by President McKinley
+    and General Horace Porter, president of the Grant Monument
+    Association, which from 90,000 contributions raised the funds for the
+    tomb.
+
+
+
+
+GRANT (from A.-Fr. _graunter_, O. Fr. _greanter_ for _creanter_, popular
+Lat. _creantare_, for _credentare_, to entrust, Lat. _credere_, to
+believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the gift
+of privileges, rights, &c., specifically in law, the transfer of
+property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant. According
+to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold in corporeal
+hereditaments lay in livery (see FEOFFMENT), whereas incorporeal
+hereditaments, such as a reversion, remainder, advowson, &c., lay in
+grant, that is, passed by the delivery of the deed of conveyance or
+grant without further ceremony. The distinction between property lying
+in livery and in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845
+providing that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be
+transferable as well by grant as by livery (see CONVEYANCING). A grant
+of personal property is properly termed an assignment or bill of sale.
+
+
+
+
+GRANTH, the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the spiritual and
+moral teaching of Sikhism (q.v.). The book is called the _Adi Granth
+Sahib_ by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it is believed by
+them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title is generally applied to
+the volume compiled by the fifth guru Arjan, which contains the
+compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion; of his
+successors, Guru Angad, Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu
+bhagats or saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir, Rai
+Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna and Dhanna Jat;
+verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid; and panegyrics of the gurus
+by bards who either attended them or admired their characters. The
+compositions of the ninth guru, Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to
+the _Adi Granth_ by Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred
+volume preserved at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn
+composed by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The _Adi Granth_ contains
+passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original copy is said
+to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the chief copy in use
+is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple at Amritsar, where it is daily
+read aloud by the attendant Granthis or scripture readers.
+
+There is also a second _Granth_ which was compiled by the Sikhs in 1734,
+and popularly known as the _Granth of the tenth Guru_, but it has not
+the same authority as the _Adi Granth_. It contains Guru Govind Singh's
+_Japji_, the _Akal Ustit_ or Praise of the Creator, thirty-three
+_sawaias_ (quatrains containing some of the main tenets of the guru and
+strong reprobation of idolatry and hypocrisy), and the _Vachitar Natak_
+or wonderful drama, in which the guru gives an account of his parentage,
+divine mission and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three
+abridged translations by different hands of the _Devi Mahatamya_, an
+episode in the _Markandeya Puran_, in praise of Durga, the goddess of
+war. Then follow the _Gyan Parbodh_ or awakening of knowledge, accounts
+of twenty-four incarnations of the deity, selected because of their
+warlike character; the _Hazare de Shabd_; the _Shastar Nam Mala_, which
+is a list of offensive and defensive weapons used in the guru's time,
+with special reference to the attributes of the Creator; the _Tria
+Charitar_ or tales illustrating the qualities, but principally the
+deceit of women; the _Kabit_, compositions of a miscellaneous character;
+the _Zafarnama_ containing the tenth guru's epistle to the emperor
+Aurangzeb, and several metrical tales in the Persian language. This
+_Granth_ is only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The
+greater portion of it was written by bards in his employ.
+
+
+  Form of the Granth.
+
+The two volumes are written in several different languages and dialects.
+The _Adi Granth_ is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi, but Prakrit,
+Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also represented. The _Granth of the
+Tenth Guru_ is written in the old and very difficult Hindi affected by
+literary men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In neither of
+these sacred volumes is there any separation of words. As there is no
+separation of words in Sanskrit, the _gyanis_ or interpreters of the
+guru's hymns prefer to follow the ancient practice of junction of words.
+This makes the reading of the Sikh scriptures very difficult, and is one
+of the causes of the decline of the Sikh religion.
+
+The hymns in the _Adi Granth_ are arranged not according to the gurus or
+bhagats who compose them, but according to rags or musical measures.
+There are thirty-one such measures in the _Adi Granth_, and the hymns
+are arranged according to the measures to which they are composed. The
+gurus who composed hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth
+and ninth gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their
+compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the
+compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the compositions of
+Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on. After the hymns of the
+gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats under their several musical
+measures. The Sikhs generally dislike any arrangement of the _Adi
+Granth_ by which the compositions of each guru or bhagat should be
+separately shown.
+
+
+  The Sikh doctrines.
+
+All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two _Granths_
+and in compositions called _Rahit Namas_ and _Tanakhwah Namas_, which
+are believed to have been the utterances of the tenth guru. The cardinal
+principle of the sacred books is the unity of God, and starting from
+this premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition. Thus Guru
+Govind Singh writes:
+
+  "Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads;
+     Some suspend lingams from their necks;
+   Some see the God in the South; some bow their heads to the West.
+     Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with worshipping
+        the dead.
+   The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found God's
+        secret."
+
+Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His sight, and
+so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak says:
+
+  "Caste hath no power in the next world; there is a new order of beings,
+   Those whose accounts are honoured are the good."
+
+The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by Hinduized
+Sikhs, is forbidden in the _Granth_. Guru Arjan writes:
+
+  "She who considereth her beloved as her God,
+   Is the blessed _sati_ who shall be acceptable in God's Court."
+
+It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine and other
+intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak wrote:
+
+  "By drinking wine man committeth many sins."
+
+Guru Arjan wrote:
+
+  "The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin."
+
+And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desu Singh there is the following:
+
+  "Let a Sikh take no intoxicant; it maketh the body lazy; it diverteth
+  men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth them to
+  evil deeds."
+
+It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to abstain from
+the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising from the Sikh
+adoption of Hindu usages. The two _Granths_ of the Sikhs and all their
+canonical works are absolutely silent on the subject. The Sikhs are not
+bound to abstain from any flesh, except that which is obviously unfit
+for human food, or what is killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging
+an animal's throat with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of
+the main sources of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly
+prohibited by the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host
+as follows:
+
+  "Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the service
+  of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the degrading smoke and
+  cultivate their lands, their wealth and prosperity shall increase, and
+  they shall want for nothing ... but when they smoke the vile
+  vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose their wealth."
+
+Guru Govind Singh also said:
+
+  "Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco destroyeth
+  all generations."
+
+In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most of the
+positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to rulers, a
+quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of the British crown.
+
+  The _Granth_ was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary, on
+  behalf of the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is in many
+  respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the Punjabi
+  dialects. _The Sikh Religion_, &c., in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is an
+  authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with the
+  modern leaders of the Sikh sect.     (M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON, 1st BARON (c. 1695-1770), English diplomatist
+and politician, was a younger son of Sir William Robinson, Bart.
+(1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire, who was member of parliament for York
+from 1697 to 1722. Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity
+College, Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic
+experience in Paris and then went to Vienna, where he was English
+ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought to make peace
+between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great, but in vain,
+and in 1748 he represented his country at the congress of
+Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he sat in parliament for
+Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754 Robinson was appointed a
+secretary of state and leader of the House of Commons by the prime
+minister, the duke of Newcastle, and it was on this occasion that Pitt
+made the famous remark to Fox, "the duke might as well have sent us his
+jackboot to lead us." In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761 he
+was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe from 1749 to
+1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint postmaster-general in
+1765 and 1766. He died in London on the 30th of September 1770.
+
+Grantham's elder son, THOMAS ROBINSON (1738-1786), who became the 2nd
+baron, was born at Vienna on the 30th of November 1738. Educated at
+Westminster School and at Christ's College, Cambridge, he entered
+parliament as member for Christchurch in 1761, and succeeded to the
+peerage in 1770. In 1771 he was sent as ambassador to Madrid and
+retained this post until war broke out between England and Spain in
+1779. From 1780 to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of
+trade and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783
+secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne. He died on
+the 20th of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas Philip, who became the
+3rd baron, and Frederick John afterwards 1st earl of Ripon.
+
+THOMAS PHILIP ROBINSON, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859). in 1803 took the
+name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson. In May 1833 he became Earl
+de Grey of Wrest on the death of his maternal aunt, Amabell
+Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey (1751-1833), and he now took the name of
+de Grey. He was first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in
+1834-1835 and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his
+death without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robinson,
+afterwards marquess of Ripon (q.v.), succeeded as Earl de Grey.
+
+
+
+
+GRANTHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire,
+England; situated in a pleasant undulating country on the river Witham.
+Pop. (1901) 17,593. It is an important junction of the Great Northern
+railway, 105 m. N. by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham,
+Lincoln and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham and the
+Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St Wulfram is a
+splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles, but mainly Early
+English and Decorated. The massive and ornate western tower and spire,
+about 280 ft. in height, are of early Decorated workmanship. There is a
+double Decorated crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south
+porches are fine examples of a later period of the same style. The
+delicately carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the
+16th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the King Edward
+VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received part of his education. A
+bronze statue commemorates him. The late Perpendicular building is
+picturesque, and the school was greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel
+Hotel is a hostelry of the 15th century, with a gateway of earlier date.
+A conduit dating from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern
+public buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches
+and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was erected in
+1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the manufacture of
+agricultural implements. Grantham returns one member to parliament. The
+borough falls within the S. Kesteven or Stamford division of the county.
+Grantham was created a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in
+1905. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 1726 acres.
+
+Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation, Grantham
+(Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its situation on the Ermine
+Street, is supposed to have been a Roman station. It was possibly a
+borough in the Saxon period, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it
+was a royal borough with 111 burgesses. Charters of liberties existing
+now only in the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various
+kings. From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed by
+the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the office of
+alderman had come into existence. Finally government under a mayor and
+alderman was granted by Edward IV. in 1463, and Grantham became a
+corporate town. Among later charters, that of James II., given in 1685,
+changed the title to that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but
+this was afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham was
+first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two members; but
+by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number was reduced to one. Richard
+III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday market and two fairs yearly, namely on
+the feast of St Nicholas the Bishop, and the two following days, and on
+Passion Sunday and the day following. At the present day the market is
+held on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and
+Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair on the 11th
+of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October and the 17th of
+December.
+
+
+
+
+GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, 1st Baron (1716-1789), English politician,
+was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was
+born on the 23rd of June 1716. He became a barrister in 1739, and, after
+a period of inactivity, obtained a large and profitable practice,
+becoming a K.C. in 1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county
+palatine of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for
+Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was appointed
+solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762. He took part in the
+proceedings against John Wilkes, and, having become attorney-general in
+1763, prosecuted the 5th Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth,
+losing his office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in
+July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for Guildford,
+Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice in eyre of the
+forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen Speaker of the House
+of Commons. In 1777, when presenting the bill for the increase of the
+civil list to the king, he told George III. that parliament has "not
+only granted to your majesty a large present supply, but also a very
+great additional revenue; great beyond example; great beyond your
+majesty's highest expense." This speech aroused general attention and
+caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox and by the
+city of London, and received the thanks of the House of Commons. George,
+however, did not forget these plain words, and after the general
+election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord North, and his followers
+declined to support the re-election of the retiring Speaker, alleging
+that his health was not equal to the duties of the office, and he was
+defeated when the voting took place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron
+Grantley of Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789.
+He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William
+(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as "a bold, able and eloquent, but
+not a popular pleader," and as Speaker he was aggressive and indiscreet.
+Derided by satirists as "Sir Bullface Doublefee," and described by
+Horace Walpole as one who "rose from obscure infamy to that infamous
+fame which will long stick to him," his character was also assailed by
+Junius, and the general impression is that he was a hot-tempered,
+avaricious and unprincipled man.
+
+  See H. Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F.
+  R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, _Historical and Posthumous
+  Memoirs_, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A. Manning, _Lives
+  of the Speakers_ (1850).
+
+
+
+
+GRANTOWN, the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
+1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23-1/4 m. S. of Forres by
+the Highland railway, with a station on the Great North of Scotland's
+Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with Boat of Garten. It was
+founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of Grant, and became the chief seat
+of that ancient family, who had lived on their adjoining estate of
+Freuchie (Gaelic, _fraochach_, "heathery") since the beginning of the
+15th century, and hence were usually described as the lairds of
+Freuchie. The public buildings include the town hall, court house and
+orphan hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the cattle
+trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey granite,
+presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully situated in the
+midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods in Scotland, with pure
+air and a bracing climate, is an attractive resort. Castle Grant,
+immediately to the north, is the principal mansion of the earl of
+Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant. In a cave, still called "Lord
+Huntly's Cave," in a rocky glen in the vicinity, George, marquess of
+Huntly, lay hid during Montrose's campaign in 1644-45.
+
+
+
+
+GRANULITE (Lat. _granulum_, a little grain), a name used by
+petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. According to
+the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite in which
+both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and corresponds to the
+German _Granit_, or to the English "muscovite biotite granite." This
+application has not been accepted generally. To the German petrologists
+"granulite" means a more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock,
+consisting mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular
+crystals, and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded
+pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the term is
+generally employed in this sense. The granulites are very closely allied
+to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the same minerals, but they
+are finer grained, have usually less perfect foliation, are more
+frequently garnetiferous, and have some special features of microscopic
+structure. In the rocks of this group the minerals, as seen in a
+microscopic slide, occur as small rounded grains forming a mosaic
+closely fitted together. The individual crystals have never perfect
+form, and indeed rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they
+interlock, with irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out
+and flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they
+are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger. This is
+especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the predominant
+minerals; mica always appears as flat scales (irregular or rounded but
+not hexagonal). Both muscovite and biotite may be present and vary
+considerably in abundance; very commonly they have their flat sides
+parallel and give the rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be
+aggregated into bands--in which case the granulites are
+indistinguishable from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very
+generally larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily
+visible with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock.
+They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals.
+
+The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or cryptoperthite;
+microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common. Basic felspars occur
+only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in addition to apatite, zircon,
+and iron oxides, the following may be mentioned: hornblende (not
+common), riebeckite (rare), epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene,
+andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile,
+orthite and tourmaline. Though occasionally we may find larger grains of
+felspar, quartz or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks
+that all the minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped
+individuals.
+
+On account of the minuteness with which it has been described and the
+important controversies on points of theoretical geology which have
+arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony (around Rosswein,
+Penig, &c.) may be considered the typical region for rocks of this
+group. It should be remembered that though granulites are probably the
+commonest rocks of this country, they are mingled with granites,
+gneisses, gabbros, amphibolites, mica schists and many other
+petrographical types. All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism
+either of a thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The
+granites pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro
+and amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, and
+show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks were regarded
+as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes Georg Lehmann propounded
+the hypothesis that their present state was due principally to crushing
+acting on them in a solid condition, grinding them down and breaking up
+their minerals, while the pressure to which they were subjected welded
+them together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that they
+are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, partly of
+Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be nearly massive or may
+have gneissose, flaser or granulitic structures. These have been
+developed largely by the injection of semi-consolidated highly viscous
+intrusions, and the varieties of texture are original or were produced
+very shortly after the crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however,
+Lehmann's advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the
+development of granulites has been so successful that the terms
+granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed to
+indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks at a period
+long after their solidification.
+
+The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous and
+correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. There are,
+however, many granulites which undoubtedly were originally sediments
+(arkoses, grits and sandstones). A large part of the highlands of
+Scotland consists of paragranulites of this kind, which have received
+the group name of "Moine gneisses."
+
+Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in Saxony,
+India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-coloured basic
+granulites ("trap granulites"). These are fine-grained rocks, not
+usually banded, nearly black in colour with small red spots of garnet.
+Their essential minerals are pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet:
+chemically they resemble the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form
+a considerable part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite,
+hornblende and quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial
+grouping of small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of
+felspar: these "centric" structures are frequent in granulites. The
+rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpentine, but the exact
+conditions under which they are formed and the significance of their
+structures is not very clearly understood.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT, CARDINAL DE (1517-1586), one of the ablest
+and most influential of the princes of the church during the great
+political and ecclesiastical movements which immediately followed the
+appearance of Protestantism in Europe, was born on the 20th of August
+1517 at Besancon, where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella
+(1484-1550), who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under
+Charles V., was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an
+influential position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death
+he was one of the emperor's most trusted advisers in Germany. On the
+completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity at Louvain,
+Antoine held a canonry at Besancon, but he was promoted to the bishopric
+of Arras when barely twenty-three (1540). In his episcopal capacity he
+attended several diets of the empire, as well as the opening meetings of
+the council of Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor,
+led to his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of
+public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare talent
+for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate acquaintance
+with most of the currents of European politics. One of his specially
+noteworthy performances was the settlement of the terms of peace after
+the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden at Muhlberg in 1547, a
+settlement in which, to say the least, some particularly sharp practice
+was exhibited. In 1550 he succeeded his father in the office of
+secretary of state; in this capacity he attended Charles in the war with
+Maurice, elector of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from
+Innsbruck, and afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In
+the following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage of
+Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555, on the
+abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services, and by whom he
+was employed in the Netherlands. In April 1559 Granvella was one of the
+Spanish commissioners who arranged the peace of Cateau Cambresis, and on
+Philip's withdrawal from the Netherlands in August of the same year he
+was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma. The
+policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued during the next
+five years secured for him many tangible rewards, in 1560 he was
+elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines, and in 1561 he received
+the cardinal's hat; but the growing hostility of a people whose
+religious convictions he had set himself to trample under foot
+ultimately made it impossible for him to continue in the Low Countries,
+and by the advice of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to
+Franche Comte. Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary
+character, but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent
+in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in 1565; but
+in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed public life by
+accepting another mission to Rome. Here he helped to arrange the
+alliance between the Papacy, Venice and Spain against the Turks, an
+alliance which was responsible for the victory of Lepanto. In the same
+year he became viceroy of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger,
+which for five years he occupied with ability and success. He was
+summoned to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council
+for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of his later
+years were those of 1580, which had for their object the ultimate union
+of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and those of 1584, which resulted
+in a check to France by the marriage of the Spanish infanta Catherine to
+Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop
+of Besancon, but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering
+disease; he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of
+September 1586. His body was removed to Besancon, where his father had
+been buried. Granvella was a man of great learning, which was equalled
+by his industry, and these qualities made him almost indispensable both
+to Charles V. and to Philip II.
+
+  Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the
+  archives of Besancon. These were to some extent made use of by Prosper
+  Leveque in his _Memoires pour servir_ (1753), as well as by the Abbe
+  Boisot in the _Tresor de Granvella_. A commission for publishing the
+  whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by Guizot in 1834, and
+  the result has been the issue of nine volumes of the _Papiers d'Etat
+  du cardinal de Granvelle_, edited by C. Weiss (Paris, 1841-1852). They
+  form a part of the _Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de
+  France_, and were supplemented by the _Correspondance du cardinal
+  Granvelle, 1565-1586_, edited by M. E. Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12
+  vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also the anonymous _Histoire du
+  cardinal de Granville_, attributed to Courchetet D'Esnans (Paris,
+  1761); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; M. Philippson, _Ein
+  Ministerium unter Philipp II._ (Berlin, 1895); and the _Cambridge
+  Modern History_ (vol. iii. 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER, 2ND EARL (1815-1891), English
+statesman, eldest son of the 1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his
+marriage with Lady Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born
+in London on the 11th of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower,
+was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess of
+Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the second wife
+(a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became the 2nd marquess of
+Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter and heiress of the 17th
+earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland in her own right) led to the
+merging of the Gower and Stafford titles in that of the dukes of
+Sutherland (created 1833), who represent the elder branch of the family.
+As Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created
+viscount in 1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and
+was ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-1841). He
+was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of Canning. The title
+of Earl Granville had been previously held in the Carteret family.
+
+After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord Leveson went
+to Paris for a short time under his father, and in 1836 was returned to
+parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth. For a short time he was
+under-secretary for foreign affairs in Lord Melbourne's ministry. In
+1840 he married Lady Acton (Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of
+Sir Richard Acton; see ACTON and DALBERG). From 1841 till his father's
+death in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield. In
+the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader, and Lord John
+Russell made him master of the buckhounds (1846). He proved a useful
+member of the party, and his influence and amiable character were
+valuable in all matters needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became
+vice-president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent part
+in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter year, having
+already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded Palmerston at the
+foreign office until Lord John Russell's defeat in 1852; and when Lord
+Aberdeen formed his government at the end of the year, he became first
+president of the council, and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
+(1854). Under Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council.
+His interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led to
+his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University, a post he
+held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent champion of the
+movement for the admission of women, and also of the teaching of modern
+languages. From 1855 Lord Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House,
+both in office, and, after Palmerston's resignation in 1858, in
+opposition. He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar's
+coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed by the rival
+ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him to form a ministry,
+but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston again became prime minister,
+with Lord John as foreign secretary and Granville as president of the
+council. In 1860 his wife died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added
+that of his great friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother
+(1862); but he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his
+office when, on Palmerston's death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer)
+became prime minister and took over the leadership in the House of
+Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, and in the same
+year married again, his second wife being Miss Castalia Campbell. From
+1866 to 1868 he was in opposition, but in December 1868 he became
+colonial secretary in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was
+invaluable to the government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills
+through the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord
+Clarendon's death, he was transferred to the foreign office. Lord
+Granville's name is mainly associated with his career as foreign
+secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal foreign policy of
+that period was not distinguished by enterprise or "backbone." Lord
+Granville personally was patient and polite, but his courteous and
+pacific methods were somewhat inadequate in dealing with the new
+situation then arising in Europe and outside it; and foreign governments
+had little scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and
+relying on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong
+measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within a few days of
+Lord Granville's quoting in the House of Lords (11th of July) the
+curiously unprophetic opinion of the permanent under-secretary (Mr
+Hammond) that "he had never known so great a lull in foreign affairs."
+Russia took advantage of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses
+of the treaty of Paris, and Lord Granville's protest was ineffectual. In
+1871 an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan was
+agreed on between him and Shuvalov; but in 1873 Russia took possession
+of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord Granville had to accept the
+aggression. When the Conservatives came into power in 1874, his part for
+the next six years was to criticize Disraeli's "spirited" foreign
+policy, and to defend his own more pliant methods. He returned to the
+foreign office in 1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing
+in German policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders
+were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed to realize
+in time the importance of the Angra Pequena question in 1883-1884, and
+he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to yield to Bismarck over it.
+Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan or equatorial and south-west Africa,
+British foreign policy was dominated by suavity rather than by the
+strength which commands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home
+Rule for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive to
+new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave way to Lord
+Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign office; the
+Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground in the country by
+Lord Granville's occupancy of the post. He went to the Colonial Office
+for six months, and in July 1886 retired from public life. He died in
+London on the 31st of March 1891, being succeeded in the title by his
+son, born in 1872. Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many
+friendships, and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like
+a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no place in
+history as a constructive statesman.
+
+  The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of
+  interesting material for the history of the period, but being written
+  by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it
+  explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that
+  department.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763), English statesman, commonly
+known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret, born on the 22nd of April
+1690, was the son of George, 1st Lord Carteret, by his marriage with
+Grace Granville, daughter of Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and
+great grandson of the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous
+for his death in the "Revenge." The family of Carteret was settled in
+the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John Carteret was
+educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford. Swift says that
+"with a singularity scarce to be justified he carried away more Greek,
+Latin and philosophy than properly became a person of his rank."
+Throughout life Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics,
+but a taste for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures.
+He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew German. Harte,
+the author of the _Life of Gustavus Adolphus_, acknowledged the aid
+which Carteret had given him. On the 17th of October 1710 he married at
+Longleat Lady Frances Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount
+Weymouth. He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though
+his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of Stuart,
+Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian dynasty. He was a
+friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and Sunderland, took a share in
+defeating the Jacobite conspiracy of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen
+Anne, and supported the passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret's
+interests were however in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His
+serious work in public life began with his appointment, early in 1719,
+as ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year he was
+employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter the Great, and in
+arranging the pacification of the north. His efforts were finally
+successful. During this period of diplomatic work he acquired an
+exceptional knowledge of the affairs of Europe, and in particular of
+Germany, and displayed great tact and temper in dealing with the Swedish
+senate, with Queen Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick
+William I. of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the
+intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary of state
+for the southern department on his return home, he soon became
+helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend and Sir Robert
+Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every able colleague, or
+subordinate, as an enemy to be removed, Carteret was exceptionally
+odious. His capacity to speak German with the king would alone have made
+Sir Robert detest him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland
+against Wood's halfpence (see SWIFT, JONATHAN) made it necessary to
+replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was sent to
+Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October 1724, and remained
+there till 1730. In the first months of his tenure of office he had to
+deal with the furious opposition to Wood's halfpence, and to counteract
+the effect of Swift's _Draper's Letters_. The lord lieutenant had a
+strong personal liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady
+Carteret's family. It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have
+reconciled his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if
+government had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage
+on the Irish people. Wood's patent was however withdrawn, and Ireland
+settled down. Carteret was a profuse and popular lord lieutenant who
+pleased both the "English interest" and the native Irish. He was at all
+times addicted to lavish hospitality, and according to the testimony of
+contemporaries was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in
+1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of Commons,
+and as the trusted minister of King George II. He had the full
+confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced against Carteret. Till
+the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret could take no share in public
+affairs except as a leader of opposition of the Lords. His brilliant
+parts were somewhat obscured by his rather erratic conduct, and a
+certain contempt, partly aristocratic and partly intellectual, for
+commonplace men and ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who
+loved literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having paid
+the expenses of the first handsome edition of _Don Quixote_ to please
+her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed himself to be
+entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between Frederick, prince of
+Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline was provoked into classing him
+and Bolingbroke, as "the two most worthless men of parts in the
+country." Carteret took the popular side in the outcry against Walpole
+for not making war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession
+approached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa--mainly on
+the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would dangerously
+increase the power of France, even if she gained no accession of
+territory. These views made him welcome to George II., who gladly
+accepted him as secretary of state in 1742. In 1743 he accompanied the
+king of Germany, and was present at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th
+of June. He held the secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in
+promoting an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He
+understood the relations of the European states, and the interests of
+Great Britain among them. But the defects which had rendered him unable
+to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him equally unable to contend
+with the Pelhams. His support of the king's policy was denounced as
+subservience to Hanover. Pitt called him "an execrable, a sole minister
+who had renounced the British nation." A few years later Pitt adopted an
+identical policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt from
+Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became Earl Granville on
+the death of his mother. His first wife died in June 1743 at
+Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter
+of Lord Pomfret--a fashionable beauty and "reigning toast" of London
+society, who was younger than his daughters. "The nuptials of our great
+Quixote and the fair Sophia," and Granville's ostentatious performance
+of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace Walpole. The countess
+Granville died on the 7th of October 1745, leaving one daughter Sophia,
+who married Lord Shelburne, 1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may
+have done something to increase Granville's reputation for eccentricity.
+In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the intrigues of
+the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but resigned in
+forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president of the council, and
+was still liked and trusted by the king, but his share in government did
+not go beyond giving advice, and endeavouring to forward ministerial
+arrangements. In 1756 he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister
+as the alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood why
+the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When in October 1761
+Pitt, who had information of the signing of the "Family Compact" wished
+to declare war on Spain, and declared his intention to resign unless his
+advice was accepted, Granville replied that "the opinion of the majority
+(of the Cabinet) must decide." He spoke in complimentary terms of Pitt,
+but resisted his claim to be considered as a "sole minister" or, in the
+modern phrase, "a prime minister." Whether he used the words attributed
+to him in the Annual Register for 1761 is more than doubtful, but the
+minutes of council show that they express his meaning. Granville
+remained in office as president till his death. His last act was to
+listen while on his death-bed to the reading of the preliminaries of the
+treaty of Paris. He was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood,
+author of an essay on _The Original Genius of Homer_, would have
+postponed the business, but Granville said that it "could not prolong
+his life to neglect his duty," and quoted the speech of Sarpedon from
+_Iliad_ xii. 322-328, repeating the last word ([Greek: iomen]) "with a
+calm and determined resignation." He died in his house in Arlington
+Street, London, on the 22nd of January 1763. The title of Granville
+descended to his son Robert, who died without issue in 1776, when the
+earldom of this creation became extinct.
+
+  A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by
+  Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of _Lord Carteret, a Political
+  Biography_.
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South Wales, 13 m. by rail
+W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is an important railway junction and
+manufacturing town, producing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes,
+tiles and bricks; there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene
+and meat export works. It became a municipality in 1885.
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western
+France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of the Bosq, 85 m. S.
+by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,530. Granville consists of
+two quarters, the upper town built on a promontory jutting into the sea
+and surrounded by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below
+it. The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building of
+granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in the
+upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two floating basins
+and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part in deep sea fishing,
+including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, and oyster-fishing is
+carried on. It has regular communication with Guernsey and Jersey, and
+with the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. The principal exports are
+eggs, vegetables and fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are
+imported. The industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the
+manufacture of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing,
+metal-founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical manures.
+Among the public institutions are a tribunal and a chamber of commerce.
+In the commune are included the Iles Chausey about 7-1/2 m. N.W. of
+Granville (see Channel Islands). Granville, before an insignificant
+village, was fortified by the English in 1437, taken by the French in
+1441, bombarded and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully
+besieged by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by the
+English in 1803.
+
+
+
+
+GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of
+Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop.
+of the village (1910) 1394; of the township (1910) 2442. Granville is
+served by the Toledo & Ohio Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the
+latter reaching Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways),
+Columbus, Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of
+Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist Education
+Society and opened as a manual labour school, called the Granville
+Literary and Theological Institution. It was renamed Granville College
+in 1845, and took its present name in 1854 in honour of William S.
+Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, who had given $10,000 to the college. The
+university comprised in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College
+(229 students), the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College
+(246 students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the
+collegiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies' Institute
+of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination in 1887 by Dr
+Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, and closely affiliated for
+scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the university, though legally it
+is still a distinct institution; Doane Academy (137 students), the
+preparatory department for boys, established in 1831, named Granville
+Academy in 1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of
+Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music (137
+students); and a school of art (38 students).
+
+In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding year in
+Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land in Ohio, including
+the site of Granville; the town was laid out, and in the last months of
+that year settlers from Granville, Mass., began to arrive. By January
+1806 the colony numbered 234 persons; the township was incorporated in
+1806 and the village was incorporated in 1831. There are several
+remarkable Indian mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an
+alligator.
+
+  See Henry Bushnell, _History of Granville, Ohio_ (Columbus, O., 1889).
+
+
+
+
+GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (q.v.). The word is adopted from the O. Fr.
+_grape_, mod. _grappe_, bunch or cluster of flowers or fruit, _grappes
+de raisin_, bunch of grapes. The French word meant properly a hook; cf.
+M.H.G. _krapfe_, Eng. "grapnel," and "cramp." The development of meaning
+seems to be vine-hook, cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in
+English a single grape of a cluster. The projectile called "grape" or
+"grape-shot," formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name
+from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted of a
+number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary
+musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron plates, a bolt passing
+through the centre of the plates binding the whole together. On being
+discharged the projectile delivered the bullets in a shower somewhat
+after the fashion of case-shot.
+
+
+
+
+GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometrical figures the
+numerical data which result from the quantitative investigation of
+phenomena. The simplest application is met with in the representation of
+tabular data such as occur in statistics. Such tables are usually of
+single entry, i.e. to a certain value of one variable there corresponds
+one, and only one, value of the other variable. To construct the graph,
+as it is called, of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually
+employed. Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen,
+intersecting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the
+axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along one,
+say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin
+corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these points
+perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates distances are
+taken corresponding to the related values of the other variable. The
+curve drawn through these points is the graph. A general inspection of
+the graph shows in bold relief the essential characters of the table.
+For example, if the world's production of corn over a number of years be
+plotted, a poor yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a
+peak, a uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on.
+Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two or more
+different phenomena, and the curves render apparent at first sight
+similarities or differences which can be made out from the tables only
+after close examination. In making graphs for comparison, the scales
+chosen must give a similar range of variation, otherwise the
+correspondence may not be discerned. For example, the scales adopted for
+the average consumption of tea and sugar must be ounces for the former
+and pounds for the latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by
+automatic recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph,
+seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more rarely used,
+being only specially applicable when one of the variables is a direction
+or recorded as an angle. A simple case is the representation of
+photometric data, i.e. the value of the intensity of the light emitted
+in different directions from a luminous source (see LIGHTING).
+
+  The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems is
+  usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems in
+  mechanics is treated in MECHANICS, S 5, _Graphic Statics_, and
+  DIAGRAM. A special phase is presented in VECTOR ANALYSIS.
+
+
+
+
+GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element carbon
+crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically, it is thus
+indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between the two there are
+very wide differences in physical characters. Graphite is black and
+opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and transparent; it is one of the
+softest (H = 1) of minerals, and diamond the hardest of all; it is a
+good conductor of electricity, whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The
+specific gravity is 2.2, that of diamond is 3.5. Further, unlike
+diamond, it never occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as
+imperfect six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage
+parallel to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are
+flexible but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils
+everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is bright and
+metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus strikingly similar
+to molybdenite (q.v.).
+
+The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from the Greek
+[Greek: graphein], "to write," because the mineral is used for making
+pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plumbago and
+black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these names are
+singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. _plumbum_, lead) was originally
+used for an artificial product obtained from lead ore, and afterwards
+for the ore (galena) itself; it was confused both with graphite and with
+molybdenite. The true chemical nature of graphite was determined by K.
+W. Scheele in 1779.
+
+Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks--gneiss,
+granulite, schist and crystalline limestone--and also sometimes in
+granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks, or as
+large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been observed as a
+product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous clay-slates near their
+contact with granite, and where igneous rocks have been intruded into
+beds of coal; in these cases the mineral has clearly been derived from
+organic matter. The graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as
+well as that contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an
+origin. As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark
+lustrous scales in grey pig-iron, and in the "kish" of iron furnaces: it
+is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with
+carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite veins in
+the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalliferous veins and
+the material derived from deep-seated sources; the decomposition of
+metallic carbides by water and the reduction of hydrocarbon vapours have
+been suggested as possible modes of origin. Such veins often attain a
+thickness of several feet, and sometimes possess a columnar structure
+perpendicular to the enclosing walls; they are met with in the
+crystalline limestones and other Laurentian rocks of New York and
+Canada, in the gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of
+Ceylon. Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount
+are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale mine in
+Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico, probably the
+richest deposits in the world, supply the American lead pencil
+manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Pennsylvania and Alabama is
+"flake" and unsuitable for this purpose.
+
+Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants, grate
+polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The material as mined
+usually does not contain more than 20 to 50% of graphite: the ore has
+therefore to be crushed and the graphite floated off in water from the
+heavier impurities. Even the purest forms contain a small percentage of
+volatile matter and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially
+suitable for pencils, contains about 12% of impurities. (L. J. S.)
+
+_Artificial Manufacture._--The alteration of carbon at high temperatures
+into a material resembling graphite has long been known. In 1893 Girard
+and Street patented a furnace and a process by which this transformation
+could be effected. Carbon powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed
+through a tube in which it was subjected to the action of one or more
+electric arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his
+carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899 the
+International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing electric
+current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are adopted: (1)
+graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitization of anthracite _en
+masse_. The former includes electrodes, lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some
+other form of amorphous carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the
+required article moulded in a press or by a die. The articles are
+stacked transversely in a furnace, each being packed in granular coke
+and covered with carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at
+220 volts, increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In
+graphitizing _en masse_ large lumps of anthracite are treated in the
+electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating carbon with
+ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the so-called
+"deflocculated" variety when treated with gallotannic acid. These two
+modifications are valuable lubricants. The massive graphite is very
+easily machined and is widely used for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead
+pencils and the like.
+
+  See "Graphite and its Uses," _Bull. Imperial Institute_, (1906) P.
+  353. (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, _Graphite_ (Ottawa, 1907).     (W. G. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAPTOLITES, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose skeletal remains
+are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally in great abundance. They
+are usually preserved as branching or unbranching carbonized bodies,
+tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in shape, their edges regularly toothed
+or denticulated. Most frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes
+of black shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of
+sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their original
+relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.
+
+Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous investment or
+supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each tooth-like projection
+marking the position of the sheath or _theca_ of an individual zooid.
+Some of the branching forms have a distinct outward resemblance to the
+polyparies of _Sertularia_ and _Plumularia_ among the recent Hydroida
+(_Calyptoblastea_); in none of the unbranching forms, however, is the
+similarity by any means close.
+
+The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the majority range
+from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples have been met with
+having a length or more than 30 in.
+
+Very different views have been held as to the systematic place and rank
+of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them in his group of false fossils
+(_Graptolithus_ = written stone). At one time they were referred by some
+to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), and later, by almost general consent, to the
+Hydroida (Calyptoblastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late
+years an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as
+constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own
+(_Graptolithina_).
+
+There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the _Graptoloidea_ or
+Graptolites proper, and the _Dendroidea_ or tree-like Graptolites; the
+former is typified by the unbranched genus _Monograptus_ and the latter
+by the many-branched genus _Dendrograptus_.
+
+  A _Monograptus_ makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like
+  body (the _sicula_), which represents the flattened covering of the
+  primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had
+  originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or
+  regions--an upper and smaller (_apical_ or embryonic) portion, marked
+  by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread (the
+  _nema_) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or _apertural_)
+  portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the
+  direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms the
+  broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with a
+  perpendicular spine (_virgella_) and occasionally with two shorter
+  lateral spines or lobes.
+
+  A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its
+  length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial
+  theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of
+  the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the
+  mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial
+  theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180 deg.
+  with the direction of that of the sicula.
+
+  From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same
+  direction, and from the second a third, and soon, in a continuous
+  linear series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the
+  one immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is
+  effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of
+  the sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to
+  grow soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains
+  permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it
+  forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third or
+  fourth theca.
+
+A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or _virgula_)
+becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall of the polypary,
+and is sometimes continued distally as a naked rod. It was formerly
+supposed that a virgula was present in all the Graptoloidea; hence the
+term _Rhabdophora_ sometimes employed for the Graptoloidea in general,
+and _rhabdosome_ for the individual polypary; but while the virgula is
+present in many (Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).
+
+The GRAPTOLOIDEA are arranged in eight families, each named after a
+characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Leptograptidae; (3)
+Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5) Glossograptidae (sub-family,
+Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae; (7) Dimorphograptidae; (8)
+Monograptidae.
+
+In all these families the polypary originates as in _Monograptus_ from a
+nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards and gives off only
+a single bud, such branching as may take place occurring at subsequent
+stages in the growth of the polypary. In some species young examples
+have been met with in which the nema ends above in a small membranous
+disk, which has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the
+underside of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young
+polypary hung suspended.
+
+Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance in time in
+the order given above, and show a progressive morphological evolution
+along certain special lines. There is a tendency for the branches to
+become reduced in number, and for the serial thecae to become directed
+more and more upwards towards the line of the nema. In the oldest
+family--Dichograptidae--in which the branching polypary is bilaterally
+symmetrical and the thecae uniserial (_monoprionidian_)--there is a
+gradation from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with
+only two; and from species in which all the branches and their thecae
+are directed downwards, through species in which the branches become
+bent back more and more outwards and upwards, until in some the terminal
+thecae open almost vertically. In the genus _Phyllograptus_ the branches
+have become reduced to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls
+along the line of the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base
+of the polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are
+reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal walls, and
+the polypary thus becomes biserial (_diprionidian_), and the line of the
+nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure, the _nemacaulus_ or
+virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family, the Monograptidae, the
+branches are theoretically reduced to one, the polypary is uniserial
+throughout, and all the thecae are directed outwards and upwards.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+   1, _Diptograptus_, young sicula.
+   2, _Monograptus dubius_, sicula and first serial theca (partly
+        restored).
+   3, Young form (all above after Wiman).
+  4a, Older form.
+  4b, Showing virgula (after Holm).
+   5, _Rastrites distans._
+   6, Base of Diptograptus (after Wiman).
+   7, D. calcaratus.
+   8, Dimorphograptus.
+   9, Base of _Didymograptus minulus_ (after Holm).
+  10, Young _Dictyograptus_, with primary disk.
+  11, Ibid. _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).
+  12 a-b, Base and transverse section, _Retiolites Geinitzianus_ (after
+        Holm).
+  13, _Bryograptus Kjerulfi_.
+  14, _Dichograptus octobrachiatus_, with central disk.
+  15, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_.
+  16, _D. gibberulus_.
+  17 a-b, _Phyllograptus_ and transverse section.
+  18, _Nemagraptus gracilis_.
+  19, _Dicranograptus ramosus_.
+  20, _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_.
+  21, _Glossograptus Hincksii_.
+  22, _Lasiograptus costatus_ (after Elles and Wood).
+  23, _Dictyonema (-graptus) flabelliforme (-is)_.
+  24, _Dictyonema (-dendron) peltatum_ with base of attachment.
+  25, _D. cervicorne_, branches (after Holm).
+  26, _D. rarum_ (section after Wiman).
+  27, _Dendrograptus Hallianus_.
+  28, Synrhabdosome of _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann).
+  S,  Sicula.
+  u,  Upper or apical portion.
+  l,  Lower or apertural.
+  m,  Mouth.
+  N,  Nema.
+  nn, Nemacaulus or virgular tube.
+  V,  Virgula.
+  vv,  Virgella.
+  zz, Septal strands.
+  T,  Theca.
+  C,  Common canal (in Retiolites).
+  G,  Gonangium.
+  g,  Gonotheca.
+  b,  Budding theca.]
+
+  The thecae in the earliest family--Dichograptidae--are so similar in
+  form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a
+  colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in those
+  of the latest family--Monograptidae--in some species of which the
+  terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (_Rastrites_) and in
+  some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the families
+  are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes: the spines
+  are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial forms: in the
+  Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a marginal meshwork
+  surrounding the polypary.
+
+  _Histologically_, the perisarc or _test_ in the Graptoloidea appears
+  to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure,
+  and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity. The
+  central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth; but in
+  _Glossograptus_ and _Lasiograptus_ it is thinned down to a fine
+  membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, and
+  in _Retiolites_ this membrane is reduced to a delicate network. The
+  groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to,
+  collectively, as the _Retioloidea_, and the structure as _retioloid_.
+
+It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each graptolite
+polypary (_rhabdosome_) developed from a single sicula as an individual
+of the highest order. Certain American forms, however, which are
+preserved as stellate groups, have been interpreted as complex
+umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, individuals of a still higher order
+(_synrhabdosomes_), composed of a number of biserial polyparies (each
+having a sicula at its outer extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a
+common centre of origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming
+bladder and a ring of capsules.
+
+In the DENDROIDEA, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical in shape
+and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous branches irregularly
+disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or short basal portion ending
+below in root-like fibres or in a membranous disk or sheet of
+attachment. An exception, however, is constituted by the comprehensive
+genus _Dictyonema_, which embraces species composed of a large number of
+divergent and sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments
+into a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes
+some forms (_Dictyograptus_) which originate from a nema-bearing sicula
+and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.
+
+Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea little is
+known, but the more mature stages have been fully worked out. In
+_Dictyonema_ the branches show thecae of two kinds: (1) the ordinary
+tubular thecae answering to those of the Graptoloidea and occupied by
+the nourishing zooids; and (2) the so-called _bithecae_, birdnest-like
+cups (regarded by their discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately
+right and left of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third
+set of thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals.
+In the genus _Dendrograptus_ the gonothecae open within the walls of the
+ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward resemblance to
+those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in striking contrast to what
+obtains among the Graptoloidea in general, the budding orifices in the
+Dendroidea become closed, and all the various cells shut off from each
+other.
+
+The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory: the
+families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera
+_Dendrograptus_, _Dictyonema_, _Inocaulis_ and _Thamnograptus_.
+
+  As regards the _modes of reproduction among the Graptolites_ little is
+  known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae were
+  possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some as
+  nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular
+  appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked upon
+  as connected with the reproductive system; and in the umbrella-shaped
+  _synrhabdosomes_ already referred to, the common centre is surrounded
+  by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian capsules. The theory
+  of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies in the Graptoloidea
+  is, however, disputed by some authorities, and it has been suggested
+  that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the product of the normal
+  or sexual mode of propagation in the group, but owes its origin to a
+  peculiar type of budding or non-sexual reproduction, in which, as
+  temporary resting or protecting structures, the vesicular bodies may
+  have had a share.
+
+As respects the _mode of life of the Graptolites_ there can be little
+doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions, sessile or
+benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the recent
+Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining attached to the
+sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The Graptoloidea have
+also been regarded by some as benthonic organisms. A more prevalent
+view, however, is that the majority were pseudo-planktonic or drifting
+colonies, hanging from the underside of floating seaweeds; their
+polyparies being each suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of
+growth, and, in later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others
+became adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their
+dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained
+permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may have become
+broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum, at the mercy of the
+winds and currents, carrying the attached Graptolites into all
+latitudes. The more complex umbrella-shaped colonies of colonies
+(synrhabdosomes) described as provided with a common swimming bladder
+(pneumatophore?) may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming
+mode of existence.
+
+The _range of the Graptolites in time_ extends from the Cambrian to the
+Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have this extended range,
+the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the close of Silurian time. Both
+groups make their first appearance together near the end of the
+Cambrian; but while in the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian the
+Dendroidea are comparatively rare, the Graptoloidea become the most
+characteristic and, locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.
+
+The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably short
+range in geological time; but the geographical distribution of the group
+as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost world-wide. This
+combination of circumstances has given the Graptoloidea a paramount
+stratigraphical importance as palaeontological indices of the detailed
+sequence and correlation of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many
+_Graptolite zones_, showing a constant uniformity of succession,
+paralleled in this respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of
+the Jurassic, have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe,
+each marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and
+associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding horizons
+to those on which they are found in Britain, have been met with in the
+graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations of other parts of Europe,
+in America, Australia, New Zealand and elsewhere.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Linnaeus, _Systema naturae_ (12th ed. 1768); Hall,
+  _Graptolites of the Quebec Group_ (1865); Barrande, _Graptolites de
+  Boheme_ (1850); Carruthers, _Revision of the British Graptolites_
+  (1868); H. A. Nicholson, _Monograph of British Graptolites_, pt. 1
+  (1872); id. and J. E. Marr, _Phylogeny of the Graptolites_ (1895);
+  Hopkinson, _On British Graptolites_ (1869); Allman, _Monograph of
+  Gymnoblastic Hydroids_ (1872); Lapworth, _An Improved Classification
+  of the Rhabdophora_ (1873); _The Geological Distribution of the
+  Rhabdophora_ (1879, 1880); Walther, _Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere_
+  (1897); Tullberg, _Skanes Grapioliter_ (1882, 1883); Tornquist,
+  _Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds_ (1899); Wiman, _Die Graptolithen_
+  (1895); Holm, _Gotlands Graptoliter_ (1890); Perner, _Graptolites de
+  Boheme_ (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, _Development and Mode of Growth of
+  Diplograptus_ (1895-1896); _Graptolites of New York_, vol. i. (1904),
+  vol. ii. (1908); Frech, _Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden_ (1897);
+  Elles and Wood, _Monograph of British Graptolites_ (1901-1909).
+       (C. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GRASLITZ (Czech, _Kraslice_), a town of Bohemia, on the Zwodau, 145 m.
+N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, exclusively German. Graslitz
+is one of the most important industrial towns of Bohemia, its
+specialities being the manufacture of musical instruments, carried on
+both as a factory and a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in
+importance are cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing,
+and the mother-of-pearl industry.
+
+
+
+
+GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart of the English
+Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district in 1901, 781) lies
+near the head of the lake, on the small river Rothay and the
+Keswick-Ambleside road, 12-1/2 m. from Keswick and 4 from Ambleside. The
+scenery is very beautiful; the valley about the lakes of Grasmere and
+Rydal Water is in great part wooded, while on its eastern flank there
+rises boldly the range of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and
+Seat Sandal, and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are
+Loughrigg Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre
+for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered appearance.
+In a house still standing William Wordsworth lived from 1799 to 1808,
+and it was subsequently occupied by Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley
+Coleridge. Wordsworth's tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the
+churchyard of the ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial
+to Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival called the
+Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the octave of St Oswald's
+day (August 5th), when a holiday is observed and the church decorated
+with rushes, heather and flowers. The festival is of early origin, and
+has been derived by some from the Roman _Floralia_, but appears also to
+have been made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches,
+unpaved in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which
+forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories are
+symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle plays may
+be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, _A Rambler's Note-Book at the English
+Lakes_, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for an athletic meeting
+in August.
+
+The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has an extreme
+breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from north to south, and
+rises so high as to form an island about the middle. The greatest depth
+of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east of this ridge.
+
+
+
+
+GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The natural vegetable covering of
+the soil in most countries is "grass" (for derivation see GRASSES) of
+various kinds. Even where dense forest or other growth exists, if a
+little daylight penetrates to the ground grass of some sort or another
+will grow. On ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried
+out, the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either be
+in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone, after
+having been cultivated.
+
+Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm, but since
+the "era of cheap corn" set in its importance has been increased, and
+much more attention has been given to the study of the different species
+of grass, their characteristics, the improvement of a pasture generally,
+and the "laying down" of arable land into grass where tillage farming
+has not paid. Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their
+farms--from a third to a half of the area--and even on wholly arable
+farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops devoted
+to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation is corn, roots,
+corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots, corn, grass, grass;
+the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn, flax, grass, grass, grass;
+and so on, to the point where the grass remains down for 5 years, or is
+left indefinitely.
+
+Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed as pasture pure
+and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the latter case it is usually
+classed as "meadow" land, and often forms an alluvial tract alongside a
+stream, but as grass is often grazed and hayed in alternate years, the
+distinction is not a hard and fast one.
+
+There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent. The latter
+again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass natural to land that
+has never been cultivated, and the pasture that has been laid down
+artificially on land previously arable and allowed to remain and improve
+itself in the course of time. The existence of ridge and furrow on many
+old pastures in Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one
+time, though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid down
+pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality about the fifth
+and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and improve year by year
+afterwards. This is usually attributed to the fact that the unsuitable
+varieties die out, and the "naturally" suitable varieties only come in
+gradually. This trouble can be largely prevented, however, by a
+judicious selection of seed, and by subsequently manuring with
+phosphatic manures, with farmyard or other bulky "topdressings," or by
+feeding sheep with cake and corn over the field.
+
+All the grasses proper belong to the natural order _Gramineae_ (see
+GRASSES), to which order also belong all the "corn" plants cultivated
+throughout the world, also many others, such as bamboo, sugar-cane,
+millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for mankind. Of the grasses
+which constitute pastures and hay-fields over a hundred species are
+classified by botanists in Great Britain, with many varieties in
+addition, but the majority of these, though often forming a part of
+natural pastures, are worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The
+grasses of good quality which should form a "sole" in an old pasture and
+provide the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass are
+only about a dozen in number (see below), and of these there are only
+some six species of the very first importance and indispensable in a
+"prescription" of grass seeds intended for laying away land in temporary
+or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a botanical examination to be
+made of several of the most celebrated pastures of England, and,
+contrary to expectation, found that their chief constituents were
+ordinary perennial ryegrass and white clover. Many other grasses and
+legumes were present, but these two formed an overwhelming proportion of
+the plants.
+
+In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &c., includes many
+varieties of clover and other members of the natural order _Leguminosae_
+as well as other "herbs of the field," which, though not strictly
+"grasses," are always found in a grass field, and are included in
+mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows. The following is a list of
+the most desirable or valuable agricultural grasses and clovers, which
+are either actually sown or, in the case of old pastures, encouraged to
+grow by draining, liming, manuring, and so on:--
+
+  _Grasses._
+
+    Alopecurus pratensis     Meadow foxtail.
+    Anthoxanthum odoratum    Sweet vernal grass.
+    Avena elatior            Tall oat-grass.
+    Avena flavescens         Golden oat-grass.
+    Cynosurus cristatus      Crested dogstail.
+    Dactylis glomerata       Cocksfoot.
+    Festuca duriuscula       Hard fescue.
+    Festuca elatior          Tall fescue.
+    Festuca ovina            Sheep's fescue.
+    Festuca pratensis        Meadow fescue.
+    Lolium italicum          Italian ryegrass.
+    Phleum pratense          Timothy or catstail.
+    Poa nemoralis            Wood meadow-grass.
+    Poa pratensis            Smooth meadow-grass.
+    Poa trivialis            Rough meadow-grass.
+
+  _Clovers, &c._
+
+    Medicago lupulina        Trefoil or "Nonsuch."
+    Medicago sativa          Lucerne (Alfalfa).
+    Trifolium hybridum       Alsike clover.
+       "      pratense       Broad red clover.
+       "      pratense  \    Perennial clover.
+       "      perennne  /
+       "      incarnatum     Crimson clover or "Trifolium."
+       "      procumbens     Yellow Hop-trefoil.
+       "      repens         White or Dutch clover.
+    Achillea Millefolium     Yarrow or Milfoil.
+    Anthyllis vulneraria     Kidney-vetch.
+    Lotus major              Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil.
+    Lotus corniculatus       Lesser      "        "
+    Carum petroselinum       Field parsley.
+    Plantago lanceolata      Plantain.
+    Cichorium intybus        Chicory.
+    Poterium officinale      Burnet.
+
+The predominance of any particular species is largely determined by
+climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the treatment it
+receives. In limestone regions sheep's fescue has been found to
+predominate; on wet clay soil the dog's bent (_Agrostis canina_) is
+common; continuous manuring with nitrogenous manures kills out the
+leguminous plants and stimulates such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring
+with phosphates stimulates the clovers and other legumes; and so on.
+Manuring with basic slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre has
+been found to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils.
+Basic slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in
+a soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially
+stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has renovated
+many inferior pastures.
+
+In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with "mineral manures"
+(no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced the grasses from 71 to 64% of
+the whole, while at the same time it has increased the _Leguminosae_
+from 7% to 24%. On the other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure
+in addition to "minerals" has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and
+reduced the legumes to less than 1%.
+
+As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture out of
+arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have demonstrated that
+of the many varieties offered by seedsmen only a very few are of any
+permanent value. A complex mixture of tested seeds was sown, and after
+five years an examination of the pasture showed that only a few
+varieties survived and made the "sole" for either grazing or forage.
+These varieties in the order of their importance were:--
+
+  Cocksfoot               26
+  Perennial rye grass     16
+  Meadow fescue           13
+  Hard fescue              9
+  Crested dogstail         8
+  Timothy                  6
+  White clover             4
+  Meadow foxtail           2
+
+The figures represent approximate percentages.
+
+Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already
+growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of this sort
+will show that the Cambridge experiments are very conclusive, and that
+the above species are the only ones to be depended on. Occasionally some
+other variety will be prominent, but if so there will be a special local
+reason for this.
+
+On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass like to have a
+good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and therefore include
+several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass, evergreen ryegrass,
+&c., knowing that these will die out in the course of years and leave
+the ground to the more permanent species.
+
+There are also several mixtures of "seeds" (the technical name given on
+the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted with success in laying
+down permanent pasture in some localities.
+
+  +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+  |                     |      |         |          |       |Cambridge|General |
+  |                     |Young.|De Laune.|Leicester.|Elliot.| average.|purpose |
+  |                     |      |         |          |       |         |mixture.|
+  +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+  | Cocksfoot           |  ..  |    8    |    4     |   8   |    8    |    4   |
+  | Perennial ryegrass  |  ..  |   ..    |    2     |   6   |   10    |   10   |
+  | Meadow fescue       |  ..  |    6    |    2     |  ..   |    5    |   ..   |
+  | Hard fescue         |  ..  |    1    |    1     |   2   |    3    |   ..   |
+  | Crested dogstail    |   3  |    2    |   ..     |   1   |    3    |   ..   |
+  | Timothy             |  ..  |    3    |    1     |  ..   |    2    |    2   |
+  | Meadow foxtail      |  ..  |   10    |   ..     |  ..   |    1    |    1   |
+  | Tall fescue         |  ..  |    3    |    1     | 3-1/2 |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Tall oat grass      |  ..  |   ..    |    1     |   3   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Italian ryegrass    |  ..  |   ..    |    2     |  ..   |   ..    |    5   |
+  | Smooth meadow grass |  ..  |   ..    |   ..     |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Rough meadow grass  |  ..  |    1    |   ..     |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Golden oat grass    |  ..  |   ..    |   1/4    |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Sheep's fescue      |  ..  |    1    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Broad red clover    |  ..  |    1    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Perennial red clover|  ..  |    1    |   ..     | 1-1/2 |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Alsike              |  ..  |    1    |  1-1/2   |   1   |   ..    |    2   |
+  | Lucerne (Alfalfa)   |  ..  |   ..    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |    8   |
+  | White clover        |   4  |    1    |    1     |   2   |    2    |    2   |
+  | Kidney vetch        |   6  |   ..    |   ..     | 2-1/2 |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Sheep's parsley     |  ..  |   ..    |   ..     |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Yarrow              |   1  |    1    |   1/4    |   1   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Burnet              |   8  |   ..    |   ..     |   8   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Chicory             |   4  |   ..    |   ..     | 2-1/2 |   ..    |   ..   |
+  | Plantain            |   4  |   ..    |   ..     |  ..   |   ..    |   ..   |
+  |                     +------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+  | Total lb. per acre  |  30  |   40    |   17     |  40   |   30    |   40   |
+  +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+
+
+Arthur Young more than 100 years ago made out one to suit chalky
+hillsides; Mr Faunce de Laune (Sussex) in our days was the first to
+study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of all kinds; Lord
+Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for poor land with success;
+Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many deep-rooted "herbs" in his mixture
+with good results. Typical examples of such mixtures are given on
+preceding page.
+
+Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation purposes, and
+in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived grasses and clovers are
+given the preference. Three examples of temporary mixtures are given
+below.
+
+  +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |                       |  One  |  Two  | Three |
+  |                       | year. | years.|or four|
+  |                       |       |       | years.|
+  +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | Italian ryegrass      |  14   |  10   |   6   |
+  | Cocksfoot             |   2   |   4   |   6   |
+  | Timothy               |  ..   |   2   |   3   |
+  | Broad red clover      |   8   |   5   |   3   |
+  | Alsike                |   3   |   2   |   2   |
+  | Trefoil               |   3   |   2   |   2   |
+  | Perennial ryegrass    |  ..   |   5   |  10   |
+  | Meadow fescue         |  ..   |   2   |   2   |
+  | Perennial red clover  |  ..   |   2   |   2   |
+  | White clover          |  ..   |   1   |   2   |
+  | Meadow foxtail        |  ..   |   1   |   2   |
+  |                       +-------+-------+-------+
+  |   Total lb. per acre  |  30   |  36   |  40   |
+  +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is often grown,
+either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass, while other forage
+crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown alone.
+
+In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for pasture,
+both because it takes most kindly to grass and because the expense of
+cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land when the price of
+corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently suffers from drought in
+summer, the want of moisture preventing it from obtaining proper
+root-hold. On such soil the use of a heavy roller is advantageous, and
+indeed on any soil excepting heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial
+to the grass, as it promotes the capillary action of the soil-particles
+and the consequent ascension of ground-water.
+
+In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture from
+being wasted by the sun's heat.
+
+The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are similar to those
+enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found certain grasses, such as
+Hungarian brome, which are suitable for introduction into the British
+Isles. The grasses of the American prairies also include many plants not
+met with in Great Britain. Some half-dozen species are common to both
+countries: Kentucky "blue-grass" is the British _Poa pratensis_; couch
+grass (_Triticum repens_) grows plentifully without its underground
+runners; bent (_Agrostis vulgaris_) forms the famous "red-top," and so
+on. But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the
+"bunch" grasses, "squirrel-tail" and many others which have no
+equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the prairie
+pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover found on the
+prairies, though cultivated varieties can be introduced.     (P. McC.)
+
+
+
+
+GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, MARQUIS DE GRASSETILLY, COMTE DE
+(1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar, in the present department
+of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he took service on the galleys of the
+order of Malta, and in 1740 entered the service of France, being
+promoted to chief of squadron in 1779. He took part in the naval
+operations of the American War of Independence, and distinguished
+himself in the battles of Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago
+(1781). He was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by
+Admiral Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and
+taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he returned to
+France, published a _Memoire justificatif_, and was acquitted by a
+court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January 1788.
+
+  His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a _Notice bibliographique sur
+  l'amiral comte de Grasse d'apres les documents inedits_ in 1840. See
+  G. Lacour-Gayet, _La Marine militaire de la France sous le regne de
+  Louis XV_ (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes Maritimes (till
+1860 in that of the Var), 12-1/2 m. by rail N. of Cannes. Pop. (1906)
+town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a picturesque situation,
+in the form of an amphitheatre and at a height oL 1066 ft. above the
+sea, on the southern slope of a hill, facing the Mediterranean. In the
+older (eastern) part of the town the streets are narrow, steep and
+winding, but the new portion (western) is laid out in accordance with
+modern French ideas. It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious
+climate, and is well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of
+the factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking water
+used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of a conduit,
+from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the Loup. Grasse was from
+1244 (when the see was transferred hither from Antibes) to 1790 an
+episcopal see, but was then included in the diocese of Frejus till 1860,
+when politically as well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to
+the newly-formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a
+12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an ancient
+tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town hall, which was
+formerly the bishop's palace (13th century). There is a good town
+library, containing the muniments of the abbey of Lerins, on the island
+of St Honorat opposite Cannes. In the chapel of the old hospital are
+three pictures by Rubens. The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a
+native of Grasse, and some of his best works were formerly to be seen
+here (now in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its
+perfumery. Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the
+neighbourhood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses
+(which costs nearly L100 per 2 lb.) requires alone nearly 7,000,000
+roses a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at
+Grasse.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRASSES,[1] a group of plants possessing certain characters in common
+and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class Monocotyledons. It is
+one of the largest and most widespread and, from an economic point of
+view, the most important family of flowering plants. No plant is
+correctly termed a grass which is not a member of this family, but the
+word is in common language also used, generally in combination, for many
+plants of widely different affinities which possess some resemblance
+(often slight) in foliage to true grasses; e.g. knot-grass (_Polygonum
+aviculare_), cotton-grass (_Eriophorum_), rib-grass (_Plantago_),
+scorpion-grass (_Myosotis_), blue-eyed grass (_Sisyrinchium_), sea-grass
+(_Zostera_). The grass-tree of Australia (_Xanthorrhoea_) is a
+remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but
+with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-like trunk bearing a crown of
+long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of small,
+densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an extended
+signification to include the various fodder-plants, chiefly leguminous,
+often called "artificial grasses." Indeed, formerly _grass_ (also spelt
+_gwrs_, _gres_, _gyrs_ in the old herbals) meant any green herbaceous
+plant of small size.
+
+Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized and
+separated a group of _Gramina_, and this, though bounded by nothing more
+definite than habit and general appearance, contained the Gramineae of
+modern botanists. The older group, however, even with such systematists
+as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer (1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in
+addition the Cyperaceae (Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and
+some other monocotyledons with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough,
+the sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more distinctly
+the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all of the former
+then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst the latter found
+themselves under his other classes and orders.
+
+I. STRUCTURE.--The general type of true grasses is familiar in the
+cultivated cereals of temperate climates--wheat, barley, rye, oats, and
+in the smaller plants which make up pastures and meadows and form a
+principal factor of the turf of natural downs. Less familiar are the
+grains of warmer climates--rice, maize, millet and sorgho, or the
+sugar-cane. Still farther removed are the bamboos of the tropics, the
+columnar stems of which reach to the height of forest trees. All are,
+however, formed on a common plan.
+
+_Root._--Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and possess a
+tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched and of great
+length. The majority of the members of the family are of longer
+duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer, thicker and less
+branched. In such cases they are very generally given off from just
+above each node (often in a circle) of the lower part of the stem or
+rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In some bamboos they are very
+numerous from the lower nodes of the erect culms, and pass downwards to
+the soil, whilst those from the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles
+of spiny fibres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Rhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series
+of axes, the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced.]
+
+_Stem._--The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of perennial
+grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very long creeping or
+subterranean rhizomes, with elongated internodes and sheathing scales;
+the widely-creeping, slender rhizomes in Marram-grass (_Psamma_),
+_Agropyrum junceum_, _Elymus arenarius_, and other sand-loving plants
+render them useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with
+the nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic of open
+situations in cool temperate climates, results from an extensive
+production of short stolons, the branches and the fibrous roots
+developed from their nodes forming the dense "sod." The very large
+rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also a striking example of "definite"
+growth; it is much branched, the short, thick, curved branches being
+given off below the apex of the older ones and at right angles to them,
+the whole forming a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their
+ends, which were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is
+always solid, and has the usual internal structure of the
+monocotyledonous stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches
+break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with which
+they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards through the sheaths
+which they ultimately split from above, and emerging as aerial shoots
+give a tufted habit to the plant. Good examples are the oat, cock's-foot
+(_Dactylis_) and other British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause
+of the "tillering" of cereals, or the production of a large number of
+erect growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem. Isolated
+tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe--and
+savanna--vegetation and open places generally in the warmer parts of the
+earth.
+
+The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic feature of
+grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylindrical (rarely
+flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident nodes. The nodes are
+solid, a strong plate of tissue passing across the stem, but the
+internodes are commonly hollow, although examples of completely solid
+stems are not uncommon (e.g. maize, many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The
+swollen nodes are a characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of
+the British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm, but
+of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes is to raise
+again culms which have become bent down; they are composed of highly
+turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate on the side next the
+earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal or oblique position, and
+thus raise the culm again to an erect position. The internodes continue
+to grow in length, especially the upper ones, for some time; the
+increase takes place in a zone at the extreme base, just above the node.
+The exterior of the culms is more or less concealed by the leaf-sheaths;
+it is usually smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells
+containing an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a
+distinct skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance
+mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos. A few
+of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub-globular, forming
+nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized are termed "bulbous"
+(_Arrhenatherum_, _Poa bulbosa_, &c.). In internal structure
+grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform to that usual in
+monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run parallel in the internodes, but
+a horizontal interlacement occurs at the nodes. In grasses of temperate
+climates branching is rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is
+characteristic of the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches
+are strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spreading or
+drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are reduced to hooked
+spines. One genus (_Dinochloa_, a native of the Malay archipelago) is
+scandent, and climbs over trees 100 ft. or more in height, _Olyra
+latifolia_, a widely-spread tropical species, is also a climber on a
+humbler scale.
+
+Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly seen in
+bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft. is attained in from two to three
+months, and many species grow two, three or even more feet in
+twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not begin till the full height
+is nearly attained. The largest bamboo recorded is 170 ft., and the
+diameter is usually reckoned at about 4 in. to each 50 ft.
+
+_Leaves._--These present special characters usually sufficient for
+ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and arranged in
+two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal tuft. They consist of
+two distinct portions, the sheath and the blade. The sheath is often of
+great length, and generally completely surrounds the culm, forming a
+firm protection for the internode, the younger basal portion of which,
+including the zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it
+is split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae
+which is almost invariably (_Eriospora_ is an exception) a complete
+tube; in some grasses, however (species of _Poa_, _Bromus_ and others),
+the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated in _Alopecurus
+vaginatus_ and in a species of _Potamochloa_, in the latter, an East
+Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the summit of the sheath,
+above the origin of the blade, is the _ligule_, a usually membranous
+process of small size (occasionally reaching 1 in. in length) erect and
+pressed around the culm. It is rarely quite absent, but may be
+represented by a tuft of hairs (very conspicuous in _Pariana_). It
+serves to prevent rain-water, which has run down the blade, from
+entering the sheath. _Melica uniflora_ has in addition to the ligule, a
+green erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges
+of the sheath.
+
+The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect in the basal
+leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath at an angle.
+The usual form is familiar--sessile, more or less ribbon-shaped,
+tapering to a point, and entire at the edge. The chief modifications are
+the articulation of the deciduous blade on to the sheath, which occurs
+in all the Bambuseae (except _Planotia_) and in _Spartina stricta_; and
+the interposition of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in
+bamboos, _Leptaspis_, _Pharus_, _Pariana_, _Lophatherum_ and others. In
+the latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate or
+sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also (_Olyra_,
+_Panicum_). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib usually
+strong, and the other ribs more slender. In _Anomochloa_ there are
+several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved grasses (_Bambuseae_,
+_Pharus_, _Leptaspis_) the venation becomes tesselated by transverse
+connecting veins. The tissue is often raised above the veins, forming
+longitudinal ridges, generally on the upper face; the stomata are in
+lines in the intervening furrows. The thick prominent veins in
+_Agropyrum_ occupy the whole upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal
+appendages are rare, the most frequent being marginal, saw-like,
+cartilaginous teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (_Danthonia
+scabra_, _Panicum serratum_) so large as to give the margin a serrate
+appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in _Alopecurus
+lanatus_ and one or two _Panicums_. The blade is often twisted,
+frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become reversed. In
+dry-country grasses the blades are often folded on the midrib, or rolled
+up. The rolling is effected by bands of large wedge-shaped
+cells--motor-cells--between the nerves, the loss of turgescence by
+which, as the air dries, causes the blade to curl towards the face on
+which they occur. The rolling up acts as a protection from too great
+loss of water, the exposed surface being specially protected to this end
+by a strong cuticle, the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the
+protected surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked
+in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of
+thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all or the
+principal veins (fig. 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Magnified transverse section of one-half of a
+leaf-blade of _Festuca rubra_. The dark portions represent supporting
+and conducting tissue; the upper face bears furrows, at the bottom of
+each of which are seen the motor cells m.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One-flowered spikelet of _Agrostis_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Two-flowered spikelet of _Aira_.
+
+b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glumes. (Both Enlarged.)]
+
+_Inflorescence._--This possesses an exceptional importance in grasses,
+since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the sexual organs
+of very great uniformity, the characters employed for classification are
+mainly derived from the arrangement of the flowers and their investing
+bracts. Various interpretations have been given to these glumaceous
+organs and different terms employed for them by various writers. It may,
+however, be considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as
+glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to the flower,
+form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the nature of bracts.
+These are arranged so as to form _spikelets_ (locustae), and each
+spikelet may contain one, as in _Agrostis_ (fig. 3) two, as in _Aira_
+(fig. 4) three, or a great number of flowers, as in _Briza_ (fig. 5)
+_Triticum_ (fig. 6); in some species of _Eragrostis_ there are nearly
+60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed laterally on the axis
+(_rachilla_) of the spikelet, but in one-flowered spikelets they appear
+to be terminal, and are probably really so in _Anthoxanthum_ (fig. 7)
+and in two anomalous genera, _Anomochloa_ and _Streptochaeta_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Spikelet of _Briza_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Spikelet of _Triticum_.
+
+(Both enlarged.)]
+
+In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely
+concealing it, is the _palea_ or _pale_ ("upper pale" of most systematic
+agrostologists). This organ (fig. 13, 1) is peculiar to grasses among
+Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families Gramineae and
+Cyperaceae), and is almost always present, certain _Oryzeae_ and
+_Phalarideae_ being the only exceptions. It is of thin membranous
+consistence, usually obtuse, often bifid, and possesses no central rib
+or nerve, but has two lateral ones, one on either side; the margins are
+frequently folded in at the ribs, which thus become placed at the sharp
+angles. This structure was formerly regarded as pointing to the fusion
+of two organs, and the pale was considered by Robert Brown to represent
+two portions soldered together of a trimerous perianth-whorl, the third
+portion being the "lower pale." The pale is now generally considered to
+represent the single bracteole, characteristic of Monocotyledons, the
+binerved structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the
+spikelet during the development of the pale, as in _Iris_ and others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Spikelet of _Anthoxanthum_ (enlarged) without
+the two lower barren glumes, showing the two upper awned barren glumes
+(g) and the flower.]
+
+The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axis of
+another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed to it,
+though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract or flowering
+glume which has been generally called by systematists the "lower pale,"
+and with the "upper pale" was formerly considered to form an outer
+floral envelope ("calyx," Jussieu; "perianthium," Brown). The two bracts
+are, however, on different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot
+therefore be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike
+one another, but in some genera (e.g. most _Festuceae_) are very similar
+in shape and appearance.
+
+The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped form, is of
+firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central midrib and
+frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a large proportion of
+genera extends into an appendage termed the _awn_ (fig. 4), and the
+lateral veins more rarely extend beyond the glume as sharp points (e.g.
+_Pappophorum_). The form of the flowering glume is very various, this
+organ being plastic and extensively modified in different genera. It
+frequently extends downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the
+latter a swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a
+furrow. In _Leptaspis_ it is formed into a closed cavity by the union of
+its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting through the
+pervious summit. Valuable characters for distinguishing genera are
+obtained from the awn. This presents itself variously developed from a
+mere subulate point to an organ several inches in length, and when
+complete (as in _Andropogoneae_, _Aveneae_ and _Stipeae_) consists of
+two well-marked portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight
+portion, usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid
+and occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most
+often suppressed, and in the large group of the _Paniceae_ awns of any
+sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal or may come
+off from the back of the flowering glume, and Duval Jouve's observations
+have shown that it represents the blade of the leaf of which the portion
+of the flowering glume below its origin is the sheath; the twisted part
+(so often suppressed) corresponds with the petiole, and the portion of
+the glume extending beyond the origin of the awn (very long in some
+species, e.g. of _Danthonia_) with the ligule of the developed
+foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has three fibro-vascular bundles,
+when dorsal only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing epidermis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Spikelet of _Stipa pennata_. The pair of barren
+glumes (b) are separated from the flowering glume, which bears a long
+awn, twisted below the knee and feathery above. About 3/4 nat. size.]
+
+The flower with its palea is thus sessile in the axil of a floriferous
+glume, and in a few grasses (_Leersia_ (fig. 9), _Coleanthus_, _Nardus_)
+the spikelet consists of nothing more, but usually (even in uniflorous
+spikelets) other glumes are present. Of these the two placed
+distichously opposite each other at the base of the spikelet never bear
+any flower in their axils, and are called the _empty_ or _barren glumes_
+(figs. 3, 8). They are the "glumes" of most writers, and together form
+what was called the "gluma" by R. Brown. They rarely differ much from
+one another, but one may be smaller or quite absent (_Panicum_,
+_Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Paspalum_, _Lolium_), or both be altogether
+suppressed, as above noticed. They are commonly firm and strong, often
+enclose the spikelet, and are rarely provided with long points or
+imperfect awns. Generally speaking they do not share in the special
+modifications of the flowering glumes, and rarely themselves undergo
+modification, chiefly in hardening of portions (_Sclerachne_,
+_Manisuris_, _Anthephora_, _Peltophorum_), so as to afford greater
+protection to the flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the
+basal glumes, a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or
+more-flowered spikelets (see _Triticum_, fig. 6) at the top of the
+rhachilla (numerous in _Lophatherum_), or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10)
+below and interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Spikelet of _Leersia_. f, Flowering glume; p,
+pale.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Spikelet of _Setaria_, with an abortive branch
+(h) beneath it. b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glume; p, pale.]
+
+The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up into
+articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs are
+frequently present (_Calamagrostis_, _Phragmites_, _Andropogon_), and
+are often so long as to surround and conceal the flowers (fig. 11). The
+axis is often continued beyond the last flower or glume as a bristle or
+stalk.
+
+_Involucres_ or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are formed
+in various ways. Thus in _Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Pennisetum_, &c., the one
+or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent abortive branches
+of the inflorescence; in _Cenchrus_ (fig. 12) these become consolidated,
+and the inner ones flattened so as to form a very hard globular spiny
+case to the spikelets. The cup-shaped involucre of _Cornucopia_ is a
+dilatation of the axis into a hollow receptacle with a raised border. In
+_Cynosurus_ (Dog's tail) the pectinate involucre which conceals the
+spikelet is a barren or abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more general
+character subtending branches of the inflorescence are singularly rare
+in Gramineae, in marked contrast with Cyperaceae, where they are so
+conspicuous. They however occur in a whole section of _Andropogon_, in
+_Anomochloa_, and at the base of the spike in _Sesleria_. The remarkable
+ovoid involucre of _Coix_, which becomes of stony hardness, white and
+polished (then known as "Job's tears," q.v.), is also a modified bract
+or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at the apex, and contains the female
+spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles
+emerging through the small apical orifice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Spikelet of Reed (_Phragmites communis_) opened
+out.
+
+  a, b, Barren glumes.
+
+  c, c, Fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower with its pale d.
+
+    Note the zigzag axis (_rhachilla_) bearing long silky hairs.]
+
+Any number of spikelets may compose the inflorescence, and their
+arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with sessile
+spikelets on the main axis, the latter is often dilated and flattened
+(_Paspalum_), or is more or less thickened and hollowed out
+(_Stenotaphrum_, _Rottboellia_, _Tripsacum_), when the spikelets are
+sunk and buried within the cavities. Every variety of racemose and
+paniculate inflorescence obtains, and the number of spikelets composing
+those of the large kinds is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence
+consists of very few flowers; thus _Lygeum Spartum_, the most anomalous
+of European grasses, has but two or three large uniflorous spikelets,
+which are fused together at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are
+enveloped in a large, hooded, spathe-like bract.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Spikelet of _Cenchrus echinatus_ enclosed in a
+bristly involucre.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Flowers of Grasses (enlarged). 1,
+_Piptatherum_, with the palea p; 2, _Poa_; 3, _Oryza_; l, Lodicule.]
+
+_Flower._--This is characterized by remarkable uniformity. The perianth
+is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy scales arising below
+the ovary, called _lodicules_; they are elongated or truncate, sometimes
+fringed with hairs, and are in contact with the ovary. Their usual
+number is two, and they are placed collaterally at the anterior side of
+the flower (fig. 13,) that is, within the flowering glume. They are
+generally considered to represent the inner whorl of the ordinary
+monocotyledonous (liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being
+suppressed as well as the posterior member of the inner whorl. This
+latter is present almost constantly in _Stipeae_ and _Bambuseae_, which
+have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally more
+numerous. In _Anomochloa_ they are represented by hairs. In
+_Streptochaeta_ there are six lodicules, alternately arranged in two
+whorls. Sometimes, as in _Anthoxanthum_, they are absent. In _Melica_
+there is one large anterior lodicule resulting presumably from the union
+of the two which are present in allied genera. Professor E. Hackel,
+however, regards this as an undivided second pale, which in the majority
+of the grasses is split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when
+present, as a third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth.
+The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and glume to
+allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they effect this by
+swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of these two structures.
+Where, as in _Anthoxanthum_, there are no lodicules, pale and glume do
+not become laterally separated, and the stamens and stigmas protrude
+only at the apex of the floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually
+hermaphrodite, but there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to
+find one or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet
+with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important in
+classification. _Holcus_ and _Arrhenatherum_ are examples in English
+grasses; and as a rule in species of temperate regions separation of the
+sexes is not carried further. In warmer countries monoecious and
+dioecious grasses are more frequent. In such cases the male and female
+spikelets and inflorescence may be very dissimilar, as in maize, Job's
+tears, _Euchlaena_, _Spinifex_, &c.; and in some dioecious species this
+dissimilarity has led to the two sexes being referred to different
+genera (e.g. _Anthephora axilliflora_ is the female of _Buchloe
+dactyloides_, and _Neurachne paradoxa_ of a species of _Spinifex_). In
+other grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants (e.g.
+_Brizopyrum_, _Distichlis_, _Eragrostis capitala_, _Gynerium_), no such
+dimorphism obtains. _Amphicarpum_ is remarkable in having cleistogamic
+flowers borne on long radical subterranean peduncles which are fertile,
+whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones, though apparently perfect,
+never produce fruit. Something similar occurs in _Leersia oryzoides_,
+where the fertile spikelets are concealed within the leaf-sheaths.
+
+_Androecium._--In the vast majority there are three stamens alternating
+with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, i.e. opposite the
+flowering glume, the other two being posterior and in contact with the
+palea (fig. 13, 1 and 2). They are hypogynous, and have long and very
+delicate filaments, and large, linear or oblong two-celled anthers,
+dorsifixed and ultimately very versatile, deeply indented at each end,
+and commonly exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen
+sometimes occurs (e.g. _Anthoxanthum_, fig. 7), or the two posterior
+ones may be absent (_Uniola_, _Cinna_, _Phippsia_, _Festuca bromoides_).
+There is in some genera (_Oryza_, most _Bambuseae_) another row of three
+stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and _Anomochloa_ and
+_Tetrarrhena_ possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten to forty)
+in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (_Pariana_, _Luziola_).
+In _Ochlandra_ they vary from seven to thirty, and in _Gigantochloa_
+they are monadelphous.
+
+_Gynoecium._--The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the pale
+in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small, rounded to
+elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single slightly bent ovule
+sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing from the back of the
+ovary); the micropyle points downwards. It bears usually two lateral
+styles which are quite distinct or connate at the base, sometimes for a
+greater length (fig. 14, 1), each ends in a densely hairy or feathery
+stigma (fig. 14). Occasionally there is but a single style, as in
+_Nardus_ (fig. 14, 7), which corresponds to the midrib of the carpel.
+The very long and apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the
+union of two. Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style.
+
+Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general monocotyledonous plan
+as represented by Liliaceae and other families (fig. 15), it will be
+seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and the posterior member
+of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of the whole inner row of
+stamens, and of the two lateral carpels, whilst the remaining members of
+the perianth are in a rudimentary condition. But each or any of the
+usually missing organs are to be found normally in different genera, or
+as occasional developments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Pistils of grasses (much enlarged). 1,
+_Alopecurus_; 2, _Bromus_; 3, _Arrhenatherum_; 4, _Glyceria_; 5,
+_Melica_; 6, _Mibora_; 7, _Nardus_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Diagrams of the ordinary Grass-flower.
+
+  1, Actual condition;
+  2, Theoretical, with the suppressed organs supplied.
+  a, Axis.
+  b, Flowering glume.
+  c, Palea.
+  d, Outer row of perianth leaves.
+  e, Inner row.
+  f, Outer row of stamens.
+  g, Inner row.
+  h, Pistil.]
+
+_Pollination._--Grasses are generally wind-pollinated, though
+self-fertilization sometimes occurs. A few species, as we have seen, are
+monoecious or dioecious, while many are polygamous (having unisexual as
+well as bisexual flowers as in many members of the tribes
+_Andropogoneae_, fig. 18, and _Paniceae_), and in these the male flower
+of a spikelet always blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its
+pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets in the
+same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual flowers, many are
+strongly protogynous (the stigmas protruding before the anthers are
+ripe), such as _Alopecurus_ and _Anthoxanthum_ (fig. 7), but generally
+the anthers protrude first and discharge the greater part of their
+pollen before the stigmas appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at
+flowering-time, and the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of
+finely granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some flowers,
+such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertilization, but in
+most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization, seem to be
+possible. Thus the species of wheat are usually self-fertilized, but
+cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are open above, the
+stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty only about one-third of
+their pollen in their own flower and the rest into the air. In some
+cultivated races of barley, cross-fertilization is precluded, as the
+flowers never open. Reference has already been made to cleistogamic
+species which occur in several genera.
+
+_Fruit and Seed._--The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid or
+rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large seed, from
+which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp being completely
+united to its surface. To this peculiar fruit the term _caryopsis_ has
+been applied (more familiarly "grain"); it is commonly furrowed
+longitudinally down one side (usually the inner, but in _Coix_ and its
+allies, the outer), and an additional covering is not unfrequently
+provided by the adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the
+flowering glume ("chaff" of cereals). From this type are a few
+deviations; thus in _Sporobolus_, &c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not
+united with the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the
+loose seed to escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes
+hard, forming a nut, as in some genera of _Bambuseae_, while in other
+_Bambuseae_ it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as large
+as an apple. In _Melocanna_ the berry forms an edible fruit 3 or 4 in.
+long, with a pointed beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the
+small seed germinates whilst the fruit is still attached to the tree,
+putting out a tuft of roots and a shoot, and not falling till the latter
+is 6 in. long. The position of the embryo is plainly visible on the
+front side at the base of the grain. On the other, posterior, side of
+the grain is a more or less evident, sometimes punctiform, sometimes
+elongated or linear mark, the hilum, the place where the ovule was
+fastened to the wall of the ovary. The form of the hilum is constant
+throughout a genus, and sometimes also in whole tribes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Fruit of _Sporobolus_, showing the dehiscent
+pericarp and seed.]
+
+The testa is thin and membranous but occasionally coloured, and the
+embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied by the hard
+farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the nutritive value of the
+grain depends. The outermost layer of endosperm, the aleuron-layer,
+consists of regular cells filled with small proteid granules; the rest
+is made up of large polygonal cells containing numerous starch-grains in
+a matrix of proteid which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or
+granular (mealy endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest.
+Its position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the
+endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is absolute for
+the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae from Cyperaceae.
+The part in contact with the endosperm is plate-like, and is known as
+the _scutellum_; the surface in contact with the endosperm forms an
+absorptive epithelium. In some grasses there is a small scale-like
+appendage opposite the scutellum, the _epiblast_. There is some
+difference of opinion as to which structure or structures represent the
+cotyledon. Three must be considered: (1) the scutellum, connected by
+vascular tissue with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the
+embryo which it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving
+merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm; (2) the
+cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and inconspicuous as
+in wheat, or larger as in _Stipa_; (3) the pileole or germ-sheath,
+arising on the same side of the axis and above the scutellum, enveloping
+the plumule in the seed and appearing above ground as a generally
+colourless sheath from the apex of which the plumule ultimately breaks
+(fig. 17, 4, b). The development of these structures (which was
+investigated by van Tieghem), especially in relation to the origin of
+the vascular bundles which supply them, favours the view that the
+scutellum and pileole are highly differentiated parts of a single
+cotyledon, and this view is in accord with a comparative study of the
+seedling of grasses and of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been
+regarded as representing a second cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful
+interpretation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Grain of Wheat. 1, back, and 2, front view;
+3, vertical section, showing (b) the endosperm, and (a) embryo; 4,
+beginning of germination, showing (b) the pileole and (c) the radicle
+and secondary rootlets surrounded by their coleorrhizae.]
+
+_Germination._--In germination the coleorhiza lengthens, ruptures the
+pericarp, and fixes the grain to the ground by developing numerous
+hairs. The radicle then breaks through the coleorhiza, as do also the
+secondary rootlets where, as in the case of many cereals, these have
+been formed in the embryo (fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows vertically
+upwards, its stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is
+hidden in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves
+successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath. The
+scutellum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from the endosperm. The
+growth of the primary root is limited; sooner or later adventitious
+roots develop from the axis above the radicle which they ultimately
+exceed in growth.
+
+_Means of Distribution._--Various methods of scattering the grain have
+been adopted, in which parts of the spikelet or inflorescence are
+concerned. Short spikes may fall from the culm as a whole; or the axis
+of a spike or raceme is jointed so that one spikelet falls with each
+joint as in many _Andropogoneae_ and _Hordeae_. In many-flowered
+spikelets the rachilla is often jointed and breaks into as many pieces
+as there are fruits, each piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered
+spikelets may fall as a whole (as in the tribes _Paniceae_ and
+_Andropogoneae_), or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that
+only the flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These
+arrangements are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals
+though present in their wild forms, so far as these are known. Such
+arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gathering of the
+fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not present would be
+preferred for cultivation. The persistent bracts (glume and pale) afford
+an additional protection to the fruit; they protect the embryo, which is
+near the surface, from too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from
+drying up again. They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the
+grain is more readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in
+_Briza_, the glume has a large surface compared with the size of the
+grain, or when, as in _Holcus_, empty glumes also take part; in Canary
+grass (_Phalaris_) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing on the
+keel. In the sugar-cane (_Saccharum_) and several allied genera the
+separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below the spikelets; in
+others, as in _Arundo_ (a reed-grass), the flowering glumes are
+enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently borne on the
+flowering glume is also a very efficient means of distribution, catching
+into fur of animals or plumage of birds, or as often in _Stipa_ (fig. 8)
+forming a long feather for wind-carriage. In _Tragus_ the glumes bear
+numerous short hooked bristles. The fleshy berries of some _Bambuseae_
+favour distribution by animals.
+
+The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus in
+_Stipa_, species of _Avena_, _Heteropogon_ and others the base of the
+glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the ground; above
+the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs which oppose its
+withdrawal. The long awn, which is bent and closely twisted below the
+bend, acts as a driving organ; it is very hygroscopic, the coils
+untwisting when damp and twisting up when dry. The repeated twisting and
+untwisting, especially when the upper part of the awn has become fixed
+in the earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point
+deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause harm to
+sheep by catching in the wool and boring through the skin.
+
+A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and arctic
+grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of the fruit is
+often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single flowers, are transformed
+into small-leaved shoots which fall from the axes and readily root in
+the ground. Some species, such as _Poa stricta_, are known only in this
+viviparous condition; others, like our British species _Festuca ovina_
+and _Poa alpina_, become viviparous under the special climatic
+conditions.
+
+II. CLASSIFICATION.--Gramineae are sharply defined from all other
+plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible to feel a
+doubt whether they should be referred to it or not. The only family
+closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of difference between the
+two may be here brought together. The best distinctions are found in
+the position of the embryo in relation to the endosperm--lateral in
+grasses, basal in Cyperaceae--and in the possession by Gramineae of the
+2-nerved palea below each flower. Less absolute characters, but
+generally trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery
+stigmas, the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual
+absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split
+leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms--some or all of
+which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same characters will
+distinguish grasses from the other glumiferous orders, Restiaceae, and
+Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further removed by their capsular
+fruit and pendulous ovules. To other monocotyledonous families the
+resemblances are merely of adaptive or vegetative characters. Some
+Commelinaceae and Marantaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of
+_Allium_, &c., possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of
+the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an inconspicuous
+scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera containing about 3500
+well-defined species.
+
+The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this vast family
+renders its _classification_ very difficult. The difficulty has been
+increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplication of genera
+founded on slight characters, and from the description (in consequence
+of their wide distribution) of identical plants under several different
+genera.
+
+No characters for main divisions can be obtained from the flower proper
+or fruit (with the exception of the character of the hilum), and it has
+therefore been found necessary to trust to characters derived from the
+usually less important inflorescence and bracts.
+
+Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions--Paniceae and Poaceae,
+according to the position of the most perfect flower in the spikelet;
+this is the upper (apparently) terminal one in the first, whilst in the
+second it occupies the lower position, the more imperfect ones (if any)
+being above it. Munro supplemented this by another character easier of
+verification, and of even greater constancy, in the articulation of the
+pedicel in the Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae
+this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently articulates
+_above_ the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of these great divisions
+will well accommodate certain genera allied to _Phalaris_, for which
+Brown proposed tentatively a third group (since named _Phalarideae_);
+this, or at least the greater part of it, is placed by Bentham under the
+Poaceae.
+
+The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor Eduard Hackel
+in his recent monograph on the order.
+
+  A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, falling from
+  the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity.
+  Rachilla not produced beyond the flowers.
+
+  a. Hilum a point; spikelets not laterally compressed.
+
+    [alpha] Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick,
+    membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest the largest.
+    Rachis generally jointed and breaking up when mature.
+
+      1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in separate inflorescences
+      or on different parts of the same inflorescence.
+                     1. _Maydeae_.
+
+      2. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male standing
+      close to a bisexual.
+                     2. _Andropogoneae_.
+
+    [beta] Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery;
+    empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the lowest usually
+    smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the unjointed rachis of the
+    spike or the ultimate branches of the panicle.
+                     3.  _Paniceae_.
+
+  b. Hilum a line; spikelets laterally compressed.
+                     4. _Oryzeae_.
+
+  B. Spikelets one- to indefinite-flowered; in the one-flowered the
+  rachilla frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally
+  jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting glumes
+  have fallen. When more than one-flowered, distinct internodes are
+  developed between the flowers.
+
+  a. Culm herbaceous, annual; leaf-blade sessile, and not jointed to the
+  sheath.
+
+    [alpha] Spikelets upon distinct pedicels and arranged in panicles or
+    racemes.
+
+    I. Spikelets one-flowered.
+
+       i. Empty glumes 4.     5. _Phalarideae_.
+      ii. Empty glumes 2.     6. _Agrostideae_.
+
+    II. Spikelets more than one-flowered.
+
+      i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty glumes, usually
+      with a bent awn on the back.
+                     7. _Aveneae_.
+
+      ii. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, unawned or
+      with a straight, terminal awn.
+                     9. _Festuceae_.
+
+    [beta] Spikelets crowded in two close rows, forming a one-sided
+    spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis.
+                     8. _Chlorideae_.
+
+    [gamma] Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike.
+                     10. _Hordeae_.
+
+  b. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the
+  sheath, often with a short, slender petiole.
+                     11. _Bambuseae_.
+
+  Tribe 1. _Maydeae_ (7 genera in the warmer parts of the earth). _Zea
+  Mays_ (maize, q.v., or Indian corn) (q.v.). _Tripsacum_, 2 or 3
+  species in subtropical America north of the equator; _Tr. dactyloides_
+  (gama grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut; it is
+  used for fodder and as an ornamental plant. _Coix Lacryma-Jobi_ (Job's
+  tears) q.v.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A pair of spikelets of _Andropogon_.]
+
+  Tribe 2. _Andropogoneae_ (25 genera, mainly tropical). The spikelets
+  are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs consisting of a
+  sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis (fig. 18).
+  Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics, for
+  instance the large genus _Andropogon_, _Elionurus_ and others.
+  _Saccharum officinarum_ (sugar-cane) (q.v.). _Sorghum_, an important
+  tropical cereal known as black millet or _durra_ (q.v.). _Miscanthus_
+  and _Erianthus_, nearly allied to _Saccharum_, are tall reed-like
+  grasses, with large silky flower-panicles, which are grown for
+  ornament. _Imperata_, another ally, is a widespread tropical genus;
+  one species _I. arundinacea_ is the principal grass of the alang-alang
+  fields in the Malay Archipelago; it is used for thatch. _Vossia_, an
+  aquatic grass, often floating, is found in western India and tropical
+  Africa. In the swampy lands of the upper Nile it forms, along with a
+  species of _Saccharum_, huge floating grass barriers. _Elionurus_, a
+  widespread savanna grass in tropical and subtropical America, and also
+  in the tropics of the old world, is rejected by cattle probably on
+  account of its aromatic character, the spikelets having a strong
+  balsam-like smell. Other aromatic members are _Andropogon Nardus_, a
+  native of India, but also cultivated, the rhizome, leaves and
+  especially the spikelets of which contain a volatile oil, which on
+  distillation yields the citronella oil of commerce. A closely allied
+  species, _A. Schoenanthus_ (lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil; a
+  variety is used by the negroes in western Africa for haemorrhage.
+  Other species of the same genus are used as stimulants and cosmetics
+  in various parts of the tropics. The species of _Heteropogon_, a
+  cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have strongly
+  awned spikelets. _Themeda Forskalii_, which occurs from the
+  Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo
+  grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often covers wide
+  tracts.
+
+  Tribe 3. _Paniceae_ (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical; a few
+  temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely hermaphrodite, is
+  often present below the fertile flower. _Paspalum_, is a large
+  tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the pampas and
+  campos; many species are good forage plants, and the grain is
+  sometimes used for food. _Amphicarpum_, native in the south-eastern
+  United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on filiform runners
+  at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are sterile.
+  _Panicum_, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest in the
+  order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with species
+  of _Paspalum_ they form good forage grasses in the South American
+  savannas and campos. _Panicum Crus-galli_ is a polymorphic
+  cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one form (_P.
+  frumentaceum_) it is cultivated in India for its grain. _P. plicatum_,
+  with broad folded leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grass. _P.
+  miliaceum_ is millet (q.v.), and _P. altissimum_, Guinea grass. In the
+  closely allied genus _Digitaria_, which is sometimes regarded as a
+  section of _Panicum_, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a point;
+  _D. sanguinalis_ is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is
+  cultivated as a food-grain; it is also the crab-grass of the southern
+  United States, where it is used for fodder.
+
+  In _Setaria_ and allied genera the spikelet is subtended by an
+  involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of
+  the inflorescence. _Setaria italica_, Hungarian grass, is extensively
+  grown as a food-grain both in China and Japan, parts of India and
+  western Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from
+  prehistoric times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake
+  dwellings of the Stone age.
+
+  In _Cenchrus_ the bristles unite to form a tough spiny capsule (fig.
+  12); _C. tribuloides_ (bur-grass) and other species are troublesome
+  weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the wool
+  of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. _Pennisetum typhoideum_
+  is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. _Spinifex_, a
+  dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and eastern
+  Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads are spinose
+  with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are carried away
+  by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand and falling to
+  pieces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Phalarideae._ Spikelet of Hierochloe.]
+
+  Tribe 4. _Oryzeae_ (16 genera, mainly tropical and subtropical). The
+  spikelets are sometimes unisexual, and there are often six stamens.
+  _Leersia_ is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which _L. oryzoides_
+  occurs in the north temperate zone of both old and new worlds, and is
+  a rare grass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. _Zizania aquatica_
+  (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over large
+  areas on banks of streams and lakes in North America and north-east
+  Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. _Oryza sativa_ (rice)
+  (q.v.). _Lygeum Spartum_, with a creeping stem and stiff rush-like
+  leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the
+  western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto.
+
+  Tribe 5. _Phalarideae_ (6 genera, three of which are South African and
+  Australasian; the others are more widely distributed, and represented
+  in our flora). _Phalaris arundinacea_, is a reed-grass found on the
+  banks of British rivers and lakes; a variety with striped leaves known
+  as ribbon-grass is grown for ornament. _P. canariensis_ (Canary grass,
+  a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean area) is grown for
+  bird-food and sometimes as a cereal. _Anthoxanthum odoratum_, the
+  sweet vernal grass of our flora, owes its scent to the presence of
+  coumarin, which is also present in the closely allied genus
+  _Hierochloe_ (fig. 19), which occurs throughout the temperate and
+  frigid zones.
+
+  Tribe 6. _Agrostideae_ (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of the
+  world; eleven are British). _Aristida_ and _Stipa_ are large and
+  widely distributed genera, occurring especially on open plains and
+  steppes; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms an
+  efficient means of dispersing the grain. _Stipa pennata_ is a
+  characteristic species of the Russian steppes. _St. spartea_
+  (porcupine grass) and other species are plentiful on the North
+  American prairies. _St. tenacissima_ is the Spanish esparto grass
+  (q.v.), known in North Africa as halfa or alfa. _Phleum_ has a
+  cylindrical spike-like inflorescence; _P. pratense_ (timothy) is a
+  valuable fodder grass, as also is _Alopecurus pratensis_ (foxtail).
+  _Sporobolus_, a large genus in the warmer parts of both hemispheres,
+  but chiefly America, derives its name from the fact that the seed is
+  ultimately expelled from the fruit. _Agrostis_ is a large world-wide
+  genus, but especially developed in the north temperate zone, where it
+  includes important meadow-grasses. _Calamagrostis_ and _Deyeuxia_ are
+  tall, often reed-like grasses, occurring throughout the temperate and
+  arctic zones and upon high mountains in the tropics. _Ammophila
+  arundinacea_ (or _Psamma arenaria_) (Marram grass) with its long
+  creeping stems forms a useful sand-binder on the coasts of Europe,
+  North Africa and the Atlantic states of America.
+
+  Tribe 7. _Aveneae_ (about 24 genera, seven of which are British).
+  _Holcus lanatus_ (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and
+  wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. _Aira_ is a genus of
+  delicate annuals with slender hair-like branches of the panicle.
+  _Deschampsia_ and _Trisetum_ occur in temperate and cold regions or on
+  high mountains in the tropics; _T. pratense_ (_Avena flavescens_) with
+  a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets is a valuable
+  fodder-grass. _Avena fatua_ is the wild oat and _A. sativa_ the
+  cultivated oat (q.v.). _Arrhenatherum avenaceum_, a perennial field
+  grass, native in Britain and central and southern Europe, is
+  cultivated in North America.
+
+  Tribe 8. _Chlorideae_ (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries).
+  The only British representative is _Cynodon Dactylon_ (dog's tooth,
+  Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England; it
+  is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming an
+  important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass of the
+  southern United States, and known as durba, dub and other names in
+  India). Species of _Chloris_ are grown as ornamental grasses.
+  _Bouteloua_ with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama grass) on the
+  plains of the south-western United States, afford good grazing.
+  _Eleusine indica_ is a common tropical weed; the nearly allied species
+  _E. Coracana_ is a cultivated grain in the warmer parts of Asia and
+  throughout Africa. _Buchloe dactyloides_ is the buffalo grass of the
+  North American prairies, a valuable fodder.
+
+  Tribe 9. _Festuceae_ (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate,
+  arctic and alpine forms) many are important meadow-grasses; 15 are
+  British. _Gynerium argenteum_ (pampas grass) is a native of southern
+  Brazil and Argentina. _Arundo_ and _Phragmites_ are tall reed-grasses
+  (see REED). Several species of _Triodia_ cover large areas of the
+  interior of Australia, and from their stiff, sharply pointed leaves
+  are very troublesome. _Eragrostis_, one of the larger genera of the
+  order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth; many
+  species are grown for ornament and _E. abyssinica_ is an important
+  food-plant in Abyssinia. _Koeleria cristata_ is a fodder-grass. _Briza
+  media_ (quaking grass) is a useful meadow-grass. _Dactylis glomerata_
+  (cock's-foot), a perennial grass with a dense panicle, common in
+  pastures and waste places is a useful meadow-grass. It has become
+  naturalized in North America, where it is known as orchard grass, as
+  it will grow in shade. _Cynosurus cristatus_ (dog's tail) is a common
+  pasture-grass. _Poa_, a large genus widely distributed in temperate
+  and cold countries, includes many meadow and alpine grasses; eight
+  species are British; _P. annua_ (fig. 20) is the very common weed in
+  paths and waste places; _P. pratensis_ and _P. trivialis_ are also
+  common grasses of meadows, banks and pastures, the former is the "June
+  grass" or "Kentucky blue grass" of North America; _P. alpina_ is a
+  mountain grass of the northern hemisphere and found also in the Arctic
+  region. The largest species of the genus is _Poa flabellata_ which
+  forms great tufts 6-7 ft. high with leaves arranged like a fan; it is
+  a native of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is
+  known as tussock grass. _Glyceria fluitans_, manna-grass, so-called
+  from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder grasses for swampy
+  meadows; the grain is an article of food in central Europe. _Festuca_
+  (fescue) is also a large and widely distributed genus, but found
+  especially in the temperate and cold zones; it includes valuable
+  pasture grasses, such as _F. ovina_ (sheep's fescue), _F. rubra_; nine
+  species are British. The closely allied genus _Bromus_ (brome grass)
+  is also widely distributed but most abundant in the north temperate
+  zone; _B. erectus_ is a useful forage grass on dry chalky soil.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Poa annua._ Plant in Flower; about 1/2 nat.
+  size. 1, one spikelet.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Spike of Wheat (_Triticum sativum_). About
+  2/3 nat. size.]
+
+  Tribe 10. _Hordeae_ (about 19 genera, widely distributed; six are
+  British). _Nardus stricta_ (mat-weed), found on heaths and dry
+  pastures, is a small perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it
+  is a useless grass, crowding out better sorts. _Lolium perenne_, ray-
+  (or by corruption rye-) grass, is common in waste places and a
+  valuable pasture-grass; _L. italicum_ is the Italian ray-grass; _L.
+  temulentum_ (darnel) contains a narcotic principle in the grain.
+  _Secale cereale_, rye (q.v.), is cultivated mainly in northern Europe.
+  _Agropyrum repens_ (couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem,
+  and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land; the widely creeping stem
+  of _A. junceum_, found on sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful
+  sand-binder. _Triticum sativum_ is wheat (q.v.) (fig. 21), and
+  _Hordeum sativum_, barley (q.v.). _H. murinum_, wild barley, is a
+  common grass in waste places. _Elymus arenarius_ (lyme grass) occurs
+  on sandy sea-shores in the north temperate zone and is a useful
+  sand-binder.
+
+  Tribe 11. _Bambuseae_. Contains 23 genera, mainly tropical. See
+  BAMBOO.
+
+III. DISTRIBUTION.--Grasses are the most universally diffused of all
+flowering plants. There is no district in which they do not occur, and
+in nearly all they are a leading feature of the flora. In number of
+species Gramineae comes considerably after Compositae and Leguminosae,
+the two most numerous orders of phanerogams, but in number of individual
+plants it probably far exceeds either; whilst from the wide extension of
+many of its species, the proportion of Gramineae to other orders in the
+various floras of the world is much higher than its number of species
+would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where Leguminosae is the
+leading order, grasses closely follow as the second, whilst in the warm
+and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, in which Compositae
+takes the lead, Gramineae again occupies the second position.
+
+While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical zone, the
+number of individuals is greater in the temperate zones, where they form
+extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow-formation depends upon uniform
+rainfall. Grasses also characterize steppes and savannas, where they
+form scattered tufts. The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest
+vegetation, especially in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes
+are entered the grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the
+leading family in Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries where
+the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some extra-tropical
+regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia, the Cape, Chili, &c. The
+proportion of graminaceous species to the whole phanerogamic flora in
+different countries is found to vary from nearly 1/4th in the Arctic
+regions to about 1/25th at the Cape; in the British Isles it is about
+1/12th.
+
+The principal climatic cause influencing the number of graminaceous
+species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable feature of the
+distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are no great centres
+for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked preponderance of endemic
+species exists; and the genera, except some of the smallest or monotypic
+ones, have usually a wide distribution.
+
+The distribution of the tropical tribe _Bambuseae_ is interesting. The
+species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan region and
+tropical America, only one species being common to both. The tribe is
+very poorly represented in tropical Africa; one species _Oxytenanthera
+abyssinica_ has a wide range, and three monotypic genera are endemic in
+western tropical Africa. None is recorded for Australia, though species
+may perhaps occur on the northern coast. One species of _Arundinaria_
+reaches northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the
+Andes by some species of _Chusquea_ is very remarkable,--one, _C.
+aristata_, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level of
+perpetual snow.
+
+Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common reed,
+_Phragmites communis_; and many range throughout the warm regions of the
+globe, e.g. _Cynodon Dactylon_, _Eleusine indica_, _Imperata
+arundinacea_, _Sporobolus indicus_, &c., and such weeds of cultivation
+as species of _Setaria_, _Echinochloa_. Several species of the north
+temperate zone, such as _Poa nemoralis_, _P. pratensis_, _Festuca
+ovina_, _F. rubra_ and others, are absent in the tropics but reappear in
+the antarctic regions; others (e.g. _Phleum alpinum_) appear in isolated
+positions on high mountains in the intervening tropics. No tribe is
+confined to one hemisphere and no large genus to any one floral region;
+facts which indicate that the separation of the tribes goes back to very
+ancient times. The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well
+exhibits the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally
+so peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90
+indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 are endemic, 1
+extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia and New Zealand, 18
+extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than 54 are found in both the Old
+and New Worlds; 26 being chiefly tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical.
+
+Of specially remarkable species _Lygeum_ is found on the sea-sand of the
+eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, and the minute _Coleanthus_
+occurs in three or four isolated spots in Europe (Norway, Bohemia,
+Austria, Normandy), in North-east Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast
+of North America (Oregon, Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera
+occur in tropical America, including _Anomochloa_ of Brazil, and most of
+the large aquatic species with separated sexes are found in this region.
+The only genus of flowering plants peculiar to the arctic regions is the
+beautiful and rare grass _Pleuropogon Sabinii_, of Melville Island.
+
+_Fossil Grasses._--While numerous remains of grass-like leaves are a
+proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly developed in past
+geological ages, especially in the Tertiary period, the fossil remains
+are in most cases too fragmentary and badly preserved for the
+determination of genera, and conclusions based thereon in explanation of
+existing geographical distribution are most unsatisfactory. There is,
+however, justification for referring some specimens to _Arundo_,
+_Phragmites_, and to the _Bambuseae_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Hackel, _The True Grasses_ (translated from Engler
+  and Prantl, _Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien_, by F. Lamson Scribner
+  and E. A. Southworth); and _Andropogoneae_ in de Candolle's
+  _Monographiae phanerogamarum_ (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth, _Revision
+  des graminees_ (Paris, 1829-1835) and _Agrostographia_ (Stuttgart,
+  1833); J. C. Doll in Martius and Eichler, _Flora Brasiliensis_, ii.
+  Pts. II. and III. (Munich, 1871-1883); A. W. Eichler,
+  _Bluthendiagramme_ i. 119 (Leipzig, 1875); Bentham and Hooker, _Genera
+  plantarum_, iii. 1074 (London, 1883); H. Baillon, _Histoire des
+  plantes_, xii. 136 (Paris, 1893); J. S. Gamble, "_Bambuseae_ of
+  British India" in _Annals Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta_, vii.
+  (1896); John Percival, _Agricultural Botany_ (chapters on "Grasses,"
+  2nd ed., London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various
+  great floras, such as Ascherson and Graebner, _Synopsis der
+  mitteleuropaischen Flora_; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, _Illustrated
+  Flora of the Northern United States and Canada_ (New York, 1896);
+  Hooker's _Flora of British India_; _Flora Capensis_ (edited by W.
+  Thiselton-Dyer); Boissier, _Flora orientalis_, &c. &c.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "grass" (O. Eng. _gaers_, _graes_) is common to Teutonic
+    languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth, _gras_, Dan. _graes_; the root is the
+    O. Teut. _gra_-, _gro_-, to increase, whence "grow," and "green," the
+    typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is seen
+    in Lat. _gramen_. The O. Eng. _grasian_, formed from _graes_, gives
+    "to graze," of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also "grazier," one
+    who grazes or feeds cattle for the market; "to graze," to abrade, to
+    touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this from the idea
+    of close cropping; if it is to be distinguished a possible connexion
+    may be found with "glace" (Fr. _glacer_, glide, slip, Lat. _glacies_,
+    ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced by "grate,"
+    to scrape, scratch (Fr. _gratter_, Ger. _kratzen_).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various
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