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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 2
+       "French Literature" to "Frost, William"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 12, 2011 [EBook #37736]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "Froissart had been followed as a
+      chronicler by Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1390-1453) and by the
+      historiographers of the Burgundian court, Chastelain, already
+      mentioned, whose interesting Chronique de Jacques de Lalaing is
+      much the most attractive part of his work ..." 'whose' amended from
+      'whole'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "... Mesmer, St Germain and others. In
+      this connexion, too, may perhaps also be mentioned most
+      appropriately Restif de la Bretonne, a remarkably original and
+      voluminous writer ..." 'Restif' amended from 'Bestif'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "The Anglomania which distinguished the
+      time was nowhere more strongly shown than in the cast and direction
+      of its philosophical speculations." 'strongly' amended from
+      'stongly'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "All this literature is so far connected
+      purely with the knightly and priestly orders, though it is largely
+      composed and still more largely dealt in by classes of men ..."
+      'literature' amended from 'literaure'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE: "The constitutional party in the
+      legislature desired a toleration of the nonjuring clergy, the
+      repeal of the laws against the relatives of the émigrés, and some
+      merciful discrimination toward the émigrés themselves."
+      'constitutional' amended from 'contitutional'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRIAR: "See Fr. Cuthbert, The Friars and how they came to
+      England, pp. 11-32 (1903); also F. A. Gasquet, English Monastic
+      Life, pp. 234-249 (1904), where special information on all the
+      English friars is conveniently brought together." 'conveniently'
+      amended from 'coveniently'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRISIAN ISLANDS: "... fine sandy beaches being formed well
+      suited for sea-bathing, which attract many visitors in summer."
+      'attract' amended from 'attracts'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XI, SLICE II
+
+    French Literature to Frost, William
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FRENCH LITERATURE                 FRIEDRICHSHAFEN
+  FRENCH POLISH                     FRIEDRICHSRUH
+  FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE            FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
+  FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS         FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
+  FRENCH WEST AFRICA                FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS
+  FRENTANI                          FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH
+  FREPPEL, CHARLES ÉMILE            FRIES, JOHN
+  FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD    FRIESLAND
+  FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM               FRIEZE
+  FRÈRE, PIERRE ÉDOUARD             FRIGATE
+  FRÈRE-ORBAN, HUBERT WALTHER       FRIGATE-BIRD
+  FRÉRET, NICOLAS                   FRIGG
+  FRÉRON, ÉLIE CATHERINE            FRIGIDARIUM
+  FRÉRON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS     FRIIS, JOHAN
+  FRESCO                            FRIMLEY
+  FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO             FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP
+  FRESENIUS, KARL REMIGIUS          FRISCHES HAFF
+  FRESHWATER                        FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS
+  FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN            FRISI, PAOLO
+  FRESNILLO                         FRISIAN ISLANDS
+  FRESNO                            FRISIANS
+  FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU      FRITH, JOHN
+  FRET                              FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL
+  FREUDENSTADT                      FRITILLARY
+  FREUND, WILHELM                   FRITZLAR
+  FREWEN, ACCEPTED                  FRIULI
+  FREY                              FROBEN, JOANNES
+  FREYBURG                          FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN
+  FREYCINET, CHARLES DE SAULCES DE  FROCK
+  FREYCINET, LOUIS DESAULSES DE     FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST
+  FREYIA                            FROG
+  FREYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH  FROG-BIT
+  FREYTAG, GUSTAV                   FROGMORE
+  FRIAR                             FRÖHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL
+  FRIBOURG (Swiss Canton)           FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB
+  FRIBOURG (Swiss town)             FROISSART, JEAN
+  FRICTION                          FROME
+  FRIDAY                            FROMENTIN, EUGÈNE
+  FRIEDBERG                         FROMMEL, GASTON
+  FRIEDEL, CHARLES                  FRONDE, THE
+  FRIEDLAND (town of Austria)       FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, LOUIS DE BUADE
+  FRIEDLAND (towns in Germany)      FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS
+  FRIEDLAND (town of Prussia)       FRONTISPIECE
+  FRIEDMANN, MEIR                   FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS
+  FRIEDRICH, JOHANN                 FROSINONE
+  FRIEDRICHRODA                     FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTE
+  FRIEDRICHSDORF                    FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH LITERATURE.
+
+  Early monuments.
+
+  Epic poetry.
+
+_Origins._--The history of French literature in the proper sense of the
+term can hardly be said to extend farther back than the 11th century.
+The actual manuscripts which we possess are seldom of older date than
+the century subsequent to this. But there is no doubt that by the end at
+least of the 11th century the French language, as a completely organized
+medium of literary expression, was in full, varied and constant use. For
+many centuries previous to this, literature had been composed in France,
+or by natives of that country, using the term France in its full modern
+acceptation; but until the 9th century, if not later, the written
+language of France, so far as we know, was Latin; and despite the
+practice of not a few literary historians, it does not seem reasonable
+to notice Latin writings in a history of French literature. Such a
+history properly busies itself only with the monuments of French itself
+from the time when the so-called Lingua Romana Rustica assumed a
+sufficiently independent form to deserve to be called a new language.
+This time it is indeed impossible exactly to determine, and the period
+at which literary compositions, as distinguished from mere conversation,
+began to employ the new tongue is entirely unknown. As early as the 7th
+century the Lingua Romana, as distinguished from Latin and from Teutonic
+dialects, is mentioned, and this Lingua Romana would be of necessity
+used for purposes of clerical admonition, especially in the country
+districts, though we need not suppose that such addresses had a very
+literary character. On the other hand, the mention, at early dates, of
+certain _cantilenae_ or songs composed in the vulgar language has served
+for basis to a superstructure of much ingenious argument with regard to
+the highly interesting problem of the origin of the _Chansons de Geste_,
+the earliest and one of the greatest literary developments of northern
+French. It is sufficient in this article, where speculation would be out
+of place, to mention that only two such _cantilenae_ actually exist, and
+that neither is French. One of the 9th century, the "Lay of Saucourt,"
+is in a Teutonic dialect; the other, the "Song of St Faron," is of the
+7th century, but exists only in Latin prose, the construction and style
+of which present traces of translation from a poetical and vernacular
+original. As far as facts go, the most ancient monuments of the written
+French language consist of a few documents of very various character,
+ranging in date from the 9th to the 11th century. The oldest gives us
+the oaths interchanged at Strassburg in 842 between Charles the Bald and
+Louis the German. The next probably in date and the first in literary
+merit is a short song celebrating the martyrdom of St Eulalia, which may
+be as old as the end of the 9th century, and is certainly not younger
+than the beginning of the 10th. Another, the _Life of St Leger_, in 240
+octosyllabic lines, is dated by conjecture about 975. The discussion
+indeed of these short and fragmentary pieces is of more philological
+than literary interest, and belongs rather to the head of French
+language. They are, however, evidence of the progress which, continuing
+for at least four centuries, built up a literary instrument out of the
+decomposed and reconstructed Latin of the Roman conquerors, blended with
+a certain limited amount of contributions from the Celtic and Iberian
+dialects of the original inhabitants, the Teutonic speech of the Franks,
+and the Oriental tongue of the Moors who pressed upwards from Spain. But
+all these foreign elements bear a very small proportion to the element
+of Latin; and as Latin furnished the greater part of the vocabulary and
+the grammar, so did it also furnish the principal models and helps to
+literary composition. The earliest French versification is evidently
+inherited from that of the Latin hymns of the church, and for a certain
+time Latin originals were followed in the choice of literary forms. But
+by the 11th century it is tolerably certain that dramatic attempts were
+already being made in the vernacular, that lyric poetry was largely
+cultivated, that laws, charters, and such-like documents were written,
+and that commentators and translators busied themselves with religious
+subjects and texts. The most important of the extant documents, outside
+of the epics presently to be noticed, has of late been held to be the
+_Life of Saint Alexis_, a poem of 625 decasyllabic lines, arranged in
+five-line stanzas, each of one assonance or vowel-rhyme, which may be as
+early as 1050. But the most important development of the 11th century,
+and the one of which we are most certain, is that of which we have
+evidence remaining in the famous _Chanson de Roland_, discovered in a
+manuscript at Oxford and first published in 1837. This poem represents
+the first and greatest development of French literature, the chansons de
+geste (this form is now preferred to that with the plural _gestes_). The
+origin of these poems has been hotly debated, and it is only recently
+that the importance which they really possess has been accorded to
+them,--a fact the less remarkable in that, until about 1820, the epics
+of ancient France were unknown, or known only through late and
+disfigured prose versions. Whether they originated in the north or the
+south is a question on which there have been more than one or two
+revolutions of opinion, and will probably be others still, but which
+need not be dealt with here. We possess in round numbers a hundred of
+these chansons. Three only of them are in Provençal. Two of these,
+_Ferabras_ and _Betonnet d'Hanstonne_, are obviously adaptations of
+French originals. The third, _Girartz de Rossilho_ (Gerard de
+Roussillon), is undoubtedly Provençal, and is a work of great merit and
+originality, but its dialect is strongly tinged with the characteristics
+of the Langue d'Oïl, and its author seems to have been a native of the
+debatable land between the two districts. To suppose under these
+circumstances that the Provençal originals of the hundred others have
+perished seems gratuitous. It is sufficient to say that the chanson de
+geste, as it is now extant, is the almost exclusive property of northern
+France. Nor is there much authority for a supposition that the early
+French poets merely versified with amplifications the stories of
+chroniclers. On the contrary, chroniclers draw largely from the
+chansons, and the question of priority between _Roland_ and the
+pseudo-Turpin, though a hard one to determine, seems to resolve itself
+in favour of the former. At most we may suppose, with much probability,
+that personal and family tradition gave a nucleus for at least the
+earliest.
+
+
+  Chansons de Geste.
+
+_Chansons de Geste._--Early French narrative poetry was divided by one
+of its own writers, Jean Bodel, under three heads--poems relating to
+French history, poems relating to ancient history, and poems of the
+Arthurian cycle (_Matières de France, de Bretagne, et de Rome_). To the
+first only is the term chansons de geste in strictness applicable. The
+definition of it goes partly by form and partly by matter. A chanson de
+geste must be written in verses either of ten or twelve syllables, the
+former being the earlier. These verses have a regular caesura, which,
+like the end of a line, carries with it the licence of a mute e. The
+lines are arranged, not in couplets or in stanzas of equal length, but
+in _laisses_ or _tirades_, consisting of any number of lines from half a
+dozen to some hundreds. These are, in the earlier examples
+assonanced,--that is to say, the vowel sound of the last syllables is
+identical, but the consonants need not agree. Thus, for instance, the
+final words of a tirade of _Amis et Amiles_ (Il. 199-206) are _erbe_,
+_nouvelle_, _selles_, _nouvelles_, _traversent_, _arrestent_, _guerre_,
+_cortége_. Sometimes the tirade is completed by a shorter line, and the
+later chansons are regularly rhymed. As to the subject, a chanson de
+geste must be concerned with some event which is, or is supposed to be,
+historical and French. The tendency of the trouvères was constantly to
+affiliate their heroes on a particular _geste_ or family. The three
+chief _gestes_ are those of Charlemagne himself, of Doon de Mayence, and
+of Garin de Monglane; but there are not a few chansons, notably those
+concerning the Lorrainers, and the remarkable series sometimes called
+the _Chevalier au Cygne_, and dealing with the crusades, which lie
+outside these groups. By this joint definition of form and subject the
+chansons de geste are separated from the romances of antiquity, from the
+romances of the Round Table, which are written in octosyllabic couplets,
+and from the _romans d'aventures_ or later fictitious tales, some of
+which, such as _Brun de la Montaigne_, are written in pure chanson form.
+
+
+  Volume and changes of early epics.
+
+Not the least remarkable point about the chansons de geste is their vast
+extent. Their number, according to the strictest definition, exceeds
+100, and the length of each chanson varies from 1000 lines, or
+thereabouts, to 20,000 or even 30,000. The entire mass, including, it
+may be supposed, the various versions and extensions of each chanson, is
+said to amount to between two and three million lines; and when, under
+the second empire, the publication of the whole Carolingian cycle was
+projected, it was estimated, taking the earliest versions alone, at over
+300,000. The successive developments of the chansons de geste may be
+illustrated by the fortunes of _Huon de Bordeaux_, one of the most
+lively, varied and romantic of the older epics, and one which is
+interesting from the use made of it by Shakespeare, Wieland and Weber.
+In the oldest form now extant, though even this is probably not the
+original, _Huon_ consists of over 10,000 lines. A subsequent version
+contains 4000 more; and lastly, in the 14th century, a later poet has
+amplified the legend to the extent of 30,000 lines. When this point had
+been reached, _Huon_ began to be turned into prose, was with many of his
+fellows published and republished during the 15th and subsequent
+centuries, and retains, in the form of a roughly printed chap-book, the
+favour of the country districts of France to the present day. It is not,
+however, in the later versions that the special characteristics of the
+chansons de geste are to be looked for. Of those which we possess, one
+and one only, the _Chanson de Roland_, belongs in its present form to
+the 11th century. Their date of production extends, speaking roughly,
+from the 11th to the 14th century, their palmy days were the 11th and
+the 12th. After this latter period the Arthurian romances, with more
+complex attractions, became their rivals, and induced their authors to
+make great changes in their style and subject. But for a time they
+reigned supreme, and no better instance of their popularity can be given
+than the fact that manuscripts of them exist, not merely in every French
+dialect, but in many cases in a strange macaronic jargon of mingled
+French and Italian. Two classes of persons were concerned in them. There
+was the _trouvère_ who composed them, and the _jongleur_ who carried
+them about in manuscript or in his memory from castle to castle and sang
+them, intermixing frequent appeals to his auditory for silence,
+declarations of the novelty and the strict copyright character of the
+chanson, revilings of rival minstrels, and frequently requests for money
+in plain words. Not a few of the manuscripts which we now possess appear
+to have been actually used by the jongleur. But the names of the
+authors, the trouvères who actually composed them, are in very few cases
+known, those of copyists, continuators, and mere possessors of
+manuscripts having been often mistaken for them.
+
+The moral and poetical peculiarities of the older and more authentic of
+these chansons are strongly marked, though perhaps not quite so strongly
+as some of their encomiasts have contended, and as may appear to a
+reader of the most famous of them, the _Chanson de Roland_, alone. In
+that poem, indeed, war and religion are the sole motives employed, and
+its motto might be two lines from another of the finest chansons
+(_Aliscans_, 161-162):--
+
+  "Dist à Bertran: 'N'avons mais nul losir,
+   Tant ke vivons alons paiens ferir.'"
+
+In Roland there is no love-making whatever, and the hero's betrothed "la
+belle Aude" appears only in a casual gibe of her brother Oliver, and in
+the incident of her sudden death at the news of Roland's fall. M. Léon
+Gautier and others have drawn the conclusion that this stern and
+masculine character was a feature of all the older chansons, and that
+imitation of the Arthurian romance is the cause of its disappearance.
+This seems rather a hasty inference. In _Amis et Amiles_, admittedly a
+poem of old date, the parts of Bellicent and Lubias are prominent, and
+the former is demonstrative enough. In _Aliscans_ the part of the
+Countess Guibourc is both prominent and heroic, and is seconded by that
+of Queen Blancheflor and her daughter Aelis. We might also mention
+Oriabel in _Jourdans de Blaivies_ and others. But it may be admitted
+that the sex which fights and counsels plays the principal part, that
+love adventures are not introduced at any great length, and that the
+lady usually spares her knight the trouble and possible indignities of a
+long wooing. The characters of a chanson of the older style are somewhat
+uniform. There is the hero who is unjustly suspected of guilt or sore
+beset by Saracens, the heroine who falls in love with him, the traitor
+who accuses him or delays help, who is almost always of the lineage of
+Ganelon, and whose ways form a very curious study. There are friendly
+paladins and subordinate traitors; there is Charlemagne (who bears
+throughout the marks of the epic king common to Arthur and Agamemnon,
+but is not in the earlier chanson the incapable and venal dotard which
+he becomes in the later), and with Charlemagne generally the duke Naimes
+of Bavaria, the one figure who is invariably wise, brave, loyal and
+generous. In a few chansons there is to be added to these a very
+interesting class of personages who, though of low birth or condition,
+yet rescue the high-born knights from their enemies. Such are Rainoart
+in _Aliscans_, Gautier in _Gaydon_, Robastre in _Gaufrey_, Varocher in
+_Macaire_. These subjects, uniform rather than monotonous, are handled
+with great uniformity if not monotony of style. There are constant
+repetitions, and it sometimes seems, and may sometimes be the case, that
+the text is a mere cento of different and repeated versions. But the
+verse is generally harmonious and often stately. The recurrent
+assonances of the endless tirade soon impress the ear with a grateful
+music, and occasionally, and far more frequently than might be thought,
+passages of high poetry, such as the magnificent _Granz doel por la mort
+de Rollant_, appear to diversify the course of the story. The most
+remarkable of the chansons are _Roland_, _Aliscans_, _Gerard de
+Roussillon_, _Amis et Amiles_, _Raoul de Cambrai_, _Garin le Loherain_
+and its sequel _Les quatre Fils Aymon_, _Les Saisnes_ (recounting the
+war of Charlemagne with Witekind), and lastly, _Le Chevalier au Cygne_,
+which is not a single poem but a series, dealing with the earlier
+crusades. The most remarkable _group_ is that centring round William of
+Orange, the historical or half-historical defender of the south of
+France against Mahommedan invasion. Almost all the chansons of this
+group, from the long-known _Aliscans_ to the recently printed _Chançon
+de Willame_, are distinguished by an unwonted _personality_ of interest,
+as well as by an intensified dose of the rugged and martial poetry which
+pervades the whole class. It is noteworthy that one chanson and one
+only, _Floovant_, deals with Merovingian times. But the chronology,
+geography, and historic facts of nearly all are, it is hardly necessary
+to say, mainly arbitrary.
+
+_Arthurian Romances._--The second class of early French epics consists
+of the Arthurian cycle, the _Matière de Bretagne_, the earliest known
+compositions of which are at least a century junior to the earliest
+chanson de geste, but which soon succeeded the chansons in popular
+favour, and obtained a vogue both wider and far more enduring. It is not
+easy to conceive a greater contrast in form, style, subject and
+sentiment than is presented by the two classes. In both the religious
+sentiment is prominent, but the religion of the chansons is of the
+simplest, not to say of the most savage character. To pray to God and to
+kill his enemies constitutes the whole duty of man. In the romances the
+mystical element becomes on the contrary prominent, and furnishes, in
+the Holy Grail, one of the most important features. In the Carlovingian
+knight the courtesy and clemency which we have learnt to associate with
+chivalry are almost entirely absent. The _gentix ber_ contradicts, jeers
+at, and execrates his sovereign and his fellows with the utmost freedom.
+He thinks nothing of striking his _cortoise moullier_ so that the blood
+runs down her _cler vis_. If a servant or even an equal offends him, he
+will throw the offender into the fire, knock his brains out, or set his
+whiskers ablaze. The Arthurian knight is far more of the modern model in
+these respects. But his chief difference from his predecessor is
+undoubtedly in his amorous devotion to his beloved, who, if not morally
+superior to Bellicent, Floripas, Esclairmonde, and the other
+Carlovingian heroines, is somewhat less forward. Even in minute details
+the difference is strongly marked. The romances are in octosyllabic
+couplets or in prose, and their language is different from that of the
+chansons, and contains much fewer of the usual epic repetitions and
+stock phrases. A voluminous controversy has been held respecting the
+origin of these differences, and of the story or stories which were
+destined to receive such remarkable attention. Reference must be made to
+the article ARTHURIAN LEGEND for the history of this controversy and for
+an account of its present state. This state, however, and all subsequent
+states, are likely to be rather dependent upon opinion than upon actual
+knowledge. From the point of view of the general historian of literature
+it may not be improper here to give a caution against the frequent use
+of the word "proven" in such matters. Very little in regard to early
+literature, except the literary value of the texts, is ever susceptible
+of _proof_; although things may be made more or less _probable_. What we
+are at present concerned with, however, is a body of verse and prose
+composed in the latter part of the 12th century and later. The earliest
+romances, the _Saint Graal_, the _Quête du Saint Graal_, _Joseph
+d'Arimathie_ and _Merlin_ bear the names of Walter Map and Robert de
+Borron. _Artus_ and part at least of _Lancelot du Lac_ (the whole of
+which has been by turns attributed and denied to Walter Map) appear to
+be due to unknown authors. _Tristan_ came later, and has a stronger
+mixture of Celtic tradition. At the same time as Walter Map, or a little
+later, Chrétien (or Chrestien) de Troyes threw the legends of the Round
+Table into octosyllabic verse of a singularly spirited and picturesque
+character. The chief poems attributed to him are the _Chevalier au Lyon_
+(Sir Ewain of Wales), the _Chevalier à la Charette_ (one of the episodes
+of _Lancelot_), _Eric et Enide_, _Tristan_ and _Percivale_. These poems,
+independently of their merit, which is great, had an extensive literary
+influence. They were translated by the German minnesingers, Wolfram von
+Eschenbach, Gottfried of Strassburg, and others. With the romances
+already referred to, which are mostly in prose, and which by recent
+authorities have been put later than the verse tales which used to be
+postponed to them, Chrétien's poems complete the early forms of the
+Arthurian story, and supply the matter of it as it is best known to
+English readers in Malory's book. Nor does that book, though far later
+than the original forms, convey a very false impression of the
+characteristics of the older romances. Indeed, the Arthurian knight, his
+character and adventures, are so much better known than the heroes of
+the Carlovingian chanson that there is less need to dwell upon them.
+They had, however, as has been already pointed out, great influence upon
+their rivals, and their comparative fertility of invention, the much
+larger number of their _dramatis personae_, and the greater variety of
+interests to which they appealed, sufficiently explain their increased
+popularity. The ordinary attractions of poetry are also more largely
+present in them than in the chansons; there is more description, more
+life, and less of the mere chronicle. They have been accused of relaxing
+morality, and there is perhaps some truth in the charge. But the change
+is after all one rather of manners than of morals, and what is lost in
+simplicity is gained in refinement. _Doon de Mayence_ is a late chanson,
+and _Lancelot du Lac_ is an early romance. But the two beautiful scenes,
+in the former between Doon and Nicolette, in the latter between
+Lancelot, Galahault, Guinevere, and the Lady of Malehaut, may be
+compared as instances of the attitude of the two classes of poets
+towards the same subject.
+
+_Romances of Antiquity._--There is yet a third class of early narrative
+poems, differing from the two former in subject, but agreeing, sometimes
+with one sometimes with the other in form. These are the classical
+romances--the _Matière de Rome_--which are not much later than those of
+Charlemagne and Arthur. The chief subjects with which their authors
+busied themselves were the conquests of Alexander and the siege of Troy,
+though other classical stories come in. The most remarkable of all is
+the romance of _Alixandre_ by Lambert the Short and Alexander of Bernay.
+It has been said that the excellence of the twelve-syllabled verse used
+in this romance was the origin of the term alexandrine. The Trojan
+romances, on the other hand, are chiefly in octosyllabic verse, and the
+principal poem which treats of them is the _Roman de Troie_ of Benoit de
+Sainte More. Both this poem and _Alixandre_ are attributed to the last
+quarter of the 12th century. The authorities consulted for these poems
+were, as may be supposed, none of the best. Dares Phrygius, Dictys
+Cretensis, the pseudo-Callisthenes supplied most of them. But the
+inexhaustible invention of the trouvères themselves was the chief
+authority consulted. The adventures of Medea, the wanderings of
+Alexander, the Trojan horse, the story of Thebes, were quite sufficient
+to spur on to exertion the minds which had been accustomed to spin a
+chanson of some 10,000 lines out of a casual allusion in some preceding
+poem. It is needless to say that anachronisms did not disturb them. From
+first to last the writers of the chansons had not in the least troubled
+themselves with attention to any such matters. Charlemagne himself had
+his life and exploits accommodated to the need of every poet who treats
+of him, and the same is the case with the heroes of antiquity. Indeed,
+Alexander is made in many respects a prototype of Charlemagne. He is
+regularly knighted, he has twelve peers, he holds tournaments, he has
+relations with Arthur, and comes in contact with fairies, he takes
+flights in the air, dives in the sea and so forth. There is perhaps more
+avowed imagination in these classical stories than in either of the
+other divisions of French epic poetry. Some of their authors even
+confess to the practice of fiction, while the trouvères of the chansons
+invariably assert the historical character of their facts and
+personages, and the authors of the Arthurian romances at least start
+from facts vouched for, partly by national tradition, partly by the
+authority of religion and the church. The classical romances, however,
+are important in two different ways. In the first place, they connect
+the early literature of France, however loosely, and with links of
+however dubious authenticity, with the great history and literature of
+the past. They show a certain amount of scholarship in their authors,
+and in their hearers they show a capacity of taking an interest in
+subjects which are not merely those directly connected with the village
+or the tribe. The chansons de geste had shown the creative power and
+independent character of French literature. There is, at least about the
+earlier ones, nothing borrowed, traditional or scholarly. They smack of
+the soil, and they rank France among the very few countries which, in
+this matter of indigenous growth, have yielded more than folk-songs and
+fireside tales. The Arthurian romances, less independent in origin,
+exhibit a wider range of view, a greater knowledge of human nature, and
+a more extensive command of the sources of poetical and romantic
+interest. The classical epics superadd the only ingredient necessary to
+an accomplished literature--that is to say, the knowledge of what has
+been done by other peoples and other literatures already, and the
+readiness to take advantage of the materials thus supplied.
+
+_Romans d'Aventures._--These are the three earliest developments of
+French literature on the great scale. They led, however, to a fourth,
+which, though later in date than all except their latest forms and far
+more loosely associated as a group, is so closely connected with them by
+literary and social considerations that it had best be mentioned here.
+This is the _roman d'aventures_, a title given to those almost avowedly
+fictitious poems which connect themselves, mainly and centrally, neither
+with French history, with the Round Table, nor with the heroes of
+antiquity. These began to be written in the 13th century, and continued
+until the prose form of fiction became generally preferred. The later
+forms of the chansons de geste and the Arthurian poems might indeed be
+well called romans d'aventures themselves. _Hugues Capet_, for instance,
+a chanson in form and class of subject, is certainly one of this latter
+kind in treatment; and there is a larger class of semi-Arthurian
+romance, which so to speak branches off from the main trunk. But for
+convenience sake the definition we have given is preferable. The style
+and subject of these romans d'aventures are naturally extremely various.
+_Guillaume de Palerme_ deals with the adventures of a Sicilian prince
+who is befriended by a were-wolf; _Le Roman de l'escoufle_, with a
+heroine whose ring is carried off by a sparrow-hawk (_escoufle_), like
+Prince Camaralzaman's talisman; _Guy of Warwick_, with one of the most
+famous of imaginary heroes; _Meraugis de Portléguez_ is a sort of branch
+or offshoot of the romances of the Round Table; _Cléomadès_, the work of
+the trouvère Adenès le Roi, who also rehandled the old chanson subjects
+of _Ogier_ and _Berte aux grans piés_, connects itself once more with
+the _Arabian Nights_ as well as with Chaucer forwards in the
+introduction of a flying mechanical horse. There is, in short, no
+possibility of classifying their subjects. The habit of writing in
+gestes, or of necessarily connecting the new work with an older one, had
+ceased to be binding, and the instinct of fiction writing was free; yet
+those romans d'aventures do not rank quite as high in literary
+importance as the classes which preceded them. This under-valuation
+arises rather from a lack of originality and distinctness of savour than
+from any shortcomings in treatment. Their versification, usually
+octosyllabic, is pleasant enough; but there is not much distinctness of
+character about them, and their incidents often strike the reader with
+something of the sameness, but seldom with much of the naïveté, of those
+of the older poems. Nevertheless some of them attained to a very high
+popularity, such, for instance, as the _Partenopex de Blois_ of Denis
+Pyramus, which has a motive drawn from the story of _Cupid and Psyche_
+and the charming _Floire et Blanchefleur_, giving the woes of a
+Christian prince and a Saracen slave-girl. With them may be connected a
+certain number of early romances and fictions of various dates in prose,
+none of which can vie in charm with _Aucassin et Nicolette_ (13th
+century), an exquisite literary presentment of medieval sentiment in its
+most delightful form.
+
+
+  General characteristics of early narrative.
+
+  Spread of literary taste.
+
+In these classes maybe said to be summed up the literature of feudal
+chivalry in France. They were all, except perhaps the last, composed by
+one class of persons, the trouvères, and performed by another, the
+jongleurs. The latter, indeed, sometimes presumed to compose for
+himself, and was denounced as a _troveor batard_ by the indignant
+members of the superior caste. They were all originally intended to be
+performed in the _palais marberin_ of the baron to an audience of
+knights and ladies, and, when reading became more common, to be read by
+such persons. They dealt therefore chiefly, if not exclusively, with the
+class to whom they were addressed. The bourgeois and the villain,
+personages of political nonentity at the time of their early
+composition, come in for far slighter notice, although occasionally in
+the few curious instances we have mentioned, and others, persons of a
+class inferior to the seigneur play an important part. The habit of
+private wars and of insurrection against the sovereign supply the
+motives of the chanson de geste, the love of gallantry, adventure and
+foreign travel those of the romances Arthurian and miscellaneous. None
+of these motives much affected the lower classes, who were, with the
+early developed temper of the middle- and lower-class Frenchman, already
+apt to think and speak cynically enough of tournaments, courts, crusades
+and the other occupations of the nobility. The communal system was
+springing up, the towns were receiving royal encouragement as a
+counterpoise to the authority of the nobles. The corruptions and
+maladministration of the church attracted the satire rather of the
+citizens and peasantry who suffered by them, than of the nobles who had
+less to fear and even something to gain. On the other hand, the gradual
+spread of learning, inaccurate and ill-digested perhaps, but still
+learning, not only opened up new classes of subjects, but opened them to
+new classes of persons. The thousands of students who flocked to the
+schools of Paris were not all princes or nobles. Hence there arose two
+new classes of literature, the first consisting of the embodiment of
+learning of one kind or other in the vulgar tongue. The other, one of
+the most remarkable developments of sportive literature which the world
+has seen, produced the second indigenous literary growth of which France
+can boast, namely, the fabliaux, and the almost more remarkable work
+which is an immense conglomerate of fabliaux, the great beast-epic of
+the Roman de Renart.
+
+_Fabliaux._--There are few literary products which have more originality
+and at the same time more diversity than the fabliau. The epic and the
+drama, even when they are independently produced, are similar in their
+main characteristics all the world over. But there is nothing in
+previous literature which exactly corresponds to the fabliau. It comes
+nearest to the Aesopic fable and its eastern origins or parallels. But
+differs from these in being less allegorical, less obviously moral
+(though a moral of some sort is usually if not always enforced), and in
+having a much more direct personal interest. It is in many degrees
+further removed from the parable, and many degrees nearer to the novel.
+The story is the first thing, the moral the second, and the latter is
+never suffered to interfere with the former. These observations apply
+only to the fabliaux, properly so called, but the term has been used
+with considerable looseness. The collectors of those interesting pieces,
+Barbazan, Méon, Le Grand d'Aussy, have included in their collections
+large numbers of miscellaneous pieces such as _dits_ (rhymed
+descriptions of various objects, the most famous known author of which
+was Baudouin de Condé, 13th century), and _débats_ (discussions between
+two persons or contrasts of the attributes of two things), sometimes
+even short romances, farces and mystery plays. Not that the fable
+proper--the prose classical beast-story of "Aesop"--was neglected. Marie
+de France--the poetess to be mentioned again for her more strictly
+poetical work--is the most literary of not a few writers who composed
+what were often, after the mysterious original poet, named _Ysopets_.
+Aesop, Phaedrus, Babrius were translated and imitated in Latin and in
+the vernacular by this class of writer, and some of the best known of
+"fablers" date from this time. The fabliau, on the other hand, according
+to the best definition of it yet achieved, is "the recital, generally
+comic, of a real or possible incident occurring in ordinary human life."
+The comedy, it may be added, is usually of a satiric kind, and occupies
+itself with every class and rank of men, from the king to the villain.
+There is no limit to the variety of these lively verse-tales, which are
+invariably written in eight-syllabled couplets. Now the subject is the
+misadventure of two Englishmen, whose ignorance of the French language
+makes them confuse donkey and lamb; now it is the fortunes of an
+exceedingly foolish knight, who has an amiable and ingenious
+mother-in-law; now the deserved sufferings of an avaricious or
+ill-behaved priest; now the bringing of an ungrateful son to a better
+mind by the wisdom of babes and sucklings. Not a few of the _Canterbury
+Tales_ are taken directly from fabliaux; indeed, Chaucer, with the
+possible exception of Prior, is our nearest approach to a
+fabliau-writer. At the other end of Europe the prose novels of Boccaccio
+and other Italian tale-tellers are largely based upon fabliaux. But
+their influence in their own country was the greatest. They were the
+first expression of the spirit which has since animated the most
+national and popular developments of French literature. Simple and
+unpretending as they are in form, the fabliaux announce not merely the
+_Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ and the _Heptameron_, _L'Avocat Patelin_, and
+_Pantagruel_, but also _L'Avare_ and the _Roman comique_, _Gil Blas_ and
+_Candide_. They indeed do more than merely prophesy the spirit of these
+great performances--they directly lead to them. The prose-tale and the
+farce are the direct outcomes of the fabliau, and the prose-tale and the
+farce once given, the novel and the comedy inevitably follow.
+
+
+  Social importance of fabliaux.
+
+The special period of fabliau composition appears to have been the 12th
+and 13th centuries. It signifies on the one side the growth of a lighter
+and more sportive spirit than had yet prevailed, on another the rise in
+importance of other and lower orders of men than the priest and the
+noble, on yet another the consciousness on the part of these lower
+orders of the defects of the two privileged classes, and of the
+shortcomings of the system of polity under which these privileged
+classes enjoyed their privileges. There is, however, in the fabliau
+proper not so very much of direct satire, this being indeed excluded by
+the definition given above, and by the thoroughly artistic spirit in
+which that definition is observed. The fabliaux are so numerous and so
+various that it is difficult to select any as specially representative.
+We may, however, mention, both as good examples and as interesting from
+their subsequent history, _Le Vair Palfroi_, treated in English by Leigh
+Hunt and by Peacock; _Le Vilain Mire_, the original consciously or
+unconsciously followed in _Le Médecin malgré lui_; _Le Roi d'Angleterre
+et le jongleur d'Éli_; _La houce partie_; _Le Sot Chevalier_, an
+indecorous but extremely amusing story; _Les deux bordeors ribaus_, a
+dialogue between two jongleurs of great literary interest, containing
+allusions to the chansons de geste and romances most in vogue; and _Le
+vilain qui conquist paradis par plait_, one of the numerous instances of
+what has unnecessarily puzzled moderns, the association in medieval
+times of sincere and unfeigned faith with extremely free handling of its
+objects. This lightheartedness in other subjects sometimes bubbled over
+into the _fatrasie_, an almost pure nonsense-piece, parent of the later
+_amphigouri_.
+
+_Roman de Renart._--If the fabliaux are not remarkable for direct
+satire, that element is supplied in more than compensating quantity by
+an extraordinary composition which is closely related to them. _Le Roman
+de Renart_, or _History of Reynard the Fox_, is a poem, or rather series
+of poems, which, from the end of the 12th to the middle of the 14th
+century, served the citizen poets of northern France, not merely as an
+outlet for literary expression, but also as a vehicle of satirical
+comment,--now on the general vices and weaknesses of humanity, now on
+the usual corruptions in church and state, now on the various historical
+events which occupied public attention from time to time. The enormous
+popularity of the subject is shown by the long vogue which it had, and
+by the empire which it exercised over generations of writers who
+differed from each other widely in style and temper. Nothing can be
+farther from the allegorical erudition, the political diatribes and the
+sermonizing moralities of the authors of _Renart le Contre-fait_ than
+the sly naïveté of the writers of the earlier branches. Yet these and a
+long and unknown series of intermediate bards the fox-king pressed into
+his service, and it is scarcely too much to say that, during the two
+centuries of his reign, there was hardly a thought in the popular mind
+which, as it rose to the surface, did not find expression in an addition
+to the huge cycle of _Renart_.
+
+We shall not deal with the controversies which have been raised as to
+the origin of the poem and its central idea. The latter may have been a
+travestie of real persons and actual events, or it may (and much more
+probably) have been an expression of thoughts and experiences which
+recur in every generation. France, the Netherlands and Germany have
+contended for the honour of producing Renart; French, Flemish, German
+and Latin for the honour of first describing him. It is sufficient to
+say that the spirit of the work seems to be more that of the borderland
+between France and Flanders than of any other district, and that,
+wherever the idea may have originally arisen, it was incomparably more
+fruitful in France than in any other country. The French poems which we
+possess on the subject amount in all to nearly 100,000 lines,
+independently of mere variations, but including the different versions
+of _Renart le Contre-fait_. This vast total is divided into four
+different poems. The most ancient and remarkable is that edited by Méon
+under the title of _Roman du Renart_, and containing, with some
+additions made by M. Chabaille, 37 branches and about 32,000 lines. It
+must not, however, be supposed that this total forms a continuous poem
+like the _Aeneid_ or _Paradise Lost_. Part was pretty certainly written
+by Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but he was not the author of the whole. On the
+contrary, the separate branches are the work of different authors,
+hardly any of whom are known, and, but for their community of subject
+and to some extent of treatment, might be regarded as separate poems.
+The history of Renart, his victories over Isengrim, the wolf, Bruin, the
+bear, and his other unfortunate rivals, his family affection, his
+outwittings of King Noble the Lion and all the rest, are too well known
+to need fresh description here. It is perhaps in the subsequent poems,
+though they are far less known and much less amusing, that the hold
+which the idea of Renart had obtained on the mind of northern France,
+and the ingenious uses to which it was put, are best shown. The first of
+these is _Le Couronnement Renart_, a poem of between 3000 and 4000
+lines, attributed, on no grounds whatever, to the poetess Marie de
+France, and describing how the hero by his ingenuity got himself crowned
+king. This poem already shows signs of direct moral application and
+generalizing. These are still more apparent in _Renart le Nouvel_, a
+composition of some 8000 lines, finished in the year 1288 by the Fleming
+Jacquemart Giélée. Here the personification, of which, in noticing the
+_Roman de la rose_, we shall soon have to give extended mention, becomes
+evident. Instead of or at least beside the lively personal Renart who
+used to steal sausages, set Isengrim fishing with his tail, or make use
+of Chanticleer's comb for a purpose for which it was certainly never
+intended, we have _Renardie_, an abstraction of guile and hypocrisy,
+triumphantly prevailing over other and better qualities. Lastly, as the
+_Roman de la rose_ of William of Lorris is paralleled by _Renart le
+Nouvel_, so its continuation by Jean de Meung is paralleled by the great
+miscellany of _Renart le Contre-fait_, which, even in its existing
+versions, extends to fully 50,000 lines. Here we have, besides floods of
+miscellaneous erudition and discourse, political argument of the most
+direct and important kind. The wrongs of the lower orders are bitterly
+urged. They are almost openly incited to revolt; and it is scarcely too
+much to say, as M. Lenient has said, that the closely following
+Jacquerie is but a practical carrying out of the doctrines of the
+anonymous satirists of _Renart le Contre-fait_, one of whom (if indeed
+there was more than one) appears to have been a clerk of Troyes.
+
+
+  Audefroit le Bastard.
+
+  Thibaut de Champagne.
+
+  Ruteboef.
+
+  Adam de la Halle.
+
+  Lais.
+
+_Early Lyric Poetry._--Side by side with these two forms of literature,
+the epics and romances of the higher classes, and the fabliau, which, at
+least in its original, represented rather the feelings of the lower,
+there grew up a third kind, consisting of purely lyrical poetry. The
+song literature of medieval France is extremely abundant and beautiful.
+From the 12th to the 15th century it received constant accessions, some
+signed, some anonymous, some purely popular in their character, some the
+work of more learned writers, others again produced by members of the
+aristocracy. Of the latter class it may fairly be said that the
+catalogue of royal and noble authors boasts few if any names superior to
+those of Thibaut de Champagne, king of Navarre at the beginning of the
+13th century, and Charles d'Orléans, the father of Louis XII., at the
+beginning of the 15th. Although much of this lyric poetry is anonymous,
+the more popular part of it almost entirely so, yet M. Paulin Paris was
+able to enumerate some hundreds of French chansonniers between the 11th
+and the 13th century. The earliest song literature, chiefly known in the
+delightful collection of Bartsch (_Altfranzösische Romanzen und
+Pastourellen_), is mainly sentimental in character. The collector
+divides it under the two heads of romances and pastourelles, the former
+being usually the celebration of the loves of a noble knight and maiden,
+and recounting how Belle Doette or Eglantine or Oriour sat at her
+windows or in the tourney gallery, or embroidering silk and samite in
+her chamber, with her thoughts on Gerard or Guy or Henry,--the latter
+somewhat monotonous but naïve and often picturesque recitals, very often
+in the first person, of the meeting of an errant knight or minstrel with
+a shepherdess, and his cavalier but not always successful wooing. With
+these, some of which date from the 12th century, may be contrasted, at
+the other end of the medieval period, the more varied and popular
+collection dating in their present form from the 15th century, and
+published in 1875 by M. Gaston Paris. In both alike, making allowance
+for the difference of their age and the state of the language, may be
+noticed a charming lyrical faculty and great skill in the elaboration of
+light and suitable metres. Especially remarkable is the abundance of
+refrains of an admirably melodious kind. It is said that more than 500
+of these exist. Among the lyric writers of these four centuries whose
+names are known may be mentioned Audefroi le Bastard (12th century), the
+author of the charming song of _Belle Idoine_, and others no way
+inferior, Quesnes de Bethune, the ancestor of Sully, whose song-writing
+inclines to a satirical cast in many instances, the Vidame de Chartres,
+Charles d'Anjou, King John of Brienne, the châtelain de Coucy, Gace
+Bruslé, Colin Muset, while not a few writers mentioned elsewhere--Guyot
+de Provins, Adam de la Halle, Jean Bodel and others--were also lyrists.
+But none of them, except perhaps Audefroi, can compare with Thibaut IV.
+(1201-1253), who united by his possessions and ancestry a connexion with
+the north and the south, and who employed the methods of both districts
+but used the language of the north only. Thibaut was supposed to be the
+lover of Blanche of Castile, the mother of St Louis, and a great deal of
+his verse is concerned with his love for her. But while knights and
+nobles were thus employing lyric poetry in courtly and sentimental
+verse, lyric forms were being freely employed by others, both of high
+and low birth, for more general purposes. Blanche and Thibaut themselves
+came in for contemporary lampoons, and both at this time and in the
+times immediately following, a cloud of writers composed light verse,
+sometimes of a lyric sometimes of a narrative kind, and sometimes in a
+mixture of both. By far the most remarkable of these is Ruteboeuf (a
+name which is perhaps a nickname), the first of a long series of French
+poets to whom in recent days the title Bohemian has been applied, who
+passed their lives between gaiety and misery, and celebrated their lot
+in both conditions with copious verse. Ruteboeuf is among the earliest
+French writers who tell us their personal history and make personal
+appeals. But he does not confine himself to these. He discusses the
+history of his times, upbraids the nobles for their desertion of the
+Latin empire of Constantinople, considers the expediency of crusading,
+inveighs against the religious orders, and takes part in the disputes
+between the pope and the king. He composes pious poetry too, and in at
+least one poem takes care to distinguish between the church which he
+venerates and the corrupt churchmen whom he lampoons. Besides Ruteboeuf
+the most characteristic figure of his class and time (about the middle
+of the 13th century) is Adam de la Halle, commonly called the Hunchback
+of Arras. The earlier poems of Adam are of a sentimental character, the
+later ones satirical and somewhat ill-tempered. Such, for instance, is
+his invective against his native city. But his chief importance consists
+in his _jeux_, the _Jeu de la feuillie_, the _Jeu de Robin et Marion_,
+dramatic compositions which led the way to the regular dramatic form.
+Indeed the general tendency of the 13th century is to satire, fable and
+farce, even more than to serious or sentimental poetry. We should
+perhaps except the _lais_, the chief of which are known under the name
+of Marie de France. These lays are exclusively Breton in origin, though
+not in application, and the term seems originally to have had reference
+rather to the music to which they were sung than to the manner or matter
+of the pieces. Some resemblance to these lays may perhaps be traced in
+the genuine Breton songs published by M. Luzel. The subjects of the lais
+are indifferently taken from the Arthurian cycle, from ancient story,
+and from popular tradition, and, at any rate in Marie's hands, they give
+occasion for some passionate, and in the modern sense really romantic,
+poetry. The most famous of all is the _Lay of the Honeysuckle_,
+traditionally assigned to Sir Tristram.
+
+_Satiric and Didactic Works._--Among the direct satirists of the middle
+ages, one of the earliest and foremost is Guyot de Provins, a monk of
+Clairvaux and Cluny, whose _Bible_, as he calls it, contains an
+elaborate satire on the time (the beginning of the 13th century), and
+who was imitated by others, especially Hugues de Brégy. The same spirit
+soon betrayed itself in curious travesties of the romances of chivalry,
+and sometimes invades the later specimens of these romances themselves.
+One of the earliest examples of this travesty is the remarkable
+composition entitled _Audigier_. This poem, half fabliau and half
+romance, is not so much an instance of the heroi-comic poems which
+afterwards found so much favour in Italy and elsewhere, as a direct and
+ferocious parody of the Carlovingian epic. The hero Audigier is a model
+of cowardice and disloyalty; his father and mother, Turgibus and
+Rainberge, are deformed and repulsive. The exploits of the hero himself
+are coarse and hideous failures, and the whole poem can only be taken as
+a counterblast to the spirit of chivalry. Elsewhere a trouvère,
+prophetic of Rabelais, describes a vast battle between all the nations
+of the world, the quarrel being suddenly atoned by the arrival of a holy
+man bearing a huge flagon of wine. Again, we have the history of a
+solemn crusade undertaken by the citizens of a country town against the
+neighbouring castle. As erudition and the fancy for allegory gained
+ground, satire naturally availed itself of the opportunity thus afforded
+it; the disputes of Philippe le Bel with the pope and the Templars had
+an immense literary influence, partly in the concluding portions of the
+_Renart_, partly in the _Roman de la rose_, still to be mentioned, and
+partly in other satiric allegories of which the chief is the romance of
+_Fauvel_, attributed to François de Rues. The hero of this is an
+allegorical personage, half man and half horse, signifying the union of
+bestial degradation with human ingenuity and cunning. Fauvel (the name,
+it may be worth while to recall, occurs in Langland) is a divinity in
+his way. All the personages of state, from kings and popes to mendicant
+friars, pay their court to him.
+
+
+  Baudouin de Sebourc.
+
+But this serious and discontented spirit betrays itself also in
+compositions which are not parodies or travesties in form. One of the
+latest, if not absolutely the latest (for Cuvelier's still later
+_Chronique de Du Guesclin_ is only a most interesting _imitation_ of the
+_chanson_ form adapted to recent events), of the chansons de geste is
+_Baudouin de Sebourc_, one of the members of the great romance or cycle
+of romances dealing with the crusades, and entitled Le Chevalier au
+Cygne. _Baudouin de Sebourc_ dates from the early years of the 14th
+century. It is strictly a chanson de geste in form, and also in the
+general run of its incidents. The hero is dispossessed of his
+inheritance by the agency of traitors, fights his battle with the world
+and its injustice, and at last prevails over his enemy Gaufrois, who has
+succeeded in obtaining the kingdom of Friesland and almost that of
+France. Gaufrois has as his assistants two personages who were very
+popular in the poetry of the time,--viz., the Devil, and Money. These
+two sinister figures pervade the fabliaux, tales and fantastic
+literature generally of the time. M. Lenient, the historian of French
+satire, has well remarked that a romance as long as the _Renart_ might
+be spun out of the separate short poems of this period which have the
+Devil for hero, and many of which form a very interesting transition
+between the fabliau and the mystery. But the Devil is in one respect a
+far inferior hero to Renart. He has an adversary in the Virgin, who
+constantly upsets his best-laid schemes, and who does not always treat
+him quite fairly. The abuse of usury at the time, and the exactions of
+the Jews and Lombards, were severely felt, and Money itself, as
+personified, figures largely in the popular literature of the time.
+
+
+  William of Lorris.
+
+  Jean de Meung.
+
+_Roman de la Rose._--A work of very different importance from all of
+these, though with seeming touches of the same spirit, a work which
+deserves to take rank among the most important of the middle ages, is
+the _Roman de la rose_,--one of the few really remarkable books which is
+the work of two authors, and that not in collaboration but in
+continuation one of the other. The author of the earlier part was
+Guillaume de Lorris, who lived in the first half of the 13th century;
+the author of the later part was Jean de Meung, who was born about the
+middle of that century, and whose part in the _Roman_ dates at least
+from its extreme end. This great poem exhibits in its two parts very
+different characteristics, which yet go to make up a not inharmonious
+whole. It is a love poem, and yet it is satire. But both gallantry and
+raillery are treated in an entirely allegorical spirit; and this
+allegory, while it makes the poem tedious to hasty appetites of to-day,
+was exactly what gave it its charm in the eyes of the middle ages. It
+might be described as an _Ars amoris_ crossed with a _Quodlibeta_. This
+mixture exactly hit the taste of the time, and continued to hit it for
+two centuries and a half. When its obvious and gallant meaning was
+attacked by moralists and theologians, it was easy to quote the example
+of the Canticles, and to furnish esoteric explanations of the allegory.
+The writers of the 16th century were never tired of quoting and
+explaining it. Antoine de Baïf, indeed, gave the simple and obvious
+meaning, and declared that "La rose c'est d'amours le guerdon gracieux";
+but Marot, on the other hand, gives us the choice of four mystical
+interpretations,--the rose being either the state of wisdom, the state
+of grace, the state of eternal happiness or the Virgin herself. We
+cannot here analyse this celebrated poem. It is sufficient to say that
+the lover meets all sorts of obstacles in his pursuit of the rose,
+though he has for a guide the metaphorical personage Bel-Accueil. The
+early part, which belongs to William of Lorris, is remarkable for its
+gracious and fanciful descriptions. Forty years after Lorris's death,
+Jean de Meung completed it in an entirely different spirit. He keeps the
+allegorical form, and indeed introduces two new personages of
+importance, Nature and Faux-semblant. In the mouths of these personages
+and of another, Raison, he puts the most extraordinary mixture of
+erudition and satire. At one time we have the history of classical
+heroes, at another theories against the hoarding of money, about
+astronomy, about the duty of mankind to increase and multiply. Accounts
+of the origin of loyalty, which would have cost the poet his head at
+some periods of history, and even communistic ideas, are also to be
+found here. In Faux-semblant we have a real creation of the theatrical
+hypocrite. All this miscellaneous and apparently incongruous material in
+fact explains the success of the poem. It has the one characteristic
+which has at all times secured the popularity of great works of
+literature. It holds the mirror up firmly and fully to its age. As we
+find in Rabelais the characteristics of the Renaissance, in Montaigne
+those of the sceptical reaction from Renaissance and reform alike, in
+Molière those of the society of France after Richelieu had tamed and
+levelled it, in Voltaire and Rousseau respectively the two aspects of
+the great revolt,--so there are to be found in the _Roman de la rose_
+the characteristics of the later middle age, its gallantry, its
+mysticism, its economical and social troubles and problems, its
+scholastic methods of thought, its naïve acceptance as science of
+everything that is written, and at the same time its shrewd and
+indiscriminate criticism of much that the age of criticism has accepted
+without doubt or question. The _Roman de la rose_, as might be supposed,
+set the example of an immense literature of allegorical poetry, which
+flourished more and more until the Renaissance. Some of these poems we
+have already mentioned, some will have to be considered under the head
+of the 15th century. But, as usually happens in such cases and was
+certain to happen in this case, the allegory which has seemed tedious to
+many, even in the original, became almost intolerable in the majority of
+the imitations.
+
+
+  Early didactic verse.
+
+  Artificial forms of verse.
+
+We have observed that, at least in the later section of the _Roman de la
+rose_, there is observable a tendency to import into the poem
+indiscriminate erudition. This tendency is now remote from our poetical
+habits; but in its own day it was only the natural result of the use of
+poetry for all literary purposes. It was many centuries before prose
+became recognized as the proper vehicle for instruction, and at a very
+early date verse was used as well for educational and moral as for
+recreative and artistic purposes. French verse was the first born of all
+literary mediums in modern European speech, and the resources of ancient
+learning were certainly not less accessible in France than in any other
+country. Dante, in his _De vulgari eloquio_, acknowledges the excellence
+of the didactic writers of the Langue d'Oïl. We have already alluded to
+the _Bestiary_ of Philippe de Thaun, a Norman trouvère who lived and
+wrote in England during the reign of Henry Beauclerc. Besides the
+_Bestiary_, which from its dedication to Queen Adela has been
+conjectured to belong to the third decade of the 12th century, Philippe
+wrote also in French a _Liber de creaturis_, both works being translated
+from the Latin. These works of mystical and apocryphal physics and
+zoology became extremely popular in the succeeding centuries, and were
+frequently imitated. A moralizing turn was also given to them, which was
+much helped by the importation of several miscellanies of Oriental
+origin, partly tales, partly didactic in character, the most celebrated
+of which is the _Roman des sept sages_, which, under that title and the
+variant of _Dolopathos_, received repeated treatment from French writers
+both in prose and verse. The odd notion of an _Ovide moralisé_ used to
+be ascribed to Philippe de Vitry, bishop of Meaux (1291?-1391?), a
+person complimented by Petrarch, but is now assigned to a certain
+Chrétien Legonais. Art, too, soon demanded exposition in verse, as well
+as science. The favourite pastime of the chase was repeatedly dealt
+with, notably in the _Roi Modus_ (1325), mixed prose and verse; the
+_Deduits de la chasse_ (1387), of Gaston de Foix, prose; and the _Tresor
+de Venerie_ of Hardouin (1394), verse. Very soon didactic verse extended
+itself to all the arts and sciences. Vegetius and his military precepts
+had found a home in French octosyllables as early as the 12th century;
+the end of the same age saw the ceremonies of knighthood solemnly
+versified, and _napes_ (maps) _du monde_ also soon appeared. At last, in
+1245, Gautier of Metz translated from various Latin works into French
+verse a sort of encyclopaedia, while another, incongruous but known as
+_L'Image du monde_, exists from the same century. Profane knowledge was
+not the only subject which exercised didactic poets at this time.
+Religious handbooks and commentaries on the scriptures were common in
+the 13th and following centuries, and, under the title of _Castoiements,
+Enseignements_ and _Doctrinaux_, moral treatises became common. The most
+famous of these, the _Castoiement d'un père à son fils_, falls under the
+class, already mentioned, of works due to oriental influence, being
+derived from the Indian _Panchatantra_. In the 14th century the
+influence of the _Roman de la rose_ helped to render moral verse
+frequent and popular. The same century, moreover, which witnessed these
+developments of well-intentioned if not always judicious erudition
+witnessed also a considerable change in lyrical poetry. Hitherto such
+poetry had chiefly been composed in the melodious but unconstrained
+forms of the romance and the pastourelle. In the 14th century the
+writers of northern France subjected themselves to severer rules. In
+this age arose the forms which for so long a time were to occupy French
+singers,--the ballade, the rondeau, the rondel, the triolet, the chant
+royal and others. These received considerable alterations as time went
+on. We possess not a few _Artes poëticae_, such as that of Eustache
+Deschamps at the end of the 14th century, that formerly ascribed to
+Henri de Croy and now to Molinet at the end of the 15th, and that of
+Thomas Sibilet in the 16th, giving particulars of them, and these
+particulars show considerable changes. Thus the term rondeau, which
+since Villon has been chiefly limited to a poem of 15 lines, where the
+9th and 15th repeat the first words of the first, was originally applied
+both to the rondel, a poem of 13 or 14 lines, where the first two are
+twice repeated integrally, and to the triolet, one of 8 only, where the
+first line occurs three times and the second twice. The last is an
+especially popular metre, and is found where we should least expect it,
+in the dialogue of the early farces, the speakers making up triolets
+between them. As these three forms are closely connected, so are the
+ballade and the chant royal, the latter being an extended and more
+stately and difficult version of the former, and the characteristic of
+both being the identity of rhyme and refrain in the several stanzas. It
+is quite uncertain at what time these fashions were first cultivated,
+but the earliest poets who appear to have practised them extensively
+were born at the close of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th
+centuries. Of these Guillaume de Machault (c. 1300-1380) is the oldest.
+He has left us 80,000 verses, never yet completely printed. Eustache
+Deschamps (c. 1340-c. 1410) was nearly as prolific, but more fortunate
+as more meritorious, the Société des anciens Textes having at last
+provided a complete edition of him. Froissart the historian (1333-1410)
+was also an agreeable and prolific poet. Deschamps, the most famous as a
+poet of the three, has left us nearly 1200 ballades and nearly 200
+rondeaux, besides much other verse all manifesting very considerable
+poetical powers. Less known but not less noteworthy, and perhaps the
+earliest of all, is Jehannot de Lescurel, whose personality is obscure,
+and most of whose works are lost, but whose remains are full of grace.
+Froissart appears to have had many countrymen in Hainault and Brabant
+who devoted themselves to the art of versification; and the _Livre des
+cent ballades_ of the Marshal Boucicault (1366-1421) and his friends--c.
+1390--shows that the French gentleman of the 14th century was as apt at
+the ballade as his Elizabethan peer in England was at the sonnet.
+
+
+  Mysteries and miracles.
+
+_Early Drama._--Before passing to the prose writers of the middle ages,
+we have to take some notice of the dramatic productions of those
+times--productions of an extremely interesting character, but, like the
+immense majority of medieval literature, poetic in form. The origin or
+the revival of dramatic composition in France has been hotly debated,
+and it has been sometimes contended that the tradition of Latin comedy
+was never entirely lost, but was handed on chiefly in the convents by
+adaptations of the Terentian plays, such as those of the nun Hroswitha.
+There is no doubt that the mysteries (subjects taken from the sacred
+writings) and miracle plays (subjects taken from the legends of the
+saints and the Virgin) are of very early date. The mystery of the
+_Foolish Virgins_ (partly French, partly Latin), that of _Adam_ and
+perhaps that of _Daniel_, are of the 12th century, though due to unknown
+authors. Jean Bodel and Ruteboeuf, already mentioned, gave, the one that
+of _Saint Nicolas_ at the confines of the 12th and 13th, the other that
+of _Théophile_ later in the 13th itself. But the later moralities,
+soties, and farces seem to be also in part a very probable development
+of the simpler and earlier forms of the fabliau and of the tenson or
+jeu-parti, a poem in simple dialogue much used by both troubadours and
+trouvères. The fabliau has been sufficiently dealt with already. It
+chiefly supplied the subject; and some miracle-plays and farces are
+little more than fabliaux thrown into dialogue. Of the jeux-partis there
+are many examples, varying from very simple questions and answers to
+something like regular dramatic dialogue; even short romances, such as
+_Aucassin et Nicolette_, were easily susceptible of dramatization. But
+the _Jeu de la feuillie_ (or _feuillée_) of Adam de la Halle seems to be
+the earliest piece, profane in subject, containing something more than
+mere dialogue. The poet has not indeed gone far for his subject, for he
+brings in his own wife, father and friends, the interest being
+complicated by the introduction of stock characters (the doctor, the
+monk, the fool), and of certain fairies--personages already popular from
+the later romances of chivalry. Another piece of Adam's, _Le Jeu de
+Robin et Marion_, also already alluded to, is little more than a simple
+throwing into action of an ordinary pastourelle with a considerable
+number of songs to music. Nevertheless later criticism has seen, and not
+unreasonably, in these two pieces the origin in the one case of farce,
+and thus indirectly of comedy proper, in the other of comic opera.
+
+
+  Profane drama.
+
+For a long time, however, the mystery and miracle-plays remained the
+staple of theatrical performance, and until the 13th century actors as
+well as performers were more or less taken from the clergy. It has,
+indeed, been well pointed out that the offices of the church were
+themselves dramatic performances, and required little more than
+development at the hands of the mystery writers. The occasional festive
+outbursts, such as the Feast of Fools, that of the Boy Bishop and the
+rest, helped on the development. The variety of mysteries and miracles
+was very great. A single manuscript contains forty miracles of the
+Virgin, averaging from 1200 to 1500 lines each, written in octosyllabic
+couplets, and at least as old as the 14th century, most of them perhaps
+much earlier. The mysteries proper, or plays taken from the scriptures,
+are older still. Many of these are exceedingly long. There is a _Mystère
+de l'Ancien Testament_, which extends to many volumes, and must have
+taken weeks to act in its entirety. The _Mystère de la Passion_, though
+not quite so long, took several days, and recounts the whole history of
+the gospels. The best apparently of the authors of these pieces, which
+are mostly anonymous, were two brothers, Arnoul and Simon Gréban
+(authors of the _Actes des apôtres_, and in the first case of the
+_Passion_), c. 1450, while a certain Jean Michel (d. 1493) is credited
+with having continued the _Passion_ from 30,000 lines to 50,000. But
+these performances, though they held their ground until the middle of
+the 16th century and extended their range of subject from sacred to
+profane history--legendary as in the _Destruction de Troie_,
+contemporary as in the _Siège d'Orléans_--were soon rivalled by the more
+profane performances of the moralities, the farces and the soties. The
+palmy time of all these three kinds is the 15th century, while the
+Confrérie de la Passion itself, the special performers of the sacred
+drama, only obtained the licence constituting it by an ordinance of
+Charles VI. in 1402. In order, however, to take in the whole of the
+medieval theatre at a glance, we may anticipate a little. The
+Confraternity was not itself the author or performer of the profaner
+kind of dramatic performance. This latter was due to two other bodies,
+the clerks of the Bazoche and the Enfans sans Souci. As the
+Confraternity was chiefly composed of tradesmen and persons very similar
+to Peter Quince and his associates, so the clerks of the Bazoche were
+members of the legal profession of Paris, and the Enfans sans Souci were
+mostly young men of family. The morality was the special property of the
+first, the sotie of the second. But as the moralities were sometimes
+decidedly tedious plays, though by no means brief, they were varied by
+the introduction of farces, of which the jeux already mentioned were the
+early germ, and of which _L'Avocat Patelin_, dated by some about 1465
+and certainly about 200 years subsequent to Adam de la Halle, is the
+most famous example.
+
+
+  Moralities.
+
+  Soties.
+
+The morality was the natural result on the stage of the immense literary
+popularity of allegory in the _Roman de la rose_ and its imitations.
+There is hardly an abstraction, a virtue, a vice, a disease, or anything
+else of the kind, which does not figure in these compositions. There is
+Bien Advisé and Mal Advisé, the good boy and the bad boy of nursery
+stories, who fall in respectively with Faith, Reason and Humility, and
+with Rashness, Luxury and Folly. There is the hero Mange-Tout, who is
+invited to dinner by Banquet, and meets after dinner very unpleasant
+company in Colique, Goutte and Hydropisie. Honte-de-dire-ses-Péchés
+might seem an anticipation of Puritan nomenclature to an English reader
+who did not remember the contemporary or even earlier _personae_ of
+Langland's poem. Some of these moralities possess distinct dramatic
+merit; among these is mentioned _Les Blasphémateurs_, an early and
+remarkable presentation of the Don Juan story. But their general
+character appears to be gravity, not to say dullness. The Enfans sans
+Souci, on the other hand, were definitely satirical, and nothing if not
+amusing. The chief of the society was entitled Prince des Sots, and his
+crown was a hood decorated with asses' ears. The sotie was directly
+satirical, and only assumed the guise of folly as a stalking-horse for
+shooting wit. It was more Aristophanic than any other modern form of
+comedy, and like its predecessor, it perished as a result of its
+political application. Encouraged for a moment as a political engine at
+the beginning of the 16th century, it was soon absolutely forbidden and
+put down, and had to give place in one direction to the lampoon and the
+prose pamphlet, in another to forms of comic satire more general and
+vague in their scope. The farce, on the other hand, having neither moral
+purpose nor political intention, was a purer work of art, enjoyed a
+wider range of subject, and was in no danger of any permanent
+extinction. Farcical interludes were interpolated in the mysteries
+themselves; short farces introduced and rendered palatable the
+moralities, while the sotie was itself but a variety of farce, and all
+the kinds were sometimes combined in a sort of tetralogy. It was a short
+composition, 500 verses being considered sufficient, while the morality
+might run to at least 1000 verses, the miracle-play to nearly double
+that number, and the mystery to some 40,000 or 50,000, or indeed to any
+length that the author could find in his heart to bestow upon the
+audience, or the audience in their patience to suffer from the author.
+The number of persons and societies who acted these performances grew to
+be very large, being estimated at more than 5000 towards the end of the
+15th century. Many fantastic personages came to join the Prince des
+Sots, such as the Empereur de Galilée, the Princes de l'Étrille, and des
+Nouveaux Mariés, the Roi de l'Épinette, the Recteur des Fous. Of the
+pieces which these societies represented one only, that of _Maître
+Patelin_, is now much known; but many are almost equally amusing.
+_Patelin_ itself has an immense number of versions and editions. Other
+farces are too numerous to attempt to classify; they bear, however, in
+their subjects, as in their manner, a remarkable resemblance to the
+fabliaux, their source. Conjugal disagreements, the unpleasantness of
+mothers-in-law, the shifty or, in the earlier stages, clumsy valet and
+chambermaid, the mishaps of too loosely given ecclesiastics, the abuses
+of relics and pardons, the extortion, violence, and sometimes cowardice
+of the seigneur and the soldiery, the corruption of justice, its delays
+and its pompous apparatus, supply the subjects. The treatment is rather
+narrative than dramatic in most cases, as might be expected, but makes
+up by the liveliness of the dialogue for the deficiency of elaborately
+planned action and interest. All these forms, it will be observed, are
+directly or indirectly comic. Tragedy in the middle ages is represented
+only by the religious drama, except for a brief period towards the
+decline of that form, when the "profane" mysteries referred to above
+came to be represented. These were, however, rather "histories," in the
+Elizabethan sense, than tragedies proper.
+
+
+  Early chronicles.
+
+  Villehardouin.
+
+  Joinville.
+
+_Prose History._--In France, as in all other countries of whose literary
+developments we have any record, literature in prose is considerably
+later than literature in verse. We have certain glosses or vocabularies
+possibly dating as far back as the 8th or even the 7th century; we have
+the Strassburg oaths, already described, of the 9th, and a commentary on
+the prophet Jonas which is probably as early. In the 10th century there
+are some charters and muniments in the vernacular; of the 11th the laws
+of William the Conqueror are the most important document; while the
+_Assises de Jérusalem_ of Godfrey of Bouillon date, though not in the
+form in which we now possess them, from the same age. The 12th century
+gives us certain translations of the Scriptures, and the remarkable
+Arthurian romances already alluded to; and thenceforward French prose,
+though long less favoured than verse, begins to grow in importance.
+History, as is natural, was the first subject which gave it a really
+satisfactory opportunity of developing its powers. For a time the French
+chroniclers contented themselves with Latin prose or with French verse,
+after the fashion of Wace and the Belgian, Philippe Mouskés (1215-1283).
+These, after a fashion universal in medieval times, began from fabulous
+or merely literary origins, and just as Wyntoun later carries back the
+history of Scotland to the terrestrial paradise, so does Mouskés start
+that of France from the rape of Helen. But soon prose chronicles, first
+translated, then original, became common; the earliest of all is said to
+have been that of the pseudo-Turpin, which thus recovered in prose the
+language which had originally clothed it in verse, and which, to gain a
+false appearance of authenticity, it had exchanged still earlier for
+Latin. Then came French selections and versions from the great series of
+historical compositions undertaken by the monks of St Denys, the
+so-called _Grandes Chroniques de France_ from the date of 1274, when
+they first took form in the hands of a monk styled Primat, to the reign
+of Charles V., when they assumed the title just given. But the first
+really remarkable author who used French prose as a vehicle of
+historical expression is Geoffroi de Villehardouin, marshal of
+Champagne, who was born rather after the middle of the 12th century, and
+died in Greece in 1212. Under the title of _Conquête de Constantinoble_
+Villehardouin has left us a history of the fourth crusade, which has
+been accepted by all competent judges as the best picture extant of
+feudal chivalry in its prime. The _Conquête de Constantinoble_ has been
+well called a chanson de geste in prose, and indeed in the surprising
+nature of the feats it celebrates, in the abundance of detail, and in
+the vivid and picturesque poetry of the narration, it equals the very
+best of the chansons. Even the repetition of the same phrases which is
+characteristic of epic poetry repeats itself in this epic prose; and as
+in the chansons so in Villehardouin, few motives appear but religious
+fervour and the love of fighting, though neither of these excludes a
+lively appetite for booty and a constant tendency to disunion and
+disorder. Villehardouin was continued by Henri de Valenciennes, whose
+work is less remarkable, and has more the appearance of a rhymed
+chronicle thrown into prose, a process which is known to have been
+actually applied in some cases. Nor is the transition from Villehardouin
+to Jean de Joinville (considerable in point of time, for Joinville was
+not born till ten years after Villehardouin's death) in point of
+literary history immediate. The rhymed chronicles of Philippe Mouskés
+and Guillaume Guiart belong to this interval; and in prose the most
+remarkable works are the _Chronique de Reims_, a well-written history,
+having the interesting characteristics of taking the lay and popular
+side, and the great compilation edited (in the modern sense) by Baudouin
+d'Avesnes (1213-1289). Joinville (? 1224-1317), whose special subject is
+the Life of St Louis, is far more modern than even the half-century
+which separates him from Villehardouin would lead us to suppose. There
+is nothing of the knight-errant about him personally, notwithstanding
+his devotion to his hero. Our Lady of the Broken Lances is far from
+being his favourite saint. He is an admirable writer, but far less
+simple than Villehardouin; the good King Louis tries in vain to make him
+share his own rather high-flown devotion. Joinville is shrewd,
+practical, there is even a touch of the Voltairean about him; but he,
+unlike his predecessor, has political ideas and antiquarian curiosity,
+and his descriptions are often very creditable pieces of deliberate
+literature.
+
+
+  Froissart.
+
+It is very remarkable that each of the three last centuries of feudalism
+should have had one specially and extraordinarily gifted chronicler to
+describe it. What Villehardouin is to the 12th and Joinville to the 13th
+century, that Jean Froissart (1337-1410) is to the 14th. His picture is
+the most famous as it is the most varied of the three, but it has
+special drawbacks as well as special merits. French critics have indeed
+been scarcely fair to Froissart, because of his early partiality to our
+own nation in the great quarrel of the time, forgetting that there was
+really no reason why he as a Hainaulter should take the French side. But
+there is no doubt that if the duty of an historian is to take in all the
+political problems of his time, Froissart certainly comes short of it.
+Although the feudal state in which knights and churchmen were alone of
+estimation was at the point of death, and though new orders of society
+were becoming important, though the distress and confusion of a
+transition state were evident to all, Froissart takes no notice of them.
+Society is still to him all knights and ladies, tournaments, skirmishes
+and feasts. He depicts these, not like Joinville, still less like
+Villehardouin, as a sharer in them, but with the facile and picturesque
+pen of a sympathizing literary onlooker. As the comparison of the
+_Conquête de Constantinoble_ with a chanson de geste is inevitable, so
+is that of Froissart's _Chronique_ with a roman d'aventures.
+
+For Provençal Literature see the separate article under that heading.
+
+_15th Century._--The 15th century holds a peculiar and somewhat disputed
+position in the history of French literature, as, indeed, it does in the
+history of the literature of all Europe, except Italy. It has sometimes
+been regarded as the final stage of the medieval period, sometimes as
+the earliest of the modern, the influence of the Renaissance in Italy
+already filtering through. Others again have taken the easy step of
+marking it as an age of transition. There is as usual truth in all these
+views. Feudality died with Froissart and Eustache Deschamps. The modern
+spirit can hardly be said to arise before Rabelais and Ronsard. Yet the
+15th century, from the point of view of French literature, is much more
+remarkable than its historians have been wont to confess. It has not the
+strongly marked and compact originality of some periods, and it
+furnishes only one name of the highest order of literary interest; but
+it abounds in names of the second rank, and the very difference which
+exists between their styles and characters testifies to the existence of
+a large number of separate forces working in their different manners on
+different persons. Its theatre we have already treated by anticipation,
+and to it we shall afterwards recur. It was the palmy time of the early
+French stage, and all the dramatic styles which we have enumerated then
+came to perfection. Of no other kind of literature can the same be said.
+The century which witnessed the invention of printing naturally devoted
+itself at first more to the spreading of old literature than to the
+production of new. Yet as it perfected the early drama, so it produced
+the prose tale. Nor, as regards individual and single names, can the
+century of Charles d'Orléans, of Alain Chartier, of Christine de Pisan,
+of Coquillart, of Comines, and, above all, of Villon, be said to lack
+illustrations.
+
+
+  Christine de Pisan.
+
+  Alain Chartier.
+
+  Charles d'Orléans.
+
+  Villon.
+
+  Crétin.
+
+First among the poets of the period falls to be mentioned the shadowy
+personality of Olivier Basselin. Modern criticism has attacked the
+identity of the jovial miller, who was once supposed to have written and
+perhaps invented the songs called _vaux de vire_, and to have also
+carried on a patriotic warfare against the English. But though Jean le
+Houx may have written the poems published under Basselin's name two
+centuries later, it is taken as certain that an actual Olivier wrote
+actual vaux de vire at the beginning of the 15th century. About
+Christine de Pisan (1363-1430) and Alain Chartier (1392-c. 1430) there
+is no such doubt. Christine was the daughter of an Italian astrologer
+who was patronized by Charles V. She was born in Italy but brought up in
+France, and she enriched the literature of her adopted country with much
+learning, good sense and patriotism. She wrote history, devotional works
+and poetry; and though her literary merit is not of the highest, it is
+very far from despicable. Alain Chartier, best known to modern readers
+by the story of _Margaret of Scotland's Kiss_, was a writer of a
+somewhat similar character. In both Christine and Chartier there is a
+great deal of rather heavy moralizing, and a great deal of rather
+pedantic erudition. But it is only fair to remember that the intolerable
+political and social evils of the day called for a good deal of
+moralizing, and that it was the function of the writers of this time to
+fill up as well as they could the scantily filled vessels of medieval
+science and learning. A very different person is Charles d'Orléans
+(1391-1465), one of the greatest of _grands seigneurs_, for he was the
+father of a king of France, and heir to the duchies of Orléans and
+Milan. Charles, indeed, if not a Roland or a Bayard, was an admirable
+poet. He is the best-known and perhaps the best writer of the graceful
+poems in which an artificial versification is strictly observed, and
+helps by its recurrent lines and modulated rhymes to give to poetry
+something of a musical accompaniment even without the addition of music
+properly so called. His ballades are certainly inferior to those of
+Villon, but his rondels are unequalled. For fully a century and a half
+these forms engrossed the attention of French lyrical poets. Exercises
+in them were produced in enormous numbers, and of an excellence which
+has only recently obtained full recognition even in France. Charles
+d'Orléans is himself sufficient proof of what can be done in them in the
+way of elegance, sweetness, and grace which some have unjustly called
+effeminacy. But that this effeminacy was no natural or inevitable fault
+of the ballades and the rondeaux was fully proved by the most remarkable
+literary figure of the 15th century in France. To François Villon
+(1431-1463?), as to other great single writers, no attempt can be made
+to do justice in this place. His remarkable life and character
+especially lie outside our subject. But he is universally recognized as
+the most important single figure of French literature before the
+Renaissance. His work is very strange in form, the undoubtedly genuine
+part of it consisting merely of two compositions, known as the great and
+little Testament, written in stanzas of eight lines of eight syllables
+each, with lyrical compositions in ballade and rondeau form
+interspersed. Nothing in old French literature can compare with the best
+of these, such as the "Ballade des dames du temps jadis," the "Ballade
+pour sa mère," "La Grosse Margot," "Les Regrets de la belle Heaulmière,"
+and others; while the whole composition is full of poetical traits of
+the most extraordinary vigour, picturesqueness and pathos. Towards the
+end of the century the poetical production of the time became very
+large. The artificial measures already alluded to, and others far more
+artificial and infinitely less beautiful, were largely practised. The
+typical poet of the end of the 15th century is Guillaume Crétin (d.
+1525), who distinguished himself by writing verses with punning rhymes,
+verses ending with double or treble repetitions of the same sound, and
+many other tasteless absurdities, in which, as Pasquier remarks, "il
+perdit toute la grâce et la liberté de la composition." The other
+favourite direction of the poetry of the time was a vein of allegorical
+moralizing drawn from the _Roman de la rose_ through the medium of
+Chartier and Christine, which produced "Castles of Love," "Temples of
+Honour," and such like. The combination of these drifts in verse-writing
+produced a school known in literary history, from a happy phrase of the
+satirist Coquillart (_v. inf._), as the "Grands Rhétoriqueurs." The
+chief of these besides Crétin were Jean Molinet (d. 1507); Jean
+Meschinot (c. 1420-1491), author of the _Lunettes des princes_;
+Florimond Robertet (d. 1522); Georges Chastellain (1404-1475), to be
+mentioned again; and Octavien de Saint-Gelais (1466-1502), father of a
+better poet than himself. Yet some of the minor poets of the time are
+not to be despised. Such are Henri Baude (1430-1490), a less pedantic
+writer than most, Martial d'Auvergne (1440-1508), whose principal work
+is _L'Amant rendu cordelier au service de l'amour_, and others, many of
+whom formed part of the poetical court which Charles d'Orléans kept up
+at Blois after his release.
+
+
+  Coquillart.
+
+While the serious poetry of the age took this turn, there was no lack of
+lighter and satirical verse. Villon, indeed, were it not for the depth
+and pathos of his poetical sentiment, might be claimed as a poet of the
+lighter order, and the patriotic diatribes against the English to which
+we have alluded easily passed into satire. The political quarrels of the
+latter part of the century also provoked much satirical composition. The
+disputes of the Bien Public and those between Louis XI. and Charles of
+Burgundy employed many pens. The most remarkable piece of the light
+literature of the first is "Les Ânes Volants," a ballad on some of the
+early favourites of Louis. The battles of France and Burgundy were waged
+on paper between Gilles des Ormes and the above-named Georges
+Chastelain, typical representatives of the two styles of 15th-century
+poetry already alluded to--Des Ormes being the lighter and more graceful
+writer, Chastelain a pompous and learned allegorist. The most remarkable
+representative of purely light poetry outside the theatre is Guillaume
+Coquillart (1421-1510), a lawyer of Champagne, who resided for the
+greater part of his life in Reims. This city, like others, suffered from
+the pitiless tyranny of Louis XI. The beginnings of the standing army
+which Charles VII. had started were extremely unpopular, and the use to
+which his son put them by no means removed this unpopularity. Coquillart
+described the military man of the period in his _Monologue du gendarme
+cassé_. Again, when the king entertained the idea of unifying the taxes
+and laws of the different provinces, Coquillart, who was named
+commissioner for this purpose, wrote on the occasion a satire called
+_Les Droits nouveaux_. A certain kind of satire, much less good-tempered
+than the earlier forms, became indeed common at this epoch. M. Lenient
+has well pointed out that a new satirical personification dominates this
+literature. It is no longer Renart with his cynical gaiety, or the
+curiously travestied and almost amiable Devil of the Middle Ages. Now it
+is Death as an incident ever present to the imagination, celebrated in
+the thousand repetitions of the _Danse Macabre_, sculptured all over the
+buildings of the time, even frequently performed on holidays and in
+public. With the usual tendency to follow pattern, the idea of the
+"dance" seems to have been extended, and we have a _Danse aux aveugles_
+(1464) from Pierre Michaut, where the teachers are fortune, love and
+death, all blind. All through the century, too, anonymous verse of the
+lighter kind was written, some of it of great merit. The folk-songs
+already alluded to, published by Gaston Paris, show one side of this
+composition, and many of the pieces contained in M. de Montaiglon's
+extensive _Recueil des anciennes poésies françaises_ exhibit others.
+
+The 15th century was perhaps more remarkable for its achievements in
+prose than in poetry. It produced, indeed, no prose writer of great
+distinction, except Comines; but it witnessed serious, if not extremely
+successful, efforts at prose composition. The invention of printing
+finally substituted the reader for the listener, and when this
+substitution has been effected, the main inducement to treat unsuitable
+subjects in verse is gone. The study of the classics at first hand
+contributed to the same end. As early as 1458 the university of Paris
+had a Greek professor. But long before this time translations in prose
+had been made. Pierre Bercheure (Bersuire) (1290-1352) had already
+translated Livy. Nicholas Oresme (c. 1334-1382), the tutor of Charles
+V., gave a version of certain Aristotelian works, which enriched the
+language with a large number of terms, then strange enough, now
+familiar. Raoul de Presles (1316-1383) turned into French the _De
+civitate Dei_ of St Augustine. These writers or others composed _Le
+Songe du vergier_, an elaborate discussion of the power of the pope. The
+famous chancellor, Jean Charlier or Gerson (1363-1429), to whom the
+_Imitation_ has among so many others been attributed, spoke constantly
+and wrote often in the vulgar tongue, though he attacked the most famous
+and popular work in that tongue, the _Roman de la rose_. Christine de
+Pisan and Alain Chartier were at least as much prose writers as poets;
+and the latter, while he, like Gerson, dealt much with the reform of the
+church, used in his _Quadriloge invectif_ really forcible language for
+the purpose of spurring on the nobles of France to put an end to her
+sufferings and evils. These moral and didactic treatises were but
+continuations of others, which for convenience sake we have hitherto
+left unnoticed. Though verse was in the centuries prior to the 15th the
+favourite medium for literary composition, it was by no means the only
+one; and moral and educational treatises--some referred to
+above--already existed in pedestrian phrase. Certain household books
+(_Livres de raison_) have been preserved, some of which date as far back
+as the 13th century. These contain not merely accounts, but family
+chronicles, receipts and the like. Accounts of travel, especially to the
+Holy Land, culminated in the famous _Voyage_ of Mandeville which, though
+it has never been of so much importance in French as in English, perhaps
+first took vernacular form in the French tongue. Of the 14th century, we
+have a _Menagier de Paris_, intended for the instruction of a young
+wife, and a large number of miscellaneous treatises of art, science and
+morality, while private letters, mostly as yet unpublished, exist in
+considerable numbers, and are generally of the moralizing character;
+books of devotion, too, are naturally frequent.
+
+
+  Early sermon-writers.
+
+  Comines.
+
+But the most important divisions of medieval energy in prose composition
+are the spoken exercises of the pulpit and the bar. The beginnings of
+French sermons have been much discussed, especially the question whether
+St Bernard, whose discourses we possess in ancient, but doubtfully
+contemporary French, pronounced them in that language or in Latin.
+Towards the end of the 12th century, however, the sermons of Maurice de
+Sully (1160-1196) present the first undoubted examples of homiletics in
+the vernacular, and they are followed by many others--so many indeed
+that the 13th century alone counts 261 sermon-writers, besides a large
+body of anonymous work. These sermons were, as might indeed be expected,
+chiefly cast in a somewhat scholastic form--theme, exordium,
+development, example and peroration following in regular order. The
+14th-century sermons, on the other hand, have as yet been little
+investigated. It must, however, be remembered that this age was the most
+famous of all for its scholastic illustrations, and for the early vigour
+of the Dominican and Franciscan orders. With the end of the century and
+the beginning of the 15th, the importance of the pulpit begins to
+revive. The early years of the new age have Gerson for their
+representative, while the end of the century sees the still more famous
+names of Michel Menot (1450-1518), Olivier Maillard (c. 1430-1502), and
+Jean Rauhn (1443-1514), all remarkable for the practice of a vigorous
+and homely style of oratory, recoiling before no aid of what we should
+nowadays style buffoonery, and manifesting a creditable indifference to
+the indignation of principalities and powers. Louis XI. is said to have
+threatened to throw Maillard into the Seine, and many instances of the
+boldness of these preachers and the rough vigour of their oratory have
+been preserved. Froissart had been followed as a chronicler by
+Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1390-1453) and by the historiographers of
+the Burgundian court, Chastelain, already mentioned, whose interesting
+_Chronique de Jacques de Lalaing_ is much the most attractive part of
+his work, and Olivier de la Marche. The memoir and chronicle writers,
+who were to be of so much importance in French literature, also begin to
+be numerous at this period. Juvenal des Ursins (1388-1473), an anonymous
+bourgeois de Paris (two such indeed), and the author of the _Chronique
+scandaleuse_, may be mentioned as presenting the character of minute
+observation and record which has distinguished the class ever since.
+Jean le maire de (not _des_) Belges (1473-c. 1525) was historiographer
+to Louis XII. and wrote _Illustrations des Gaules_. But Comines
+(1445-1509) is no imitator of Froissart or of any one else. The last of
+the quartette of great French medieval historians, he does not yield to
+any of his three predecessors in originality or merit, but he is very
+different from them. He fully represents the mania of the time for
+statecraft, and his book has long ranked with that of Machiavelli as a
+manual of the art, though he has not the absolutely non-moral character
+of the Italian. His memoirs, considered merely as literature, show a
+style well suited to their purport,--not, indeed, brilliant or
+picturesque, but clear, terse and thoroughly well suited to the
+expression of the acuteness, observation and common sense of their
+author.
+
+
+  The Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles.
+
+  Antoine de la Salle.
+
+  Influence of the Renaissance.
+
+But prose was not content with the domain of serious literature. It had
+already long possessed a respectable position as a vehicle of romance,
+and the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries were
+pre-eminently the time when the epics of chivalry were re-edited and
+extended in prose. Few, however, of these extensions offer much literary
+interest. On the other hand, the best prose of the century, and almost
+the earliest which deserves the title of a satisfactory literary medium,
+was employed for the telling of romances in miniature. The _Cent
+Nouvelles Nouvelles_ is undoubtedly the first work of prose
+belles-lettres in French, and the first, moreover, of a long and most
+remarkable class of literary work in which French writers may challenge
+all comers with the certainty of victory--the short prose tale of a
+comic character. This remarkable work has usually been attributed, like
+the somewhat similar but later _Heptaméron_, to a knot of literary
+courtiers gathered round a royal personage, in this case the dauphin
+Louis, afterwards Louis XI. Some evidence has recently been produced
+which seems to show that this tradition, which attributed some of the
+tales to Louis himself, is erroneous, but the question is still
+undecided. The subjects of the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ are by no
+means new. They are simply the old themes of the fabliaux treated in the
+old way. The novelty is in the application of prose to such a purpose,
+and in the crispness, the fluency and the elegance of the prose used.
+The fortunate author or editor to whom these admirable tales have of
+late been attributed is Antoine de la Salle (1398-1461), who, if this
+attribution and certain others be correct, must be allowed to be one of
+the most original and fertile authors of early French literature. La
+Salle's one acknowledged work is the story of _Petit Jehan de Saintré_,
+a short romance exhibiting great command of character and abundance of
+delicate draughtsmanship. To this not only the authorship,
+part-authorship or editorship of the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ has been
+added; but the still more famous and important work of _L'Avocat
+Patelin_ has been assigned by respectable, though of course
+conjecturing, authority to the same paternity. The generosity of critics
+towards La Salle has not even stopped here. A fourth masterpiece of the
+period, _Les Quinze Joies de mariage_, has also been assigned to him.
+This last work, like the other three, is satirical in subject, and shows
+for the time a wonderful mastery of the language. Of the fifteen joys of
+marriage, or, in other words, the fifteen miseries of husbands, each has
+a chapter assigned to it, and each is treated with the peculiar mixture
+of gravity and ridicule which it requires. All who have read the book
+confess its infinite wit and the grace of its style. It is true that it
+has been reproached with cruelty and with a lack of the moral sentiment.
+But humanity and morality were not the strong point of the 15th century.
+There is, it must be admitted, about most of its productions a lack of
+poetry and a lack of imagination, produced, it may be, partly by
+political and other conditions outside literature, but very observable
+in it. The old forms of literature itself had lost their interest, and
+new ones possessing strength to last and power to develop themselves had
+not yet appeared. It was impossible, even if the taste for it had
+survived, to spin out the old themes any longer. But the new forces
+required some time to set to work, and to avail themselves of the
+tremendous weapon which the press had put into their hands. When these
+things had adjusted themselves, literature of a varied and vigorous kind
+became once more possible and indeed necessary, nor did it take long to
+make its appearance.
+
+_16th Century._--In no country was the literary result of the
+Renaissance more striking and more manifold than in France. The double
+effect of the study of antiquity and the religious movement produced an
+outburst of literary developments of the most diverse kinds, which even
+the fierce and sanguinary civil dissensions of the Reformation did not
+succeed in checking. While the Renaissance in Italy had mainly exhausted
+its effects by the middle of the 16th century, while in Germany those
+effects only paved the way for a national literature, and did not
+themselves greatly contribute thereto, while in England it was not till
+the extreme end of the period that a great literature was
+forthcoming--in France almost the whole century was marked by the
+production of capital works in every branch of literary effort. Not even
+the 17th century, and certainly not the 18th, can show such a group of
+prose writers and poets as is formed by Calvin, St Francis de Sales,
+Montaigne, du Vair, Bodin, d'Aubigné, the authors of the _Satire
+Ménippée_, Monluc, Brantôme, Pasquier, Rabelais, des Periers, Herberay
+des Essarts, Amyot, Garnier, Marot, Ronsard and the rest of the
+"Pléiade," and finally Regnier. These great writers are not merely
+remarkable for the vigour and originality of their thoughts, the
+freshness, variety and grace of their fancy, the abundance of their
+learning and the solidity of their arguments in the cases where argument
+is required. Their great merit is the creation of a language and a style
+able to give expression to these good gifts. The foregoing account of
+the medieval literature of France will have shown sufficiently that it
+is not lawful to despise the literary capacities and achievements of the
+older French. But the old language, with all its merits, was ill-suited
+to be a vehicle for any but the simpler forms of literary composition.
+Pleasant or affecting tales could be told in it with interest and
+pathos. Songs of charming _naïveté_ and grace could be sung; the
+requirements of the epic and the chronicle were suitably furnished. But
+it was barren of the terms of art and science; it did not readily lend
+itself to sustained eloquence, to impassioned poetry or to logical
+discussion. It had been too long accustomed to leave these things to
+Latin as their natural and legitimate exponent, and it bore marks of its
+original character as a _lingua rustica_, a tongue suited for homely
+conversation, for folk-lore and for ballads, rather than for the
+business of the forum and the court, the speculations of the study, and
+the declamation of the theatre. Efforts had indeed been made,
+culminating in the heavy and tasteless erudition of the schools of
+Chartier and Crétin, to supply the defect; but it was reserved for the
+16th century completely to efface it. The series of prose writers from
+Calvin to Montaigne, of poets from Marot to Regnier, elaborated a
+language yielding to no modern tongue in beauty, richness, flexibility
+and strength, a language which the reactionary purism of succeeding
+generations defaced rather than improved, and the merits of which have
+in still later days been triumphantly vindicated by the confession and
+the practice of all the greatest writers of modern France.
+
+
+  Marot.
+
+  Ronsard.
+
+  The Pléiade.
+
+_16th-Century Poetry._--The first few years of the 16th century were
+naturally occupied rather with the last developments of the medieval
+forms than with the production of the new model. The clerks of the
+Bazoche and the Confraternity of the Passion still produced and acted
+mysteries, moralities and farces. The poets of the "Grands
+Rhétoriqueurs" school still wrote elaborate allegorical poetry. Chansons
+de geste, rhymed romances and fabliaux had long ceased to be written.
+But the press was multiplying the contents of the former in the prose
+form which they had finally assumed, and in the _Cent Nouvelles
+Nouvelles_ there already existed admirable specimens of the short prose
+tale. There even were signs, as in some writers already mentioned and in
+Roger de Collérye, a lackpenny but light-hearted singer of the early
+part of the century, of definite enfranchisement in verse. But the first
+note of the new literature was sounded by Clément Marot (1496/7-1544).
+The son of an elder poet, Jehan des Mares called Marot (1463-1523),
+Clément at first wrote, like his father's contemporaries, allegorical
+and mythological poetry, afterwards collected in a volume with a
+charming title, _L'Adolescence clémentine_. It was not till he was
+nearly thirty years old that his work became really remarkable. From
+that time forward till his death, about twenty years afterwards, he was
+much involved in the troubles and persecutions of the Huguenot party to
+which he belonged; nor was the protection of Marguerite d'Angoulême, the
+chief patroness of Huguenots and men of letters, always efficient. But
+his troubles, so far from harming, helped his literary faculties; and
+his epistles, epigrams, _blasons_ (descendants of the medieval _dits_),
+and _coq-à-l'âne_ became remarkable for their easy and polished style,
+their light and graceful wit, and a certain elegance which had not as
+yet been even attempted in any modern tongue, though the Italian
+humanists had not been far from it in some of their Latin compositions.
+Around Marot arose a whole school of disciples and imitators, such as
+Victor Brodeau (1470?-1540), the great authority on rondeaux, Maurice
+Scève, a fertile author of blasons, Salel, Marguerite herself
+(1492-1549), of whom more hereafter, and Mellin de Saint Gelais
+(1491-1558). The last, son of the bishop named above, is a courtly
+writer of occasional pieces, who sustained as well as he could the
+_style marotique_ against Ronsard, and who has the credit of introducing
+the regular sonnet into French. But the inventive vigour of the age was
+so great that one school had hardly become popular before another pushed
+it from its stool, and even of the Marotists just mentioned Scève and
+Salel are often regarded as chief and member respectively of a Lyonnese
+coterie, intermediate between the schools of Marot and of Ronsard,
+containing other members of repute such as Antoine Heroët and Charles
+Fontaine and claiming Louise Labé (_v. inf._) herself. Pierre de Ronsard
+(1524-1585) was the chief of this latter. At first a courtier and a
+diplomatist, physical disqualification made him change his career. He
+began to study the classics under Jean Daurat (1508-1588), and with his
+master and five other writers, Étienne Jodelle (1532-1573), Rémy Belleau
+(1528-1577), Joachim du Bellay (1525-1560), Jean Antoine de Baïf
+(1532-1589), and Pontus de Tyard (d. 1605, bishop of Châlons-sur-Saône),
+composed the famous "Pléiade." The object of this band was to bring the
+French language, in vocabulary, constructions and application, on a
+level with the classical tongues by borrowings from the latter. They
+would have imported the Greek licence of compound words, though the
+genius of the French language is but little adapted thereto; and they
+wished to reproduce in French the regular tragedy, the Pindaric and
+Horatian ode, the Virgilian epic, &c. But it is an error (though one
+which until recently was very common, and which perhaps requires pretty
+thorough study of their work completely to extirpate it) to suppose that
+they advocated or practised _indiscriminate_ borrowing. On the contrary
+both in du Bellay's famous manifesto, the _Deffense et illustration de
+la langue française_, and in Ronsard's own work, caution and attention
+to the genius and the tradition of French are insisted upon. Being all
+men of the highest talent, and not a few of them men of great genius,
+they achieved much that they designed, and even where they failed
+exactly to achieve it, they very often indirectly produced results as
+important and more beneficial than those which they intended. Their
+ideal of a separate poetical language distinct from that intended for
+prose use was indeed a doubtful if not a dangerous one. But it is
+certain that Marot, while setting an example of elegance and grace not
+easily to be imitated, set also an example of trivial and, so to speak,
+pedestrian language which was only too imitable. If France was ever to
+possess a literature containing something besides fabliaux and farces,
+the tongue must be enriched and strengthened. This accession of wealth
+and vigour it received from Ronsard and the Ronsardists. Doubtless they
+went too far and provoked to some extent the reaction which Malherbe
+led. Their importations were sometimes unnecessary. It is almost
+impossible to read the _Franciade_ of Ronsard, and not too easy to read
+the tragedies of Jodelle and Garnier, fine as the latter are in parts.
+But the best of Ronsard's sonnets and odes, the finest of du Bellay's
+_Antiquités de Rome_ (translated into English by Spenser), the exquisite
+_Vanneur_ of the same author, and the _Avril_ of Belleau, even the finer
+passages of d'Aubigné and du Bartas, are not only admirable in
+themselves, and of a kind not previously found in French literature, but
+are also such things as could not have been previously found, for the
+simple reason that the medium of expression was wanting. They
+constructed that medium for themselves, and no force of the reaction
+which they provoked was able to undo their work. Adverse criticism and
+the natural course of time rejected much that they had added. The
+charming diminutives they loved so much went out of fashion; their
+compounds (sometimes it must be confessed, justly) had their letters of
+naturalization promptly cancelled; many a gorgeous adjective, including
+some which could trace their pedigree to the earliest ages of French
+literature, but which bore an unfortunate likeness to the new-comers,
+was proscribed. But for all that no language has ever had its destiny
+influenced more powerfully and more beneficially by a small literary
+clique than the language of France was influenced by the example and
+disciples of that Ronsard whom for two centuries it was the fashion to
+deride and decry.
+
+
+  The Ronsardists.
+
+  Du Bartas.
+
+  D'Aubigné.
+
+In a sketch such as the present it is impossible to give a separate
+account of individual writers, the more important of whom will be found
+treated under their own names. The effort of the "Pléiade" proper was
+continued and shared by a considerable number of minor poets, some of
+them, as has been already noted, belonging to different groups and
+schools. Olivier de Magny (d. 1560) and Louise Labé (b. 1526) were poets
+and lovers, the lady deserving far the higher rank in literature. There
+is more depth of passion in the writings of "La Belle Cordière," as this
+Lyonnese poetess was called, than in almost any of her contemporaries.
+Jacques Tahureau (1527-1555) scarcely deserves to be called a minor
+poet. There is less than the usual hyperbole in the contemporary
+comparison of him to Catullus, and he reminds an Englishman of the
+school represented nearly a century later by Carew, Randolph and
+Suckling. The title of a part of his poem--_Mignardises amoureuses de
+l'admirée_--is characteristic both of the style and of the time. Jean
+Doublet (c. 1528-c. 1580), Amadis Jamyn (c. 1530-1585), and Jean de la
+Taille (1540-1608) deserve mention at least as poets, but two other
+writers require a longer allusion. Guillaume de Salluste, seigneur du
+Bartas (1544-1590), whom Sylvester's translation, Milton's imitation,
+and the copious citations of Southey's _Doctor_, have made known if not
+familiar in England, was partly a disciple and partly a rival of
+Ronsard. His poem of _Judith_ was eclipsed by his better-known _La
+Divine Sepmaine_ or epic of the Creation. Du Bartas was a great user and
+abuser of the double compounds alluded to above, but his style possesses
+much stateliness, and has a peculiar solemn eloquence which he shared
+with the other French Calvinists, and which was derived from the study
+partly of Calvin and partly of the Bible. Théodore Agrippa d'Aubigné
+(1552-1630), like du Bartas, was a Calvinist. His genius was of a more
+varied character. He wrote sonnets and odes as became a Ronsardist, but
+his chief poetical work is the satirical poem of _Les Tragiques_, in
+which the author brands the factions, corruptions and persecutions of
+the time, and in which there are to be found alexandrines of a strength,
+vigour and original cadence hardly to be discovered elsewhere, save in
+Corneille and Victor Hugo. Towards the end of the century, Philippe
+Desportes (1546-1606) and Jean Bertaut (1552-1611), with much enfeebled
+strength, but with a certain grace, continue the Ronsardizing tradition.
+Among their contemporaries must be noticed Jean Passerat (1534-1602), a
+writer of much wit and vigour and rather resembling Marot than Ronsard,
+and Vauquelin de la Fresnaye (1536-1607), the author of a valuable _Ars
+poëtica_ and of the first French satires which actually bear that title.
+Jean le Houx (fl. c. 1600) continued, rewrote or invented the vaux de
+vire, commonly known as the work of Olivier Basselin, and already
+alluded to, while a still lighter and more eccentric verse style was
+cultivated by Étienne Tabourot des Accords (1549-1590), whose epigrams
+and other pieces were collected under odd titles, _Les Bigarrures, Les
+Touches_, &c. A curious pair are Guy du Faur de Pibrac (1529-1584) and
+Pierre Mathieu (b. 1563), authors of moral quatrains, which were learnt
+by heart in the schools of the time, replacing the distichs of the
+grammarian Cato, which, translated into French, had served the same
+purpose in the middle ages.
+
+
+  Regnier.
+
+The nephew of Desportes, Mathurin Regnier (1573-1613), marks the end,
+and at the same time perhaps the climax, of the poetry of the century. A
+descendant at once of the older Gallic spirit of Villon and Marot, in
+virtue of his consummate acuteness, terseness and wit, of the school of
+Ronsard by his erudition, his command of language, and his scholarship,
+Regnier is perhaps the best representative of French poetry at the
+critical time when it had got together all its materials, had lost none
+of its native vigour and force, and had not yet submitted to the
+cramping and numbing rules and restrictions which the next century
+introduced. The satirical poems of Regnier, and especially the admirable
+epistle to Rapin, in which he denounces and rebuts the critical dogmas
+of Malherbe, are models of nervous strength, while some of the elegies
+and odes contain expression not easily to be surpassed of the softer
+feelings of affection and regret. No poet has had more influence on the
+revival of French poetry in the last century than Regnier, and he had
+imitators in his own time, the chief of whom was Courval-Sonnet (Thomas
+Sonnet, sieur de Courval) (1577-1635), author of satires of some value
+for the history of manners.
+
+
+  Regular tragedy and comedy.
+
+  Garnier.
+
+  Larivey.
+
+_16th-Century Drama._--The change which dramatic poetry underwent during
+the 16th century was at least as remarkable as that undergone by poetry
+proper. The first half of the period saw the end of the religious
+mysteries, the licence of which had irritated both the parliament and
+the clergy. Louis XII., at the beginning of the century, was far from
+discouraging the disorderly but popular and powerful theatre in which
+the Confraternity of the Passion, the clerks of the Bazoche, and the
+Enfans sans souci enacted mysteries, moralities, soties and farces. He
+made them, indeed, an instrument in his quarrel with the papacy, just as
+Philippe le Bel had made use of the allegorical poems of Jehan de Meung
+and his fellows. Under his patronage were produced the chief works of
+Gringore or Gringoire (c. 1480-1547), by far the most remarkable writer
+of this class of composition. His _Prince des sots_ and his _Mystère de
+St Louis_ are among the best of their kind. An enormous volume of
+composition of this class was produced between 1500 and 1550. One
+morality by itself, _L'Homme juste et l'homme mondain_, contains some
+36,000 lines. But in 1548, when the Confraternity was formally
+established at the Hôtel de Bourgogne, leave to play sacred subjects was
+expressly refused it. Moralities and soties dragged on under
+difficulties till the end of the century, and the farce, which is
+immortal, continually affected comedy. But the effect of the Renaissance
+was to sweep away all other vestiges of the medieval drama, at least in
+the capital. An entirely new class of subjects, entirely new modes of
+treatment, and a different kind of performers were introduced. The
+change naturally came from Italy. In the close relationship with that
+country which France had during the early years of the century, Italian
+translations of the classical masterpieces were easily imported. Soon
+French translations were made afresh of the _Electra_, the _Hecuba_, the
+_Iphigenia in Aulis_, and the French humanists hastened to compose
+original tragedies on the classical model, especially as exhibited in
+the Latin tragedian Seneca. It was impossible that the "Pléiade" should
+not eagerly seize such an opportunity of carrying out its principles,
+and one of its members, Jodelle (1532-1573), devoting himself mainly to
+dramatic composition, fashioned at once the first tragedy, _Cléopatre_,
+and the first comedy, _Eugène_, thus setting the example of the style of
+composition which for two centuries and a half Frenchmen were to regard
+as the highest effort of literary ambition. The amateur performance of
+these dramas by Jodelle and his friends was followed by a Bacchic
+procession after the manner of the ancients, which caused a great deal
+of scandal, and was represented by both Catholics and Protestants as a
+pagan orgy. The _Cléopâtre_ is remarkable as being the first French
+tragedy, nor is it destitute of merit. It is curious that in this first
+instance the curt antithetic [Greek: stichomuthia], which was so long
+characteristic of French plays and plays imitated from them, and which
+Butler ridicules in his _Dialogue of Cat and Puss_, already appears.
+There appears also the grandiose and smooth but stilted declamation
+which came rather from the imitation of Seneca than of Sophocles, and
+the tradition of which was never to be lost. _Cléopâtre_ was followed by
+_Didon_, which, unlike its predecessor, is entirely in alexandrines, and
+observes the regular alternation of masculine and feminine rhymes.
+Jodelle was followed by Jacques Grévin (1540?-1570) with a _Mort de
+César_, which shows an improvement in tragic art, and two still better
+comedies, _Les Ébahis_ and _La Trésorière_ by Jean de la Taille
+(1540-1608), who made still further progress towards the accepted French
+dramatic pattern in his _Saul furieux_ and his _Corrivaux_, Jacques, his
+brother (1541-1562), and Jean de la Péruse (1529-1554), who wrote a
+_Médée_. A very different poet from all these is Robert Garnier
+(1545-1601). Garnier is the first tragedian who deserves a place not too
+far below Rotrou, Corneille, Racine, Voltaire and Hugo, and who may be
+placed in the same class with them. He chose his subjects indifferently
+from classical, sacred and medieval literature. _Sédécie_, a play
+dealing with the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, is held to be
+his masterpiece, and _Bradamante_ deserves notice because it is the
+first tragi-comedy of merit in French, and because the famous confidant
+here makes his first appearance. Garnier's successor, Antoine de
+Monchrétien or Montchrestien (c. 1576-1621), set the example of
+dramatizing contemporary subjects. His masterpiece is _L'Écossaise_, the
+first of many dramas on the fate of Mary, queen of Scots. While tragedy
+thus clings closely to antique models, comedy, as might be expected in
+the country of the fabliaux, is more independent. Italy had already a
+comic school of some originality, and the French farce was too vigorous
+and lively a production to permit of its being entirely overlooked. The
+first comic writer of great merit was Pierre Larivey (c. 1550-c. 1612),
+an Italian by descent. Most if not all of his plays are founded on
+Italian originals, but the translations or adaptations are made with the
+greatest freedom, and almost deserve the title of original works. The
+style is admirable, and the skilful management of the action contrasts
+strongly with the languor, the awkward adjustment, and the lack of
+dramatic interest found in contemporary tragedians. Even Molière found
+something to use in Larivey.
+
+_16th-Century Prose Fiction._--Great as is the importance of the 16th
+century in the history of French poetry, its importance in the history
+of French prose is greater still. In poetry the middle ages could fairly
+hold their own with any of the ages that have succeeded them. The epics
+of chivalry, whether of the cycles of Charlemagne, Arthur, or the
+classic heroes, not to mention the miscellaneous romans d'aventures,
+have indeed more than held their own. Both relatively and absolutely the
+_Franciade_ of the 16th century, the _Pucelle_ of the 17th, the
+_Henriade_ of the 18th, cut a very poor figure beside _Roland_ and
+_Percivale_, _Gerard de Roussillon_, and _Parthenopex de Blois_. The
+romances, ballads and pastourelles, signed and unsigned, of medieval
+France were not merely the origin, but in some respects the superiors,
+of the lyric poetry which succeeded them. Thibaut de Champagne, Charles
+d'Orléans and Villon need not veil their crests in any society of bards.
+The charming forms of the rondel, the rondeau and the ballade have won
+admiration from every competent poet and critic who has known them. The
+fabliaux give something more than promise of La Fontaine, and the two
+great compositions of the _Roman du Renart_ and the _Roman de la rose_,
+despite their faults and their alloy, will always command the admiration
+of all persons of taste and judgment who take the trouble to study them.
+But while poetry had in the middle ages no reason to blush for her
+French representatives, prose (always the younger and less forward
+sister) had far less to boast of. With the exception of chronicles and
+prose romances, no prose works of any real importance can be quoted
+before the end of the 15th century, and even then the chief if not the
+only place of importance must be assigned to the _Cent Nouvelles
+Nouvelles_, a work of admirable prose, but necessarily light in
+character, and not yet demonstrating the efficacy of the French language
+as a medium of expression for serious and weighty thought. Up to the
+time of the Renaissance and the consequent reformation, Latin had, as we
+have already remarked, been considered the sufficient and natural organ
+for this expression. In France as in other countries the disturbance in
+religious thought may undoubtedly claim the glory of having repaired
+this disgrace of the vulgar tongue, and of having fitted and taught it
+to express whatever thoughts the theologian, the historian, the
+philosopher, the politician and the savant had occasion to utter. But
+the use of prose as a vehicle for lighter themes was more continuous
+with the literature that preceded, and serves as a natural transition
+from poetry and the drama to history and science. Among the prose
+writers, therefore, of the 16th century we shall give the first place to
+the novelists and romantic writers.
+
+
+  Rabelais.
+
+Among these there can be no doubt of the precedence, in every sense of
+the word, of François Rabelais (c. 1490-1553), the one French writer (or
+with Molière one of the two) whom critics the least inclined to
+appreciate the characteristics of French literature have agreed to place
+among the few greatest of the world. With an immense erudition
+representing almost the whole of the knowledge of his time, with an
+untiring faculty of invention, with the judgment of a philosopher, and
+the common sense of a man of the world, with an observation that let no
+characteristic of the time pass unobserved, and with a tenfold portion
+of the special Gallic gift of good-humoured satire, Rabelais united a
+height of speculation and depth of insight and a vein of poetical
+imagination rarely found in any writer, but altogether portentous when
+taken in conjunction with his other characteristics. His great work has
+been taken for an exercise of transcendental philosophy, for a concealed
+theological polemic, for an allegorical history of this and that
+personage of his time, for a merely literary utterance, for an attempt
+to tickle the popular ear and taste. It is all of these, and it is
+none--all of them in parts, none of them in deliberate and exclusive
+intention. It may perhaps be called the exposition and commentary of all
+the thoughts, feelings, aspirations and knowledge of a particular time
+and nation put forth in attractive literary form by a man who for once
+combined the practical and the literary spirit, the power of knowledge
+and the power of expression. The work of Rabelais is the mirror of the
+16th century in France, reflecting at once its comeliness and its
+uncomeliness, its high aspirations, its voluptuous tastes, its political
+and religious dissensions, its keen criticism, its eager appetite and
+hasty digestion of learning, its gleams of poetry, and its ferocity of
+manners. In Rabelais we can divine the "Pléiade" and Marot, the
+_Cymbalum mundi_ and Montaigne, Amyot and the _Amadis_, even Calvin and
+Duperron.
+
+
+  Des Periers.
+
+  The Heptaméron.
+
+It was inevitable that such extraordinary works as _Gargantua_ and
+_Pantagruel_ should attract special imitators in the direction of their
+outward form. It was also inevitable that this imitation should
+frequently fix upon these Rabelaisian characteristics which are least
+deserving of imitation, and most likely to be depraved in the hands of
+imitators. It fell within the plan of the master to indulge in what has
+been called _fatrasie_, the huddling together, that is to say, of a
+medley of language and images which is best known to English readers in
+the not always successful following of Sterne. It pleased him also to
+disguise his naturally terse, strong and nervous style in a burlesque
+envelope of redundant language, partly ironical, partly the result of
+superfluous erudition, and partly that of a certain childish wantonness
+and exuberance, which is one of his raciest and pleasantest
+characteristics. In both these points he was somewhat corruptly
+followed. But fortunately the romancical writers of the 16th century had
+not Rabelais for their sole model, but were also influenced by the
+simple and straightforward style of the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_. The
+joint influence gives us some admirable work. Nicholas of Troyes, a
+saddler of Champagne, came too early (his _Grand Parangon des nouvelles
+nouvelles_ appeared in 1536) to copy Rabelais. But Noël du Fail (d. c.
+1585?), a judge at Rennes, shows the double influence in his _Propos
+rustiques_ and _Contes d'Eutrapel_, both of which, especially the
+former, are lively and well-written pictures of contemporary life and
+thought, as the country magistrate actually saw and dealt with them. In
+1558, however, appeared two works of far higher literary and social
+interest. These are the _Heptaméron_ of the queen of Navarre, and the
+_Contes et joyeux devis_ of Bonaventure des Periers (c. 1500-1544). Des
+Periers, who was a courtier of Marguerite's, has sometimes been thought
+to have had a good deal to do with the first-named work as well as with
+the second, and was also the author of a curious Lucianic satire,
+strongly sceptical in cast, the _Cymbalum mundi_. Indeed, not merely the
+queen's prose works, but also the poems gracefully entitled _Les
+Marguerites de la Marguerite_, are often attributed to the literary men
+whom the sister of Francis I. gathered round her. However this may be,
+some single influence of power enough to give unity and distinctness of
+savour evidently presided over the composition of the _Heptaméron_.
+Composed as it is on the model of Boccaccio, its tone and character are
+entirely different, and few works have a more individual charm. The
+_Tales_ of des Periers are shorter, simpler and more homely; there is
+more wit in them and less refinement. But both works breathe, more
+powerfully perhaps than any others, the peculiar mixture of cultivated
+and poetical voluptuousness with a certain religiosity and a vigorous
+spirit of action which characterizes the French Renaissance. Later in
+time, but too closely connected with Rabelais in form and spirit to be
+here omitted, came the _Moyen de parvenir_ of Béroalde de Verville
+(1558?-1612?), a singular _fatrasie_, uniting wit, wisdom, learning and
+indecency, and crammed with anecdotes which are always amusing though
+rarely decorous.
+
+
+  Amadis of Gaul.
+
+At the same time a fresh vogue was given to the chivalric romance by
+Herberay's translation of _Amadis de Gaula_. French writers have
+supposed a French original for the _Amadis_ in some lost roman
+d'aventures. It is of course impossible to say that this is not the
+case, but there is not one tittle of evidence to show that it is. At any
+rate the adventures of Amadis were prolonged in Spanish through
+generation after generation of his descendants. This vast work Herberay
+des Essarts in 1540 undertook to translate or retranslate, but it was
+not without the assistance of several followers that the task was
+completed. Southey has charged Herberay with corrupting the simplicity
+of the original, a charge which does not concern us here. It is
+sufficient to say that the French _Amadis_ is an excellent piece of
+literary work, and that Herberay deserves no mean place among the
+fathers of French prose. His book had an immense popularity; it was
+translated into many foreign languages, and for some time it served as a
+favourite reading book for foreigners studying French. Nor is it to be
+doubted that the romancers of the Scudéry and Calprenède type in the
+next century were much more influenced both for good and harm by these
+Amadis romances than by any of the earlier tales of chivalry.
+
+_16th-Century Historians._--As in the case of the tale-tellers, so in
+that of the historians, the writers of the 16th century had traditions
+to continue. It is doubtful indeed whether many of them can risk
+comparison as artists with the great names cf Villehardouin and
+Joinville, Froissart and Comines. The 16th century, however, set the
+example of dividing the functions of the chronicler, setting those of
+the historian proper on one side, and of the anecdote-monger and
+biographer on the other. The efforts at regular history made in this
+century were not of the highest value. But on the other hand the
+practice of memoir-writing, in which the French were to excel every
+nation in the world, and of literary correspondence, in which they were
+to excel even their memoirs, was solidly founded.
+
+One of the earliest historical writers of the century was Claude de
+Seyssel (1450-1520), whose history of Louis XII. aims not unsuccessfully
+at style. De Thou (1553-1617) wrote in Latin, but Bernard de Girard,
+sieur du Haillan (1537-1610), composed a _Histoire de France_ on
+Thucydidean principles as transmitted through the successive mediums of
+Polybius, Guicciardini and Paulus Aemilius. The instance invariably
+quoted, after Thierry, of du Haillan's method is his introduction, with
+appropriate speeches, of two Merovingian statesmen who argue out the
+relative merits of monarchy and oligarchy on the occasion of the
+election of Pharamond. Besides du Haillan, la Popelinière (c.
+1540-1608), who less ambitiously attempted a history of Europe during
+his own time, and expended immense labour on the collection of
+information and materials, deserves mention.
+
+
+  Brantôme.
+
+There is no such poverty of writers of memoirs. Robert de la Mark, du
+Bellay, Marguerite de Valois (the youngest or third Marguerite, first
+wife of Henri IV., 1553-1615), Villars, Tavannes, La Tour d'Auvergne,
+and many others composed commentaries and autobiographies. The
+well-known and very agreeable _Histoire du gentil seigneur de Bayart_
+(1524) is by an anonymous "Loyal Serviteur." Vincent Carloix (fl. 1550),
+the secretary of the marshal de Vielleville, composed some memoirs
+abounding in detail and incident. The _Lettres_ of Cardinal d'Ossat
+(1536-1604) and the _Négociations_ of Pierre Jeannin (1540-1622) have
+always had a high place among documents of their kind. But there are
+four collections of memoirs concerning this time which far exceed all
+others in interest and importance. The turbulent dispositions of the
+time, the loose dependence of the nobles and even the smaller gentry on
+any single or central authority, the rapid changes of political
+situations, and the singularly active appetite, both for pleasure and
+for business, for learning and for war, which distinguished the French
+gentleman of the 16th century, place the memoirs of François de Lanoue
+(1531-1591), Blaise de Mon[t]luc (1503-1577), Agrippa d'Aubigné and
+Pierre de Bourdeille[s] Brantôme (1540-1614) almost at the head of the
+literature of their class. The name of Brantôme is known to all who have
+the least tincture of French literature, and the works of the others are
+not inferior in interest, and perhaps superior in spirit and conception,
+to the _Dames Galantes_, the _Grands Capitaines_ and the _Hommes
+illustres_. The commentaries of Montluc, which Henri Quatre is said to
+have called the soldier's Bible, are exclusively military and deal with
+affairs only. Montluc was governor in Guienne, where he repressed the
+savage Huguenots of the south with a savagery worse than their own. He
+was, however, a partisan of order, not of Catholicism. He hung and shot
+both parties with perfect impartiality, and refused to have anything to
+do with the massacre of St Bartholomew. Though he was a man of no
+learning, his style is excellent, being vivid, flexible and
+straightforward. Lanoue, who was a moderate in politics, has left his
+principles reflected in his memoirs. D'Aubigné, so often to be
+mentioned, gives the extreme Huguenot side as opposed to the royalist
+partisanship of Montluc and the _via media_ of Lanoue. Brantôme, on the
+other hand, is quite free from any political or religious
+prepossessions, and, indeed, troubles himself very little about any such
+matters. He is the shrewd and somewhat cynical observer, moving through
+the crowd and taking note of its ways, its outward appearance, its
+heroisms and its follies. It is really difficult to say whether the
+recital of a noble deed of arms or the telling of a scandalous story
+about a court lady gave him the most pleasure, and impossible to say
+which he did best. Certainly he had ample material for both exercises in
+the history of his time.
+
+The branches of literature of which we have just given an account may be
+fairly connected, from the historical point of view, with work of the
+same kind that went before as well as with work of the same kind that
+followed them. It was not so with the literature of theology, law,
+politics and erudition, which the 16th century also produced, and with
+which it for the first time enlarged the range of composition in the
+vulgar tongue. Not only had Latin been invariably adopted as the
+language of composition on such subjects, but the style of the treatises
+dealing with such matters had been traditional rather than original. In
+speculative philosophy or metaphysics proper even this century did not
+witness a great development; perhaps, indeed, such a development was not
+to be expected until the minds of men had in some degree settled down
+from their agitation on more practical matters. It is not without
+significance that Calvin (1509-1564) is the great figure in serious
+French prose in the first half of the century, Montaigne the
+corresponding figure in the second half. After Calvin and Montaigne we
+expect Descartes.
+
+
+  Calvin.
+
+_16th-Century Theologians._--In France, as in all other countries, the
+Reformation was an essentially popular movement, though from special
+causes, such as the absence of political homogeneity, the nobles took a
+more active part both with pen and sword in it than was the case in
+England. But the great textbook of the French Reformation was not the
+work of any noble. Jean Calvin's _Institution of the Christian Religion_
+is a book equally remarkable in matter and in form, in circumstances and
+in result. It is the first really great composition in argumentative
+French prose. Its severe logic and careful arrangement had as much
+influence on the manner of future thought, both in France and the other
+regions whither its widespread popularity carried it, as its style had
+on the expression of such thought. It was the work of a man of only
+seven-and-twenty, and it is impossible to exaggerate the originality of
+its manner when we remember that hardly any models of French prose then
+existed except tales and chronicles, which required and exhibited
+totally different qualities of style. It is indeed probable that had not
+the _Institution_ been first written by its author in Latin, and
+afterwards translated by him, it might have had less dignity and vigour;
+but it must at the same time be remembered that this process of
+composition was at least equally likely, in the hands of any but a great
+genius, to produce a heavy and pedantic style neither French nor Latin
+in character. Something like this result was actually produced in some
+of Calvin's minor works, and still more in the works of many of his
+followers, whose lumbering language gained for itself, in allusion to
+their exile from France, the title of "style refugié." Nevertheless, the
+use of the vulgar tongue on the Protestant side, and the possession of a
+work of such importance written therein, gave the Reformers an immense
+advantage which their adversaries were some time in neutralizing. Even
+before the _Institution_, Lefèvre d'Étaples (1455-1537) and Guillaume
+Farel (1489-1565) saw and utilized the importance of the vernacular.
+Calvin (1509-1564) was much helped by Pierre Viret (1511-1571), who
+wrote a large number of small theological and moral dialogues, and of
+satirical pamphlets, destined to captivate as well as to instruct the
+lower people. The more famous Beza (Théodore de Bèze) (1519-1605) wrote
+chiefly in Latin, but he composed in French an ecclesiastical history of
+the Reformed churches and some translations of the Psalms. Marnix de
+Sainte Aldegonde (1530-1593), a gentleman of Brabant, followed Viret as
+a satirical pamphleteer on the Protestant side. On the other hand, the
+Catholic champions at first affected to disdain the use of the vulgar
+tongue, and their pamphleteers, when they did attempt it, were unequal
+to the task. Towards the end of the century a more decent war was waged
+with Philippe du Plessis Mornay (1549-1623) on the Protestant side,
+whose work is at least as much directed against freethinkers and enemies
+of Christianity in general as against the dogmas and discipline of Rome.
+His adversary, the redoubtable Cardinal du Perron (1556-1618), who,
+originally a Calvinist, went over to the other side, employed French
+most vigorously in controversial works, chiefly with reference to the
+eucharist. Du Perron was celebrated as the first controversialist of the
+time, and obtained dialectical victories over all comers. At the same
+time the bishop of Geneva, St Francis of Sales (1567-1622), supported
+the Catholic side, partly by controversial works, but still more by his
+devotional writings. The _Introduction to a Devout Life_, which, though
+actually published early in the next century, had been written some time
+previously, shares with Calvin's _Institution_ the position of the most
+important theological work of the period, and is in remarkable contrast
+with it in style and sentiment as well as in principles and plan. It has
+indeed been accused of a certain effeminacy, the appearance of which is
+in all probability mainly due to this very contrast. The 16th century
+does not, like the 17th, distinguish itself by literary exercises in the
+pulpit. The furious preachers of the League, and their equally violent
+opponents, have no literary value.
+
+
+  Montaigne.
+
+_16th-Century Moralists and Political Writers._--The religious
+dissensions and political disturbances of the time could not fail to
+exert an influence on ethical and philosophical thought. Yet, as we have
+said, the century was not prolific of pure philosophical speculation.
+The scholastic tradition, though long sterile, still survived, and with
+it the habit of composing in Latin all works in any way connected with
+philosophy. The _Logic_ of Ramus in 1555 is cited as the first departure
+from this rule. Other philosophical works are few, and chiefly express
+the doubt and the freethinking which were characteristic of the time.
+This doubt assumes the form of positive religious scepticism only in the
+_Cymbalum mundi_ of Bonaventure des Periers, a remarkable series of
+dialogues which excited a great storm, and ultimately drove the author
+to commit suicide. The _Cymbalum mundi_ is a curious anticipation of the
+18th century. The literature of doubt, however, was to receive its
+principal accession in the famous essays of Michel Eyguem, seigneur de
+Montaigne (1533-1592). It would be a mistake to imagine the existence of
+any sceptical propaganda in this charming and popular book. Its
+principle is not scepticism but egotism; and as the author was
+profoundly sceptical, this quality necessarily rather than intentionally
+appears. We have here to deal only very superficially with this as with
+other famous books, but it cannot be doubted that it expresses the
+mental attitude of the latter part of the century as completely as
+Rabelais expresses the mental attitude of the early part. There is
+considerably less vigour and life in this attitude. Inquiry and protest
+have given way to a placid conviction that there is not much to be found
+out, and that it does not much matter; the erudition though abundant is
+less indiscriminate, and is taken in and given out with less gusto;
+exuberant drollery has given way to quiet irony; and though neither
+business nor pleasure is decried, both are regarded rather as useful
+pastimes incident to the life of man than with the eager appetite of the
+Renaissance. From the purely literary point of view, the style is
+remarkable from its absence of pedantry In construction, and yet for its
+rich vocabulary and picturesque brilliancy. The follower and imitator of
+Montaigne, Pierre Charron (1541-1603), carried his master's scepticism
+to a somewhat more positive degree. His principal book, _De la sagesse_,
+scarcely deserves the comparative praise which Pope has given it. On the
+other hand Guillaume du Vair (1556-1621), a lawyer and orator, takes the
+positive rather than the negative side in morality, and regards the
+vicissitudes in human affairs from the religious and theological point
+of view in a series of works characterized by the special merit of the
+style of great orators.
+
+The revolutionary and innovating instinct which showed itself in the
+16th century with reference to church government and doctrine spread
+naturally enough to political matters. The intolerable disorder of the
+religious wars naturally set the thinkers of the age speculating on the
+doctrines of government in general. The favourite and general study of
+antiquity helped this tendency, and the great accession of royal power
+in all the monarchies of Europe invited a speculative if not a practical
+reaction. The persecutions of the Protestants naturally provoked a
+republican spirit among them, and the violent antipathy of the League to
+the houses of Valois and Bourbon made its partisans adopt almost openly
+the principles of democracy and tyrannicide.
+
+
+  Bodin.
+
+The greatest political writer of the age is Jean Bodin (1530-1596),
+whose _République_ is founded partly on speculative considerations like
+the political theories of the ancients, and partly on an extended
+historical inquiry. Bodin, like most lawyers who have taken the royalist
+side, is for unlimited monarchy, but notwithstanding this, he condemns
+religious persecution and discourages slavery. In his speculations on
+the connexion between forms of government and natural causes, he serves
+as a link between Aristotle and Montesquieu. On the other hand, the
+causes which we have mentioned made a large number of writers adopt
+opposite conclusions. Étienne de la Boétie (1530-1563), the friend of
+Montaigne's youth, composed the _Contre un or Discours de la servitude
+volontaire_, a protest against the monarchical theory. The boldness of
+the protest and the affectionate admiration of Montaigne have given la
+Boétie a much higher reputation than any extant work of his actually
+deserves. The _Contre un_ is a kind of prize essay, full of empty
+declamation borrowed from the ancients, and showing no grasp of the
+practical conditions of politics. Not much more historically based, but
+far more vigorous and original, is the _Franco-Gallia_ of François
+Hotmann (1524-1590), a work which appeared both in Latin and French,
+which extols the authority of the states-general, represents them as
+direct successors of the political institutions of Gauls and Franks, and
+maintains the right of insurrection. In the last quarter of the century
+political animosity knew no bounds. The Protestants beheld a divine
+instrument in Poltrot de Méré, the Catholics in Jacques Clément. The
+Latin treatises of Hubert Languet (1518-1581) and Buchanan formally
+vindicated--the first, like Hotmann, the right of rebellion based on an
+original contract between prince and people, the second the right of
+tyrannicide. Indeed, as Montaigne confesses, divine authorization for
+political violence was claimed and denied by both parties according as
+the possession or the expectancy of power belonged to each, and the
+excesses of the preachers and pamphleteers knew no bounds.
+
+
+  Satire Ménippée.
+
+Every one, however, was not carried away. The literary merits of the
+chancellor Michel de l'Hôpital (1507-1573) are not very great, but his
+efforts to promote peace and moderation were unceasing. On the other
+side Lanoue, with far greater literary gifts, pursued the same ends, and
+pointed out the ruinous consequences of continued dissension. Du Plessis
+Mornay took a part in political discussion even more important than that
+which he bore in religious polemics, and was of the utmost service to
+Henri Quatre in defending his cause against the League, as was also
+Hurault, another author of state papers. Du Vair, already mentioned,
+powerfully assisted the same cause by his successful defence of the
+Salic law, the disregard of which by the Leaguer states-general was
+intended to lead to the admission of the Spanish claim to the crown. But
+the foremost work against the League was the famous _Satire Ménippée_
+(1594), in a literary point of view one of the most remarkable of
+political books. The _Ménippée_ was the work of no single author, but
+was due, it is said, to the collaboration of five, Pierre Leroi, who has
+the credit of the idea, Jacques Gillot, Florent Chrétien, Nicolas Rapin
+(1541-1596) and Pierre Pithou (1539-1596), with some assistance in verse
+from Passerat and Gilles Durand. The book is a kind of burlesque report
+of the meeting of the states-general, called for the purpose of
+supporting the views of the League in 1593. It gives an account of the
+procession of opening, and then we have the supposed speeches of the
+principal characters--the duc de Mayenne, the papal legate, the rector
+of the university (a ferocious Leaguer) and others. But by far the most
+remarkable is that attributed to Claude d'Aubray, the leader of the
+_Tiers État_, and said to be written by Pithou, in which all the evils
+of the time and the malpractices of the leaders of the League are
+exposed and branded. The satire is extraordinarily bitter and yet
+perfectly good-humoured. It resembles in character rather that of
+Butler, who unquestionably imitated it, than any other. The style is
+perfectly suited to the purpose, having got rid of almost all vestiges
+of the cumbrousness of the older tongue without losing its picturesque
+quaintness. It is no wonder that, as we are told by contemporaries, it
+did more for Henri Quatre than all other writings in his cause. In
+connexion with politics some mention of legal orators and writers may be
+necessary. In 1539 the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets enjoined the
+exclusive use of the French language in legal procedure. The bar and
+bench of France during the century produced, however, besides those
+names already mentioned in other connexions, only one deserving of
+special notice, that of Étienne Pasquier (1529-1615), author of a
+celebrated speech against the right of the Jesuits to take part in
+public teaching. This he inserted in his great work, _Recherches de la
+France_, a work dealing with almost every aspect of French history
+whether political, antiquarian or literary.
+
+
+  Amyot.
+
+_16th-Century Savants._--One more division, and only one, that of
+scientific and learned writers pure and simple, remains. Much of the
+work of this kind during the period was naturally done in Latin, the
+vulgar tongue of the learned. But in France, as in other countries, the
+study of the classics led to a vast number of translations, and it so
+happened that one of the translators deserves as a prose writer a rank
+among the highest. Many of the authors already mentioned contributed to
+the literature of translation. Des Periers translated the Platonic
+dialogue _Lysis_, la Boétie some works of Xenophon and Plutarch, du Vair
+the _De corona_, the _In Ctesiphontem_ and the _Pro Milone_. Salel
+attempted the _Iliad_, Belleau the false _Anacreon_, Baïf some plays of
+Plautus and Terence. Besides these Lefèvre d'Étaples gave a version of
+the Bible, Saliat one of Herodotus, and Louis Leroi (1510-1577), not to
+be confounded with the part author of the _Ménippée_, many works of
+Plato, Aristotle and other Greek writers. But while most if not all of
+these translators owed the merits of their work to their originals, and
+deserved, much more deserve, to be read only by those to whom those
+originals are sealed, Jacques Amyot (1513-1593), bishop of Auxerre,
+takes rank as a French classic by his translations of Plutarch, Longus
+and Heliodorus. The admiration which Amyot excited in his own time was
+immense. Montaigne declares that it was thanks to him that his
+contemporaries knew how to speak and to write, and the Academy in the
+next age, though not too much inclined to honour its predecessors,
+ranked him as a model. His Plutarch, which had an enormous influence at
+the time, and coloured perhaps more than any classic the thoughts and
+writings of the 16th century, both in French and English, was then
+considered his masterpiece. Nowadays perhaps, and from the purely
+literary standpoint, that position would be assigned to his exquisite
+version of the exquisite story of Daphnis and Chloe. It is needless to
+say that absolute fidelity and exact scholarship are not the pre-eminent
+merits of these versions. They are not philological exercises, but works
+of art.
+
+On the other hand, Claude Fauchet (1530-1601) in two antiquarian works,
+_Antiquités gauloises et françoises_ and _L'Origine de la langue et de
+la poésie française_, displays a remarkable critical faculty in sweeping
+away the fables which had encumbered history. Fauchet had the (for his
+time) wonderful habit of consulting manuscripts, and we owe to him
+literary notices of many of the trouvères. At the same time François
+Grudé, sieur de la Croix du Maine (1552-1592), and Antoine Duverdier
+(1544-1600) founded the study of bibliography in France. Pasquier's
+_Recherches_, already alluded to, carries out the principles of Fauchet
+independently, and besides treating the history of the past in a true
+critical spirit, supplies us with voluminous and invaluable information
+on contemporary politics and literature. He has, moreover, the merit
+which Fauchet had not, of being an excellent writer. Henri Estienne
+[Stephanus] (1528-1598) also deserves notice in this place, both for
+certain treatises on the French language, full of critical crotchets,
+and also for his curious _Apologie pour Hérodote_, a remarkable book not
+particularly easy to class. It consists partly of a defence of its
+nominal subject, partly of satirical polemics on the Protestant side,
+and is filled almost equally with erudition and with the buffoonery and
+_fatrasie_ of the time. The book, indeed, was much too Rabelaisian to
+suit the tastes of those in whose defence it was composed.
+
+The 16th century is somewhat too early for us to speak of science, and
+such science as was then composed falls for the most part outside French
+literature. The famous potter, Bernard Palissy (1510-1590), however, was
+not much less skilful as a fashioner of words than as a fashioner of
+pots, and his description of the difficulties of his experiments in
+enamelling, which lasted sixteen years, is well known. The great surgeon
+Ambrose Paré (c. 1510-1590) was also a writer, and his descriptions of
+his military experiences at Turin, Metz and elsewhere have all the charm
+of the 16th-century memoir. The only other writers who require special
+mention are Olivier de Serres (1539-1619), who composed, under the title
+of _Théâtre d'agriculture_, a complete treatise on the various
+operations of rural economy, and Jacques du Fouilloux (1521-1580), who
+wrote on hunting (_La Vénerie_). Both became extremely popular and were
+frequently reprinted.
+
+
+  Malherbe.
+
+_17th-Century Poetry._--It is not always easy or possible to make the
+end or the beginning of a literary epoch synchronize exactly with
+historical dates. It happens, however, that for once the beginning of
+the 17th century coincides almost exactly with an entire revolution in
+French literature. The change of direction and of critical standard
+given by François de Malherbe (1556-1628) to poetry was to last for two
+whole centuries, and to determine, not merely the language and
+complexion, but also the form of French verse during the whole of that
+time. Accidentally, or as a matter of logical consequence (it would not
+be proper here to attempt to decide the question), poetry became almost
+synonymous with drama. It is true, as we shall have to point out, that
+there were, in the early part of the 17th century at least, poets,
+properly so called, of no contemptible merit. But their merit, in itself
+respectable, sank in comparison with the far greater merit of their
+dramatic rivals. Théophile de Viau and Racan, Voiture and Saint-Amant
+cannot for a moment be mentioned in the same rank with Corneille. It is
+certainly curious, if it is not something more than curious, that this
+decline in poetry proper should have coincided with the so-called
+reforms of Malherbe. The tradition of respect for this elder and more
+gifted Boileau was at one time all-powerful in France, and,
+notwithstanding the Romantic movement, is still strong. In rejecting a
+large number of the importations of the Ronsardists, he certainly did
+good service. But it is difficult to avoid ascribing in great measure to
+his influence the origin of the chief faults of modern French poetry,
+and modern French in general, as compared with the older language. He
+pronounced against "poetic diction" as such, forbade the overlapping
+(_enjambement_) of verse, insisted that the middle pause should be of
+sense as well as sound, and that rhyme must satisfy eye as well as ear.
+Like Pope, he sacrificed everything to "correctness," and, unluckily for
+French, the sacrifice was made at a time when no writer of an absolutely
+supreme order had yet appeared in the language. With Shakespeare and
+Milton, not to mention scores of writers only inferior to them, safely
+garnered, Pope and his followers could do us little harm. Corneille and
+Molière unfortunately came after Malherbe. Yet it would be unfair to
+this writer, however badly we may think of his influence, to deny him
+talent, and even a certain amount of poetical inspiration. He had not
+felt his own influence, and the very influences which he despised and
+proscribed produced in him much tolerable and some admirable verse,
+though he is not to be named as a poet with Regnier, who had the
+courage, the sense and the good taste to oppose and ridicule his
+innovations. Of Malherbe's school, Honorat de Bueil, marquis de Racan
+(1589-1670), and François de Maynard (1582-1646) were the most
+remarkable. The former was a true poet, though not a very strong one.
+Like his master, he is best when he follows the models whom that master
+contemned. Perhaps more than any other poet, he set the example of the
+classical alexandrine, the smooth and melodious but monotonous and
+rather effeminate measure which Racine was to bring to the highest
+perfection, and which his successors, while they could not improve its
+smoothness, were to make more and more monotonous until the genius of
+Victor Hugo once more broke up its facile polish, supplied its stiff
+uniformity, and introduced vigour, variety, colour and distinctness in
+the place of its feeble sameness and its pale indecision. But the
+vigour, not to say the licence, of the 16th century could not thus die
+all at once. In Théophile de Viau (1591-1626) the early years of the
+17th century had their Villon. The later poet was almost as unfortunate
+as the earlier, and almost as disreputable, but he had a great share of
+poetical and not a small one of critical power. The _étoile enragée_
+under which he complains that he was born was at least kind to him in
+this respect; and his readers, after he had been forgotten for two
+centuries, have once more done him justice. Racan and Théophile were
+followed in the second quarter of the century by two schools which
+sufficiently well represented the tendencies of each. The first was that
+of Vincent Voiture (1598-1648), Isaac de Benserade (1612-1691), and
+other poets such as Claude de Maleville (1597-1647), author of _La Belle
+Matineuse_, who were connected more or less with the famous literary
+coterie of the Hôtel de Rambouillet. Théophile was less worthily
+succeeded by a class, it can hardly be called a school of poets, some of
+whom, like Gérard Saint-Amant (1594-1660), wrote drinking songs of merit
+and other light pieces; others, like Paul Scarron (1610-1660) and
+Sarrasin (1603? 4? 5?-1654), devoted themselves rather to burlesque of
+serious verse. Most of the great dramatic authors of the time also wrote
+miscellaneous poetry, and there was even an epic school of the most
+singular kind, in ridiculing and discrediting which Boileau for once did
+undoubtedly good service. The _Pucelle_ of Jean Chapelain (1595-1674),
+the unfortunate author who was deliberately trained and educated for a
+poet, who enjoyed for some time a sort of dictatorship in French
+literature on the strength of his forthcoming work, and at whom from the
+day of its publication every critic of French literature has agreed to
+laugh, was the most famous and perhaps the worst of these. But Georges
+de Scudéry (1601-1667) wrote an _Alaric_, the Père le Moyne (1602-1671)
+a _Saint Louis_, Jean Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a dramatist
+and critic of some note, a _Clovis_, and Saint-Amant a _Moïse_, which
+were not much better, though Théophile Gautier in his _Grotesques_ has
+valiantly defended these and other contemporary versifiers. And indeed
+it cannot be denied that even the epics, especially _Saint Louis_,
+contain flashes of finer poetry than France was to produce for more than
+a century outside of the drama. Some of the lighter poets and classes of
+poetry just alluded to also produced some remarkable verse. The
+_Précieuses_ of the Hôtel Rambouillet, with all their absurdities,
+encouraged if they did not produce good literary work. In their society
+there is no doubt that a great reformation of manners took place, if not
+of morals, and that the tendency to literature elegant and polished, yet
+not destitute of vigour, which marks the 17th century, was largely
+developed side by side with much scandal-mongering and anecdotage. Many
+of the authors whom these influences inspired, such as Voiture,
+Saint-Évremond and others, have been or will be noticed. But even such
+poets and wits as Antoine Baudouin de Sénecé (1643-1737), Jean de
+Segrais (1624-1701), Charles Faulure de Ris, sieur de Charleval
+(1612-1693), Antoine Godeau (1605-1672), Jean Ogier de Gombaud
+(1590-1666), are not without interest in the history of literature;
+while if Charles Cotin (1604-1682) sinks below this level and deserves
+Molière's caricature of him as Trissotin in _Les Femmes savantes_,
+Gilles de Ménage (1630-1692) certainly rises above it, notwithstanding
+the companion satire of Vadius. Ménage's name naturally suggests the
+_Ana_ which arose at this time and were long fashionable, stores of
+endless gossip, sometimes providing instruction and often amusement. The
+_Guirlande de Julie_, in which most of the poets of the time celebrated
+Julie d'Angennes, daughter of the marquise de Rambouillet, is perhaps
+the best of all such albums, and Voiture, the typical poet of the
+coterie, was certainly the best writer of _vers de société_ who is known
+to us. The poetical war which arose between the Uranistes, the followers
+of Voiture, and the Jobistes, those of Benserade, produced reams of
+sonnets, epigrams and similar verses. This habit of occasional
+versification continued long. It led as a less important consequence to
+the rhymed _Gazettes_ of Jean Loret (d. 1665), which recount in
+octosyllabic verse of a light and lively kind the festivals and court
+events of the early years of Louis XIV. It led also to perhaps the most
+remarkable non-dramatic poetry of the century, the _Contes_ and _Fables_
+of Jean de la Fontaine (1621-1695). No French writer is better known
+than la Fontaine, and there is no need to dilate on his merits. It has
+been well said that he completes Molière, and that the two together give
+something to French literature which no other literature possesses. Yet
+la Fontaine is after all only a writer of fabliaux, in the language and
+with the manners of his own century.
+
+All the writers we have mentioned belong more or less to the first half
+of the century, and so do Valentin Conrart (1603-1675), Antoine
+Furetière (1626-1688), Chapelle (Claude Emmanuel) l'Huillier
+(1626-1686), and others not worth special mention. The latter half of
+the century is far less productive, and the poetical quality of its
+production is even lower than the quantity. In it Boileau (1636-1711) is
+the chief poetical figure. Next to him can only be mentioned Madame
+Deshoulières (1638-1694), Guillaume de Brébeuf (1618-1661), the
+translator of Lucan, Philippe Quinault (1635-1688), the composer of
+opera libretti. Boileau's satire, where it has much merit, is usually
+borrowed direct from Horace. He had a certain faculty as a critic of the
+slashing order, and might have profitably used it if he had written in
+prose. But of his poetry it must be said, not so much that it is bad, as
+that it is not, in strictness, poetry at all, and the same is generally
+true of all those who followed him.
+
+
+  Hardy.
+
+  Rotrou.
+
+  Corneille.
+
+  Molière.
+
+  Racine.
+
+  The Academy.
+
+_17th-Century Drama._--We have already seen how the medieval theatre was
+formed, and how in the second half of the 16th century it met with a
+formidable rival in the classical drama of Jodelle and Garnier. In 1588
+mysteries had been prohibited, and with the prohibition of the mysteries
+the Confraternity of the Passion lost the principal part of its reason
+for existence. The other bodies and societies of amateur actors had
+already perished, and at length the Hôtel de Bourgogne itself, the home
+of the confraternity, had been handed over to a regular troop of actors,
+while companies of strollers, whose life has been vividly depicted in
+the _Roman comique_ of Scarron and the _Capitaine Fracasse_ of Théophile
+Gautier, wandered all about the provinces. The old farce was for a time
+maintained or revived by Tabarin, a remarkable figure in dramatic
+history, of whom but little is known. The great dramatic author of the
+first quarter of the 17th century was Alexandre Hardy (1569-1631), who
+surpassed even Heywood in fecundity, and very nearly approached the
+portentous productiveness of Lope de Vega. Seven hundred is put down as
+the modest total of Hardy's pieces, but not much more than a twentieth
+of these exist in print. From these latter we can judge Hardy. They are
+hardly up to the level of the worst specimens of the contemporary
+Elizabethan theatre, to which, however, they bear a certain resemblance.
+Marston's _Insatiate Countess_ and the worst parts of Chapman's _Bussy
+d'Ambois_ may give English readers some notion of them. Yet Hardy was
+not totally devoid of merit. He imitated and adapted Spanish literature,
+which was at this time to France what Italian was in the century before
+and English in the century after, in the most indiscriminate manner. But
+he had a considerable command of grandiloquent and melodramatic
+expression, a sound theory if not a sound practice of tragic writing,
+and that peculiar knowledge of theatrical art and of the taste of the
+theatrical public which since his time has been the special possession
+of the French playwright. It is instructive to compare the influence of
+his irregular and faulty genius with that of the regular and precise
+Malherbe. From Hardy to Rotrou is, in point of literary interest, a
+great step, and from Rotrou to Corneille a greater. Yet the theory of
+Hardy only wanted the genius of Rotrou and Corneille to produce the
+latter. Jean de Rotrou (1610-1650) has been called the French Marlowe,
+and there is a curious likeness and yet a curious contrast between the
+two poets. The best parts of Rotrou's two best plays, _Venceslas_ and
+_St Genest_, are quite beyond comparison in respect of anything that
+preceded them, and the central speech of the last-named play will rank
+with anything in French dramatic poetry. Contemporary with Rotrou were
+other dramatic writers of considerable dramatic importance, most of them
+distinguished by the faults of the Spanish school, its declamatory
+rodomontade, its conceits, and its occasionally preposterous action.
+Jean de Schélandre (d. 1635) has left us a remarkable work in _Tyr et
+Sidon_, which exemplifies in practice, as its almost more remarkable
+preface by François Ogier defends in principle, the English-Spanish
+model. Théophile de Viau in _Pyrame et Thisbé_ and in _Pasiphaé_
+produced a singular mixture of the classicism of Garnier and the
+extravagancies of Hardy. Scudéry in _l'Amour tyrannique_ and other plays
+achieved a considerable success. The _Marianne_ of Tristan (1601-1655)
+and the _Sophonisbe_ of Jean de Mairet (1604-1686) are the chief pieces
+of their authors. Mairet resembles Marston in something more than his
+choice of subject. Another dramatic writer of some eminence is Pierre du
+Ryer (1606-1648). But the fertility of France at this moment in dramatic
+authors was immense; nearly 100 are enumerated in the first quarter of
+the century. The early plays of Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) showed all
+the faults of his contemporaries combined with merits to which none of
+them except Rotrou, and Rotrou himself only in part, could lay claim.
+His first play was _Mélite_, a comedy, and in _Clitandre_, a tragedy, he
+soon produced what may perhaps be not inconveniently taken as the
+typical piece of the school of Hardy. A full account of Corneille may be
+found elsewhere. It is sufficient to say here that his importance in
+French literature is quite as great in the way of influence and example
+as in the way of intellectual excellence. The _Cid_ and the _Menteur_
+are respectively the first examples of French tragedy and comedy which
+can be called modern. But this influence and example did not at first
+find many imitators. Corneille was a member of Richelieu's band of five
+poets. Of the other four Rotrou alone deserves the title; the remaining
+three, the prolific abbé de Boisrobert, Guillaume Colletet (whose most
+valuable work, a MS. _Lives of Poets_, was never printed, and burnt by
+the Communards in 1871), and Claude de Lestoile (1597-1651), are as
+dramatists worthy of no notice, nor were they soon followed by others
+more worthy. Yet before many years had passed the examples which
+Corneille had set in tragedy and in comedy were followed up by
+unquestionably the greatest comic writer, and by one who long held the
+position of the greatest tragic writer of France. Beginning with mere
+farces of the Italian type, and passing from these to comedies still of
+an Italian character, it was in _Les Précieuses ridicules_, acted in
+1659, that Molière (1622-1673), in the words of a spectator, hit at last
+on "la bonne comédie." The next fifteen years comprise the whole of his
+best known work, the finest expression beyond doubt of a certain class
+of comedy that any literature has produced. The tragic masterpieces of
+Racine (1639-1699) were not far from coinciding with the comic
+masterpieces of Molière, for, with the exception of the remarkable
+aftergrowth of _Esther_ and _Athalie_, they were produced chiefly
+between 1667 and 1677. Both Racine and Molière fall into the class of
+writers who require separate mention. Here we can only remark that both
+to a certain extent committed and encouraged a fault which distinguished
+much subsequent French dramatic literature. This was the too great
+individualizing of one point in a character, and the making the man or
+woman nothing but a blunderer, a lover, a coxcomb, a tyrant and the
+like. The very titles of French plays show this influence--they are _Le
+Grondeur_, _Le Joueur_, &c. The complexity of human character is
+ignored. This fault distinguishes both Molière and Racine from writers
+of the very highest order; and in especial it distinguishes the comedy
+of Molière and the tragedy of Racine from the comedy and tragedy of
+Shakespeare. In all probability this and other defects of the French
+drama (which are not wholly apparent in the work of Molière and
+Corneille, are shown in their most favourable light in those of Racine,
+and appear in all their deformity in the successors of the latter) arise
+from the rigid adoption of the Aristotelian theory of the drama with its
+unities and other restrictions, especially as transmitted by Horace
+through Boileau. This adoption was very much due to the influence of the
+French Academy, which was founded unofficially by Conrart in 1629, which
+received official standing six years later, and which continued the
+tradition of Malherbe in attempting constantly to school and correct, as
+the phrase went, the somewhat disorderly instincts of the early French
+stage. Even the Cid was formally censured for irregularity by it. But it
+is fair to say that François Hédélin, abbé d'Aubignac (1604-1676), whose
+_Pratique du théâtre_ is the most wooden of the critical treatises of
+the time, was not an academician. It is difficult to say whether the
+subordination of all other classes of composition to the drama, which
+has ever since been characteristic of French literature, was or was not
+due to the predilection of Richelieu, the main protector if not exactly
+the founder of the Academy, for the theatre. Among the immediate
+successors and later contemporaries of the three great dramatists we do
+not find any who deserve high rank as tragedians, though there are some
+whose comedies are more than respectable. It is at least significant
+that the restrictions imposed by the academic theory on the comic drama
+were far less severe than those which tragedy had to undergo. The latter
+was practically confined, in respect of sources of attraction, to the
+dexterous manipulation of the unities; the interest of a plot attenuated
+as much as possible, and intended to produce, instead of pity a mild
+sympathy, and instead of terror a mild alarm (for the purists decided
+against Corneille that "admiration was not a tragic passion"); and
+lastly the composition of long tirades of smooth but monotonous verses,
+arranged in couplets tipped with delicately careful rhymes. Only Thomas
+Corneille (1625-1709), the inheritor of an older tradition and of a
+great name, deserves to be excepted from the condemnation to be passed
+on the lesser tragedians of this period. He was unfortunate in
+possessing his brother's name, and in being, like him, too voluminous in
+his compositions; but _Camma_, _Ariane_, _Le Comte d'Essex_, are not
+tragedies to be despised. On the other hand, the names of Jean de
+Campistron (1656-1723) and Nicolas Pradon (1632-1698) mainly serve to
+point injurious comparisons; Joseph François Duché (1668-1704) and
+Antoine La Fosse (1653-1708) are of still less importance, and
+Quinault's tragedies are chiefly remarkable because he had the good
+sense to give up writing them and to take to opera. The general
+excellence of French comedy, on the other hand, was sufficiently
+vindicated. Besides the splendid sum of Molière's work, the two great
+tragedians had each, in _Le Menteur_ and _Les Plaideurs_, set a capital
+example to their successors, which was fairly followed. David Augustin
+de Brueys (1640-1723) and Jean Palaprat (1650-1721) brought out once
+more the ever new _Advocat Patelin_ besides the capital _Grondeur_
+already referred to. Quinault and Campistron wrote fair comedies.
+Florent Carton Dancourt (1661-1726), Charles Rivière Dufresny (c.
+1654-1724), Edmond Boursault (1638-1701), were all comic writers of
+considerable merit. But the chief comic dramatist of the latter period
+of the 17th century was Jean François Regnard (1655-1709), whose
+_Joueur_ and _Légataire_ are comedies almost of the first rank.
+
+
+  Heroic Romance.
+
+_17th-Century Fiction._--In the department of literature which comes
+between poetry and prose, that of romance-writing, the 17th century,
+excepting one remarkable development, was not very fertile. It devoted
+itself to so many new or changed forms of literature that it had no time
+to anticipate the modern novel. Yet at the beginning of the century one
+very curious form of romance-writing was diligently cultivated, and its
+popularity, for the time immense, prevented the introduction of any
+stronger style. It is remarkable that, as the first quarter of the 17th
+century was pre-eminently the epoch of Spanish influence in France, the
+distinctive satire of Cervantes should have been less imitated than the
+models which Cervantes satirized. However this may be, the romances of
+1600 to 1650 form a class of literature vast, isolated, and, perhaps, of
+all such classes of literature most utterly obsolete and extinct. Taste,
+affectation or antiquarian diligence have, at one time or another,
+restored to a just, and sometimes a more than just, measure of
+reputation most of the literary relics of the past. Romances of
+chivalry, fabliaux, early drama, Provençal poetry, prose chronicles,
+have all had, and deservedly, their rehabilitators. But _Polexandre_ and
+_Cléopâtre_, _Clélie_ and the _Grand Cyrus_, have been too heavy for all
+the industry and energy of literary antiquarians. As we have already
+hinted, the nearest ancestry which can be found for them is the romances
+of the _Amadis_ type. But the _Amadis_, and in a less degree its
+followers, although long, are long in virtue of incident. The romances
+of the _Clélie_ type are long in virtue of interminable discourse,
+moralizing and description. Their manner is not unlike that of the
+_Arcadia_ and the _Euphues_ which preceded them in England; and they
+express in point of style the tendency which simultaneously manifested
+itself all over Europe at this period, and whose chief exponents were
+Gongora in Spain, Marini in Italy, and Lyly in England. Everybody knows
+the _Carte de Tendre_ which originally appeared in _Clélie_, while most
+people have heard of the shepherds and shepherdesses who figure in the
+_Astrée_ of Honoré D'Urfé (1568-1625), on the borders of the Lignon; but
+here general knowledge ends, and there is perhaps no reason why it
+should go much further. It is sufficient to say that Madeleine de
+Scudéry (1607-1701) principally devotes herself in the books above
+mentioned to laborious gallantry and heroism, La Calprénède (1610-1663)
+in _Cassandre et Cléopâtre_ to something which might have been the
+historical novel if it had been constructed on a less preposterous
+scale, and Marin le Roy de Gomberville (1600-1647) in _Polexandre_ to
+moralizings and theological discussions on Jansenist principles, while
+Pierre Camus, bishop of Belley (1582-1652), in _Palombe_ and others,
+approached still nearer to the strictly religious story. In the latter
+part of the century, the example of La Fontaine, though he himself wrote
+in poetry, helped to recall the tale-tellers of France to an occupation
+more worthy of them, more suitable to the genius of the literature, and
+more likely to last. The reaction against the _Clélie_ school produced
+first Madame de Villedieu (Cathérine Desjardins) (1632-1692), a fluent
+and facile novelist, who enjoyed great but not enduring popularity. The
+form which the prose tale took at this period was that of the fairy
+story. Perrault (1628-1703) and Madame d'Aulnoy (d. 1705) composed
+specimens of this kind which have never ceased to be popular since.
+Hamilton (1646-1720), the author of the well-known _Mémoires du comte de
+Gramont_, wrote similar stories of extraordinary merit in style and
+ingenuity. There is yet a third class of prose writing which deserves to
+be mentioned. It also may probably be traced to Spanish influence, that
+is to say, to the picaresque romances which the 16th and 17th centuries
+produced in Spain in large numbers. The most remarkable example of this
+is the _Roman comique_ of the burlesque writer Scarron. The _Roman
+bourgeois_ of Antoine Furetière (1619-1688) also deserves mention as a
+collection of pictures of the life of the time, arranged in the most
+desultory manner, but drawn with great vividness, observation and skill.
+A remarkable writer who had great influence on Molière has also to be
+mentioned in this connexion rather than in any other. This is Cyrano de
+Bergerac (1619-1655), who, besides composing doubtful comedies and
+tragedies, writing political pamphlets, and exercising the task of
+literary criticism in objecting to Scarron's burlesques, produced in his
+_Histoires comiques des états et empires de la lune et du soleil_, half
+romantic and half satirical compositions, in which some have seen the
+original of _Gulliver's Travels_, in which others have discovered only a
+not very successful imitation of Rabelais, and which, without attempting
+to decide these questions, may fairly be ranked in the same class of
+fiction with the masterpieces of Swift and Rabelais, though of course at
+an immense distance below them. One other work, and in literary
+influence perhaps the most remarkable of its kind in the century,
+remains. Madame de Lafayette, Marie de la Vergne (1634-1692), the friend
+of La Rochefoucauld and of Madame de Sévigné, though she did not exactly
+anticipate the modern novel, showed the way to it in her stories, the
+principal of which are _Zaïde_ and still more La _Princesse de Clèves_.
+The latter, though a long way from _Manon Lescaut_, _Clarissa_, or
+_Tom Jones_, is a longer way still from _Polexandre_ or the _Arcadia_.
+The novel becomes in it no longer a more or less fictitious chronicle,
+but an attempt at least at the display of character. _La Princesse de
+Clèves_ has never been one of the works widely popular out of their own
+country, nor perhaps does it deserve such popularity, for it has more
+grace than strength; but as an original effort in an important direction
+its historical value is considerable. But with this exception, the art
+of fictitious prose composition, except on a small scale, is certainly
+not one in which the century excelled, nor are any of the masterpieces
+which it produced to be ranked in this class.
+
+
+  J. G. de Balzac and modern French prose.
+
+_17th-Century Prose._--If, however, this was the case, it cannot be said
+that French prose as a whole was unproductive at this time. On the
+contrary, it was now, and only now, that it attained the strength and
+perfection for which it has been so long renowned, and which has
+perhaps, by a curious process of compensation, somewhat deteriorated
+since the restoration of poetry proper in France. The prose Malherbe of
+French literature was Jean Guez de Balzac (1594-1654). The writers of
+the 17th century had practically created the literary language of prose,
+but they had not created a prose style. The charm of Rabelais, of Amyot,
+of Montaigne, and of the numerous writers of tales and memoirs whom we
+have noticed, was a charm of exuberance, of naïveté, of picturesque
+effect--in short, of a mixture of poetry and prose, rather than of prose
+proper. Sixteenth-century French prose is a delightful instrument in the
+hands of men and women of genius, but in the hands of those who have not
+genius it is full of defects, and indeed is nearly unreadable. Now,
+prose is essentially an instrument of all work. The poet who has not
+genius had better not write at all; the prose writer often may and
+sometimes must dispense with this qualification. He has need, therefore,
+of a suitable machine to help him to perform his task, and this machine
+it is the glory of Balzac to have done more than any other person to
+create. He produced himself no great work, his principal writings being
+letters, a few discourses and dissertations, and a work entitled _Le
+Socrate chrétien_, a sort of treatise on political theology. But if the
+matter of his work is not of the first importance, its manner is of a
+very different value. Instead of the endless diffuseness of the
+preceding century, its ill-formed or rather unformed sentences, and its
+haphazard periods, we find clauses, sentences and paragraphs distinctly
+planned, shaped and balanced, a cadence introduced which is rhythmical
+but not metrical, and, in short, prose which is written knowingly
+instead of the prose which is unwittingly talked. It has been well said
+of him that he "_écrit pour écrire_"; and such a man, it is evident, if
+he does nothing else, sets a valuable example to those who write because
+they have something to say. Voiture seconded Balzac without much
+intending to do so. His prose style, also chiefly contained in letters,
+is lighter than that of his contemporary, and helped to gain for French
+prose the tradition of vivacity and sparkle which it has always
+possessed, as well as that of correctness and grace.
+
+_17th-century History._--In historical composition, especially in the
+department of memoirs, this period was exceedingly rich. At last there
+was written, in French, an entire history of France. The author was
+François Eudes de Mézeray (1610-1683), whose work, though not exhibiting
+the perfection of style at which some of his contemporaries had already
+arrived, and though still more or less uncritical, yet deserves the title
+of history. The example was followed by a large number of writers, some
+of extended works, some of histories in part. Mézeray himself is said to
+have had a considerable share in the _Histoire du roi Henri le grand_ by
+the archbishop Péréfixe (1605-1670); Louis Maimbourg (1610-1686) wrote
+histories of the Crusades and of the League; Paul Pellisson (1624-1693)
+gave a history of Louis XIV. and a more valuable _Mémoire_ in defence of
+the superintendent Fouquet. Still later in the century, or at the
+beginning of the next, the Père d'Orléans (1644-1698) wrote a history of
+the revolutions of England, the Père Daniel (1649-1728), like d'Orléans a
+Jesuit, composed a lengthy history of France and a shorter one on the
+French military forces. Finally, at the end of the period, comes the
+great ecclesiastical history of Claude Fleury (1640-1723), a work which
+perhaps belongs more to the section of erudition than to that of history
+proper. Three small treatises, however, composed by different authors
+towards the middle part of the century, supply remarkable instances of
+prose style in its application to history. These are the _Conjurations du
+comte de Fiesque_, written by the famous Cardinal de Retz (1613-1679),
+the _Conspiration de Walstein_ of Sarrasin, and the _Conjuration des
+Espagnols contre Venise_, composed in 1672 by the abbé de Saint-Réal
+(1639-1692), the author of various historical and critical works
+deserving less notice. These three works, whose similarity of subject and
+successive composition at short intervals leave little doubt that a
+certain amount of intentional rivalry animated the two later authors, are
+among the earliest and best examples of the monographs for which French,
+in point of grace of style and lucidity of exposition, has long been the
+most successful vehicle of expression among European languages. Among
+other writers of history, as distinguished from memoirs, need only be
+noticed Agrippa d'Aubigné, whose _Histoire universelle_ closed his long
+and varied list of works, and Varillas (1624-1696), a historian chiefly
+remarkable for his extreme untrustworthiness. In point of memoirs and
+correspondence the period is hardly less fruitful than that which
+preceded it. The _Régistres-Journaux_ of Pierre de l'Étoile (1540-1611)
+consist of a diary something of the Pepys character, kept for nearly
+forty years by a person in high official employment. The memoirs of Sully
+(1560-1641), published under a curious title too long to quote, date also
+from this time.
+
+Henri IV. himself has left a considerable correspondence, which is not
+destitute of literary merit, though not equal to the memoirs of his
+wife. What are commonly called Richelieu's _Memoirs_ were probably
+written to his order; his _Testament politique_ may be his own. Henri de
+Rohan (1579-1638) has not memoirs of the first value. Both this and
+earlier times found chronicle in the singular _Historiettes_ of Gédéon
+Tallemant des Réaux (1619-1690), a collection of anecdotes, frequently
+scandalous, reaching from the times of Henri IV. to those of Louis XIV.,
+to which may be joined the letters of Guy Patin (1602-1676). The early
+years of the latter monarch and the period of the Fronde had the
+cardinal de Retz himself, than whom no one was certainly better
+qualified for historian, not to mention a crowd of others, of whom we
+may mention Madame de Motteville (1621-1689), Jean Hérault de Gourville
+(1625-1703), Mademoiselle de Montpensier ("La Grande Mademoiselle")
+(1627-1693), Conrart, Turenne and Mathieu Molé (1584-1663), François du
+Val, marquis de Fontenay-Mareuil (1594-1655), Arnauld d'Andilly
+(1588-1670). From this time memoirs and memoir writers were ever
+multiplying. The queen of them all is Madame de Sevigné (1626-1696), on
+whom, as on most of the great and better-known writers whom we have had
+and shall have to mention, it is impossible here to dwell at length. The
+last half of the century produced crowds of similar but inferior
+writers. The memoirs of Roger de Bussy-Rabutin (1618-1693) (author of a
+kind of scandalous chronicle called _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_) and
+of Madame de Maintenon (1635-1719) perhaps deserve notice above the
+others. But this was in truth the style of composition in which the age
+most excelled. Memoir-writing became the occupation not so much of
+persons who made history, as was the case from Comines to Retz, as of
+those who, having culture, leisure and opportunity of observation,
+devoted themselves to the task of recording the deeds of others, and
+still more of regarding the incidents of the busy, splendid and
+cultivated if somewhat frivolous world of the court, in which, from the
+time of Louis XIV.'s majority, the political life of the nation and
+almost its whole history were centred. Many, if not most, of these
+writers were women, who thus founded the celebrity of the French lady
+for managing her mother-tongue, and justified by results the taste and
+tendencies of the blue-stockings and précieuses of the Hôtel Rambouillet
+and similar coteries. The life which these writers saw before them
+furnished them with a subject to be handled with the minuteness and care
+to which they had been accustomed in the ponderous romances of the
+_Clélie_ type, but also with the wit and terseness hereditary in France,
+and only temporarily absent in those ponderous compositions. The efforts
+of Balzac and the Academy supplied a suitable language and style, and
+the increasing tendency towards epigrammatic moralizing, which reached
+its acme in La Rochefoucauld (1663-1680) and La Bruyère (1639-1696),
+added in most cases point and attractiveness to their writings.
+
+
+  Descartes.
+
+  Malebranche.
+
+  Bayle.
+
+_17th-Century Philosophers and Theologians._--To these moralists we
+might, perhaps, not inappropriately pass at once. But it seems better to
+consider first the philosophical and theological developments of the
+age, which must share with its historical experiences and studies the
+credit of producing these writers. Philosophy proper, as we have already
+had occasion to remark, had hitherto made no use of the vulgar tongue.
+The 16th century had contributed a few vernacular treatises on logic, a
+considerable body of political and ethical writing, and a good deal of
+sceptical speculation of a more or less vague character, continued into
+our present epoch by such writers as François de la Mothe le Vayer
+(1588-1672), the last representative of the orthodox doubt of Montaigne
+and Charron. But in metaphysics proper it had not dabbled. The 17th
+century, on the contrary, was to produce in René Descartes (1596-1650),
+at once a master of prose style, the greatest of French philosophers,
+and one of the greatest metaphysicians, not merely of France and of the
+17th century, but of all countries and times. Even before Descartes
+there had been considerable and important developments of metaphysical
+speculation in France. The first eminent philosopher of French birth was
+Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). Gassendi devoted himself to the maintenance
+of a modernized form of the Epicurean doctrines, but he wrote mainly, if
+not entirely, in Latin. Another sceptical philosopher of a less
+scientific character was the physicist Gabriel Naudé (1600-1653), who,
+like many others of the philosophers of the time, was accused of
+atheism. But as none of these could approach Descartes in philosophical
+power and originality, so also none has even a fraction of his
+importance in the history of French literature. Descartes stands with
+Plato, and possibly Berkeley and Malebranche, at the head of all
+philosophers in respect of style; and in his case the excellence is far
+more remarkable than in others, inasmuch as he had absolutely no models,
+and was forced in a great degree to create the language which he used.
+The _Discours de la méthode_ is not only one of the epoch-making books
+of philosophy, it is also one of the epoch-making books of French style.
+The tradition of his clear and perfect expression was taken up, not
+merely by his philosophical disciples, but also by Blaise Pascal
+(1623-1662) and the school of Port Royal, who will be noticed presently.
+The very genius of the Cartesian philosophy was intimately connected
+with this clearness, distinctness and severity of style; and there is
+something more than a fanciful contrast between these literary
+characteristics of Descartes, on the one hand, and the elaborate
+splendour of Bacon, the knotty and crabbed strength of Hobbes, and the
+commonplace and almost vulgar slovenliness of Locke. Of the followers of
+Descartes, putting aside the Port Royalists, by far the most
+distinguished, both in philosophy and in literature, is Nicolas
+Malebranche (1638-1715). His _Recherche de la vérité_, admirable as it
+is for its subtlety and its consecutiveness of thought, is equally
+admirable for its elegance of style. Malebranche cannot indeed, like his
+great master, claim absolute originality. But his excellence as a writer
+is as great as, if not greater than, that of Descartes, and the
+_Recherche_ remains to this day the one philosophical treatise of great
+length and abstruseness which, merely as a book, is delightful to
+read--not like the works of Plato and Berkeley, because of the
+adventitious graces of dialogue or description, but from the purity and
+grace of the language, and its admirable adjustment to the purposes of
+the argument. Yet, for all this, philosophy hardly flourished in France.
+It was too intimately connected with theological and ecclesiastical
+questions, and especially with Jansenism, to escape suspicion and
+persecution. Descartes himself was for much of his life an exile in
+Holland and Sweden; and though the unquestionable orthodoxy of
+Malebranche, the strongly religious cast of his works, and the
+remoteness of the abstruse region in which he sojourned from that of the
+controversies of the day, protected him, other followers of Descartes
+were not so fortunate. Holland, indeed, became a kind of city of refuge
+for students of philosophy, though even in Holland itself they were by
+no means entirely safe from persecution. By far the most remarkable of
+French philosophical sojourners in the Netherlands was Pierre Bayle
+(1647-1706), a name not perhaps of the first rank in respect of literary
+value, but certainly of the first as regards literary influence. Bayle,
+after oscillating between the two confessions, nominally remained a
+Protestant in religion. In philosophy he in the same manner oscillated
+between Descartes and Gassendi, finally resting in an equally nominal
+Cartesianism. Bayle was, in fact, both in philosophy and in religion,
+merely a sceptic, with a scepticism at once like and unlike that of
+Montaigne, and differenced both by temperament and by circumstance--the
+scepticism of the mere student, exercised more or less in all histories,
+sciences and philosophies, and intellectually unable or unwilling to
+take a side. His style is hardly to be called good, being diffuse and
+often inelegant. But his great dictionary, though one of the most
+heterogeneous and unmethodical of compositions, exercised an enormous
+influence. It may be called the Bible of the 18th century, and contains
+in the germ all the desultory philosophy, the ill-ordered scepticism,
+and the critical but negatively critical acuteness of the _Aufklärung_.
+
+
+  Jansenists.
+
+  Port Royal.
+
+  Pascal.
+
+We have said that the philosophical, theological and moral tendencies of
+the century, which produced, with the exception of its dramatic triumphs,
+all its greatest literary works, are almost inextricably intermingled.
+Its earliest years, however, bear in theological matters rather the
+complexion of the previous century. Du Perron and St Francis of Sales
+survived until nearly the end of its first quarter, and the most
+remarkable works of the latter bear the dates of 1608 and later. It was
+not, however, till some years had passed, till the counter-Reformation
+had reconverted the largest and most powerful portion of the Huguenot
+party, and till the influence of Jansenius and Descartes had time to
+work, that the extraordinary outburst of Gallican theology, both in
+pulpit and in press, took place. The Jansenist controversy may perhaps be
+awarded the merit of provoking this, as far as writing was concerned. The
+astonishing eloquence of contemporary pulpit oratory may be set down
+partly to the zeal for conversion of which du Perron and de Sales had
+given the example, partly to the same taste of the time which encouraged
+dramatic performances, for the sermon and the tirade have much in common.
+Jansenius himself, though a Dutchman by birth, passed much time in
+France, and it was in France that he found most disciples. These
+disciples consisted in the first place of the members of the society of
+Port Royal des Champs, a coterie after the fashion of the time, but one
+which devoted itself not to sonnets or madrigals but to devotional
+exercises, study and the teaching of youth. This coterie early adopted
+the Cartesian philosophy, and the Port Royal _Logic_ was the most
+remarkable popular handbook of that school. In theology they adopted
+Jansenism, and were in consequence soon at daggers drawn with the
+Jesuits, according to the polemical habits of the time. The most
+distinguished champions on the Jansenist side were Jean Duvergier de
+Hauranne, abbé de St Cyran (1581-1643), and Antoine Arnauld (1560-1619),
+but by far the most important literary results of the quarrel were the
+famous _Provinciales_ of Pascal, or, to give them their proper title,
+_Lettres écrites à un provincial_. Their literary importance consists,
+not merely in their grace of style, but in the application to serious
+discussion of the peculiarly polished and quiet irony of which Pascal is
+the greatest master the world has ever seen. Up to this time controversy
+had usually been conducted either in the mere bludgeon fashion of the
+Scaligers and Saumaises--of which in the vernacular the Jesuit François
+Garasse (1585-1631) had already contributed remarkable examples to
+literary and moral controversy--or else in a dull and legal style, or
+lastly under an envelope of Rabelaisian buffoonery such as survives to a
+considerable extent in the _Satire Ménippée_. Pascal set the example of
+combining the use of the most terribly effective weapons with good
+humour, good breeding and a polished style. The example was largely
+followed, and the manner of Voltaire and his followers in the 18th
+century owes at least as much to Pascal as their method and matter do to
+Bayle. The Jansenists, attacked and persecuted by the civil power, which
+the Jesuits had contrived to interest, were finally suppressed. But the
+_Provinciales_ had given them an unapproachable superiority in matter of
+argument and literature. Their other literary works were inferior, though
+still remarkable. Antoine Arnauld (the younger, often called "the great")
+(1612-1694) and Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) managed their native language
+with vigour if not exactly with grace. They maintained their orthodoxy by
+writings, not merely against the Jesuits, but also against the
+Protestants such as the _Perpétuité de la foi_ due to both, and the
+_Apologie des Catholiques_ written by Arnauld alone. The latter, besides
+being responsible for a good deal of the _Logic_ (_L'Art de penser_) to
+which we have alluded, wrote also much of a _Grammaire générale_ composed
+by the Port Royalists for the use of their pupils; but his principal
+devotion was to theology and theological polemics. To the latter Nicole
+also contributed _Les Visionnaires_, _Les Imaginaires_ and other works.
+The studious recluses of Port Royal also produced a large quantity of
+miscellaneous literary work, to which full justice has been done in
+Sainte-Beuve's well-known volumes.
+
+
+  Bossuet.
+
+  Fénelon.
+
+_17th-Century Preachers._--When we think of Gallican theology during the
+17th century, it is always with the famous pulpit orators of the period
+that thought is most busied. Nor is this unjust, for though the most
+prominent of them all, Jacques Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704) was
+remarkable as a writer of matter intended to be read, not merely as a
+speaker of matter intended to be heard, this double character is not
+possessed by most of the orthodox theologians of the time; and even
+Bossuet, great as is his genius, is more of a rhetorician than of a
+philosopher or a theologian. In no quarter was the advance of culture
+more remarkable in France than in the pulpit. We have already had
+occasion to notice the characteristics of French pulpit eloquence in the
+15th and 16th centuries. Though this was very far from destitute of
+vigour and imagination, the political frenzy of the preachers, and the
+habit of introducing anecdotic buffoonery, spoilt the eloquence of
+Maillard and of Raulin, of Boucher and of Rose. The powerful use which
+the Reformed ministers made of the pulpit stirred up their rivals; the
+advance in science and classical study added weight and dignity to the
+matter of their discourses. The improvement of prose style and language
+provided them with a suitable instrument, and the growth of taste and
+refinement purged their sermons of grossness and buffoonery, of personal
+allusions, and even, as the monarchy became more absolute, of direct
+political purpose. The earliest examples of this improved style were
+given by St Francis de Sales and by Fenouillet, bishop of Marseilles (d.
+1652); but it was not till the latter half of the century, when the
+troubles of the Fronde had completely subsided, and the church was
+established in the favour of Louis XIV., that the full efflorescence of
+theological eloquence took place. There were at the time pulpit orators
+of considerable excellence in England, and perhaps Jeremy Taylor,
+assisted by the genius of the language, has wrought a vein more precious
+than any which the somewhat academic methods and limitations of the
+French teachers allowed them to reach. But no country has ever been able
+to show a more magnificent concourse of orators, sacred or profane, than
+that formed by Bossuet, Fénelon (1651-1715), Esprit Fléchier
+(1632-1710), Jules Mascaron (1634-1703), Louis Bourdaloue (1632-1704),
+and Jean Baptiste Massillon (1663-1742), to whom may be justly added the
+Protestant divines, Jean Claude (1619-1687) and Jacques Saurin
+(1677-1730). The characteristics of all these were different. Bossuet,
+the earliest and certainly the greatest, was also the most universal. He
+was not merely a preacher; he was, as we have said, a controversialist,
+indeed somewhat too much of a controversialist, as his battle with
+Fénelon proved. He was a philosophical or at least a theological
+historian, and his _Discours sur l'histoire universelle_ is equally
+remarkable from the point of view of theology, philosophy, history and
+literature. Turning to theological politics, he wrote his _Politique
+tirée de l'écriture sainte_, to theology proper his _Méditations sur les
+évangiles_ and his _Élevations sur les mystères_. But his principal
+work, after all, is his _Oraisons funèbres_. The funeral sermon was the
+special oratorical exercise of the time. Its subject and character
+invited the gorgeous if somewhat theatrical commonplaces, the display of
+historical knowledge and parallel, and the moralizing analogies, in
+which the age specially rejoiced. It must also be noticed, to the credit
+of the preachers, that such occasions gave them an opportunity, rarely
+neglected, of correcting the adulation which was but too frequently
+characteristic of the period. The spirit of these compositions is fairly
+reflected in the most famous and often quoted of their phrases, the
+opening "Mes frères, Dieu seul est grand" of Massillon's funeral
+discourse on Louis XIV.; and though panegyric is necessarily by no means
+absent, it is rarely carried beyond bounds. While Bossuet made himself
+chiefly remarkable in his sermons and in his writings by an almost
+Hebraic grandeur and rudeness, the more special characteristics of
+Christianity, largely alloyed with a Greek and Platonic spirit,
+displayed themselves in Fénelon. In pure literature he is not less
+remarkable than in theology, politics and morals. His practice in
+matters of style was admirable, as the universally known _Télémaque_
+sufficiently shows to those who know nothing else of his writing. But
+his taste, both in its correctness and its audacity, is perhaps more
+admirable still. Despite of Malherbe, Balzac, Boileau and the traditions
+of nearly a century, he dared to speak favourably of Ronsard, and
+plainly expressed his opinion that the practice of his own
+contemporaries and predecessors had cramped and impoverished the French
+language quite as much as they had polished or purified it. The other
+doctors whom we have mentioned were more purely theological than the
+accomplished archbishop of Cambray. Fléchier is somewhat more archaic in
+style than Bossuet or Fénelon, and he is also more definitely a
+rhetorician than either. Mascaron has the older fault of prodigal and
+somewhat indiscriminate erudition. But the two latest of the series,
+Bourdaloue and Massillon, had far the greatest repute in their own time
+purely as orators, and perhaps deserved this preference. The difference
+between the two repeated that between du Perron and de Sales.
+Bourdaloue's great forte was vigorous argument and unsparing
+denunciation, but he is said to have been lacking in the power of
+influencing and affecting his hearers. His attraction was purely
+intellectual, and it is reflected in his style, which is clear and
+forcible, but destitute of warmth and colour. Massillon, on the other
+hand, was remarkable for his pathos, and for his power of enlisting and
+influencing the sympathies of his hearers. Of minor preachers on the
+same side, Charles de la Rue, a Jesuit (1643-1725), and the Père
+Cheminais (1652-1680), according to a somewhat idle form of
+nomenclature, "the Racine of the pulpit," may be mentioned. The two
+Protestant ministers whom we have mentioned, though inferior to their
+rivals, yet deserve honourable mention among the ecclesiastical writers
+of the period. Claude engaged in a controversy with Bossuet, in which
+victory is claimed for the invincible eagle of Meaux. Saurin, by far the
+greater preacher of the two, long continued to occupy, and indeed still
+occupies, in the libraries of French Protestants, the position given to
+Bossuet and Massillon on the other side.
+
+_17th-Century Moralists._--It is not surprising that the works of
+Montaigne and Charron, with the immense popularity of the former, should
+have inclined the more thoughtful minds in France to moral reflection,
+especially as many other influences, both direct and indirect,
+contributed to produce the same result. The constant tendency of the
+refinements in French prose was towards clearness, succinctness and
+precision, the qualities most necessary in the moralist. The
+characteristics of the prevailing philosophy, that of Descartes, pointed
+in the same direction. It so happened, too, that the times were more
+favourable to the thinker and writer on ethical subjects than to the
+speculator in philosophy proper, in theology or in politics. Both the
+former subjects exposed their cultivators, as we have seen, to the
+suspicion of unorthodoxy; and to political speculation of any kind the
+rule of Richelieu, and still more that of Louis XIV., were in the
+highest degree unfavourable. No successors to Bodin and du Vair
+appeared; and even in the domain of legal writings, which comes nearest
+to that of politics, but few names of eminence are to be found.
+
+
+  Pascal and pensée-writing.
+
+  Saint-Évremond.
+
+  La Rochefoucauld.
+
+  La Bruyère.
+
+Only the name of Omer-Talon (1595-1652) really illustrates the legal
+annals of France at this period on the bench, and that of Olivier Patru
+(1604-1681) at the bar. Thus it happened that the interests of many
+different classes of persons were concentrated upon moralizings, which
+took indeed very different forms in the hands of Pascal and other grave
+and serious thinkers of the Jansenist complexion in theology, and in
+those of literary courtiers like Saint-Évremond (1613-1703) and La
+Rochefoucauld, whose chief object was to depict the motives and
+characters prominent in the brilliant and not altogether frivolous
+society in which they moved. Both classes, however, were more or less
+tempted by the cast of their thoughts and the genius of the language to
+adopt the tersest and most epigrammatic form of expression possible, and
+thus to originate the "_pensée_" in which, as its greatest later writer,
+Joubert, has said, "the ambition of the author is to put a book into a
+page, a page into a phrase, and a phrase into a word." The great genius
+and admirable style of Pascal are certainly not less shown in his
+_Pensées_ than in his _Provinciales_, though perhaps the literary form
+of the former is less strikingly supreme than that of the latter. The
+author is more dominated by his subject and dominates it less. Nicole, a
+far inferior writer as well as thinker, has also left a considerable
+number of _Pensées_, which have about them something more of the essay
+and less of the aphorism. They are, however, though not comparable to
+Pascal, excellent in matter and style, and go far to justify Bayle in
+calling their author "l'une des plus belles plumes de l'Europe." In
+sharp contrast with these thinkers, who are invariably not merely
+respecters of religion but ardently and avowedly religious, who treat
+morality from the point of view of the Bible and the church, there arose
+side by side with them, or only a little later, a very different group
+of moralists, whose writings have been as widely read, and who have had
+as great a practical and literary influence as perhaps any other class
+of authors. The earliest to be born and the last to die of these was
+Charles de Saint-Denis, seigneur de saint-Évremond (1613-1703).
+Saint-Évremond was long known rather as a conversational wit, some of
+whose good things were handed about in manuscript, or surreptitiously
+printed in foreign lands, than as a writer, and this is still to a
+certain extent his reputation. He was at least as cynical as his still
+better known contemporary La Rochefoucauld, if not more so, and he had
+less intellectual force and less nobility of character. But his wit was
+very great, and he set the example of the brilliant societies of the
+next century. Many of Saint-Évremond's printed works are nominally works
+of literary criticism, but the moralizing spirit pervades all of them.
+No writer had a greater influence on Voltaire, and through Voltaire on
+the whole course of French literature after him. In direct literary
+value, however, no comparison can be made between Saint-Évremond and the
+author of the _Sentences et maximes morales_. François, duc de la
+Rochefoucauld (1613-1680), has other literary claims besides those of
+this famous book. His _Mémoires_ were very favourably judged by his
+contemporaries, and they are still held to deserve no little praise even
+among the numerous and excellent works of the kind which that age of
+memoir-writers produced. But while the _Mémoires_ thus invite
+comparison, the _Maximes et sentences_ stand alone. Even allowing that
+the mere publication of detached reflections in terse language was not
+absolutely new, it had never been carried, perhaps has never since been
+carried, to such a perfection. Beside La Rochefoucauld all other writers
+are diffuse, vacillating, unfinished, rough. Not only is there in him
+never a word too much, but there is never a word too little. The thought
+is always fully expressed, not compressed. Frequently as the metaphor of
+minting or stamping coin has been applied to the art of managing words,
+it has never been applied so appropriately as to the maxims of La
+Rochefoucauld. The form of them is almost beyond praise, and its
+excellencies, combined with their immense and enduring popularity, have
+had a very considerable share in influencing the character of subsequent
+French literature. Of hardly less importance in this respect, though of
+considerably less intellectual and literary individuality, was the
+translator of Theophrastus and the author of the _Caractères_, La
+Bruyère. Jean de la Bruyère (1645-1696), though frequently epigrammatic,
+did not aim at the same incredible terseness as the author of the
+_Maximes_. His plan did not, indeed, render it necessary. Both in
+England and in France there had been during the whole of the century a
+mania for character writing, both of the general and Theophrastic kind,
+and of the historical and personal order. The latter, of which our own
+Clarendon is perhaps the greatest master, abound in the French memoirs
+of the period. The former, of which the naïve sketches of Earle and
+Overbury are English examples, culminated in those of La Bruyère, which
+are not only light and easy in manner and matter, but also in style
+essentially amusing, though instructive as well. Both he and La
+Rochefoucauld had an enduring effect on the literature which followed
+them--an effect perhaps superior to that exercised by any other single
+work in French, except the _Roman de la rose_ and the _Essais_ of
+Montaigne.
+
+
+  Controversy between Ancients and Moderns.
+
+_17th-century Savants._--Of the literature of the 17th century there
+only remains to be dealt with the section of those writers who devoted
+themselves to scientific pursuits or to antiquarian erudition of one
+form or another. It was in this century that literary criticism of
+French and in French first began to be largely composed, and after this
+time we shall give it a separate heading. It was very far, however, from
+attaining the excellence or observing the form which it afterwards
+assumed. The institution of the Academy led to various linguistic works.
+One of the earliest of these was the _Remarques_ of the Savoyard Claude
+Favre de Vaugelas (1595-1650), afterwards re-edited by Thomas Corneille.
+Pellisson wrote a history of the Academy itself when it had as yet but a
+brief one. The famous _Examen du Cid_ was an instance of the literary
+criticism of the time which was afterwards represented by René Rapin
+(1621-1687), Dominique Bouhours (1628-1702) and René de Bossu
+(1631-1680), while Adrien Baillet (1649-1706) has collected the largest
+thesaurus of the subject in his _Jugemens des savants_. Boileau set the
+example of treating such subjects in verse, and in the latter part of
+the century _Reflexions_, _Discourses_, _Observations_, and the like, on
+particular styles, literary forms and authors, became exceedingly
+numerous. In earlier years France possessed a numerous band of classical
+scholars of the first rank, such as Scaliger and Casaubon, who did not
+lack followers. But all or almost all this sort of work was done in
+Latin, so that it contributed little to French literature properly
+so-called, though the translations from the classics of Nicolas Perrot
+d'Ablancourt (1606-1664) have always taken rank among the models of
+French style. On the other hand, mathematical studies were pursued by
+persons of far other and far greater genius, and, taking from this time
+forward a considerable position in education and literature in France,
+had much influence on both. The mathematical discoveries of Pascal and
+Descartes are well known. Of science proper, apart from mathematics,
+France did not produce many distinguished cultivators in this century.
+The philosophy of Descartes was not on the whole favourable to such
+investigations, which were in the next century to be pursued with
+ardour. Its tendencies found more congenial vent and are more thoroughly
+exemplified in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns.
+This, of Italian origin, was mainly started in France by Charles
+Perrault (1628-1703), who thereby rendered much less service to
+literature than by his charming fairy tales. The opposite side was taken
+by Boileau, and the fight was afterwards revived by Antoine Houdar[d, t]
+de la Motte (1672-1731), a writer of little learning but much talent in
+various ways, and by the celebrated Madame Dacier, Anne Lefèvre
+(1654-1720). The discussion was conducted, as is well known, without
+very much knowledge or judgment among the disputants on the one side or
+on the other. But at this very time there were in France students and
+scholars of the most profound erudition. We have already mentioned
+Fleury and his ecclesiastical history. But Fleury is only the last and
+the most popular of a race of omnivorous and untiring scholars, whose
+labours have ever since, until the modern fashion of first-hand
+investigations came in, furnished the bulk of historical and scholarly
+references and quotations. To this century belong le Nain de Tillemont
+(1637-1698), whose enormous _Histoire des empereurs_ and _Mémoires pour
+servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique_ served Gibbon and a hundred others
+as quarry; Charles Dufresne, seigneur de Ducange (1614-1688), whose
+well-known glossary was only one of numerous productions; Jean Mabillon
+(1632-1707), one of the most voluminous of the voluminous Benedictines;
+and Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741), chief of all authorities of the
+dry-as-dust kind on classical archaeology and art.
+
+_Opening of the 18th Century._--The beginning of the 18th century is
+among the dead seasons of French literature. All the greatest men whose
+names had illustrated the early reign of Louis XIV. in profane
+literature passed away long before him, and the last if the least of
+them, Boileau and Thomas Corneille, only survived into the very earliest
+years of the new age. The political and military disasters of the last
+years of the reign were accompanied by a state of things in society
+unfavourable to literary development. The devotion to pure literature
+and philosophy proper which Descartes and Corneille had inspired had
+died out, and the devotion to physical science, to sociology, and to a
+kind of free-thinking optimism which was to inspire Voltaire and the
+Encyclopedists had not yet become fashionable. Fénelon and Malebranche
+still survived, but they were emphatically men of the last age, as was
+Massillon, though he lived till nearly the middle of the century. The
+characteristic literary figures of the opening years of the period are
+d'Aguesseau, Fontenelle, Saint-Simon, personages in many ways
+interesting and remarkable, but purely transitional in their
+characteristics. Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657-1757) is, indeed,
+perhaps the most typical figure of the time. He was a dramatist, a
+moralist, a philosopher, physical and metaphysical, a critic, an
+historian, a poet and a satirist. The manner of his works is always easy
+and graceful, and their matter rarely contemptible.
+
+
+  J. B. Rousseau.
+
+  Voltaire (poetry).
+
+_18th-Century Poetry._--The dispiriting signs shown during the 17th
+century by French poetry proper received entire fulfilment in the
+following age. The two poets who were most prominent at the opening of
+the period were the abbé de Chaulieu (1639-1720) and the marquis de la
+Fare (1644-1712), poetical or rather versifying twins who are always
+quoted together. They were both men who lived to a great age, yet their
+characteristics are rather those of their later than of their earlier
+contemporaries. They derive on the one hand from the somewhat trifling
+school of Voiture, on the other from the Bacchic sect of Saint-Amant;
+and they succeed in uniting the inferior qualities of both with the
+cramped and impoverished though elegant style of which Fénelon had
+complained. Their compositions are as a rule lyrical, as lyrical poetry
+was understood after the days of Malherbe--that is to say, quatrains of
+the kind ridiculed by Molière, and Pindaric odes, which have been justly
+described as made up of alexandrines after the manner of Boileau cut up
+into shorter or longer lengths. They were followed, however, by the one
+poet who succeeded in producing something resembling poetry in this
+artificial style, J. B. Rousseau (1671-1741). Rousseau, who in some
+respects was nothing so little as a religious poet, was nevertheless
+strongly influenced, as Marot had been, by the Psalms of David. His
+_Odes_ and his _Cantates_ are perhaps less destitute of that spirit than
+the work of any other poet of the century excepting André Chénier.
+Rousseau was also an extremely successful epigrammatist, having in this
+respect, too, resemblances to Marot. Le Franc de Pompignan (1700-1784),
+to whom Voltaire's well-known sarcasms are not altogether just, and
+Louis Racine (1692-1763), who wrote pious and altogether forgotten
+poems, belonged to the same poetical school; though both the style and
+matter of Racine are strongly tinctured by his Port Royalist sympathies
+and education. Lighter verse was represented in the 18th century by the
+long-lived Saint-Aulaire (1643-1742), by Gentil Bernard (1710-1775), by
+the abbé (afterwards cardinal) de Bernis (1715-1794), by Claude Joseph
+Dorat (1734-1780), by Antoine Bertin (1752-1790) and by Evariste de
+Parny (1753-1814), the last the most vigorous, but all somewhat
+deserving the term applied to Dorat of _ver luisant du Parnasse_. The
+jovial traditions of Saint-Amant begat a similar school of anacreontic
+songsters, which, represented in turn by Charles François Panard
+(1674-1765), Charles Collé (1709-1783), Armand Gouffé (1775-1845), and
+Marc-Antoine-Madeleine Desaugiers (1772-1827), led directly to the best
+of all such writers, Béranger. To this class Rouget de Lisle (1760-1836)
+perhaps also belongs; though his most famous composition, the
+_Marseillaise_, is of a different stamp. Nor is the account of the light
+verse of the 18th century complete without reference to a long
+succession of fable writers, who, in an unbroken chain, connect La
+Fontaine in the 17th century with Viennet in the 19th. None of the
+links, however, of this chain, with the exception of Jean Pierre Florian
+(1759-1794) deserve much attention. The universal faculty of Voltaire
+(1694-1778) showed itself in his poetical productions no less than in
+his other works, and it is perhaps not least remarkable in verse. It is
+impossible nowadays to regard the _Henriade_ as anything but a highly
+successful prize poem, but the burlesque epic of _La Pucelle_,
+discreditable as it may be from the moral point of view, is remarkable
+enough as literature.
+
+
+  Chénier.
+
+The epistles and satires are among the best of their kind, the verse
+tales are in the same way admirable, and the epigrams, impromptus, and
+short miscellaneous poems generally are the _ne plus ultra_ of verse
+which is not poetry. The Anglomania of the century extended into poetry,
+and the _Seasons_ of Thomson set the example of a whole library of
+tedious descriptive verse, which in its turn revenged France upon
+England by producing or helping to produce English poems of the Darwin
+school. The first of these descriptive performances was the _Saisons_ of
+Jean François de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803), identical in title with its
+model, but of infinitely inferior value. Saint-Lambert was followed by
+Jacques Delille (1738-1813) in _Les Jardins_, Antoine Marin le Mierre
+(1723-1793) in _Les Fastes_, and Jean Antoine Roucher (1745-1794) in
+_Les Mois_. Indeed, everything that could be described was seized upon
+by these describers. Delille also translated the _Georgics_, and for a
+time was the greatest living poet of France, the title being only
+disputed by Escouchard le Brun (1729-1807), a lyrist and ode writer of
+the school of J. B. Rousseau, but not destitute of energy. The only
+other poets until Chénier who deserve notice are Nicolas Gilbert
+(1751-1780)--the French Chatterton, or perhaps rather the French Oldham,
+who died in a workhouse at twenty-nine after producing some vigorous
+satires and, at the point of death, an elegy of great beauty; Jacques
+Charles Louis Clinchaut de Malfilâtre (1732-1767), another short-lived
+poet whose "Ode to the Sun" has a certain stateliness; and Jean Baptiste
+Gresset (1709-1777), the author of _Ver-Vert_ and of other poems of the
+lighter order, which are not far, if at all, below the level of
+Voltaire. André Chénier (1762-1794) stands far apart from the art of his
+century, though the strong chain of custom, and his early death by the
+guillotine, prevented him from breaking finally through the restraints
+of its language and its versification. Chénier, half a Greek by blood,
+was wholly one in spirit and sentiment. The manner of his verses, the
+very air which surrounds them and which they diffuse, are different from
+those of the 18th century; and his poetry is probably the utmost that
+its language and versification could produce. To do more, the revolution
+which followed a generation after his death was required.
+
+
+  Diderot (plays).
+
+_18th-Century Drama._--The results of the cultivation of dramatic poetry
+at this time were even less individually remarkable than those of the
+attention paid to poetry proper. Here again the astonishing power and
+literary aptitude of Voltaire gave value to his attempts in a style
+which, notwithstanding that it counts Racine among its practitioners,
+was none the less predestined to failure. Voltaire's own efforts in this
+kind are indisputably as successful as they could be. Foreigners usually
+prefer _Mahomet_ and _Zaïre_ to _Bajazet_ and _Mithridate_, though there
+is no doubt that no work of Voltaire's comes up to _Polyeucte_ and
+_Rodogune_, as certainly no single passage in any of his plays can
+approach the best passages of _Cinna_ and _Les Horaces_. But the
+remaining tragic writers of the century, with the single exception of
+Crébillon _père_, are scarcely third-rate. C. Jolyot de Crébillon
+(1674-1762) himself had genius, and there are to be found in his work
+evidences of a spirit which had seemed to die away with _Saint-Genest_,
+and was hardly to revive until _Hernani_. Of the imitators of Racine and
+Voltaire, La Motte in _Inés de Castro_ was not wholly unsuccessful.
+François Joseph de la Grange-Chancel (1677-1758) copied chiefly the
+worst side of the author of _Britannicus_, and Bernard Joseph Saurin
+(1706-1781) and Pierre-Laurent de Belloy (1727-1775) performed the same
+service for Voltaire. Le Mierre and La Harpe, mentioned and to be
+mentioned, were tragedians; but the _Iphigénie en Tauride_ of Guimond de
+la Touche (1725-1760) deserves more special mention than anything of
+theirs. There was an infinity of tragic writers and tragic plays in this
+century, but hardly any others of them even deserve mention. The muse of
+comedy was decidedly more happy in her devotees. Molière was a far safer
+if a more difficult model than Racine, and the inexorable fashion which
+had bound down tragedy to a feeble imitation of Euripides did not
+similarly prescribe an undeviating adherence to Terence. Tragedy had
+never been, has scarcely been since, anything but an exotic in France;
+comedy was of the soil and native. Very early In the century Alain René
+le Sage (1668-1747), in the admirable comedy of _Turcaret_, produced a
+work not unworthy to stand by the side of all but his master's best.
+Philippe Destouches (1680-1754) was also a fertile comedy writer in the
+early years of the century, and in _Le Glorieux_ and _Le Philosophe
+marié_ achieved considerable success. As the age went on, comedy, always
+apt to lay hold of passing events, devoted itself to the great struggle
+between the Philosophes and their opponents. Curiously enough, the party
+which engrossed almost all the wit of France had the worst of it in this
+dramatic portion of the contest, if in no other. The _Méchant_ of
+Gresset and the _Métromanie_ of Alexis Piron (1689-1773) were far
+superior to anything produced on the other side, and the _Philosophes_
+of Charles Palissot de Montenoy (1730-1814), though scurrilous and
+broadly farcical, had a great success. On the other hand, it was to a
+Philosophe that the invention of a new dramatic style was due, and still
+more the promulgation of certain ideas on dramatic criticism and
+construction, which, after being filtered through the German mind, were
+to return to France and to exercise the most powerful influence on its
+dramatic productions. This was Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the most
+fertile genius of the century, but also the least productive in finished
+and perfect work. His chief dramas, the _Fils naturel_ and the _Père de
+famille_, are certainly not great successes; the shorter plays, _Est-il
+bon? est-il méchant?_ and _La Pièce et le prologue_, are better. But it
+was his follower Michel Jean Sédaine (1719-1797) who, in _Le Philosophe
+sans le savoir_ and other pieces, produced the best examples of the
+bourgeois as opposed to the heroic drama. Diderot is sometimes credited
+or discredited with the invention of the _Comédie Larmoyante_, a title
+which indeed his own plays do not altogether refuse, but this special
+variety seems to be, in its invention, rather the property of Pierre
+Claude Nivelle de la Chaussée (1692-1754). Comedy sustained itself, and
+even gained ground towards the end of the century; the _Jeune Indienne_
+of Nicolas Chamfort (1741-1794), if not quite worthy of its author's
+brilliant talent in other paths, is noteworthy, and so is the _Billet
+perdu_ of Joseph François Edouard de Corsembleu Desmahis (1722-1761),
+while at the extreme limit of our present period there appears the
+remarkable figure of Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais (1732-1799). The
+_Mariage de Figaro_ and the _Barbier de Séville_ are well known as
+having had attributed to them no mean place among the literary causes
+and forerunners of the Revolution. Their dramatic and literary value
+would itself have sufficed to obtain attention for them at any time,
+though there can be no doubt that their popularity was mainly due to
+their political appositeness. The most remarkable point about them, as
+about the school of comedy of which Congreve was the chief master in
+England at the beginning of the century, was the abuse and superfluity
+of wit in the dialogue, indiscriminately allotted to all characters
+alike. It is difficult to give particulars, but would be improper to
+omit all mention, of such dramatic or quasi-dramatic work as the
+libretti of operas, farces for performance at fairs and the like. French
+authors of the time from Le Sage downwards usually managed these with
+remarkable skill.
+
+
+  J. J. Rousseau.
+
+_18th-Century Fiction._--With prose fiction the case was altogether
+different. We have seen how the short tale of a few pages had already in
+the 16th century attained high if not the highest excellence; how at
+three different periods the fancy for long-winded prose narration
+developed itself in the prose rehandlings of the chivalric poems, in the
+_Amadis_ romances, and in the portentous recitals of Gomberville and La
+Calprenède; how burlesques of these romances were produced from Rabelais
+to Scarron; and how at last Madame de Lafayette showed the way to
+something like the novel of the day. If we add the fairy story, of which
+Perrault and Madame d'Aulnoy were the chief practitioners, and a small
+class of miniature romances, of which _Aucassin et Nicolette_ in the
+13th, and the delightful _Jehan de Paris_ (of the 15th or 16th, in which
+a king of England is patriotically sacrificed) are good representatives,
+we shall have exhausted the list. The 18th century was quick to develop
+the system of the author of the _Princesse de Clèves_, but it did not
+abandon the cultivation of the romance, that is to say, fiction dealing
+with incident and with the simpler passions, in devoting itself to the
+novel, that is to say, fiction dealing with the analysis of sentiment
+and character. Le Sage, its first great novelist, in his _Diable
+boiteux_ and _Gil Blas_, went to Spain not merely for his subject but
+also for his inspiration and manner, following the lead of the picaroon
+romance of Rojas and Scarron. Like Fielding, however, whom he much
+resembles, Le Sage mingled with the romance of incident the most careful
+attention to character and the most lively portrayal of it, while his
+style and language are such as to make his work one of the classics of
+French literature. The novel of character was really founded in France
+by the abbé Prévost d'Exilles (1697-1763), the author of _Cleveland_ and
+of the incomparable _Manon Lescaut_. The popularity of this style was
+much helped by the immense vogue in France of the works of Richardson.
+Side by side with it, however, and for a time enjoying still greater
+popularity, there flourished a very different school of fiction, of
+which Voltaire, whose name occupies the first or all but the first place
+in every branch of literature of his time, was the most brilliant
+cultivator. This was a direct development of the earlier _conte_, and
+consisted usually of the treatment, in a humorous, satirical, and not
+always over-decent fashion, of contemporary foibles, beliefs,
+philosophies and occupations. These tales are of every rank of
+excellence and merit both literary and moral, and range from the
+astonishing wit, grace and humour of _Candide_ and _Zadig_ to the book
+which is Diderot's one hardly pardonable sin, and the similar but more
+lively efforts of Crébillon _fils_ (1707-1777). These latter deeps led
+in their turn to the still lower depths of La Clos and Louvet. A third
+class of 18th-century fiction consists of attempts to return to the
+humorous _fatrasie_ of the 16th century, attempts which were as much
+influenced by Sterne as the sentimental novel was by Richardson. The
+_Homme aux quarante écus_ of Voltaire has something of this character,
+but the most characteristic works of the style are the _Jacques le
+fataliste_ of Diderot, which shows it nearly at its best, and the
+_Compère Mathieu_, sometimes attributed to Pigault-Lebrun (1753-1835),
+but no doubt in reality due to Jacques du Laurens (1719-1797), which
+shows it at perhaps its worst. Another remarkable story-teller was
+Cazotte (1719-1792), whose _Diable amoureux_ displays much fantastic
+power, and connects itself with a singular fancy of the time for occult
+studies and _diablerie_, manifested later by the patronage shown to
+Cagliostro, Mesmer, St Germain and others. In this connexion, too, may
+perhaps also be mentioned most appropriately Restif de la Bretonne, a
+remarkably original and voluminous writer, who was little noticed by his
+contemporaries and successors for the best part of a century. Restif,
+who was nicknamed the "Rousseau of the gutter," _Rousseau du ruisseau_,
+presents to an English imagination many of the characteristics of a
+non-moral Defoe. While these various schools busied themselves more or
+less with real life seriously depicted or purposely travestied, the
+great vogue and success of _Télémaque_ produced a certain number of
+didactic works, in which moral or historical information was sought to
+be conveyed under a more or less thin guise of fiction. Such was the
+_Voyage du jeune Anacharsis_ of Jean Jacques Barthélemy (1716-1795);
+such the _Numa Pompilius_ and _Gonzalve de Cordoue_ of Florian
+(1755-1794), who also deserves notice as a writer of pastorals, fables
+and short prose tales; such the _Bélisaire_ and _Les Incas_ of Jean
+François Marmontel (1723-1799). Between this class and that of the novel
+of sentiment may perhaps be placed _Paul et Virginie_ and _La Chaumière
+indienne_; though Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814) should more
+properly be noticed after Rousseau and as a moralist. Diderot's
+fiction-writing has already been referred to more than once, but his
+_Religieuse_ deserves citation here as a powerful specimen of the novel
+both of analysis and polemic; while his undoubted masterpiece, the
+_Neveu de Rameau_, though very difficult to class, comes under this head
+as well as under any other. There are, however, two of the novelists of
+this age, and of the most remarkable, who have yet to be noticed, and
+these are the author of _Marianne_ and the author of _Julie_. We do not
+mention Pierre de Marivaux (1688-1763) in this connexion as the equal of
+Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), but merely as being in his way almost
+equally original and equally remote from any suspicion of school
+influence. He began with burlesque writing, and was also the author of
+several comedies, of which _Les Fausses Confidences_ is the principal.
+But it is in prose fiction that he really excels. He may claim to have,
+at least in the opinion of his contemporaries, invented a style, though
+perhaps the term _marivaudage_, which was applied to it, has a not
+altogether complimentary connotation. He may claim also to have invented
+the novel without a purpose, which aims simply at amusement, and at the
+same time does not seek to attain that end by buffoonery or by satire.
+Gray's definition of happiness, "to lie on a sofa and read endless
+novels by Marivaux" (it is true that he added Crébillon), is well known,
+and the production of mere pastime by means more or less harmless has
+since become so well-recognized a function of the novelist that
+Marivaux, as one of the earliest to discharge it, deserves notice. The
+name, however, of Jean Jacques Rousseau is of far different importance.
+His two great works, the _Nouvelle Héloïse_ and _Émile_, are as far as
+possible from being perfect as novels. But no novels in the world have
+ever had such influence as these. To a great extent this influence was
+due mainly to their attractions as novels, imperfect though they may be
+in this character, but it was beyond dispute also owing to the doctrines
+which they contained, and which were exhibited in novel form.
+
+Such are the principal developments of fiction during the century; but
+it is remarkable that, varied as they were, and excellent as was some of
+the work to which they gave rise, none of these schools was directly
+very fertile in results or successors. The period with which we shall
+next have to deal, that from the outbreak of the Revolution to the death
+of Louis XVIII., is curiously barren of fiction of any merit. It was not
+till English influence began again to assert itself in the later days of
+the Restoration that the prose romance began once more to be written.
+
+_18th-Century History._--It is not, however, in any of the departments
+of _belles-lettres_ that the real eminence of the 18th century as a time
+of literary production in France consists. In all serious branches of
+study its accomplishments were, from a literary point of view,
+remarkable, uniting as it did an extraordinary power of popular and
+literary expression with an ardent spirit of inquiry, a great
+speculative ability, and even a far more considerable amount of
+laborious erudition than is generally supposed. The historical studies
+and results of 18th-century speculation in France are of especial and
+peculiar importance. There is no doubt that what is called the science
+of history dates from this time, and though the beginning of it is
+usually assigned to the Italian Vico, its complete indication may
+perhaps with equal or greater justice be claimed by the Frenchman
+Turgot. Before Turgot, however, there were great names in French
+historical writing, and perhaps the greatest of all is that of Charles
+Secondat de Montesquieu (1689-1755). The three principal works of this
+great writer are all historical and at the same time political in
+character. In the _Lettres persanes_ he handled, with wit inferior to
+the wit of no other writer even in that witty age, the corruptions and
+dangers of contemporary morals and politics. The literary charm of this
+book--the plan of which was suggested by a work, the _Amusements sérieux
+et comiques_, of Dufresny (1648-1724), a comic writer not destitute of
+merit--is very great, and its plan was so popular as to lead to a
+thousand imitations, of which all, except those of Voltaire and
+Goldsmith, only bring out the immense superiority of the original. Few
+things could be more different from this lively and popular book than
+Montesquieu's next work, the _Grandeur et décadence des Romains_, in
+which the same acuteness and knowledge of human nature are united with
+considerable erudition, and with a weighty though perhaps somewhat
+grandiloquent and rhetorical style. His third and greatest work, the
+_Esprit des lois_, is again different both in style and character, and
+such defects as it has are as nothing when compared with the merits of
+its fertility in ideas, its splendid breadth of view, and the felicity
+with which the author, in a manner unknown before, recognizes the laws
+underlying complicated assemblages of fact. The style of this great work
+is equal to its substance; less light than that of the _Lettres_, less
+rhetorical than that of the _Grandeur des Romains_, it is still a
+marvellous union of dignity and wit. Around Montesquieu, partly before
+and partly after him, is a group of philosophical or at least systematic
+historians, of whom the chief are Jean Baptiste Dubos (1670-1742), and
+G. Bonnot de Mably (1709-1785). Dubos, whose chief work is not
+historical but aesthetic (_Réflexions sur la poésie et la peinture_),
+wrote a so-called _Histoire critique de l'établissement de la monarchie
+française_, which is as far as possible from being in the modern sense
+critical, inasmuch as, in the teeth of history, and in order to exalt
+the _Tiers état_, it pretends an amicable coalition of Franks and Gauls,
+and not an irruption by the former. Mably (_Observations sur l'histoire
+de la France_) had a much greater influence than either of these
+writers, and a decidedly mischievous one, especially at the period of
+the Revolution. He, more than any one else, is responsible for the
+ignorant and childish extolling of Greek and Roman institutions, and the
+still more ignorant depreciation of the middle ages, which was for a
+time characteristic of French politicians. Montesquieu was, as we have
+said, followed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1727-1781), whose writings
+are few in number, and not remarkable for style, but full of original
+thought. Turgot in his turn was followed by Condorcet (1743-1794), whose
+tendency is somewhat more sociological than directly historical. Towards
+the end of the period, too, a considerable number of philosophical
+histories were written, the usual object of which was, under cover of a
+kind of allegory, to satirize and attack the existing institutions and
+government of France. The most famous of these was the _Histoire des
+Indes_, nominally written by the Abbé Guillaume Thomas François Raynal
+(1713-1796), but really the joint work of many members of the Philosophe
+party, especially Diderot. Side by side with this really or nominally
+philosophical school of history there existed another and less ambitious
+school, which contented itself with the older and simpler view of the
+science. The Abbé René de Vertot (1655-1735) belongs almost as much to
+the 17th as to the 18th century; but his principal works, especially the
+famous _Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte_, date from the later period,
+as do also the _Révolutions romaines_. Vertot is above all things a
+literary historian, and the well-known "Mon siège est fait," whether
+true or not, certainly expresses his system. Of the same school, though
+far more comprehensive, was the laborious Charles Rollin (1661-1741),
+whose works in the original, or translated and continued in the case of
+the _Histoire romaine_ by Jean Baptiste Louis Crévier (1693-1765), were
+long the chief historical manuals of Europe. The president Charles Jean
+François Hénault (1685-1770), and Louis Pierre Anquetil (1723-1806) were
+praiseworthy writers, the first of French history, the second of that
+and much else. In the same class, too, far superior as is his literary
+power, must be ranked the historical works of Voltaire, _Charles XII_.,
+_Pierre le Grand_, &c. A very perfect example of the historian who is
+literary first of all is supplied by Claude Carloman de Rulhière
+(1735-1791), whose _Révolution en Russie en 1762_ is one of the little
+masterpieces of history, while his larger and posthumous work on the
+last days of the Polish kingdom exhibits perhaps some of the defects of
+this class of historians. Lastly must be mentioned the memoirs and
+correspondence of the period, the materials of history if not history
+itself. The century opened with the most famous of all these, the
+memoirs of the duc de Saint-Simon (1675-1755), an extraordinary series
+of pictures of the court of Louis XIV. and the Regency, written in an
+unequal and incorrect style, but with something of the irregular
+excellence of the great 16th-century writers, and most striking in the
+sombre bitterness of its tone. The subsequent and less remarkable
+memoirs of the century are so numerous that it is almost impossible to
+select a few for reference, and altogether impossible to mention all. Of
+those bearing on public history the memoirs of Madame de Staël (Mlle
+Delaunay) (1684-1750), of Pierre Louis de Voyer, marquis d'Argenson
+(1694-1757), of Charles Pinot Duclos (1704-1772), of Stephanie Félicité
+de Saint-Aubin, Madame de Genlis (1746-1830), of Pierre Victor de
+Bésenval (1722-1791), of Madame Campan (1752-1822) and of the cardinal
+de Bernis (1715-1794), may perhaps be selected for mention; of those
+bearing on literary and private history, the memoirs of Madame d'Épinay
+(1726-1783), those of Mathieu Marais (1664-1737) the so-called _Mémoires
+secrets_ of Louis Petit de Bachaumont (1690-1770), and the innumerable
+writings having reference to Voltaire and to the Philosophe party
+generally. Here, too, may be mentioned a remarkable class of literature,
+consisting of purely private and almost confidential letters, which were
+written at this time with very remarkable literary excellence. As
+specimens may be selected those of Mademoiselle Aissé (1694-1757), which
+are models of easy and unaffected tenderness, and those of Mademoiselle
+de Lespinasse (1732-1776) the companion of Madame du Deffand and
+afterwards of d'Alembert. These latter, in their extraordinary fervour
+and passion, not merely contrast strongly with the generally languid and
+frivolous gallantry of the age, but also constitute one of its most
+remarkable literary monuments. It has been said of them that they "burn
+the paper," and the expression is not exaggerated. Madame du Deffand's
+(1697-1780) own letters, many of which were written to Horace Walpole,
+are noteworthy in a very different way. Of lighter letters the charming
+correspondence of Diderot with Mademoiselle Voland deserves special
+mention. But the correspondence, like the memoirs of this century,
+defies justice to be done to it in any cursory or limited mention. In
+this connexion, however, it may be well to mention some of the most
+remarkable works of the time, the _Confessions_, _Rêveries_, and
+_Promenades d'un solitaire_ of Rousseau. In these works, especially in
+the _Confessions_, there is not merely exhibited passion as fervid
+though perhaps less unaffected than that of Mademoiselle de
+Lespinasse--there appear in them two literary characteristics which, if
+not entirely novel, were for the first time brought out deliberately by
+powers of the first order, were for the first time made the mainspring
+of literary interest, and thereby set an example which for more than a
+century has been persistently followed, and which has produced some of
+the finest results of modern literature. The first of these was the
+elaborate and unsparing analysis and display of the motives, the
+weaknesses and the failings of individual character. This process, which
+Rousseau unflinchingly performed on himself, has been followed usually
+in respect to fictitious characters by his successors. The other novelty
+was the feeling for natural beauty and the elaborate description of it,
+the credit of which latter must, it has been agreed by all impartial
+critics, be assigned rather to Rousseau than to any other writer. His
+influence in this direction was, however, soon taken up and continued by
+Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, the connecting link between Rousseau and
+Chateaubriand, some of whose works have been already alluded to. In
+particular the author of _Paul et Virginie_ set himself to develop the
+example of description which Rousseau had set, and his word-paintings,
+though less powerful than those of his model, are more abundant, more
+elaborate, and animated by a more amiable spirit.
+
+
+  Condillac.
+
+_18th-Century Philosophy._--The Anglomania which distinguished the time
+was nowhere more strongly shown than in the cast and direction of its
+philosophical speculations. As Montesquieu and Voltaire had imported
+into France a vivid theoretical admiration for the British constitution
+and for British theories in politics, so Voltaire, Diderot and a crowd
+of others popularized and continued in France the philosophical ideas of
+Hobbes and Locke and even Berkeley, the theological ideas of
+Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury and the English deists, and the physical
+discoveries of Newton. Descartes, Frenchman and genius as he was, and
+though his principles in physics and philosophy were long clung to in
+the schools, was completely abandoned by the more adventurous and
+progressive spirits. At no time indeed, owing to the confusion of
+thought and purpose to which we have already alluded, was the word
+philosophy used with greater looseness than at this time. Using it, as
+we have hitherto used it, in the sense of metaphysics, the majority of
+the Philosophes have very little claim to their title. There were some
+who manifested, however, an aptitude for purely philosophical argument,
+and one who confined himself strictly thereto. Among these the most
+remarkable are Julien Offroy de la Mettrie (1709-1751) and Denis
+Diderot. La Mettrie in his works _L'Homme machine_, _L'Homme plante_,
+&c., applied a lively and vigorous imagination, a considerable
+familiarity with physics and medicine, and a brilliant but unequal
+style, to the task of advocating materialistic ideas on the constitution
+of man. Diderot, in a series of early works, _Lettre sur les aveugles_,
+_Promenade d'un sceptique_, _Pensées philosophiques_, &c., exhibited a
+good acquaintance with philosophical history and opinion, and gave sign
+in this direction, as in so many others, of a far-reaching intellect. As
+in almost all his works, however, the value of the thought is extremely
+unequal, while the different pieces, always written in the hottest
+haste, and never duly matured or corrected, present but few specimens of
+finished and polished writing. Charles Bonnet (1720-1793), a Swiss of
+Geneva, wrote a large number of works, many of which are purely
+scientific. Others, however, are more psychological, and these, though
+advocating the materialistic philosophy generally in vogue, were
+remarkable for uniting materialism with an honest adherence to
+Christianity. The half mystical writer, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin
+(1743-1803) also deserves notice. But the French metaphysician of the
+century is undoubtedly Étienne Bonnot, abbé de Condillac (1714-1780),
+almost the only writer of the time in France who succeeded in keeping
+strictly to philosophy without attempting to pursue his system to its
+results in ethics, politics and theology. In the _Traité des
+sensations_, the _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances humaines_ and
+other works Condillac elaborated and continued the imperfect
+sensationalism of Locke. As his philosophical view, though perhaps more
+restricted, was far more direct, consecutive and uncompromising than
+that of the Englishman, so his style greatly exceeded Locke's in
+clearness and elegance and as a good medium of philosophical expression.
+
+
+  Voltaire (theology).
+
+  The "System of Nature."
+
+  Chamfort. Rivarol.
+
+_18th-Century Theology._--To devote a section to the history of the
+theological literature of the 18th century in France may seem something
+of a contradiction; for, indeed, all or most of such literature was
+anti-theological. The magnificent list of names which the church had been
+able to claim on her side in the 17th century was exhausted before the
+end of the second quarter of the 18th with Massillon, and none came to
+fill their place. Very rarely has orthodoxy been so badly defended as at
+this time. The literary championship of the church was entirely in the
+hands of the Jesuits, and of a few disreputable literary freelances like
+Élie Fréron (1719-1776) and Pierre François Guyot, abbé Desfontaines
+(1685-1745). The Jesuits were learned enough, and their principal
+journal, that of Trévoux, was conducted with much vigour and a great deal
+of erudition. But they were in the first place discredited by the moral
+taint which has always hung over Jesuitism, and in the second place by
+the persecutions of the Jansenists and the Protestants, which were
+attributed to their influence. But one single work on the orthodox side
+has preserved the least reputation; while, on the other hand, the names
+of Père Nonotte (1711-1793) and several of his fellows have been
+enshrined unenviably in the imperishable ridicule of Voltaire, one only
+of whose adversaries, the abbé Antoine Guénée (1717-1803), was able to
+meet him in the _Lettres de quelques Juifs_ with something like his own
+weapons. It has never been at all accurately decided how far what may be
+called the scoffing school of Voltaire represents a direct revolt against
+Christianity, and how far it was merely a kind of guerilla warfare
+against the clergy. It is positively certain that Voltaire was not an
+atheist, and that he did not approve of atheism. But his _Dictionnaire
+philosophique_, which is typical of a vast amount of contemporary and
+subsequent literature, consists of a heterogeneous assemblage of articles
+directed against various points of dogma and ritual and various
+characteristics of the sacred records. From the literary point of view,
+it is one of the most characteristic of all Voltaire's works, though it
+is perhaps not entirely his. The desultory arrangement, the light and
+lively style, the extensive but not always too accurate erudition, and
+the somewhat captious and quibbling objections, are intensely Voltairian.
+But there is little seriousness about it, and certainly no kind of
+rancorous or deep-seated hostility. With many, however, of Voltaire's
+pupils and younger contemporaries the case was altered. They were
+distinctively atheists and anti-supernaturalists. The atheism of Diderot,
+unquestionably the greatest of them all, has been keenly debated; but in
+the case of Étienne Damilaville (1723-1768), Jacques André Naigeon
+(1738-1810), Paul Henri Dietrich, baron d'Holbach, and others there is no
+room for doubt. By these persons a great mass of atheistic and
+anti-Christian literature was composed and set afloat. The characteristic
+work of this school, its last word indeed, is the famous _Système de la
+nature_, attributed to Holbach (1723-1789), but known to be, in part at
+least, the work of Diderot. In this remarkable work, which caps the
+climax of the metaphysical materialism or rather nihilism of the century,
+the atheistic position is clearly put. It made an immense sensation; and
+it so fluttered not merely the orthodox but the more moderate
+freethinkers, that Frederick of Prussia and Voltaire, perhaps the most
+singular pair of defenders that orthodoxy ever had, actually set
+themselves to refute it. Its style and argument are very unequal, as
+books written in collaboration are apt to be, and especially books in
+which Diderot, the paragon of inequality, had a hand. But there is an
+almost entire absence of the heterogeneous assemblage of anecdotes, jokes
+good and bad, scraps of accurate or inaccurate physical science, and
+other incongruous matter with which the Philosophes were wont to stuff
+their works; and lastly, there is in the best passages a kind of sombre
+grandeur which recalls the manner as well as the matter of Lucretius. It
+is perhaps well to repeat, in the case of so notorious a book, that this
+criticism is of a purely literary and formal character; but there is
+little doubt that the literary merits of the work considerably assisted
+its didactic influence. As the Revolution approached, and the victory of
+the Philosophe party was declared, there appeared for a brief space a
+group of cynical and accomplished phrase-makers presenting some
+similarity to that of which, a hundred years before, Saint-Évremond was
+the most prominent figure. The chief of this group were Nicolas Chamfort
+(1747-1794) on the republican side, and Antoine Rivarol (1753-1801) on
+that of the royalists. Like the older writer to whom we have compared
+them, neither can be said to have produced any one work of eminence, and
+in this they stand distinguished from moralists like La Rochefoucauld.
+The floating sayings, however, which are attributed to them, or which
+occur here and there in their miscellaneous work, yield in no respect to
+those of the most famous of their predecessors in wit and a certain kind
+of wisdom, though they are frequently more personal than aphoristic.
+
+
+  Helvétius.
+
+  Thomas.
+
+  Vauvenargues.
+
+_18th-Century Moralists and Politicians._--Not the least part, however,
+of the energy of the period in thought and writing was devoted to
+questions of a directly moral and political kind. With regard to
+morality proper the favourite doctrine of the century was what is
+commonly called the selfish theory, the only one indeed which was
+suitable to the sensationalism of Condillac and the materialism of
+Holbach. The pattern book of this doctrine was the _De l'esprit_ of
+Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771), the most amusing book perhaps which
+ever pretended to the title of a solemn philosophical treatise. There is
+some analogy between the principles of this work and those of the
+_Système de la nature_. With the inconsistency--some would say with the
+questionable honesty--which distinguished the more famous members of the
+Philosophe party when their disciples spoke with what they considered
+imprudent outspokenness, Voltaire and even Diderot attacked Helvétius as
+the former afterwards attacked Holbach. But whatever may be the general
+value of _De l'esprit_, it is full of acuteness, though that acuteness
+is as desultory and disjointed as its style. As Helvétius may be taken
+as the representative author of the cynical school, so perhaps Alexandre
+Gérard Thomas (1732-1785) may be taken as representative of the votaries
+of noble sentiment to whom we have also alluded. The works of Thomas
+chiefly took the form of academic _éloges_ or formal panegyrics, and
+they have all the defects, both in manner and substance, which are
+associated with that style. Of yet a third school, corresponding in form
+to La Rochefoucauld and La Bruyère, and possessed of some of the antique
+vigour of preceding centuries, was Luc de Clapiers, marquis de
+Vauvenargues (1715-1747). This writer, who died very young, has produced
+maxims and reflections of considerable mental force and literary finish.
+From Voltaire downwards it has been usual to compare him with Pascal,
+from whom he is chiefly distinguished by a striking but somewhat empty
+stoicism. Between the moralists, of whom we have taken these three as
+examples, and the politicians may be placed Rousseau, who in his novels
+and miscellaneous works is of the first class, in his famous _Contrat
+social_ of the second. All his theories, whatever their originality and
+whatever their value, were made novel and influential by the force of
+their statement and the literary beauties of its form. Of direct and
+avowed political writings there were few during the century, and none of
+anything like the importance of the _Contrat social_, theoretical
+acceptance of the established French constitution being a point of
+necessity with all Frenchmen. Nevertheless it may be said that almost
+the whole of the voluminous writings of the Philosophes, even of those
+who, like Voltaire, were sincerely aristocratic and monarchic in
+predilection, were of more or less veiled political significance. There
+was one branch of political writing, moreover, which could be indulged
+in without much fear. Political economy and administrative theories
+received much attention. The earliest writer of eminence on these
+subjects was the great engineer Sébastien le Prestre, marquis de Vauban
+(1633-1707), whose _Oisivetés_ and _Dîme royale_ exhibit both great
+ability and extensive observation. A more utopian economist of the same
+time was Charles Irénée Castel, abbé de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743), not to
+be confounded with the author of _Paul et Virginie_. Soon political
+economy in the hands of François Quesnay (1694-1774) took a regular
+form, and towards the middle of the century a great number of works on
+questions connected with it, especially that of free trade in corn, on
+which Ferdinand Galiani (1728-1787), André Morellet (1727-1819), both
+abbés, and above all Turgot, distinguished themselves. Of writers on
+legal subjects and of the legal profession, the century, though not less
+fertile than in other directions, produced few or none of any great
+importance from the literary point of view. The chief name which in this
+connexion is known is that of Chancellor Henri François d'Aguesseau
+(1668-1751), at the beginning of the century, an estimable writer of the
+Port Royal school, who took the orthodox side in the great disputes of
+the time, but failed to display any great ability therein. He was, as
+became his profession, more remarkable as an orator than a writer, and
+his works contain valuable testimonies to the especially perturbed and
+unquiet condition of his century--a disquiet which is perhaps also its
+chief literary note. There were other French magistrates, such as
+Montesquieu, Hénault (1685-1770), de Brosses (1706-1773) and others, who
+made considerable mark in literature; but it was usually (except in the
+case of Montesquieu) in subjects not even indirectly connected with
+their profession. The _Esprit des lois_ stands alone; but as an example
+of work barristerial in kind, famous partly for political reasons but of
+some real literary merit, we may mention the _Mémoire_ for Calas written
+by J. B. J. Élie de Beaumont (1732-1786).
+
+_18th-century Criticism and Periodical Literature._--We have said that
+literary criticism assumes in this century a sufficient importance to be
+treated under a separate heading. Contributions were made to it of many
+different kinds and from many different points of view. Periodical
+literature, the chief stimulus to its production, began more and more to
+come into favour. Even in the 17th century the _Journal des savants_,
+the Jesuit _Journal de Trévoux_, and other publications had set the
+example of different kinds of it. Just before the Revolution the
+_Gazette de France_ was in the hands of J. B. A. Suard (1734-1817), a
+man who was nothing if not a literary critic. Perhaps, however, the most
+remarkable contribution of the century to criticism of the periodical
+kind was the _Feuilles de Grimm_, a circular sent for many years to the
+German courts by Frédéric Melchior Grimm (1723-1807), the comrade of
+Diderot and Rousseau, and containing a _compte rendu_ of the ways and
+works of Paris, literary and artistic as well as social. These _Leaves_
+not only include much excellent literary criticism by Diderot, but also
+gave occasion to the incomparable _salons_ or accounts of the exhibition
+of pictures from the same hand, essays which founded the art of picture
+criticism, and which have hardly been surpassed since. The prize
+competitions of the Academy were also a considerable stimulus to
+literary criticism, though the prevailing taste in such compositions
+rather inclined to elegant themes than to careful studies of analyses.
+The most characteristic critic of the mid-century was the abbé Charles
+Batteux (1713-1780) who illustrated a tendency of the time by beginning
+with a treatise on _Les Beaux Arts réduits à un même principe_ (1746);
+reduced it and others into _Principes de la littérature_ (1764) and
+added in 1771 _Les Quatres Poétiques_ (Aristotle, Horace, Vida and
+Boileau). Batteux is a very ingenious critic and his attempt to
+conciliate "taste" and "the rules," though inadequate, is interesting.
+Works on the arts in general or on special divisions of them were not
+wanting, as, for instance, that of Dubos before alluded to, the _Essai
+sur la peinture_ of Diderot and others. Critically annotated editions of
+the great French writers also came into fashion, and were no longer
+written by mere pedants. Of these Voltaire's edition of Corneille was
+the most remarkable, and his annotations, united separately under the
+title of _Commentaire sur Corneille_, form not the least important
+portion of his works. Even older writers, looked down upon though they
+were by the general taste of the day, received a share of this critical
+interest. In the earlier portion of the century Nicolas
+Lenglet-Dufresnoy (1674-1755) and Bernard de la Monnoye (1641-1728)
+devoted their attention to Rabelais, Regnier, Villon, Marot and others.
+Étienne Barbazan (1696-1770) and P. J. B. Le Grand d'Aussy (1737-1800)
+gathered and brought into notice the long scattered and unknown rather
+than neglected fabliaux of the middle ages. Even the chansons de geste
+attracted the notice of the Comte de Caylus (1692-1765) and the Comte de
+Tressan (1705-1783). The latter, in his _Bibliothèque des romans_,
+worked up a large number of the old epics into a form suited to the
+taste of the century. In his hands they became lively tales of the kind
+suited to readers of Voltaire and Crébillon. But in this travestied form
+they had considerable influence both in France and abroad. By these
+publications attention was at least called to early French literature,
+and when it had been once called, a more serious and appreciative study
+became merely a matter of time. The method of much of the literary
+criticism of the close of this period was indeed deplorable enough. Jean
+François de la Harpe (1739-1803), who though a little later in time as
+to most of his critical productions is perhaps its most representative
+figure, shows criticism in one of its worst forms. The critic specially
+abhorred by Sterne, who looked only at the stop-watch, was a kind of
+prophecy of La Harpe, who lays it down distinctly that a beauty, however
+beautiful, produced in spite of rules is a "monstrous beauty" and cannot
+be allowed. But such a writer is a natural enough expression of an
+expiring principle. The year after the death of La Harpe Sainte-Beuve
+was born.
+
+
+  Buffon.
+
+  The Encyclopédie.
+
+_18th-Century Savants._--In science and general erudition the 18th
+century in France was at first much occupied with the mathematical
+studies for which the French genius is so peculiarly adapted, which the
+great discoveries of Descartes had made possible and popular, and which
+those of his supplanter Newton only made more popular still. Voltaire
+took to himself the credit, which he fairly deserves, of first
+introducing the Newtonian system into France, and it was soon widely
+popular--even ladies devoting themselves to the exposition of
+mathematical subjects, as in the case of Gabrielle de Breteuil, marquise
+du Châtelet (1706-1749) Voltaire's "divine Émilie." Indeed ladies played
+a great part in the literary and scientific activity of the century, by
+actual contribution sometimes, but still more by continuing and
+extending the tradition of "salons." The duchesse du Maine, Mesdames de
+Lambert, de Tencin, Geoffrin, du Deffand, Necker, and above all, the
+baronne d'Holbach (whose husband, however, was here the principal
+personage) presided over coteries which became more and more
+"philosophical." Many of the greatest mathematicians of the age, such as
+de Moivre and Laplace, were French by birth, while others like Euler
+belonged to French-speaking races, and wrote in French. The physical
+sciences were also ardently cultivated, the impulse to them being given
+partly by the generally materialistic tendency of the age, partly by the
+Newtonian system, and partly also by the extended knowledge of the world
+provided by the circumnavigatory voyage of Louis Antoine de Bougainville
+(1729-1811), and other travels. P. L. de Moreau Maupertuis (1698-1759)
+and C. M. de la Condamine (1701-1774) made long journeys for scientific
+purposes and duly recorded their experiences. The former, a
+mathematician and physicist of some ability but more oddity, is chiefly
+known to literature by the ridicule of Voltaire in the _Diatribe du
+Docteur Akakia_. Jean le Rond, called d'Alembert (1717-1783), a great
+mathematician and a writer of considerable though rather academic
+excellence, is principally known from his connexion with and
+introduction to the _Encyclopédie_, of which more presently. Chemistry
+was also assiduously cultivated, the baron d'Holbach, among others,
+being a devotee thereof, and helping to advance the science to the point
+where, at the conclusion of the century, it was illustrated by
+Berthollet and Lavoisier. During all this devotion to science in its
+modern acceptation, the older and more literary forms of erudition were
+not neglected, especially by the illustrious Benedictines of the abbey
+of St Maur. Dom Augustin Calmet (1672-1757) the author of the well-known
+_Dictionary of the Bible_, belonged to this order, and to them also (in
+particular to Dom Rivet) was due the beginning of the immense _Histoire
+littéraire de la France_, a work interrupted by the Revolution and long
+suspended, but diligently continued since the middle of the 19th
+century. Of less orthodox names distinguished for erudition, Nicolas
+Fréret (1688-1749), secretary of the Academy, is perhaps the most
+remarkable. But in the consideration of the science and learning in the
+18th century from a literary point of view, there is one name and one
+book which require particular and, in the case of the book, somewhat
+extended mention. The man is Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon
+(1717-1788), the book the _Encyclopédie_. The immense _Natural History_
+of Buffon, though not entirely his own, is a remarkable monument of the
+union of scientific tastes with literary ability. As has happened in
+many similar instances, there is in parts more literature than science
+to be found in it; and from the point of view of the latter, Buffon was
+far too careless in observation and far too solicitous of perfection of
+style and grandiosity of view. The style of Buffon has sometimes been
+made the subject of the highest eulogy, and it is at its best admirable;
+but one still feels in it the fault of all serious French prose in this
+century before Rousseau--the presence, that is to say, of an artificial
+spirit rather than of natural variety and power. The _Encyclopédie_,
+unquestionably on the whole the most important French literary
+production of the century, if we except the works of Rousseau and
+Voltaire, was conducted for a time by Diderot and d'Alembert, afterwards
+by Diderot alone. It numbered among its contributors almost every
+Frenchman of eminence in letters. It is often spoken of as if, under the
+guise of an encyclopaedia, it had been merely a _plaidoyer_ against
+religion, but this is entirely erroneous. Whatever anti-ecclesiastical
+bent some of the articles may have, the book as a whole is simply what
+it professes to be, a dictionary--that is to say, not merely an
+historical and critical lexicon, like those of Bayle and Moreri (indeed
+history and biography were nominally excluded), but a dictionary of
+arts, sciences, trades and technical terms. Diderot himself had perhaps
+the greatest faculty of any man that ever lived for the literary
+treatment in a workman-like manner of the most heterogeneous and in some
+cases rebellious subjects; and his untiring labour, not merely in
+writing original articles, but in editing the contributions of others,
+determined the character of the whole work. There is no doubt that it
+had, quite independently of any theological or political influence, an
+immense share in diffusing and gratifying the taste for general
+information.
+
+
+  Maistre.
+
+  Joubert.
+
+  Courier.
+
+  Madame de Staël.
+
+  Chateaubriand.
+
+_1789-1830--General Sketch._--The period which elapsed between the
+outbreak of the Revolution and the accession of Charles X. has often
+been considered a sterile one in point of literature. As far as mere
+productiveness goes, this judgment is hardly correct. No class of
+literature was altogether neglected during these stirring
+five-and-thirty years, the political events of which have so engrossed
+the attention of posterity that it has sometimes been necessary for
+historians to remind us that during the height of the Terror and the
+final disasters of the empire the theatres were open and the
+booksellers' shops patronized. Journalism, parliamentary eloquence and
+scientific writing were especially cultivated, and the former in its
+modern sense may almost be said to have been created. But of the higher
+products of literature the period may justly be considered to have been
+somewhat barren. During the earlier part of it there is, with the
+exception of André Chénier, not a single name of the first or even
+second order of excellence. Towards the midst those of Chateaubriand
+(1768-1848) and Madame de Staël (1766-1817) stand almost alone; and at
+the close those of Courier, Béranger and Lamartine are not seconded by
+any others to tell of the magnificent literary burst which was to follow
+the publication of _Cromwell_. Of all departments of literature, poetry
+proper was worst represented during this period. André Chénier was
+silenced at its opening by the guillotine. Le Brun and Delille, favoured
+by an extraordinary longevity, continued to be admired and followed. It
+was the palmy time of descriptive poetry. Louis, marquis de Fontanes
+(1757-1821, who deserves rather more special notice as a critic and an
+official patron of literature), Castel, Boisjolin, Esmenard, Berchoux,
+Ricard, Martin, Gudin, Cournaud, are names which chiefly survive as
+those of the authors of scattered attempts to turn the Encyclopaedia
+into verse. Charles Julien de Chênedollé (1769-1833) owes his reputation
+rather to amiability, and to his association with men eminent in
+different ways, such as Rivarol and Joubert, than to any real power. He
+has been regarded as a precursor of Lamartine; but the resemblance is
+chiefly on Lamartine's weakest side; and the stress laid on him
+recently, as on Lamartine himself and even on Chénier, is part of a
+passing reaction against the school of Hugo. Even more ambitiously, Luce
+de Lancival, Campenon, Dumesnil and Parseval de Grand-Maison endeavoured
+to write epics, and succeeded rather worse than the Chapelains and
+Desmarets of the 17th century. The characteristic of all this poetry was
+the description of everything in metaphor and paraphrase, and the
+careful avoidance of anything like directness of expression; and the
+historians of the Romantic movement have collected many instances of
+this absurdity. Lamartine will be more properly noticed in the next
+division. But about the same time as Lamartine, and towards the end of
+the present period, there appeared a poet who may be regarded as the
+last important echo of Malherbe. This was Casimir Delavigne (1793-1843),
+the author of _Les Messéniennes_, a writer of very great talent, and,
+according to the measure of J. B. Rousseau and Lebrun, no mean poet. It
+is usual to reckon Delavigne as transitionary between the two schools,
+but in strictness he must be counted with the classicists. Dramatic
+poetry exhibited somewhat similar characteristics. The system of tragedy
+writing had become purely mechanical, and every act, almost every scene
+and situation, had its regular and appropriate business and language,
+the former of which the poet was not supposed to alter at all, and the
+latter only very slightly. Poinsinet, La Harpe, M. J. Chénier,
+Raynouard, de Jouy, Briffaut, Baour-Lormian, all wrote in this style. Of
+these Chénier (1764-1811) had some of the vigour of his brother André,
+from whom he was distinguished by more popular political principles and
+better fortune. On the other hand, Jean François Ducis (1733-1816), who
+passes with Englishmen as a feeble reducer of Shakespeare to classical
+rules, passed with his contemporaries as an introducer into French
+poetry of strange and revolutionary novelties. Comedy, on the other
+hand, fared better, as indeed it had always fared. Fabre d'Églantine
+(1755-1794) (the companion in death of Danton), Collin d'Harleville
+(1755-1806), François G. J. S. Andrieux (1759-1833), Picard, Alexandre
+Duval, and Népomucène Lemercier (1771-1840) (the most vigorous of all as
+a poet and a critic of mark) were the comic authors of the period, and
+their works have not suffered the complete eclipse of the contemporary
+tragedies which in part they also wrote. If not exactly worthy
+successors of Molière, they are at any rate not unworthy children of
+Beaumarchais. In romance writing there is again, until we come to Madame
+de Staël, a great want of originality and even of excellence in
+workmanship. The works of Madame de Genlis (1746-1830) exhibit the
+tendencies of the 18th century to platitude and noble sentiment at their
+worst. Madame Cottin (1770-1807), Madame de Souza (1761-1836), and
+Madame de Krudener, exhibited some of the qualities of Madame de
+Lafayette and more of those of Madame de Genlis. Joseph Fiévée
+(1767-1839), in _Le Dot de Suzette_ and other works, showed some power
+over the domestic story; but perhaps the most remarkable work in point
+of originality of the time was Xavier de Maistre's (1763-1852) _Voyage
+autour de ma chambre_, an attempt in quite a new style, which has been
+happily followed up by other writers. Turning to history we find
+comparatively little written at this period. Indeed, until quite its
+close, men were too much occupied in making history to have time to
+write it. There is, however, a considerable body of memoir writers,
+especially in the earlier years of the period, and some great names
+appear even in history proper. Many of Sismondi's (1773-1842) best works
+were produced during the empire. A. G. P. Brugière, baron de Barante
+(1782-1866), though his best-known works date much later, belongs
+partially to this time. On the other hand, the production of
+philosophical writing, especially in what we may call applied
+philosophy, was considerable. The sensationalist views of Condillac were
+first continued as by Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836) and Laromiguière
+(1756-1837) and subsequently opposed, in consequence partly of a
+religious and spiritualist revival, partly of the influence of foreign
+schools of thought, especially the German and the Scotch. The chief
+philosophical writers from this latter point of view were Pierre Paul
+Royer Collard (1763-1845), F. P. G. Maine de Biran (1776-1824), and
+Théodore Simon Jouffroy (1796-1842). Their influence on literature,
+however, was altogether inferior to that of the reactionist school, of
+whom Louis Gabriel, vicomte de Bonald (1754-1840), and Joseph de Maistre
+(1753-1821) were the great leaders. These latter were strongly political
+in their tendencies, and political philosophy received, as was natural,
+a large share of the attention of the time. In continuation of the work
+of the Philosophes, the most remarkable writer was Constantin François
+Chasseboeuf, comte de Volney (1757-1820), whose _Ruines_ are generally
+known. On the other hand, others belonging to that school, such as
+Necker and Morellet, wrote from the moderate point of view against
+revolutionary excesses. Of the reactionists Bonald is extremely
+royalist, and carries out in his _Législations primitives_ somewhat the
+same patriarchal and absolutist theories as our own Filmer, but with
+infinitely greater genius. As Bonald is royalist and aristocratic, so
+Maistre is the advocate of a theocracy pure and simple, with the pope
+for its earthly head, and a vigorous despotism for its system of
+government. Pierre Simon Ballanche (1776-1847), often mentioned in the
+literary memoirs of his time, wrote among other things _Essais de
+palingénésie sociale_, good in style but vague in substance. Of theology
+proper there is almost necessarily little or nothing, the clergy being
+in the earlier period proscribed, in the latter part kept in a strict
+and somewhat discreditable subjection by the Empire. In moralizing
+literature there is one work of the very highest excellence, which,
+though not published till long afterwards, belongs in point of
+composition to this period. This is the _Pensées_ of Joseph Joubert
+(1754-1824), the most illustrious successor of Pascal and Vauvenargues,
+and to be ranked perhaps above both in the literary finish of his
+maxims, and certainly above Vauvenargues in the breadth and depth of
+thought which they exhibit. In pure literary criticism more
+particularly, Joubert, though exhibiting some inconsistencies due to his
+time, is astonishingly penetrating and suggestive. Of science and
+erudition the time was fruitful. At an early period of it appeared the
+remarkable work of Pierre Cabanis (1757-1808), the _Rapports du physique
+et du morale de l'homme_, a work in which physiology is treated from the
+extreme materialist point of view but with all the liveliness and
+literary excellence of the Philosophe movement at its best. Another
+physiological work of great merit at this period was the _Traité de la
+vie et de la mort_ of Bichat, and the example set by these works was
+widely followed; while in other branches of science Laplace, Lagrange,
+Haüy, Berthollet, &c., produced contributions of the highest value. From
+the literary point of view, however, the chief interest of this time is
+centred in two individual names, those of Chateaubriand and Madame de
+Staël, and in three literary developments of a more or less novel
+character, which were all of the highest importance in shaping the
+course which French literature has taken since 1824. One of these
+developments was the reactionary movement of Maistre and Bonald, which
+in its turn largely influenced Chateaubriand, then Lamennais and
+Montalembert, and was later represented in French literature in
+different guises, chiefly by Louis Veuillot (1815-1883) and Mgr
+Dupanloup (1802-1878). The second and third, closely connected, were the
+immense advances made by parliamentary eloquence and by political
+writing, the latter of which, by the hand of Paul Louis Courier
+(1773-1825), contributed for the first time an undoubted masterpiece to
+French literature. The influence of the two combined has since raised
+journalism to even a greater pitch of power in France than in any other
+country. It is in the development of these new openings for literature,
+and in the cast and complexion which they gave to its matter, that the
+real literary importance of the Revolutionary period consists; just as
+it is in the new elements which they supplied for the treatment of such
+subjects that the literary value of the authors of _René_ and _De
+l'Allemagne_ mainly lies. We have already alluded to some of the
+beginnings of periodical and journalistic letters in France. For some
+time, in the hands of Bayle, Basnage, Des Maizeaux, Jurieu, Leclerc,
+periodical literature consisted mainly of a series, more or less
+disconnected, of pamphlets, with occasional extracts from forthcoming
+works, critical _adversaria_ and the like. Of a more regular kind were
+the often-mentioned _Journal de Trévoux_ and _Mercure de France_, and
+later the _Année littéraire_ of Fréron and the like. The
+_Correspondance_ of Grimm also, as we have pointed out, bore
+considerable resemblance to a modern monthly review, though it was
+addressed to a very few persons. Of political news there was, under a
+despotism, naturally very little. 1789, however, saw a vast change in
+this respect. An enormous efflorescence of periodical literature at once
+took place, and a few of the numerous journals founded in that year or
+soon afterwards survived for a considerable time. A whole class of
+authors arose who pretended to be nothing more than journalists, while
+many writers distinguished for more solid contributions to literature
+took part in the movement, and not a few active politicians contributed.
+Thus to the original staff of the _Moniteur_, or, as it was at first
+called, _La Gazette Nationale_, La Harpe, Lacretelle, Andrieux,
+Dominique Joseph Garat (1749-1833) and Pierre Ginguené (1748-1826) were
+attached. Among the writers of the _Journal de Paris_ André Chénier had
+been ranked. Fontanes contributed to many royalist and moderate
+journals. Guizot and Morellet, representatives respectively of the 19th
+and the 18th century, shared in the _Nouvelles politiques_, while
+Bertin, Fievée and J. L. Geoffroy (1743-1814), a critic of peculiar
+acerbity, contributed to the _Journal de l'empire_, afterwards turned
+into the still existing _Journal des débats_. With Geoffroy, François
+Bénoit Hoffman (1760-1828), Jean F. J. Dussault (1769-1824) and Charles
+F. Dorimond, abbé de Féletz (1765-1850), constituted a quartet of
+critics sometimes spoken of as "the _Débats_ four," though they were by
+no means all friends. Of active politicians Marat (_L'Ami du peuple_),
+Mirabeau (_Courrier de Provence_), Barère (_Journal des débats et des
+décrets_), Brissot (_Patriote français_), Hébert (_Père Duchesne_),
+Robespierre (_Défenseur de la constitution_), and Tallien (_La
+Sentinelle_) were the most remarkable who had an intimate connexion with
+journalism. On the other hand, the type of the journalist pure and
+simple is Camille Desmoulins (1759-1794), one of the most brilliant, in
+a literary point of view, of the short-lived celebrities of the time. Of
+the same class were Pelletier, Durozoir, Loustalot, Royou. As the
+immediate daily interest in politics drooped, there were formed
+periodicals of a partly political and partly literary character. Such
+had been the _décade philosophique_, which counted Cabanis, Chénier, and
+De Tracy among its contributors, and this was followed by the _Revue
+française_ at a later period, which was in its turn succeeded by the
+_Revue des deux mondes_. On the other hand, parliamentary eloquence was
+even more important than journalism during the early period of the
+Revolution. Mirabeau naturally stands at the head of orators of this
+class, and next to him may be ranked the well-known names of Malouet and
+Meunier among constitutionalists; of Robespierre, Marat and Danton, the
+triumvirs of the Mountain; of Maury, Cazalès and the vicomte de
+Mirabeau, among the royalists; and above all of the Girondist speakers
+Barnave, Vergniaud, and Lanjuinais. The last named survived to take part
+in the revival of parliamentary discussion after the Restoration. But
+the permanent contributions to French literature of this period of
+voluminous eloquence are, as frequently happens in such cases, by no
+means large. The union of the journalist and the parliamentary spirit
+produced, however, in Paul Louis Courier a master of style. Courier
+spent the greater part of his life, tragically cut short, in translating
+the classics and studying the older writers of France, in which study he
+learnt thoroughly to despise the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century.
+It was not till he was past forty that he took to political writing, and
+the style of his pamphlets, and their wonderful irony and vigour, at
+once placed them on the level of the very best things of the kind. Along
+with Courier should be mentioned Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), who,
+though partly a romance writer and partly a philosophical author, was
+mainly a politician and an orator, besides being fertile in articles and
+pamphlets. Lamennais, like Lamartine, will best be dealt with later, and
+the same may be said of Béranger; but Chateaubriand and Madame de Staël
+must be noticed here. The former represents, in the influence which
+changed the literature of the 18th century into the literature of the
+19th, the vague spirit of unrest and "Weltschmerz," the affection for
+the picturesque qualities of nature, the religious spirit occasionally
+turning into mysticism, and the respect, sure to become more and more
+definite and appreciative, for antiquity. He gives in short the romantic
+and conservative element. Madame de Staël (1766-1817) on the other hand,
+as became a daughter of Necker, retained a great deal of the Philosophe
+character and the traditions of the 18th century, especially its
+liberalism, its _sensibilité_, and its thirst for general information;
+to which, however, she added a cosmopolitan spirit, and a readiness to
+introduce into France the literary and social, as well as the political
+and philosophical, peculiarities of other countries to which the 18th
+century, in France at least, had been a stranger, and which
+Chateaubriand himself, notwithstanding his excursions into English
+literature, had been very far from feeling. She therefore contributed to
+the positive and liberal side of the future movement. The absolute
+literary importance of the two was very different. Madame de Staël's
+early writings were of the critical kind, half aesthetic half ethical,
+of which the 18th century had been fond, and which their titles,
+_Lettres sur J. J. Rousseau_, _De l'influence des passions_, _De la
+littérature considérée dans ses rapports avec les institutions
+sociales_, sufficiently show. Her romances, _Delphine_ and _Corinne_,
+had immense literary influence at the time. Still more was this the case
+with _De l'Allemagne_, which practically opened up to the rising
+generation in France the till then unknown treasures of literature and
+philosophy, which during the most glorious half century of her literary
+history Germany had, sometimes on hints taken from France herself, been
+accumulating. The literary importance of Chateaubriand (1768-1848) is
+far greater, while his literary influence can hardly be exaggerated.
+Chateaubriand's literary father was Rousseau, and his voyage to America
+helped to develop the seeds which Rousseau had sown. In _René_ and other
+works of the same kind, the naturalism of Rousseau received a still
+further development. But it was not in mere naturalism that
+Chateaubriand was to find his most fertile and most successful theme. It
+was, on the contrary, in the rehabilitation of Christianity as an
+inspiring force in literature. The 18th century had used against
+religion the method of ridicule; Chateaubriand, by genius rather than by
+reasoning, set up against this method that of poetry and romance.
+"Christianity," says he, almost in so many words, "is the most poetical
+of all religions, the most attractive, the most fertile in literary,
+artistic and social results." This theme he develops with the most
+splendid language, and with every conceivable advantage of style, in the
+_Génie du Christianisme_ and the _Martyrs_. The splendour of
+imagination, the summonings of history and literature to supply
+effective and touching illustrations, analogies and incidents, the rich
+colouring so different from the peculiarly monotonous and grey tones of
+the masters of the 18th century, and the fervid admiration for nature
+which were Chateaubriand's main attractions and characteristics, could
+not fail to have an enormous literary influence. Indeed he has been
+acclaimed, with more reason than is usually found in such acclamations,
+as the founder of comparative _and_ imaginative literary criticism in
+France if not in Europe. The Romantic school acknowledged, and with
+justice, its direct indebtedness to him.
+
+_Literature since 1830._--In dealing with the last period of the history
+of French literature and that which was introduced by the literary
+revolution of 1830 and has continued, in phases of only partial change,
+to the present day, a slight alteration of treatment is requisite. The
+subdivisions of literature have lately become so numerous, and the
+contributions to each have reached such an immense volume, that it is
+impossible to give more than cursory notice, or indeed allusion, to most
+of them. It so happens, however, that the purely literary
+characteristics of this period, though of the most striking and
+remarkable, are confined to a few branches of literature. The character
+of the 19th century in France has hitherto been at least as strongly
+marked as that of any previous period. In the middle ages men of letters
+followed each other in the cultivation of certain literary forms for
+long centuries. The _chanson de geste_, the Arthurian legend, the _roman
+d'aventure_, the _fabliau_, the allegorical poem, the rough dramatic
+_jeu_, mystery and farce, served successively as moulds into which the
+thought and writing impulse of generations of authors were successively
+cast, often with little attention to the suitability of form and
+subject. The end of the 15th century, and still more the 16th, owing to
+the vast extension of thought and knowledge then introduced, finally
+broke up the old forms, and introduced the practice of treating each
+subject in a manner more or less appropriate to it, and whether
+appropriate or not, freely selected by the author. At the same time a
+vast but somewhat indiscriminate addition was made to the actual
+vocabulary of the language. The 17th and 18th centuries witnessed a
+process of restriction once more to certain forms and strict imitation
+of predecessors, combined with attention to purely arbitrary rules, the
+cramping and impoverishing effect of this (in Fénelon's words) being
+counterbalanced partly by the efforts of individual genius, and still
+more by the constant and steady enlargement of the range of thought, the
+choice of subjects, and the familiarity with other literature, both of
+the ancient and modern world. The literary work of the 19th century and
+of the great Romantic movement which began in its second quarter was to
+repeat on a far larger scale the work of the 16th, to break up and
+discard such literary forms as had become useless or hopelessly stiff,
+to give strength, suppleness and variety to such as were retained, to
+invent new ones where necessary, to enrich the language by importations,
+inventions and revivals, and, above all, to bring into prominence the
+principle of individualism. Authors and even books, rather than groups
+and kinds, demand principal attention.
+
+The result of this revolution is naturally most remarkable in the
+_belles-lettres_ and the kindred department of history. Poetry, not
+dramatic, has been revived; prose romance and literary criticism have
+been brought to a perfection previously unknown; and history has
+produced works more various, if not more remarkable, than at any
+previous stage of the language. Of all these branches we shall therefore
+endeavour to give some detailed account. But the services done to the
+language were not limited to the strictly literary branches of
+literature. Modern French, if it lacks, as it probably does lack, the
+statuesque precision and elegance of prose style to which between 1650
+and 1800 all else was sacrificed, has become a much more suitable
+instrument for the accurate and copious treatment of positive and
+concrete subjects. These subjects have accordingly been treated in an
+abundance corresponding to that manifested in other countries, though
+the literary importance of the treatment has perhaps proportionately
+declined. We cannot even attempt to indicate the innumerable directions
+of scientific study which this copious industry has taken, and must
+confine ourselves to those which come more immediately under the
+headings previously adopted. In philosophy proper France, like other
+nations, has been more remarkable for attention to the historical side
+of the matter than for the production of new systems; and the principal
+exception among her philosophical writers, Auguste Comte (1793-1857),
+besides inclining, as far as his matter went to the political and
+scientific rather than to the purely philosophical side (which indeed he
+regarded as antiquated), was not very remarkable merely as a man of
+letters. Victor Cousin (1792-1867), on the other hand, almost a
+brilliant man of letters and for a time regarded as something of a
+philosophical apostle preaching "eclecticism," betook himself latterly
+to biographical and other miscellaneous writing, especially on the
+famous French ladies of the 17th century, and is likely to be remembered
+chiefly in this department, though not to be forgotten in that of
+philosophical history and criticism. The same curious declension was
+observable in the much younger Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893), who,
+beginning with philosophical studies, and always maintaining a strong
+tincture of philosophical determinism, applied himself later, first to
+literary history and criticism in his famous _Histoire de la littérature
+anglaise_ (1864), and then to history proper in his still more famous
+and far more solidly based _Origines de la France contemporaine_ (1876).
+To him, however, we must recur under the head of literary criticism. And
+not dissimilar phenomena, not so much of inconstancy to philosophy as of
+a tendency towards the applied rather than the pure branches of the
+subject, are noticeable in Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), in Charles de
+Rémusat (1797-1875), and in Ernest Renan (1823-1892), the first of whom
+began by translating Herder while the second and third devoted
+themselves early to scholastic philosophy, de Rémusat dealing with
+Abelard (1845) and Anselm (1856), Renan with Averroes (1852). More
+single-minded devotion to at least the historical side was shown by Jean
+Philibert Damiron (1794-1862), who published in 1842 a _Cours de
+philosophie_ and many minor works at different times; but the
+inconstancy recurs in Jules Simon (1814-1896), who, in the earlier part
+of his life a professor of philosophy and a writer of authority on the
+Greek philosophers (especially in _Histoire de l'école d'Alexandrie_,
+1844-1845), began before long to take an active and, towards the close
+of his life-work, all but a foremost part in politics. In theology the
+chief name of great literary eminence in the earlier part of the century
+is that of Lamennais, of whom more presently, in the later, that of
+Renan again. But Charles Forbes de Montalembert (1810-1870), an
+historian with a strong theological tendency, deserves notice; and among
+ecclesiastics who have been orators and writers the père Jean Baptiste
+Henri Lacordaire (1802-1861), a pupil of Lamennais who returned to
+orthodoxy but always kept to the Liberal side; the père Célestin Joseph
+Félix (1810-1891), a Jesuit teacher and preacher of eminence; and the
+père Didon (1840-1900), a very popular preacher and writer who, though
+thoroughly orthodox, did not escape collision with his superiors. On the
+Protestant side Athanase Coquerel (1820-1875) is the most remarkable
+name. Recently Paul Sabatier (b. 1858) has displayed, especially in
+dealing with Saint Francis of Assisi, much power of literary and
+religious sympathy and a style somewhat modelled on that of Renan, but
+less unctuous and effeminate. There are strong philosophical tendencies,
+and at least a revolt against the religious as well as philosophical
+ideas of the Encyclopédists, in the _Pensées_ of Joubert, while the
+hybrid position characteristic of the 19th century is particularly
+noticeable in Étienne Pivert de Sénancour (1770-1846), whose principal
+work, _Obermann_ (1804), had an extraordinary influence on its own and
+the next generation in the direction of melancholy moralizing. This tone
+was notably taken up towards the other end of the century by Amiel
+(q.v.), who, however, does not strictly belong to _French_ literature:
+while in Ximénès Doudon (1800-1872), author of _Mélanges et lettres_
+posthumously published, we find more of a return to the attitude of
+Joubert--literary criticism occupying a very large part of his
+reflections. Political philosophy and its kindred sciences have
+naturally received a large share of attention. Towards the middle of the
+century there was a great development of socialist and fanciful
+theorizing on politics, with which the names of Claude Henri, comte de
+Saint-Simon (1760-1825), Charles Fourier (1772-1837), Étienne Cabet
+(1788-1856), and others are connected. As political economists Frédéric
+Bastiat (1801-1850), L. G. L. Guilhaud de Lavergne (1809-1880), Louis
+Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881), and Michel Chevalier (1806-1879) may be
+noticed. In Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) France produced a
+political observer of a remarkably acute, moderate and reflective
+character, and Armand Carrel (1800-1836), whose life was cut short in a
+duel, was a real man of letters, as well as a brilliant journalist and
+an honest if rather violent party politician. The name of Jean Louis
+Eugène Lerminier (1803-1857) is of wide repute for legal and
+constitutional writings, and that of Henri, baron de Jomini (1779-1869)
+is still more celebrated as a military historian; while that of François
+Lenormant (1837-1883) holds a not dissimilar position in archaeology.
+With the publications devoted to physical science proper we do not
+attempt to meddle. Philology, however, demands a brief notice. In
+classical studies France has till recently hardly maintained the
+position which might be expected of the country of Scaliger and
+Casaubon. She has, however, produced some considerable Orientalists,
+such as Champollion the younger, Burnouf, Silvestre de Sacy and
+Stanislas Julien. The foundation of Romance philology was due, indeed,
+to the foreigners Wolf and Diez. But early in the century the curiosity
+as to the older literature of France created by Barbazan, Tressan and
+others continued to extend. Dominique Martin Méon (1748-1829) published
+many unprinted fabliaux, gave the whole of the French _Renart_ cycle,
+with the exception of _Renart le contrefait_, and edited the _Roman de
+la rose_. Charles Claude Fauriel (1772-1844) and François Raynouard
+(1761-1836) dealt elaborately with Provençal poetry as well as partially
+with that of the trouvères; and the latter produced his comprehensive
+_Lexique romane_. These examples were followed by many other writers,
+who edited manuscript works and commented on them, always with zeal and
+sometimes with discretion. Foremost among these must be mentioned Paulin
+Paris (1800-1881) who for fifty years served the cause of old French
+literature with untiring energy, great literary taste, and a pleasant
+and facile pen. His selections from manuscripts, his _Romancero
+français_, his editions of _Garin le Loherain_ and _Berte aus grans
+piés_, and his _Romans de la table ronde_ may especially be mentioned.
+Soon, too, the Benedictine _Histoire littéraire_, so long interrupted,
+was resumed under M. Paris's general management, and has proceeded
+nearly to the end of the 14th century. Among its contents M. Paris's
+dissertations on the later _chansons de gestes_ and the early song
+writers, M. Victor le Clerc's on the _fabliaux_, and M. Littré's on the
+_romans d'aventures_ may be specially noticed. For some time indeed the
+work of French editors was chargeable with a certain lack of critical
+and philological accuracy. This reproach, however, was wiped off by the
+efforts of a band of younger scholars, chiefly pupils of the École des
+Chartes, with MM. Gaston Paris (1839-1903) and Paul Meyer at their head.
+Of M. Paris in particular it may be said that no scholar in the subject
+has ever combined literary and linguistic competence more admirably. The
+Société des Anciens Textes Français was formed for the purpose of
+publishing scholarly editions of inedited works, and a lexicon of the
+older tongue by M. Godefroy at last supplemented, though not quite with
+equal accomplishment, the admirable dictionary in which Émile Littré
+(1801-1881), at the cost of a life's labour, embodied the whole
+vocabulary of the classical French language. Meanwhile the period
+between the middle ages proper and the 17th century has not lacked its
+share of this revival of attention. To the literature between Villon and
+Regnier especial attention was paid by the early Romantics, and
+Sainte-Beuve's _Tableau historique et critique de la poésie et du
+théâtre au seizième siècle_ was one of the manifestoes of the school.
+Since the appearance of that work in 1828 editions with critical
+comments of the literature of this period have constantly multiplied,
+aided by the great fancy for tastefully produced works which exists
+among the richer classes in France; and there are probably now few
+countries in which works of old authors, whether in cheap reprints or in
+_éditions de luxe_ can be more readily procured.
+
+
+  Béranger.
+
+  Lamartine.
+
+  Lamennais.
+
+_The Romantic Movement._--It is time, however, to return to the literary
+revolution itself, and its more purely literary results. At the
+accession of Charles X. France possessed three writers, and perhaps only
+three, of already remarkable eminence, if we except Chateaubriand, who
+was already of a past generation. These three were Pierre Jean de
+Béranger (1780-1857), Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), and Hugues
+Félicité Robert Lamennais (1782-1854). The first belongs definitely in
+manner, despite his striking originality of _nuance_, to the past. He
+has remnants of the old periphrases, the cumbrous mythological
+allusions, the poetical "properties" of French verse. He has also the
+older and somewhat narrow limitations of a French poet; foreigners are
+for him mere barbarians. At the same time his extraordinary lyrical
+faculty, his excellent wit, which makes him a descendant of Rabelais and
+La Fontaine, and his occasional touches of pathos made him deserve and
+obtain something more than successes of occasion. Béranger, moreover,
+was very far from being the mere improvisatore which those who cling to
+the inspirationist theory of poetry would fain see in him. His studies
+in style and composition were persistent, and it was long before he
+attained the firm and brilliant manner which distinguishes him.
+Béranger's talent, however, was still too much a matter of individual
+genius to have great literary influence, and he formed no school. It was
+different with Lamartine, who was, nevertheless, like Béranger, a
+typical Frenchman. The _Méditations_ and the _Harmonies_ exhibit a
+remarkable transition between the old school and the new. In going
+direct to nature, in borrowing from her striking outlines, vivid and
+contrasted tints, harmony and variety of sound, the new poet showed
+himself an innovator of the best class. In using romantic and religious
+associations, and expressing them in affecting language, he was the
+Chateaubriand of verse. But with all this he retained some of the vices
+of the classical school. His versification, harmonious as it is, is
+monotonous, and he does not venture into the bold lyrical forms which
+true poetry loves. He has still the horror of the _mot propre_; he is
+always spiritualizing and idealizing, and his style and thought have a
+double portion of the feminine and almost flaccid softness which had
+come to pass for grace in French. The last of the trio, Lamennais,
+represents an altogether bolder and rougher genius. Strongly influenced
+by the Catholic reaction, Lamennais also shows the strongest possible
+influence of the revolutionary spirit. His earliest work, the _Essai sur
+l'indifférence en matière de religion_ (1817 and 1818) was a defence of
+the church on curiously unecclesiastical lines. It was written in an
+ardent style, full of illustrations, and extremely ambitious in
+character. The plan was partly critical and partly constructive. The
+first part disposed of the 18th century; the second, adopting the theory
+of papal absolutism which Joseph de Maistre had already advocated,
+proceeded to base it on a supposed universal consent. The after history
+of Lamennais was perhaps not an unnatural recoil from this; but it is
+sufficient here to point out that in his prose, especially as afterwards
+developed in the apocalyptic _Paroles d'un croyant_ (1839) are to be
+discerned many of the tendencies of the Romantic school, particularly
+its hardy and picturesque choice of language, and the disdain of
+established and accepted methods which it professed. The signs of the
+revolution itself were, as was natural, first given in periodical
+literature. The feudalist affectations of Chateaubriand and the
+legitimists excited a sort of aesthetic affection for Gothicism, and
+Walter Scott became one of the most favourite authors in France. Soon
+was started the periodical _La Muse française_, in which the names of
+Hugo, Vigny, Deschamps and Madame de Girardin appear. Almost all the
+writers in this periodical were eager royalists, and for some time the
+battle was still fought on political grounds. There could, however, be
+no special connexion between classical drama and liberalism; and the
+liberal journal, the Globe, with no less a person than Sainte-Beuve
+among its contributors, declared definite war against classicism in the
+drama. The chief "classical" organs were the _Constitutionnel_, the
+_Journal des débats_, and after a time and not exclusively, the _Revue
+des deux mondes_. Soon the question became purely literary, and the
+Romantic school proper was born in the famous _cénacle_ or clique in
+which Hugo was chief poet, Sainte-Beuve chief critic, and Gautier,
+Gérard de Nerval, the brothers Émile (1791-1871) and Antony (1800-1869),
+Deschamps, Petrus Borel (1809-1859) and others were officers. Alfred de
+Vigny and Alfred de Musset stand somewhat apart, and so does Charles
+Nodier (1780-1844), a versatile and voluminous writer, the very variety
+and number of whose works have somewhat prevented the individual
+excellence of any of them from having justice done to it. The objects of
+the school, which was at first violently opposed, so much so that
+certain academicians actually petitioned the king to forbid the
+admission of any Romantic piece at the Théâtre Français, were, briefly
+stated, the burning of everything which had been adored, and the adoring
+of everything which had been burnt. They would have no unities, no
+arbitrary selection of subjects, no restraints on variety of
+versification, no academically limited vocabulary, no considerations of
+artificial beauty, and, above all, no periphrastic expression. The _mot
+propre_, the calling of a spade a spade, was the great commandment of
+Romanticism; but it must be allowed that what was taken away in
+periphrase was made up in adjectives. Musset, who was very much of a
+free-lance in the contest, maintained indeed that the _differentia_ of
+the Romantic was the copious use of this part of speech. All sorts of
+epithets were invented to distinguish the two parties, of which
+_flamboyant_ and _grisâtre_ are perhaps the most accurate and expressive
+pair--the former serving to denote the gorgeous tints and bold attempts
+of the new school, the latter the grey colour and monotonous outlines of
+the old. The representation of _Hernani_ in 1830 was the culmination of
+the struggle, and during great part of the reign of Louis Philippe
+almost all the younger men of letters in France were Romantics. The
+representation of the _Lucrèce_ of François Ponsard (1814-1867) in 1846
+is often quoted as the herald or sign of a classical reaction. But this
+was only apparent, and signified, if it signified anything, merely that
+the more juvenile excesses of the Romantics were out of date. All the
+greatest men of letters of France since 1830 have been on the innovating
+side, and all without exception, whether intentionally or not, have had
+their work coloured by the results of the movement, and of those which
+have succeeded it as developments rather than reactions.
+
+_Drama and Poetry since 1830._--Although the immediate subject on which
+the battles of Classics and Romantics arose was dramatic poetry, the
+dramatic results of the movement have not been those of greatest value
+or most permanent character. The principal effect in the long run has
+been the introduction of a species of play called _drame_, as opposed to
+regular comedy and tragedy, admitting of much freer treatment than
+either of these two as previously understood in French, and lending
+itself in some measure to the lengthy and disjointed action, the
+multiplicity of personages, and the absence of stock characters which
+characterized the English stage in its palmy days. All Victor Hugo's
+dramatic works are of this class, and each, as it was produced or
+published (_Cromwell_, _Hernani_, _Marion de l'Orme_, _Le Roi s'amuse_,
+_Lucrèce Borgia_, _Marie Tudor_, _Ruy Blas_ and _Les Burgraves_), was a
+literary event, and excited the most violent discussion--the author's
+usual plan being to prefix a prose preface of a very militant character
+to his work. A still more melodramatic variety of _drame_ was that
+chiefly represented by Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870), whose _Henri III_
+and _Antony_, to which may be added later _La Tour de Nesle_ and
+_Mademoiselle de Belleisle_, were almost as much rallying points for the
+early Romantics as the dramas of Hugo, despite their inferior literary
+value. At the same time Alexandre Soumet (1788-1845), in _Norma_, _Une
+Fête de Néron_, &c., and Casimir Delavigne in _Marino Faliero_, _Louis
+XI_, &c., maintained a somewhat closer adherence to the older models.
+The classical or semi-classical reaction of the last years of Louis
+Philippe was represented in tragedy by Ponsard (_Lucrèce_, _Agnes de
+Méranie_, _Charlotte Corday_, _Ulysse_, and several comedies), and on
+the comic side, to a certain extent, by Émile Augier (1820-1889) in
+_L'Aventurière_, _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_, _Le Fils de Giboyer_, &c.
+During almost the whole period Eugène Scribe (1791-1861) poured forth
+innumerable comedies of the vaudeville order, which, without possessing
+much literary value, attained immense popularity. For the last
+half-century the realist development of Romanticism has had the upper
+hand in dramatic composition, its principal representatives being on the
+one side Victorien Sardou (1831-1909), who in _Nos Intimes_, _La Famille
+Benoîton_, _Rabagas_, _Dora_, &c., chiefly devoted himself to the
+satirical treatment of manners, and Alexandre Dumas _fils_ (1824-1895),
+author in 1852 of the famous _Dame aux camélias_, who in such pieces as
+_Les Idées de Madame Aubray_ and _L'Étrangère_ rather busied himself
+with morals and "problems," while his _Dame aux camélias_ (1852) is
+sometimes ranked as the first of such things in "modern" style. Certain
+isolated authors also deserve notice, such as Joseph Autran (1813-1877),
+a poet and academician having some resemblance to Lamartine, whose
+_Fille d'Æschyle_ created for him a dramatic reputation which he did not
+attempt to follow up, and Gabriel Legouvé (b. 1807), whose _Adrienne
+Lecouvreur_ was assisted to popularity by the admirable talent of
+Rachel. A special variety of drama of the first literary importance has
+also been cultivated in this century under the title of _scènes_ or
+_proverbes_, slight dramatic sketches in which the dialogue and style
+are of even more importance than the action. The best of all of these
+are those of Alfred de Musset (1810-1857), whose _Il faut qu'une porte
+soit ouverte ou fermée_, _On ne badine pas avec l'amour_, &c., are
+models of grace and wit. Among his followers may be mentioned especially
+Octave Feuillet (1821-1890). Few social dramas of the kind in modern
+times have attained a greater success than _Le Monde où l'on s'ennuie_
+(1868) of Édouard Pailleron (1834-1899). (See also DRAMA.)
+
+
+  Victor Hugo.
+
+  Musset.
+
+  Gautier.
+
+In poetry proper, as in drama, Victor Hugo showed the way. In him all
+the Romantic characteristics were expressed and embodied--disregard of
+arbitrary critical rules, free choice of subject, variety and vigour of
+metre, splendour and sonorousness of diction, abundant "local colour,"
+and that irrepressible individualism which is one of the chief, though
+not perhaps the chief, of the symptoms. If the careful attention to form
+which is also characteristic of the movement is less apparent in him
+than in some of his followers, it is not because it is absent, but
+because the enthusiastic conviction with which he attacked every subject
+somewhat diverts attention from it. As with the merits so with the
+defects. A deficient sense of the ludicrous which characterized many of
+the Romantics was strongly apparent in their leader, as was also an
+equally representative grandiosity, and a fondness for the introduction
+of foreign and unfamiliar words, especially proper names, which
+occasionally produces an effect of burlesque. Victor Hugo's earliest
+poetical works, his chiefly royalist and political _Odes_, were cast in
+the older and accepted forms, but already displayed astonishing poetical
+qualities. But it was in the _Ballades_ (for instance, the splendid _Pas
+d'armes du roi Jean_, written in verses of three syllables) and the
+_Orientales_ (of which may be taken for a sample the sixth section of
+_Navarin_, a perfect torrent of outlandish terms poured forth in the
+most admirable verse, or _Les Djinns_, where some of the stanzas have
+lines of two syllables each) that the grand provocation was thrown to
+the believers in alexandrines, careful caesuras and strictly separated
+couplets. _Les Feuilles d'automne_, _Les Chants du crépuscule_, _Les
+Voix intérieures_, _Les Rayons et les ombres_, the productions of the
+next twenty years, were quieter in style and tone, but no less full of
+poetical spirit. The Revolution of 1848, the establishment of the empire
+and the poet's exile brought about a fresh determination of his genius
+to lyrical subjects. _Les Châtiments_ and _La Légende des siècles_, the
+one political, the other historical, reach perhaps the high-water mark
+of French verse; and they were followed by the philosophical
+_Contemplations_, the lighter _Chansons des rues et des bois_, the
+_Année terrible_, the second _Légende des siècles_, and the later work
+to be found noticed _sub nom_. We have been thus particular here because
+the literary productiveness of Victor Hugo himself has been the measure
+and sample of the whole literary productiveness of France on the
+poetical side. At five-and-twenty he was acknowledged as a master, at
+seventy-five he was a master still. His poetical influence has been
+represented in three different schools, from which very few of the
+poetical writers of the century can be excluded. These few we may notice
+first. Alfred de Musset, a writer of great genius, felt part of the
+Romantic inspiration very strongly, but was on the whole unfortunately
+influenced by Byron, and partly out of wilfulness, partly from a natural
+want of persevering industry and vigour, allowed himself to be careless
+and even slovenly in composition. Notwithstanding this, many of his
+lyrics are among the finest poems in the language, and his verse,
+careless as it is, has extraordinary natural grace. Auguste Barbier
+(1805-1882) whose _Iambes_ shows an extraordinary command of nervous and
+masculine versification, also comes in here; and the Breton poet,
+Auguste Brizeux (1803-1858), much admired by some, together with
+Hégésippe Moreau, an unequal writer possessing some talent, Pierre
+Dupont (1821-1870), one of much greater gifts, and Gustave Nadaud
+(1820-1893), a follower of Béranger, also deserve mention. Of the school
+of Lamartine rather than of Hugo are Alfred de Vigny (1799-1865) and
+Victor de Laprade (1812-1887), the former a writer of little bulk and
+somewhat over-fastidious, but possessing one of the most correct and
+elegant styles to be found in French, with a curious restrained passion
+and a complicated originality, the latter a meditative and philosophical
+poet, like Vigny an admirable writer, but somewhat deficient in pith and
+substance, as well as in warmth and colour. Madame Ackermann (1813-1890)
+is the chief philosophical poetess of France, and this style has
+recently been very popular; but for actual poetical powers, Marceline
+Desbordes-Valmore (1786-1859) perhaps excelled her, though in a looser
+and more sentimental fashion. The poetical schools which more directly
+derive from the Romantic movement as represented by Hugo are three in
+number, corresponding in point of time with the first outburst of the
+movement, with the period of reaction already alluded to, and with the
+closing years of the second empire. Of the first by far the most
+distinguished member was Théophile Gautier (1811-1872), the most perfect
+poet in point of form that France has produced. When quite a boy he
+devoted himself to the study of 16th-century masters, and though he
+acknowledged the supremacy of Hugo, his own talent was of an individual
+order, and developed itself more or less independently. _Albertus_ alone
+of his poems has much of the extravagant and grotesque character which
+distinguished early romantic literature. The _Comédie de la mort_, the
+_Poésies diverses_, and still more the _Émaux et camées_, display a
+distinctly classical tendency--classical, that is to say, not in the
+party and perverted sense, but in its true acceptation. The tendency to
+the fantastic and horrible may be taken as best shown by Petrus Borel
+(1809-1859), a writer of singular power almost entirely wasted. Gerard
+Labrunie or de Nerval (1808-1855) adopted a manner also fantastic but
+more idealistic than Borel's, and distinguished himself by his Oriental
+travels and studies, and by his attention to popular ballads and
+traditions, while his style has an exquisite but unaffected strangeness
+hardly inferior to Gautier's. This peculiar and somewhat quintessenced
+style is also remarkable in the _Gaspard de la nuit_ of Louis Bertrand
+(1807-1841), a work of rhythmical prose almost unique in its character.
+One famous sonnet preserves the name of Félix Arvers (1806-1850). The
+two Deschamps were chiefly remarkable as translators. The next
+generation produced three remarkable poets, to whom may perhaps be added
+a fourth. Théodore de Banville (1823-1891), adopting the principles of
+Gautier, and combining with them a considerable satiric faculty,
+composed a large amount of verse, faultless in form, delicate and
+exquisite in shades and colours, but so entirely neutral in moral and
+political tone that it has found fewer admirers than it deserved.
+Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle (1818-1894), carrying out the
+principle of ransacking foreign literature for subjects, went to Celtic,
+classical or even Oriental sources for his inspiration, and despite a
+science in verse not much inferior to Banville's, and a far wider range
+and choice of subject, diffused an air of erudition, not to say
+pedantry, over his work which disgusted some readers, and a pessimism
+which displeased others, but has left poetry only inferior to that of
+the greatest of his countrymen. Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), by his
+choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of his analysis,
+revolted not a few of those who, in the words of an English critic,
+cannot take pleasure in the representation if they do not take pleasure
+in the thing represented, and who thus miss his extraordinary command of
+the poetical appeal in sound, in imagery and in suggestion generally.
+Thus, by a strange coincidence, each of the three representatives of the
+second Romantic generation was for a time disappointed of his due fame.
+A fourth poet of this time, Joséphin Soulary (1815-1891), produced
+sonnets of rare beauty and excellence. A fifth, Louis Bouilhet
+(1822-1869), an intimate friend of Flaubert, pushed even farther the
+fancy for strange subjects, but showed powers in _Melænis_ and other
+things. In 1866 a collection of poems, entitled after an old French
+fashion _Le Parnasse contemporain_, appeared. It included contributions
+by many of the poets just mentioned, but the mass of the contributors
+were hitherto unknown to fame. A similar collection appeared in 1869,
+and was interrupted by the German war, but continued after it, and a
+third in 1876.
+
+The first _Parnasse_ had been projected by MM. Xavier de Ricard (b.
+1843) and Catulle Mendès (1841-1909) as a sort of manifesto of a school
+of young poets: but its contents were largely coloured by the inclusion
+among them of work by representatives of older generations--Gautier,
+Laprade, Leconte de Lisle, Banville, Baudelaire and others. The
+continuation, however, of the title in the later issues, rather than
+anything else, led to the formation and promulgation of the idea of a
+"Parnassien" or an "Impassible" school which was supposed to adopt as
+its watchword the motto of "Art for Art's sake," to pay especial
+attention to form, and also to aim at a certain objectivity. As a matter
+of fact the greater poets and the greater poems of the Parnasse admit of
+no such restrictive labelling, which can only be regarded as
+mischievous, though (or very mainly because) it has been continued.
+Another school, arising mainly in the later 'eighties and calling itself
+that of "Symbolism," has been supposed to indicate a reaction against
+Parnassianism and even against the main or Hugonic Romantic tradition
+generally; with a throwing back to Lamartine and perhaps Chénier. This
+idea of successive schools ("Decadents," "Naturists," "Simplists," &c.)
+has even been reduced to such an _absurdum_ as the statement that
+"France sees a new school of poetry every fifteen years." Those who have
+studied literature sufficiently widely, and from a sufficient elevation,
+know that these systematisings are always more or less delusive.
+Parnassianism, symbolism and the other things are merely phases of the
+Romantic movement itself--as may be proved to demonstration by the
+simple process of taking, say, Hugo and Verlaine on the one hand,
+Delille or Escouchard Lebrun on the other, and comparing the two first
+mentioned with each other and with the older poet. The differences in
+the first case will be found to be differences at most of individuality:
+in the other of kind. We shall not, therefore, further refer to these
+dubious classifications: but specify briefly the most remarkable poets
+whom they concern, and all the older of whom, it may be observed, were
+represented in the _Parnasse_ itself. Of these the most remarkable were
+Sully Prudhomme (1839-1907), François Coppée (1842-1908) and Paul
+Verlaine (1844-1896). The first (_Stances et poèmes_, 1865, _Vaines
+Tendresses_, 1875, _Bonheur_, 1888, &c.) is a philosophical and rather
+pessimistic poet who has very strongly rallied the suffrages of the
+rather large present public who care for the embodiment of these
+tendencies in verse; the second (_La Grève des forgerons_, 1869, _Les
+Humbles_, 1872, _Contes et vers_, 1881-1887, &c.) a dealer with more
+generally popular subjects in a more sentimental manner; and the third
+(_Sagesse_, 1881, _Parallèlement_, 1889, _Poèmes saturniens_, including
+early work, 1867-1890), by far the most original and remarkable poet of
+the three, starting with Baudelaire and pushing farther the fancy for
+forbidden subjects, but treating both these and others with wonderful
+command of sound and image-suggestion. Verlaine in fact (he was actually
+well acquainted with English) endeavoured, and to a small extent
+succeeded in the endeavour, to communicate to French the vague
+suggestion of visual and audible appeal which has characterized English
+poetry from Blake through Coleridge. Others of the original Parnassiens
+who deserve mention are Albert Glatigny (1839-1873), a Bohemian poet of
+great talent who died young; Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-1898), afterwards
+chief of the Symbolists, also a true poet in his way, but somewhat
+barren, and the victim of pose and trick; José Maria de Heredia
+(1842-1905), a very exquisite practitioner of the sonnet but with
+perhaps more art than matter in him; Henri Cazalis (1840-1909), who long
+afterwards, under his name of Jean Lahor, appeared as a Symbolist
+pessimist; A. Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, another eccentric but with a
+spark of genius; Emmanuel des Essarts; Auguste de Châtillon (1810-1882);
+Léon Dierx (b. 1838) who, after producing even less than Mallarmé,
+succeeded him as Symbolist chief; Jean Aicard (b. 1848), a southern bard
+of merit; and lastly Catulle Mendès himself, who has been a brilliant
+writer in verse and prose ever since, and whose _Mouvement poétique
+français de 1867 à 1900_ (1903), an official report largely amplified so
+that it is in fact a history and dictionary of French poetry during the
+century, forms an almost unique work of reference on the subject. Among
+the later recruits the most specially noticeable was Armand Silvestre
+(1837-1901), whose verse (_La Chanson des heures_, 1878, _Ailes d'or_,
+1880, _La Chanson des étoiles_, 1885), of an ethereal beauty, was
+contrasted with prose admirably written and sometimes most amusing, but
+"Pantagruelist," and more, in manners and morals. This declension from
+poetry to prose fiction was also noticeable in Guy de Maupassant, André
+Theuriet, Anatole France and even Alphonse Daudet.
+
+Yet another flight of poets may be grouped as those specially
+representing the last quarter of the century and (whether Parnassian,
+Symbolist or what not) the latest development of French poetry. Verlaine
+and Mallarmé already mentioned were in a manner the leaders of these.
+Perhaps something of the influence of Whitman may be detected in the
+irregular verses of Gustave Kahn (b. 1859), Francis Viélé Griffin,
+actually an American by birth (b. 1864), Stuart Merrill, of like origin,
+and Paul Fort (b. 1872). But the whole tendency of the period has been
+to relax the stringency of French prosody. Albert Samain (1859-1900), a
+musical versifier enough; Jean Moréas (1856-1910) who began with a
+volume called _Les Syrtes_ in 1884; Laurent Tailhade (b. 1854) and
+others are more or less Symbolist, and contributed to the Symbolist
+periodical (one of many such since the beginning of the Romantic
+movement which would almost require an article to themselves), the
+_Mercure de France_. An older man than many of these, M. Jean Richepin
+(b. 1849), made for a time considerable noise with poetical work of a
+colour older even than his age, and harking back somewhat to the
+Jeune-France and "Bousingot" type of early Romanticism--_La Chanson des
+gueux_, _Les Blasphèmes_, &c. Other writers of note are M. Paul
+Déroulède (b. 1846), a violently nationalist poet; M. Maurice Bouchor
+(b. 1864), who started his serious and respectable work with _Les
+Symboles_ in 1888; while M. Henri de Regnier, born in the same year, has
+received very high praise for work from _Lendemains_ in 1886 and other
+volumes up to _Les Jeux rustiques et divins_ (1897) and _Les Médailles
+d'argile_ (1900). The truth, however, perhaps is that this extraordinary
+abundance of verse (for we have not mentioned a quarter of the names
+which present themselves, or a twentieth part of those who figure in M.
+Mendès's catalogue for the last half-century) reminds the literary
+historian somewhat too much of similar phenomena in other times. There
+is undoubtedly a great diffusion of poetical dexterity, and not perhaps
+a small one of poetical spirit, but it requires the settling, clarifying
+and distinguishing effects of time to separate the poet from the minor
+poet. Still more perhaps must we look to time to decide whether the
+_vers libre_ as it is called--that is to say, the verse freed from the
+minute traditions of the elder prosody, admitting hiatus, neglecting to
+a greater or less extent _caesura_, and sometimes relying upon mere
+rhythm to the neglect of strict metre altogether--can hold its ground.
+It has as yet been practised by no poet at all approaching the first
+class, except Verlaine, and not by him in its extremer forms. And the
+whole history of prosody and poetry teaches us that though similar
+changes often come in as it were unperceived, they scarcely ever take
+root in the language unless a great poet adopts them. Or rather it
+should perhaps be said that when they are going to take root in the
+language a great poet always does adopt them before very long.
+
+
+  Dumas.
+
+  Balzac the younger.
+
+_Prose Fiction since 1830._--Even more remarkable, because more
+absolutely novel, was the outburst of prose fiction which followed 1830.
+Madame de Lafayette, Le Sage, Marivaux, Voltaire, the Abbé Prévost,
+Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre and Fiévée had all of
+them produced work excellent in its way, and comprising in a more or
+less rudimentary condition most varieties of the novel. But none of them
+had, in the French phrase, made a school, and at no time had prose
+fiction been composed in any considerable quantities. The immense
+influence which Walter Scott exercised was perhaps the direct cause of
+the attention paid to prose fiction; the facility, too, with which all
+the fancies, tastes and beliefs of the time could be embodied in such
+work may have had considerable importance. But it is difficult on any
+theory of cause and effect to account for the appearance in less than
+ten years of such a group of novelists as Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée,
+Balzac, George Sand, Jules Sandeau and Charles de Bernard, names to
+which might be added others scarcely inferior. There is hardly anything
+else resembling it in literature, except the great cluster of English
+dramatists in the beginning of the 17th century, and of English poets at
+the beginning of the 19th; and it is remarkable that the excellence of
+the first group was maintained by a fresh generation--Murger, About,
+Feuillet, Flaubert, Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbuliez and
+Gaboriau, forming a company of _diadochi_ not far inferior to their
+predecessors, and being themselves not unworthily succeeded almost up to
+the present day. The romance-writing of France during the period has
+taken two different directions--the first that of the novel of incident,
+the second that of analysis and character. The first, now mainly
+deserted, was that which, as was natural when Scott was the model, was
+formerly most trodden; the second required the genius of George Sand and
+of Balzac and the more problematical talent of Beyle to attract students
+to it. The novels of Victor Hugo are novels of incident, with a strong
+infusion of purpose, and considerable but rather ideal character
+drawing. They are in fact lengthy prose _drames_ rather than romances
+proper, and they have found no imitators. They display, however, the
+powers of the master at their fullest. On the other hand, Alexandre
+Dumas originally composed his novels in close imitation of Scott, and
+they are much less dramatic than narrative in character, so that they
+lend themselves to almost indefinite continuation, and there is often no
+particular reason why they should terminate even at the end of the score
+or so of volumes to which they sometimes actually extend. Of this purely
+narrative kind, which hardly even attempts anything but the boldest
+character drawing, the best of them, such as _Les Trois Mousquetaires_,
+_Vingt ans après_, _La Reine Margot_, are probably the best specimens
+extant. Dumas possesses, almost alone among novelists, the secret of
+writing interminable dialogue without being tedious, and of telling the
+story by it. Of something the same kind, but of a far lower stamp, are
+the novels of Eugène Sue (1804-1857). Dumas and Sue were accompanied and
+followed by a vast crowd of companions, independent or imitative. Alfred
+de Vigny had already attempted the historical novel in _Cinq-Mars_.
+Henri de La Touche (1785-1851) (_Fragoletta_), an excellent critic who
+formed George Sand, but a mediocre novelist, may be mentioned: and
+perhaps also Roger de Beauvoir, whose real name was Eugène Auguste Roger
+de Bully (1806-1866) (_Le Chronique de Saint Georges_), and Frédéric
+Soulié (_Les Mémoires du diable_) (1800-1847). Paul Féval (_La Fée des
+grèves_) (1817-1877) and Amédée Achard (_Belle-Rose_) (1814-1875) are of
+the same school, and some of the attempts of Jules Janin (1804-1874),
+more celebrated as a critic, may also be connected with it. By degrees,
+however, the taste for the novel of incident, at least of an historical
+kind, died out till it was revived in another form, and with an
+admixture of domestic interest, by MM. Erckmann-Chatrian. The last and
+one of the most splendid instances of the old style was _Le Capitaine
+Fracasse_, which Théophile Gautier began early and finished late as a
+kind of _tour de force_. The last-named writer in his earlier days had
+modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kind of writing for
+which French has always been famous, and in which Gautier's sketches are
+masterpieces. His only other long novel, _Mademoiselle de Maupin_,
+belongs rather to the class of analysis. With Gautier, as a writer whose
+literary characteristics even excel his purely tale-telling powers, may
+be classed Prosper Mérimée (1803-1870), one of the most exquisite
+19th-century masters of the language. Already, however, in 1830 the tide
+was setting strongly in favour of novels of contemporary life and
+manners. These were of course susceptible of extremely various
+treatment. For many years Paul de Kock (1793-1871), a writer who did not
+trouble himself about Classics or Romantics or any such matter,
+continued the tradition of Marivaux, Crébillon _fils_, and Pigault
+Lebrun (1753-1835) in a series of not very moral or polished but lively
+and amusing sketches of life, principally of the bourgeois type. Later
+Charles de Bernard (1804-1850) (_Gerfaut_) with infinitely greater wit,
+elegance, propriety and literary skill, did the same thing for the
+higher classes of French society. But the two great masters of the novel
+of character and manners as opposed to that of history and incident are
+Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850) and Aurore Dudevant, commonly called George
+Sand (1804-1876). Their influence affected the entire body of novelists
+who succeeded them, with very few exceptions. At the head of these
+exceptions may be placed Jules Sandeau (1811-1883), who, after writing a
+certain number of novels in a less individual style, at last made for
+himself a special subject in a certain kind of domestic novel, where the
+passions set in motion are less boisterous than those usually preferred
+by the French novelist, and reliance is mainly placed on minute
+character drawing and shades of colour sober in hue but very carefully
+adjusted (_Catherine_, _Mademoiselle de Penarvan_, _Mademoiselle de la
+Seiglière_). In the same class of the more quiet and purely domestic
+novelists may be placed X. B. Saintine (1798-1865) (_Picciola_), Madame
+C. Reybaud (1802-1871) (_Clémentine_, _Le Cadet de Colobrières_), J. T.
+de Saint-Germain (_Pour en épingle_, _La Feuille de coudrier_), Madame
+Craven (1808-1891) (_Récit d'une soeur_, _Fleurange_). Henri Beyle
+(1798-1865), who wrote under the _nom de plume_ of Stendhal and belongs
+to an older generation than most of these, also stands by himself. His
+chief book in the line of fiction is _La Chartreuse de Parme_, an
+exceedingly powerful novel of the analytical kind, and he also composed
+a considerable number of critical and miscellaneous works. Of little
+influence at first (though he had great power over Mérimée) and never
+master of a perfect style, he has exercised ever increasing authority as
+a master of pessimist analysis. Indeed much of his work was never
+published till towards the close of the century. Last among the
+independents must be mentioned Henry Murger (1822-1861), the painter of
+what is called Bohemian life, that is to say, the struggles,
+difficulties and amusements of students, youthful artists, and men of
+letters. In this peculiar style, which may perhaps be regarded as an
+irregular descendant of the picaroon romance, Murger has no rival; and
+he is also, though on no extensive scale, a poet of great pathos. But
+with these exceptions, the influences of the two writers we have
+mentioned, sometimes combined, more often separate, may be traced
+throughout the whole of later novel literature. George Sand began with
+books strongly tinged with the spirit of revolt against moral and social
+arrangements, and she sometimes diverged into very curious paths of
+pseudo-philosophy, such as was popular in the second quarter of the
+century. At times, too, as in _Lucrezia Floriani_ and some other works,
+she did not hesitate to draw largely on her own personal adventures and
+experiences. But latterly she devoted herself rather to sketches of
+country life and manners, and to novels involving bold if not very
+careful sketches of character and more or less dramatic situations. She
+was one of the most fertile of novelists, continuing to the end of her
+long life to pour forth fiction at the rate of many volumes a year. Of
+her different styles may be mentioned as fairly characteristic, _Lélia_,
+_Lucrezia Floriani_, _Consuelo_, _La Mare au diable_, _La Petite
+Fadette_, _François le champi_, _Mademoiselle de la Quintinie_.
+Considering the shorter length of his life the productiveness of Balzac
+was almost more astonishing, especially if we consider that some of his
+early work was never reprinted, and that he left great stores of
+fragments and unfinished sketches. He is, moreover, the most remarkable
+example in literature of untiring work and determination to achieve
+success despite the greatest discouragements. His early work was worse
+than unsuccessful, it was positively bad. After more than a score of
+unsuccessful attempts, _Les Chouans_ at last made its mark, and for
+twenty years from that time the astonishing productions composing the
+so-called _Comédie humaine_ were poured forth successively. The
+sub-titles which Balzac imposed upon the different batches, _Scènes de
+la vie parisienne_, _de la vie de province_, _de la vie intime_, &c.,
+show, like the general title, a deliberate intention on the author's
+part to cover the whole ground of human, at least of French life. Such
+an attempt could not succeed wholly; yet the amount of success attained
+is astonishing. Balzac has, however, with some justice been accused of
+creating the world which he described, and his personages, wonderful as
+is the accuracy and force with which many of the characteristics of
+humanity are exemplified in them, are somehow not altogether human.
+Since these two great novelists, many others have arisen, partly to
+tread in their steps, partly to strike out independent paths. Octave
+Feuillet (1821-1890), beginning his career by apprenticeship to
+Alexandre Dumas and the historical novel, soon found his way in a very
+different style of composition, the _roman intime_ of fashionable life,
+in which, notwithstanding some grave defects, he attained much
+popularity and showed remarkable skill in keeping abreast of his time.
+The so-called realist side of Balzac was developed (but, as he himself
+acknowledged, with a double dose of intermixed if somewhat transformed
+Romanticism) by Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), who showed culture,
+scholarship and a literary power over the language inferior to that of
+no writer of the century. No novelist of his generation has attained a
+higher literary rank than Flaubert. _Madame Bovary_ and _L'Éducation
+sentimentale_ are studies of contemporary life; in _Salammbô_ and _La
+Tentation de Saint Antoine_ erudition and antiquarian knowledge furnish
+the subjects for the display of the highest literary skill. Of about the
+same date Edmond About (1828-1885), before he abandoned novel-writing,
+devoted himself chiefly to sketches of abundant but not always refined
+wit (_L'Homme à l'oreille cassée_, _Le Nez d'un notaire_), and sometimes
+to foreign scenes (_Tolla_, _Le Roi des montagnes_). Champfleury (Henri
+Husson, 1829-1889), a prolific critic, deserves notice for stories of
+the extravaganza kind. During the whole of the Second Empire one of the
+most popular writers was Ernest Feydeau (1821-1873), a writer of great
+ability, but morbid and affected in the choice and treatment of his
+subjects (_Fanny_, _Sylvie_, _Catherine d'Overmeire_). Émile Gaboriau
+(1833-1873), taking up that side of Balzac's talent which devoted itself
+to inextricable mysteries, criminal trials, and the like, produced _M.
+Le Coq_, _Le Crime d'Orcival_, _La Dégringolade_, &c.; and Adolphe Belot
+(b. 1829) for a time endeavoured to out-Feydeau Feydeau in _La Femme de
+feu_ and other works. Eugène Fromentin (1820-1876), best known as a
+painter, wrote a novel, _Dominique_, which was highly appreciated by
+good judges.
+
+During the last decade of the Second Empire there arose, continuing for
+varying lengths of time till nearly the end of the century, another
+remarkable group of novelists, most of whom are dealt with under
+separate headings, but who must receive combined treatment here; with
+the warning that even more danger than in the case of the poets is
+incurred by classing them in "schools." Undoubtedly, however, the
+"Naturalist" tendency, starting from Balzac and continued through
+Flaubert, but taking quite a new direction under some of those to be
+mentioned, is in a manner dominant. Flaubert himself and Feuillet (an
+exact observer of manners but an anti-Naturalist) have already been
+mentioned. Victor Cherbuliez (1829-1899), a constant writer in the
+_Revue des deux mondes_ on politics and other subjects, also
+accomplished a long series of novels from _Le Comte Kostia_ (1863)
+onwards, of which the most remarkable are that just named, _Le Roman
+d'une honnête femme_ (1866), and _Meta Holdenis_ (1873). With something
+of Balzac and more of Feuillet, Cherbuliez mixed with his observation of
+society a dose of sentimental and popular romance which offended the
+younger critics of his day, but he had solid merits. Gustave Droz (b.
+1832) devoted himself chiefly to short stories sufficiently "free" in
+subject (_Monsieur, madame et bébé_, _Entre nous_, &c.) but full of
+fancy, excellently written, and of a delicate wit in one sense if not in
+all. André Theuriet (1833-1907) began with poetry but diverged to
+novels, in which the scenery of France and especially of its great
+forests is used with much skill; _Le Fils Maugars_ (1879) may be
+mentioned out of many as a specimen. Léon Cladel (1835-1892), whose most
+remarkable work was _Les Va-nu-pieds_ (1874), had, as this title of
+itself shows, Naturalist leanings; but with a quaint Romantic tendency
+in prose and verse.
+
+The Naturalists proper chiefly developed or seemed to develop one side
+of Balzac, but almost entirely abandoned his Romantic element. They
+aimed first at exact and almost photographic delineation of the
+accidents of modern life, and secondly at still more uncompromising
+non-suppression of the essential features and functions of that life
+which are usually suppressed. This school may be represented in chief by
+four novelists (really _three_, as two of them were brothers who wrote
+together till the rather early death of one of them), Émile Zola
+(1840-1903), Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897), and Edmond (1822-1897) and
+Jules (1830-1870) de Goncourt. The first, of Italian extraction and
+Marseillais birth, began by work of undecided kinds and was always a
+critic as well as a novelist. Of this first stage _Contes à Ninon_
+(1864) and _Thérèse Raquin_ (1867) deserve to be specified. But after
+1870 Zola entered upon a huge scheme (suggested no doubt by the _Comédie
+humaine_) of tracing the fortunes in every branch, legitimate and
+illegitimate, and in every rank of society of a family, _Les
+Rougon-Macquart_, and carried it out in a full score of novels during
+more than as many years. He followed this with a shorter series on
+places, _Paris_, _Rome_, _Lourdes_, and lastly by another of strangely
+apocalyptic tone, _Fécondité_, _Travail_, _Vérité_, the last a story of
+the Dreyfus case, retrospective and, as it proved, prophetic. The
+extreme repulsiveness of much of his work, and the overdone detail of
+almost the whole of it, caused great prejudice against him, and will
+probably always prevent his being ranked among the greatest novelists;
+but his power is indubitable, and in passages, if not in whole books,
+does itself justice.
+
+MM. de Goncourt, besides their work in Naturalist (they would have
+preferred to call it "Impressionist") fiction, devoted themselves
+especially to study and collection in the fine arts, and produced many
+volumes on the historical side of these, volumes distinguished by
+accurate and careful research. This quality they carried, and the elder
+of them after his brother's death continued to carry, into novel-writing
+(_Renée Mauperin_, _Germinie Lacerteux_, _Chérie_, &c.) with the
+addition of an extraordinary care for peculiar and, as they called it,
+"personal" diction. On the other hand, Alphonse Daudet (who with the
+other three, Flaubert to some extent, and the Russian novelist
+Turgenieff, formed a sort of _cénacle_ or literary club) mixed with some
+Naturalism a far greater amount of fancy and wit than his companions
+allowed themselves or could perhaps attain; and in the _Tartarin_ series
+(dealing with the extravagances of his fellow-Provençaux) added not a
+little to the gaiety of Europe. His other novels (_Fromont jeune et
+Risler aîné_, _Jack_, _Le Nabab_, &c.), also very popular, have been
+variously judged, there being something strangely like plagiarism in
+some of them, and in others, in fact in most, an excessive use of that
+privilege of the novelist which consists in introducing real persons
+under more or less disguise. It should be observed in speaking of this
+group that the Goncourts, or rather the survivor of them, left an
+elaborate _Journal_ disfigured by spite and bad taste, but of much
+importance for the appreciation of the personal side of French
+literature during the last half of the century.
+
+In 1880 Zola, who had by this time formed a regular school of disciples,
+issued with certain of them a collection of short stories, _Les Soirées
+de Médan_, which contains one of his own best things, _L'Attaque du
+moulin_, and also the capital story, _Boule de suif_, by Guy de
+Maupassant (1850-1893), who in the same year published poems, _Des
+vers_, of very remarkable if not strictly poetical quality. Maupassant
+developed during his short literary career perhaps the greatest powers
+shown by any French novelist since Flaubert (his sponsor in both senses)
+in a series of longer novels (_Une Vie_, _Bel Ami_, _Pierre et Jean_,
+_Fort comme la mort_) and shorter stories (_Monsieur Parent_, _Les
+Soeurs Rondoli_, _Le Horla_), but they were distorted by the Naturalist
+pessimism and grime, and perhaps also by the brain-disease of which
+their author died. M. J. K. Huysmans (b. 1848), also a contributor to
+_Les Soirées de Médan_, who had begun a little earlier with _Marthe_
+(1876) and other books, gave his most characteristic work in 1884 with
+_Au rebours_ and in 1891 with _Là-bas_, stories of exaggerated and
+"satanic" pose, decorated with perhaps the extremest achievements of the
+school in mere ugliness and nastiness. Afterwards, by an obvious
+reaction, he returned to Catholicism. Of about the same date as these
+two are two other novelists of note, Julien Viaud ("Pierre Loti," b.
+1850), a naval officer who embodied his experiences of foreign service
+with a faint dose of story and character interest, and a far larger one
+of elaborate description, in a series of books (_Aziyadé_, _Le Mariage
+de Loti_, _Madame Chrysanthème_, &c.), and M. Paul Bourget (b. 1852), an
+important critic as well as novelist who deflected the Naturalist
+current into a "psychological" channel, connecting itself higher with
+Stendhal, and composed in its books very popular in their way--_Cruelle
+Énigme_ (1885), _Le Disciple_, _Terre promise_, _Cosmopolis_. As a
+contrast or complement to Bourget's "psychological" novel may be taken
+the "ethical" novel of Edouard Rod (1857-1909)--_La Vie privée de Michel
+Tessier_ (1893), _Le Sens de la vie_, _Les Trois Coeurs_. Contemporary
+with these as a novelist though a much older man, and occupied at
+different times of his life with verse and with criticism, came Anatole
+France (b. 1844), who in _Le Crime de Silvestre Bonnard_, _La Rôtisserie
+de la reine Pédauque_, _Le Lys rouge_, and others, has made a kind of
+novel as different from the ordinary styles as Pierre Loti's, but of far
+higher appeal in its wit, its subtle fancy, and its perfect French.
+Ferdinand Fabre (1830-1898) and René Bazin (b. 1853) represent the
+union, not too common in the French novel, of orthodoxy in morals and
+religion with literary ability. Further must be mentioned Paul Hervieu
+(b. 1857), a dramatist rather than a novelist; the brothers Margueritte
+(Paul, b. 1860, Victor, b. 1866), especially strong in short stories and
+passages; another pair of brothers of Belgian origin writing under the
+name of "J. H. Rosny"--Zolaists partly converted not to religion but to
+science and a sort of non-Christian virtue; the ingenious and amusing,
+if not exactly moral, brilliancy of Marcel Prévost (b. 1862); the
+contorted but rather attractive style and the perverse sentiment of
+Maurice Barrès (b. 1862); and, above all, the audacious and inimitable
+dialogue pieces of "Gyp" (Madame de Martel, b. 1850), worthy of the best
+times of French literature for gaiety, satire, acuteness and style, and
+perhaps likely, with the work of Maupassant, Pierre Loti and Anatole
+France, to represent the capital achievement of their particular
+generation to posterity.
+
+
+  Sainte-Beuve.
+
+_Periodical Literature since 1830. Criticism._--One of the causes which
+led to this extensive composition of novels was the great spread of
+periodical literature in France, and the custom of including in almost
+all periodicals, daily, weekly or monthly, a _feuilleton_ or instalment
+of fiction. Of the contributors of these periodicals who were strictly
+journalists and almost political journalists only, the most remarkable
+after Carrel were his opponent in the fatal duel,--Émile de Girardin,
+Lucien A. Prévost-Paradol (1829-1870), Jean Hippolyte Cartier, called de
+Villemessant (1812-1879), and, above all, Louis Veuillot (1815-1883),
+the most violent and unscrupulous but by no means the least gifted of
+his class. The same spread of periodical literature, together with the
+increasing interest in the literature of the past, led also to a very
+great development of criticism. Almost all French authors of any
+eminence during nearly the last century have devoted themselves more or
+less to criticism of literature, of the theatre, or of art. And
+sometimes, as in the case of Janin and Gautier, the comparatively
+lucrative nature of journalism, and the smaller demands which it made
+for labour and intellectual concentration, have diverted to
+feuilleton-writing abilities which might perhaps have been better
+employed. At the same time it must be remembered that from this devotion
+of men of the best talents to critical work has arisen an immense
+elevation of the standard of such work. Before the romantic movement in
+France Diderot in that country, Lessing and some of his successors in
+Germany, Hazlitt, Coleridge and Lamb in England, had been admirable
+critics and reviewers. But the theory of criticism, though these men's
+principles and practice had set it aside, still remained more or less
+what it had been for centuries. The critic was merely the administrator
+of certain hard and fast rules. There were certain recognized kinds of
+literary composition; every new book was bound to class itself under one
+or other of these. There were certain recognized rules for each class;
+and the goodness or badness of a book consisted simply in its obedience
+or disobedience to these rules. Even the kinds of admissible subjects
+and the modes of admissible treatment were strictly noted and numbered.
+This was especially the case in France and with regard to French
+_belles-lettres_, so that, as we have seen, certain classes of
+composition had been reduced to unimportant variations of a registered
+pattern. The Romantic protest against this absurdity was specially loud
+and completely victorious. It is said that a publisher advised the
+youthful Lamartine to try "to be like somebody else" if he wished to
+succeed. The Romantic standard of success was, on the contrary, to be as
+individual as possible. Victor Hugo himself composed a good deal of
+criticism, and in the preface to his _Orientales_ he states the critical
+principles of the new school clearly. The critic, he says, has nothing
+to do with the subject chosen, the colours employed, the materials used.
+Is the work, judged by itself and with regard only to the ideal which
+the worker had in his mind, good or bad? It will be seen that as a
+legitimate corollary of this theorem the critic becomes even more of an
+interpreter than of a judge. He can no longer satisfy himself or his
+readers by comparing the work before him with some abstract and accepted
+standard, and marking off its shortcomings. He has to reconstruct, more
+or less conjecturally, the special ideal at which each of his authors
+aimed, and to do this he has to study their idiosyncrasies with the
+utmost care, and set them before his readers in as full and attractive a
+fashion as he can manage. The first writer who thoroughly grasped this
+necessity and successfully dealt with it was Charles Augustin
+Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869), who has indeed identified his name with the
+method of criticism just described. Sainte-Beuve's first remarkable work
+(his poems and novels we may leave out of consideration) was the sketch
+of 16th-century literature already alluded to, which he contributed to
+the _Globe_. But it was not till later that his style of criticism
+became fully developed and accentuated. During the first decade of Louis
+Philippe's reign his critical papers, united under the title of
+_Critiques et portraits littéraires_, show a gradual advance. During the
+next ten years he was mainly occupied with his studies of the writers of
+the Port Royal school. But it was during the last twenty years of his
+life, when the famous _Causeries du lundi_ appeared weekly in the
+columns of the _Constitutionnel_ and the _Moniteur_, that his most
+remarkable productions came out. Sainte-Beuve's style of criticism
+(which is the key to so much of French literature of the last
+half-century that it is necessary to dwell on it at some length),
+excellent and valuable as it is, lent itself to two corruptions. There
+is, in the first place, in making the careful investigations into the
+character and circumstances of each writer which it demands, a danger of
+paying too much attention to the man and too little to his work, and of
+substituting for a critical study a mere collection of personal
+anecdotes and traits, especially if the author dealt with belongs to a
+foreign country or a past age. The other danger is that of connecting
+the genius and character of particular authors too much with their
+conditions and circumstances, so as to regard them as merely so many
+products of the age. These faults, and especially the latter, have been
+very noticeable in many of Sainte-Beuve's successors, particularly in,
+perhaps, Hippolyte Taine, who, however, besides his work on English
+literature, did much of importance on French, and has been regarded as
+the first critic who did thorough honour to Balzac in his own country. A
+large number of other critics during the period deserve notice because,
+though acting more or less on the newer system of criticism, they have
+manifested considerable originality in its application. As far as merely
+critical faculty goes, and still more in the power of giving literary
+expression to criticism, Théophile Gautier yields to no one. His _Les
+Grotesques_, an early work dealing with Villon, the earlier "Théophile"
+de Viau, and other _enfants terribles_ of French literature, has served
+as a model to many subsequent writers, such as Charles Monselet
+(1825-1888), and Charles Asselineau (1820-1874), the affectionate
+historian, in his _Bibliographie romantique_ (1872-1874), of the less
+famous promoters of the Romantic movement. On the other hand, Gautier's
+picture criticisms, and his short reviews of books, obituary notices,
+and other things of the kind contributed to daily papers, are in point
+of style among the finest of all such fugitive compositions. Jules Janin
+(1804-1874), chiefly a theatrical critic, excelled in light and easy
+journalism, but his work has neither weight of substance nor careful
+elaboration of manner sufficient to give it permanent value. This sort
+of light critical comment has become almost a speciality of the French
+press, and among its numerous practitioners the names of Armand de
+Pontmartin (1811-1890) (an imitator and assailant of Sainte-Beuve),
+Arsène Houssaye, Pierangelo Fiorentino (1806-1864), may be mentioned.
+Edmond Scherer (1815-1889) and Paul de Saint-Victor (1827-1881)
+represent different sides of Sainte-Beuve's style in literary criticism,
+Scherer combining with it a martinet and somewhat prudish precision,
+while Saint-Victor, with great powers of appreciation, is the most
+flowery and "prose-poetical" of French critics. In theatrical censure
+Francisque Sarcey (1827-1899), an acute but somewhat severe and limited
+judge, succeeded to the good-natured sovereignty of Janin. The criticism
+of the _Revue des deux mondes_ has played a sufficiently important part
+in French literature to deserve separate notice in passing. Founded in
+1829, the _Revue_, after some vicissitudes, soon attained, under the
+direction of the Swiss Buloz, the character of being one of the first of
+European critical periodicals. Its style of criticism has, on the whole,
+inclined rather to the classical side--that is, to classicism as
+modified by, and possible after, the Romantic movement. Besides some of
+the authors already named, its principal critical contributors were
+Gustave Planche (1808-1857), an acute but somewhat truculent critic,
+Saint-René Taillandier (1817-1879), and Émile Montégut (1825-1895), a
+man of letters whom greater leisure would have made greater, but who
+actually combined much and varied critical power with an agreeable
+style. Lastly we must notice the important section of professorial or
+university critics, whose critical work has taken the form either of
+regular treatises or of courses of republished lectures, books somewhat
+academic and rhetorical in character, but often representing an amount
+of influence which has served largely to stir up attention to
+literature. The most prominent name among these is that of Abel
+Villemain (1790-1867), who was one of the earliest critics of the
+literature of his own country to obtain a hearing out of it. Désiré
+Nisard (1806-1888) was perhaps more fortunate in his dealings with Latin
+than with French, and in his _History_ of the latter literature
+represents too much the classical tradition, but he had dignity,
+erudition and an excellent style. Alexandre Vinet (1797-1847), a Swiss
+critic of considerable eminence, Saint-Marc-Girardin (1801-1873), whose
+_Cours de littérature dramatique_ is his chief work, and Eugène Géruzez
+(1799-1865), the author not only of an extremely useful and well-written
+handbook to French literature before the Revolution, but also of other
+works dealing with separate portions of the subject, must also be
+mentioned. One remarkable critic, Ernest Hello (1818-1885), attracted
+during his life little attention even in France, and hardly any out of
+it, his work being strongly tinctured with the unpopular flavour and
+colour of uncompromising "clericalism," and his extremely bad health
+keeping him out of the ordinary fraternities of literary society. It
+was, however, as full of idiosyncrasy as of partisanship, and is
+exceedingly interesting to those who regard criticism as mainly valuable
+because it gives different aspects of the same thing.
+
+Perhaps in no branch of _belles-lettres_ did the last quarter of the
+century maintain the level at which predecessors had arrived better than
+in criticism; though whether this fact is connected with something of
+decadence in the creative branches, is a question which may be better
+posed than resolved here. A remarkable writer whose talent, approaching
+genius, was spoilt by eccentricity and pose, and who belonged to a more
+modern generation, Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly (1808-1889), poet, novelist
+and critic, produced much of his last critical work, and corrected more,
+in these later days. Not only did the critical work in various ways of
+Renan, Taine, Scherer, Sarcey and others continue during parts of it,
+but a new generation, hardly in this case inferior to the old, appeared.
+The three chiefs of this were the already mentioned Anatole France,
+Émile Faguet (b. 1847), and Ferdinand Brunetière (1849-1906), to whom
+some would add Jules Lemaître (b. 1853). The last, however, though a
+brilliant writer, was but an "interim" critic, beginning with poetry and
+other matters, and after a time turning to yet others, while, brilliant
+as he was, his criticism was often ill-informed. So too Anatole France,
+after compiling four volumes of _La Vie littéraire_ in his own
+inimitable style and with singular felicity of appreciation, also turned
+away. The phenomenon in both cases may be associated, though it must not
+be too intimately connected in the relation of cause and effect, with
+the fact that both were champions and practitioners of "impressionist
+criticism"--of the doctrine (unquestionably sound if not exaggerated)
+that the first duty of the critic is to reproduce the effect produced on
+his own mind by the author. Brunetière and Faguet, on the other hand,
+are partisans of the older academic style of criticism by kind and on
+principle. Faguet, besides regular volumes on each of the four great
+centuries of French literature, has produced much other work--all of it
+somewhat "classical" in tendency and frequently exhibiting something of
+a want of comprehension of the Romantic side. Brunetière was still more
+prolific on the same side but with still greater effort after system and
+"science." In the books definitely called _L'Évolution des genres_, in
+his _Manuel_ of French literature, and in a large number of other
+volumes of collected essays he enforced with great learning and power of
+argument, if with a somewhat narrow purview and with some prejudice
+against writers whom he disliked, a new form of the old doctrine that
+the "kind" not the individual author or book ought to be the main
+subject of the critic's attention. He did not escape the consequential
+danger of taking authors and books not as they are but as in relation to
+the kinds which they in fact constitute and to his general views. But he
+was undoubtedly at his death the first critic of France and a worthy
+successor of her best.
+
+Of others older and younger must be mentioned Paul Stapfer (b. 1840),
+professor of literature, and the author of divers excellent works from
+_Shakespeare et l'antiquité_ to volumes of the first value on Montaigne
+and Rabelais; Paul Bourget and Edouard Rod, already noticed; Augustin
+Filon (b. 1841), author of much good work on English literature and an
+excellent book on Mérimée; Alexandre Beljame (1843-1906), another eminent
+student of English literature, in which subject J. A. Jusserand (b.
+1855), Legouis, K. A. J. Angellier (b. 1848), and others have recently
+distinguished themselves; Gustave Larroumet, especially an authority on
+Marivaux; Eugène Lintilhac (b. 1854); Georges Pellissier; Gustave Lanson,
+author of a compact history of French literature in French; Marcel
+Schwob, who had done excellent work on Villon and other subjects before
+his early death; René Doumic, a frequent writer in the _Revue des deux
+mondes_, who collected four volumes of _Études sur la littérature
+française_ between 1895 and 1900; and the Vicomte Melchior de Vogüé (b.
+1848), whose interests have been more political-philosophical than
+strictly literary, but who has done much to familiarize the French public
+with that Russian literature to which Mérimée had been the first to
+introduce them. But the body of recent critical literature in France is
+perhaps larger in actual proportion and of greater value when considered
+in relation to other kinds of literature than has been the case at any
+previous period.
+
+_History since 1830._--The remarkable development of historical studies
+which we have noticed as taking place under the Restoration was
+accelerated and intensified in the reigns of Charles X. and Louis
+Philippe. Both the scope and the method of the historian underwent a
+sensible alteration. For something like 150 years historians had been
+divided into two classes, those who produced elegant literary works
+pleasant to read, and those who produced works of laborious erudition,
+but not even intended for general perusal. The Vertots and Voltaires
+were on one side, the Mabillons and Tillemonts on another. Now, although
+the duty of a French historian to produce works of literary merit was
+not forgotten, it was recognized as part of that duty to consult
+original documents and impart original observation. At the same time, to
+the merely political events which had formerly been recognized as
+forming the historian's province were added the social and literary
+phenomena which had long been more or less neglected. Old chronicles and
+histories were re-read and re-edited; innumerable monographs on special
+subjects and periods were produced, and these latter were of immense
+service to romance writers at the time of the popularity of the
+historical novel. Not a few of the works, for instance, which were
+signed by Alexandre Dumas consist mainly of extracts or condensations
+from old chronicles, or modern monographs, ingeniously united by
+dialogue and varnished with a little description. History, however, had
+not to wait for this second-hand popularity, and its cultivators had
+fully sufficient literary talent to maintain its dignity. Sismondi, whom
+we have already noticed, continued during this period his great
+_Histoire des Français_, and produced his even better-known _Histoire
+des républiques italiennes au moyen âge_. The brothers Thierry devoted
+themselves to early French history, Amédée Thierry (1797-1873) producing
+a _Histoire des Gaulois_ and other works concerning the Roman period,
+and Augustin Thierry (1795-1856) the well-known history of the Norman
+Conquest, the equally attractive _Récits des temps Mérovingiens_ and
+other excellent works. Philippe de Ségur (1780-1873) gave a history of
+the Russian campaign of Napoleon, and some other works chiefly dealing
+with Russian history. The voluminous _Histoire de France_ of Henri
+Martin (1810-1883) is perhaps the best and most impartial work dealing
+in detail with the whole subject. A. G. P. Brugière, baron de Barante
+(1782-1866), after beginning with literary criticism, turned to history,
+and in his _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne_ produced a work of capital
+importance. As was to be expected, many of the most brilliant results of
+this devotion to historical subjects consisted of works dealing with the
+French Revolution. No series of historical events has ever perhaps
+received treatment at the same time from so many different points of
+view, and by writers of such varied literary excellence, among whom it
+must, however, be said that the purely royalist side is hardly at all
+represented. One of the earliest of these histories is that of François
+Mignet (1796-1884), a sober and judicious historian of the older school,
+also well known for his _Histoire de Marie Stuart_. About the same time
+was begun the brilliant if not extremely trustworthy work of Adolphe
+Thiers (1797-1877) on the Revolution, which established the literary
+reputation of the future president of the French republic, and was at a
+later period completed by the _Histoire du consulat et de l'empire_. The
+downfall of the July monarchy and the early years of the empire
+witnessed the publication of several works of the first importance on
+this subject. Barante contributed histories of the Convention and the
+Directory, but the three books of greatest note were those of Lamartine,
+Jules Michelet (1798-1874), and Louis Blanc (1811-1882). Lamartine's
+_Histoire des Girondins_ is written from the constitutional-republican
+point of view, and is sometimes considered to have had much influence in
+producing the events of 1848. It is, perhaps, rather the work of an
+orator and poet than of an historian. The work of Michelet is of a more
+original character. Besides his history of the Revolution, Michelet
+wrote an extended history of France, and a very large number of smaller
+works on historical, political and social subjects. His imaginative
+powers are of the highest order, and his style stands alone in French
+for its strangely broken and picturesque character, its turbid abundance
+of striking images, and its somewhat sombre magnificence, qualities
+which, as may easily be supposed, found full occupation in a history of
+the Revolution. The work of Louis Blanc was that of a sincere but ardent
+republican, and is useful from this point of view, but possesses no
+extraordinary literary merit. The principal contributions to the history
+of the Revolution of the third quarter of the century were those of
+Quinet, Lanfrey and Taine. Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), like Louis Blanc a
+devotee of the republic and an exile for its sake, brought to this one
+of his latest works a mind and pen long trained to literary and
+historical studies; but _La Révolution_ is not considered his best work.
+P. Lanfrey devoted himself with extraordinary patience and acuteness to
+the destruction of the Napoleonic legend, and the setting of the
+character of Napoleon I. in a new, authentic and very far from
+favourable light. And Taine, after distinguishing himself, as we have
+mentioned, in literary criticism (_Histoire de la littérature
+anglaise_), and attaining less success in philosophy (_De
+l'intelligence_), turned in _Les Origines de la France moderne_ to an
+elaborate discussion of the Revolution, its causes, character and
+consequences, which excited some commotion among the more ardent
+devotees of the principles of '89. To return from this group, we must
+notice J. F. Michaud (1767-1839), the historian of the crusades, and
+François Pierre Guillaume Guizot (1787-1874), who, like his rival
+Thiers, devoted himself much to historical study. His earliest works
+were literary and linguistic, but he soon turned to political history,
+and for the last half-century of his long life his contributions to
+historical literature were almost incessant and of the most various
+character. The most important are the histories _Des Origines du
+gouvernement représentatif_, _De la révolution d'Angleterre_, _De la
+civilisation en France_, and latterly a _Histoire de France_, which he
+was writing at the time of his death. Among minor historians of the
+earlier century may be mentioned Prosper Duvergier de Hauranne
+(1798-1881) (_Gouvernement parlementaire en France_), J. J. Ampère
+(1800-1864) (_Histoire romaine à Rome_), Auguste Arthur Beugnot
+(1797-1865) (_Destruction du paganisme d'occident_), J. O. B. de Cléron,
+comte d'Haussonville (_La Réunion de la Lorraine à la France_), Achille
+Tendelle de Vaulabelle (1799-1870) (_Les Deux Restaurations_). In the
+last quarter of the century, under the department of history, the most
+remarkable names were still those of Taine and Renan, the former being
+distinguished for thought and matter, the latter for style. Indeed it
+may be here proper to remark that Renan, in the kind of elaborated
+semi-poetic style which has most characterized the prose of the 19th
+century in all countries of Europe, takes pre-eminence among French
+writers even in the estimation of critics who are not enamoured of his
+substance and tone. But, under the influence of Taine to some extent and
+of a general European tendency still more, France during this period
+attained or recovered a considerable place for what is called
+"scientific" history--the history which while, in some cases, though not
+in all, not neglecting the development of style attaches itself
+particularly to "the document," on the one hand, and to philosophical
+arrangement on the other. The chief representative of the school was
+probably Albert Sorel (1842-1906), whose various handlings of the
+Revolutionary period (including an excursion into partly literary
+criticism in the shape of an admirable monograph on Madame de Staël)
+have established themselves once for all. In a wider sweep Ernest
+Lavisse (b. 1842), who has dealt mainly with the 18th century, may hold
+a similar position. Of others, older and younger, the duc de Broglie
+(1821-1901), who devoted himself also to the 18th century and especially
+to its secret diplomacy; Gaston Boissier (b. 1823), a classical scholar
+rather than an historian proper, and one of the latest masters of the
+older French academic style; Thureau-Dangin (b. 1837), a student of mid
+19th-century history; Henri Houssaye (b. 1848), one of the Napoleonic
+period; Gabriel Hanotaux (b. 1853), an historian of Richelieu and other
+subjects, and a practical politician, may be mentioned. A large
+accession has also been made to the publication of older memoirs--that
+important branch of French literature from almost the whole of its
+existence since the invention of prose.
+
+_Summary and Conclusion._--We have in these last pages given such an
+outline of the 19th-century literature of France as seemed convenient
+for the completion of what has gone before. It has been already remarked
+that the nearer approach is made to our own time the less is it possible
+to give exhaustive accounts of the individual cultivators of the
+different branches of literature. It may be added, perhaps, that such
+exhaustiveness becomes, as we advance, less and less necessary, as well
+as less and less possible. The individual poet of to-day may and does
+produce work that is in itself of greater literary value than that of
+the individual trouvère. As a matter of literary history his
+contribution is less remarkable because of the examples he has before
+him and the circumstances which he has around him. Yet we have
+endeavoured to draw such a sketch of French literature from the _Chanson
+de Roland_ onwards that no important development and hardly any
+important partaker in such development should be left out. A few lines
+may, perhaps, be now profitably given to summing up the aspects of the
+whole, remembering always that, as in no case is generalization easier
+than in the case of the literary aspects and tendencies of periods and
+nations, so in no case is it apt to be more delusive unless corrected
+and supported by ample information of fact and detail.
+
+At the close of the 11th century and at the beginning of the 12th we
+find the vulgar tongue in France not merely in fully organized use for
+literary purposes, but already employed in most of the forms of poetical
+writing. An immense outburst of epic and narrative verse has taken
+place, and lyrical poetry, not limited as in the case of the epics to
+the north of France, but extending from Roussillon to the Pas de Calais,
+completes this. The 12th century adds to these earliest forms the
+important development of the mystery, extends the subjects and varies
+the manner of epic verse, and begins the compositions of literary prose
+with the chronicles of St Denis and of Villehardouin, and the prose
+romances of the Arthurian cycle. All this literature is so far connected
+purely with the knightly and priestly orders, though it is largely
+composed and still more largely dealt in by classes of men, trouvères
+and jongleurs, who are not necessarily either knights or priests, and in
+the case of the jongleurs are certainly neither. With a possible
+ancestry of Romance and Teutonic _cantilenae_, Breton _lais_, and
+vernacular legends, the new literature has a certain pattern and model
+in Latin and for the most part ecclesiastical compositions. It has the
+sacred books and the legends of the saints for examples of narrative,
+the rhythm of the hymns for a guide to metre, and the ceremonies of the
+church for a stimulant to dramatic performance. By degrees also, in this
+12th century, forms of literature which busy themselves with the
+unprivileged classes begin to be born. The fabliau takes every phase of
+life for its subject; the folk-song acquires elegance and does not lose
+raciness and truth. In the next century, the 13th, medieval literature
+in France arrives at its prime--a prime which lasts until the first
+quarter of the 14th. The early epics lose something of their savage
+charms, the polished literature of Provence quickly perishes. But in the
+provinces which speak the more prevailing tongue nothing is wanting to
+literary development. The language itself has shaken off all its
+youthful incapacities, and, though not yet well adapted for the
+requirements of modern life and study, is in every way equal to the
+demands made upon it by its own time. The dramatic germ contained in the
+fabliau and quickened by the mystery produces the profane drama.
+Ambitious works of merit in the most various kinds are published;
+_Aucassin et Nicolette_ stands side by side with the _Vie de Saint
+Louis_, the _Jeu de la feuillie_ with _Le Miracle de Théophile_, the
+_Roman de la rose_ with the _Roman du Renart_. The earliest notes of
+ballads and rondeau are heard; endeavours are made with zeal, and not
+always without understanding, to naturalize the wisdom of the ancients
+in France, and in the graceful tongue that France possesses. Romance in
+prose and verse, drama, history, songs, satire, oratory and even
+erudition, are all represented and represented worthily. Meanwhile all
+nations of western Europe have come to France for their literary models
+and subjects, and the greatest writers in English, German, Italian,
+content themselves with adaptations of Chrétien de Troyes, of Benoit de
+Sainte More, and of a hundred other known and unknown trouvères and
+fabulists. But this age does not last long. The language has been put to
+all the uses of which it is as yet capable; those uses in their sameness
+begin to pall upon reader and hearer; and the enormous evils of the
+civil and religious state reflect themselves inevitably in literature.
+The old forms die out or are prolonged only in half-lifeless travesties.
+The brilliant colouring of Froissart, and the graceful science of
+ballade and rondeau writers like Lescurel and Deschamps, alone maintain
+the literary reputation of the time. Towards the end of the 14th century
+the translators and political writers import many terms of art, and
+strain the language to uses for which it is as yet unhandy, though at
+the beginning of the next age Charles d'Orléans by his natural grace and
+the virtue of the forms he used emerges from the mass of writers.
+Throughout the 15th century the process of enriching or at least
+increasing the vocabulary goes on, but as yet no organizing hand appears
+to direct the process. Villon stands alone in merit as in peculiarity.
+But in this time dramatic literature and the literature of the floating
+popular broadsheet acquire an immense extension--all or almost all the
+vigour of spirit being concentrated in the rough farce and rougher
+lampoon, while all the literary skill is engrossed by insipid
+_rhétoriqueurs_ and pedants. Then comes the grand upheaval of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation. An immense influx of science, of
+thought to make the science living, of new terms to express the thought,
+takes place, and a band of literary workers appear of power enough to
+master and get into shape the turbid mass. Rabelais, Amyot, Calvin and
+Herberay fashion French prose; Marot, Ronsard and Regnier refashion
+French verse. The Pléiade introduces the drama as it is to be and the
+language that is to help the drama to express itself. Montaigne for the
+first time throws invention and originality into some other form than
+verse or than prose fiction. But by the end of the century the tide has
+receded. The work of arrangement has been but half done, and there are
+no master spirits left to complete it. At this period Malherbe and
+Balzac make their appearance. Unable to deal with the whole problem,
+they determine to deal with part of it, and to reject a portion of the
+riches of which they feel themselves unfit to be stewards. Balzac and
+his successors make of French prose an instrument faultless and
+admirable in precision, unequalled for the work for which it is fit, but
+unfit for certain portions of the work which it was once able to
+perform. Malherbe, seconded by Boileau, makes of French verse an
+instrument suited only for the purposes of the drama of Euripides, or
+rather of Seneca, with or without its chorus, and for a certain weakened
+echo of those choruses, under the name of lyrics. No French verse of the
+first merit other than dramatic is written for two whole centuries. The
+drama soon comes to its acme, and during the succeeding time usually
+maintains itself at a fairly high level until the death of Voltaire. But
+prose lends itself to almost everything that is required of it, and
+becomes constantly a more and more perfect instrument. To the highest
+efforts of pathos and sublimity its vocabulary and its arrangement
+likewise are still unsuited, though the great preachers of the 17th
+century do their utmost with it. But for clear exposition, smooth and
+agreeable narrative, sententious and pointed brevity, witty repartee, it
+soon proves itself to have no superior and scarcely an equal in Europe.
+In these directions practitioners of the highest skill apply it during
+the 17th century, while during the 18th its powers are shown to the
+utmost of their variety by Voltaire, and receive a new development at
+the hands of Rousseau. Yet, on the whole, it loses during this century.
+It becomes more and more unfit for any but trivial uses, and at last it
+is employed for those uses only. Then occurs the Revolution, repeating
+the mighty stir in men's minds which the Renaissance had given, but at
+first experiencing more difficulty in breaking up the ground and once
+more rendering it fertile. The faulty and incomplete genius of
+Chateaubriand and Madame de Staël gives the first evidence of a new
+growth, and after many years the Romantic movement completes the work.
+Whether the force of that movement is now, after three-quarters of a
+century, spent or not, its results remain. The poetical power of French
+has been once more triumphantly proved, and its productiveness in all
+branches of literature has been renewed, while in that of prose fiction
+there has been almost created a new class of composition. In the process
+of reform, however, not a little of the finish of French prose style has
+been lost, and the language itself has been affected in something the
+same way as it was affected by the less judicious innovations of the
+Ronsardists. The pedantry of the Pléiade led to the preposterous
+compounds of Du Bartas; the passion of the Romantics for foreign tongues
+and for the _mot propre_ has loaded French with foreign terms on the one
+hand and with _argot_ on the other, while it is questionable whether the
+_vers libre_ is really suited to the French genius. There is, therefore,
+room for new Malherbes and Balzacs, if the days for Balzacs and
+Malherbes had not to all appearance passed. Should they be once more
+forthcoming, they have the failure as well as the success of their
+predecessors to guide them.
+
+Finally, we may sum up even this summary. For volume and merit taken
+together the product of these eight centuries of literature excels that
+of any European nation, though for individual works of the supremest
+excellence they may perhaps be asked in vain. No French writer is lifted
+by the suffrages of other nations--the only criterion when sufficient
+time has elapsed--to the level of Homer, of Shakespeare, or of Dante,
+who reign alone. Of those of the authors of France who are indeed of the
+thirty but attain not to the first three Rabelais and Molière alone
+unite the general suffrage, and this fact roughly but surely points to
+the real excellence of the literature which these men are chosen to
+represent. It is great in all ways, but it is greatest on the lighter
+side. The house of mirth is more suited to it than the house of
+mourning. To the latter, indeed, the language of the unknown marvel who
+told Roland's death, of him who gave utterance to Camilla's wrath and
+despair, and of Victor Hugo, who sings how the mountain wind makes mad
+the lover who cannot forget, has amply made good its title of entrance.
+But for one Frenchman who can write admirably in this strain there are a
+hundred who can tell the most admirable story, formulate the most
+pregnant reflection, point the acutest jest. There is thus no really
+great epic in French, few great tragedies, and those imperfect and in a
+faulty kind, little prose like Milton's or like Jeremy Taylor's, little
+verse (though more than is generally thought) like Shelley's or like
+Spenser's. But there are the most delightful short tales, both in prose
+and in verse, that the world has ever seen, the most polished jewelry of
+reflection that has ever been wrought, songs of incomparable grace,
+comedies that must make men laugh as long as they are laughing animals,
+and above all such a body of narrative fiction, old and new, prose and
+verse, as no other nation can show for art and for originality, for
+grace of workmanship in him who fashions, and for certainty of delight
+to him who reads.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most elaborate book on French literature as a whole
+  is that edited by Petit de Julleville, and composed of chapters by
+  different authors, _Histoire de la langue et de la littérature
+  françaises_ (8 vols., Paris, 1896-1899). Unfortunately these chapters,
+  some of which are of the highest excellence, are of very unequal
+  value: they require connexions which are not supplied, and there is
+  throughout a neglect of minor authors. The bibliographical indications
+  are, however, most valuable. For a survey in a single volume Lanson's
+  _Histoire_ has superseded the older but admirable manuals of Demogeot
+  and Géruzez, which, however, are still worth consulting. Brunetière's
+  _Manuel_ (translated into English) is very valuable with the cautions
+  above given; and the large _Histoire de la langue française depuis le
+  seizième siècle_ of Godefroy supplies copious and well-chosen extracts
+  with much biographical information. In English there is an extensive
+  _History_ by H. van Laun (3 vols., 1874, &c.); a _Short History_ by
+  Saintsbury (1882; 6th ed. continued to the end of the century, 1901);
+  and a _History_ by Professor Dowden (1895).
+
+  To pass to special periods--the fountain-head of the literature of the
+  middle ages is the ponderous _Histoire littéraire_ already referred
+  to, which, notwithstanding that it extended to 27 quarto volumes in
+  1906, and had occupied, with interruptions, 150 years in publication,
+  had only reached the 14th century. Many of the monographs which it
+  contains are the best authorities on their subjects, such as that of
+  P. Paris on the early chansonniers, of V. Leclerc on the fabliaux, and
+  of Littré on the romans d'aventures. For the history of literature
+  before the 11th century, the period mainly Latin, J. J. Ampère's
+  _Histoire littéraire de la France avant Charlemagne, sous Charlemagne,
+  et jusqu'au onzième siècle_ is the chief authority. Léon Gautier's
+  _Épopées françaises_ (5 vols., 1878-1897) contains almost everything
+  known concerning the chansons de geste. P. Paris's _Romans de la table
+  ronde_ was long the main authority for this subject, but very much has
+  been written recently in France and elsewhere. The most important of
+  the French contributions, especially those by Gaston Paris (whose
+  _Histoire poétique de Charlemagne_ has been reprinted since his
+  death), will be found in the periodical _Romania_, which for more than
+  thirty years has been the chief receptacle of studies on old French
+  literature. On the cycle of Reynard the standard work is Rothe, _Les
+  Romans de Renart_. All parts of the lighter literature of old France
+  are excellently treated by Lenient, _Le Satire au moyen âge_. The
+  early theatre has been frequently treated by the brothers Parfaict
+  (_Histoire du théâtre français_), by Fabre (_Les Clercs de la
+  Bazoche_), by Leroy (_Étude sur les mystères_), by Aubertin (_Histoire
+  de la langue et de la littérature française au moyen âge_). This
+  latter book will be found a useful summary of the whole medieval
+  period. The historical, dramatic and oratorical sections are
+  especially full. On a smaller scale but of unsurpassed authority is G.
+  Paris's _Littérature du moyen âge_ translated into English.
+
+  On the 16th century an excellent handbook is that by Darmesteter and
+  Hatzfeld; and the recent _Literature of the French Renaissance_ of A.
+  Tilley (2 vols., 1904) is of high value. Sainte-Beuve's _Tableau_ has
+  been more than once referred to. Ebert (_Entwicklungsgeschichte der
+  französischen Tragödie vornehmlich im 16^ten Jahrhundert_) is the
+  chief authority for dramatic matters. Essays and volumes on periods
+  and sub-periods since 1600 are innumerable; but those who desire
+  thorough acquaintance with the literature of these three hundred years
+  should read as widely as possible in all the critical work of
+  Sainte-Beuve, of Schérer, of Faguet and Brunetière--which may be
+  supplemented _ad libitum_ from that of other critics mentioned above.
+  The series of volumes entitled _Les grands écrivains français_, now
+  pretty extensive, is generally very good, and Catulle Mendès's
+  invaluable book on 19th-century poetry has been cited above. As a
+  companion to the study of poetry E. Crepet's _Poètes français_ (4
+  vols., 1861), an anthology with introductions by Sainte-Beuve and all
+  the best critics of the day, cannot be surpassed, but to it may be
+  added the later _Anthologie des poètes français du XIX^e siècle_
+  (1877-1879).     (G. Sa.)
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH POLISH, a liquid for polishing wood, made by dissolving shellac
+in methylated spirit. There are four different tints, brown, white,
+garnet and red, but the first named is that most extensively used. All
+the tints are made in the same manner, with the exception of the red,
+which is a mixture of the brown polish and methylated spirit with either
+Saunders wood or Bismarck brown, according to the strength of colour
+required. Some woods, and especially mahogany, need to be stained before
+they are polished. To stain mahogany mix some bichromate of potash in
+hot water according to the depth of colour required. After staining the
+wood the most approved method of filling the grain is to rub in fine
+plaster of Paris (wet), wiping off before it "sets." After this is dry
+it should be oiled with linseed oil and thoroughly wiped off. The wood
+is then ready for the polish, which is put on with a rubber made of
+wadding covered with linen rag and well wetted with polish. The
+polishing process has to be repeated gradually, and after the work has
+hardened, the surface is smoothed down with fine glass-paper, a few
+drops of linseed oil being added until the surface is sufficiently
+smooth. After a day or two the surface can be cleared by using a fresh
+rubber with a double layer of linen, removing the top layer when it is
+getting hard and finishing off with the bottom layer.
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE. Among the many revolutions which from time to
+time have given a new direction to the political development of nations
+the French Revolution stands out as at once the most dramatic in its
+incidents and the most momentous in its results. This exceptional
+character is, indeed, implied in the name by which it is known; for
+France has experienced many revolutions both before and since that of
+1789, but the name "French Revolution," or simply "the Revolution,"
+without qualification, is applied to this one alone. The causes which
+led to it: the gradual decay of the institutions which France had
+inherited from the feudal system, the decline of the centralized
+monarchy, and the immediate financial necessities that compelled the
+assembling of the long neglected states-general in 1789, are dealt with
+in the article on FRANCE: _History_. The successive constitutions, and
+the other legal changes which resulted from it, are also discussed in
+their general relation to the growth of the modern French polity in the
+article FRANCE (_Law and Institutions_). The present article deals with
+the progress of the Revolution itself from the convocation of the
+states-general to the coup d'état of the 18th Brumaire which placed
+Napoleon Bonaparte in power.
+
+
+  Opening of the States-General.
+
+The elections to the states-general of 1789 were held in unfavourable
+circumstances. The failure of the harvest of 1788 and a severe winter
+had caused widespread distress. The government was weak and despised,
+and its agents were afraid or unwilling to quell outbreaks of disorder.
+At the same time the longing for radical reform and the belief that it
+would be easy were almost universal. The _cahiers_ or written
+instructions given to the deputies covered well-nigh every subject of
+political, social or economic interest, and demanded an amazing number
+of changes. Amid this commotion the king and his ministers remained
+passive. They did not even determine the question whether the estates
+should act as separate bodies or deliberate collectively. On the 5th of
+May the states-general were opened by Louis in the Salle des Menus
+Plaisirs at Versailles. Barentin, the keeper of the seals, informed them
+that they were free to determine whether they would vote by orders or
+vote by head. Necker, as director-general of the finances, set forth the
+condition of the treasury and proposed some small reforms. The Tiers
+État (Third Estate) was dissatisfied that the question of joint or
+separate deliberation should have been left open. It was aware that some
+of the nobles and many of the inferior clergy agreed with it as to the
+need for comprehensive reform. Joint deliberation would ensure a
+majority to the reformers and therefore the abolition of privileges and
+the extinction of feudal rights of property. Separate deliberation would
+enable the majority among the nobles and the superior clergy to limit
+reform. Hence it became the first object of the Tiers État to effect the
+amalgamation of the three estates.
+
+
+  Conflict between the Three Estates.
+
+The conflict between those who desired and those who resisted
+amalgamation took the form of a conflict over the verification of the
+powers of the deputies. The Tiers État insisted that the deputies of all
+three estates should have their powers verified in common as the first
+step towards making them all members of one House. It resolved to hold
+its meetings in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs, whereas the nobles and the
+clergy met in smaller apartments set aside for their exclusive use. It
+refrained from taking any step which might have implied that it was an
+organized assembly, and persevered in regarding itself as a mere crowd
+of individual members incapable of transacting business. Meanwhile the
+clergy and the nobles began a separate verification of their powers.
+But a few of the nobles and a great many of the clergy voted against
+this procedure. On the 7th the Tiers État sent deputations to exhort the
+other estates to union, while the clergy sent a deputation to it with
+the proposal that each estate should name commissioners to discuss the
+best method of verifying powers. The Tiers État accepted the proposal
+and conferences were held, but without result. It then made another
+appeal to the clergy which was almost successful. The king interposed
+with a command for the renewal of the conferences. They were resumed
+under the presidency of Barentin, but again to no purpose.
+
+On the 10th of June Sieyès moved that the Tiers État should for the last
+time invite the First and Second Estates to join in the verification of
+powers and announce that, whether they did or not, the work of verifying
+would begin forthwith. The motion was carried by an immense majority. As
+there was no response, the Tiers État on the 12th named Bailly
+provisional president and commenced verification. Next day three curés
+of Poitou came to have their powers verified. Other clergymen followed
+later. When the work of verification was over, a title had to be found
+for the body thus created, which would no longer accept the style of the
+Tiers État. On the 15th Sieyès proposed that they should entitle
+themselves the Assembly of the known and verified representatives of the
+French nation. Mirabeau, Mounier and others proposed various
+appellations. But success was reserved for Legrand, an obscure deputy
+who proposed the simple name of National Assembly. Withdrawing his own
+motion, Sieyès adopted Legrand's suggestion, which was carried by 491
+votes to 90. The Assembly went on to declare that it placed the debts of
+the crown under the safeguard of the national honour and that all
+existing taxes, although illegal as having been imposed without the
+consent of the people, should continue to be paid until the day of
+dissolution.
+
+
+  The National Assembly.
+
+  Oath of the Tennis Court.
+
+By these proceedings the Tiers État and a few of the clergy declared
+themselves the national legislature. Then and thereafter the National
+Assembly assumed full sovereign and constituent powers. Nobles and
+clergy might come in if they pleased, but it could do without them. The
+king's assent to its measures would be convenient, but not necessary.
+This boldness was rewarded, for on the 19th the clergy decided by a
+majority of one in favour of joint verification. On the same day the
+nobles voted an address to the king condemning the action of the Tiers
+État. Left to himself, Louis might have been too inert for resistance.
+But the queen and his brother, the count of Artois, with some of the
+ministers and courtiers, urged him to make a stand. A Séance Royale was
+notified for the 22nd and workmen were sent to prepare the Salle des
+Menus Plaisirs for the ceremony. On the 20th Bailly and the deputies
+proceeded to the hall and found it barred against their entrance.
+Thereupon they adjourned to a neighbouring tennis court, where Mounier
+proposed that they should swear not to separate until they had
+established the constitution. With a solitary exception they swore and
+the Oath of the Tennis Court became an era in French history. As the
+ministers could not agree on the policy which the king should announce
+in the Séance Royale, it was postponed to the 23rd. The Assembly found
+shelter in the church of St Louis, where it was joined by the main body
+of the clergy and by the first of the nobles.
+
+At the Séance Royale Louis made known his will that the Estates should
+deliberate apart, and declared that if they should refuse to help him he
+would do by his sole authority what was necessary for the happiness of
+his people. When he quitted the hall, some of the clergy and most of the
+nobles retired to their separate chambers. But the rest, together with
+the Tiers État, remained, and Mirabeau declared that, as they had come
+by the will of the nation, force only should make them withdraw.
+"Gentlemen," said Sieyès, "you are to-day what you were yesterday." With
+one voice the Assembly proclaimed its adhesion to its former decrees and
+the inviolability of its members. In Versailles and in Paris popular
+feeling was clamorous for the Assembly and against the court. During the
+next few days many of the clergy and nobles, including the archbishop
+of Paris and the duke of Orleans, joined the Assembly. Louis tamely
+accepted his defeat. He recalled Necker, who had resigned after the
+Séance Royale. On the 27th he wrote to those clerical and noble deputies
+who still held out, urging submission. By the 2nd of July the joint
+verification of powers was completed. The last trace of the historic
+States-General disappeared and the National Assembly was perfect. On the
+same day it claimed an absolute discretion by a decree that the mandates
+of the electors were not binding on its members.
+
+
+  Dismissal of Necker.
+
+Having failed in their first attempt on the Assembly, the Court party
+resolved to try what force could do. A large number of troops, chiefly
+foreign regiments in the service of France, were concentrated near Paris
+under the command of the marshal de Broglie. On Mirabeau's motion the
+Assembly voted an address to the king asking for their withdrawal. The
+king replied that the troops were not meant to act against the Assembly,
+but intimated his purpose of transferring the session to some provincial
+town. On the same day he dismissed Necker and ordered him to quit
+Versailles. These acts led to the first insurrection of Paris. The
+capital had long been in a dangerous condition. Bread was dear and
+employment was scarce. The measures taken to relieve distress had
+allured a multitude of needy and desperate men from the surrounding
+country. Among the middle class there already existed a party,
+consisting of men like Danton or Camille Desmoulins, which was prepared
+to go much further than any of the leaders of the Assembly. The rich
+citizens were generally fund-holders, who regarded the Assembly as the
+one bulwark against a public bankruptcy. The duke of Orleans, a weak and
+dissolute but ambitious man, had conceived the hope of supplanting his
+cousin on the throne. He strained his wealth and influence to recruit
+followers and to make mischief. The gardens of his residence, the Palais
+Royal, became the centre of political agitation. Ever since the
+elections virtual freedom of the press and freedom of speech had
+prevailed in Paris. Clubs were multiplied and pamphlets came forth every
+hour. The municipal officers who were named by the Crown had little
+influence with the citizens. The police were a mere handful. Of the two
+line regiments quartered in the capital, one was Swiss and therefore
+trusty; but the other, the Gardes Françaises, shared all the feelings of
+the populace.
+
+
+  Rioting in Paris.
+
+  Fall of the Bastille, July 14, 1789.
+
+On the 12th of July Camille Desmoulins announced the dismissal of Necker
+to the crowd in the Palais Royal. Warmed by his eloquence, they sallied
+into the street. Part of Broglie's troops occupied the Champs Elysées
+and the Place Louis Quinze. After one or two petty encounters with the
+mob they were withdrawn, either because their temper was uncertain or
+because their commanders shunned responsibility. Paris was thus left to
+the rioters, who seized arms wherever they could find them, broke open
+the jails, burnt the octroi barriers and soon had every man's life and
+goods at their discretion. Citizens with anything to lose were driven to
+act for themselves. For the purpose of choosing its representatives in
+the states-general the Third Estate of Paris had named 300 electors.
+Their function once discharged, these men had no public character, but
+they resolved that they would hold together in order to watch over the
+interests of the city. After the Séance Royale the municipal authority,
+conscious of its own weakness, allowed them to meet at the Hôtel de
+Ville, where they proceeded to consider the formation of a civic guard.
+On the 13th, when all was anarchy in Paris, they were joined by
+Flesselles, Provost of the Merchants, and other municipal officers. The
+project of a civic guard was then adopted. The insurrection, however,
+ran its course unchecked. Crowds of deserters from the regular troops
+swelled the ranks of the insurgents. They attacked the Hôtel des
+Invalides and carried off all the arms which were stored there. With the
+same object they assailed the Bastille. The garrison was small and
+disheartened, provisions were short, and after some hours' fighting De
+Launay the governor surrendered on promise of quarter. He and several of
+his men were, notwithstanding, butchered by the mob before they could be
+brought to the Hôtel de Ville. As all Paris was in the hands of the
+insurgents, the king saw the necessity of submission. On the morning of
+the 15th he entered the hall of the Assembly to announce that the troops
+would be withdrawn. Immediately afterwards he dismissed his new
+ministers and recalled Necker. Thereupon the princes and courtiers most
+hostile to the National Assembly, the count of Artois, the prince of
+Condé, the duke of Bourbon and many others, feeling themselves no longer
+safe, quitted France. Their departure is known as the first emigration.
+
+
+  New municipality of Paris and National Guard.
+
+  Revolution in the provinces.
+
+The capture of the Bastille was hailed throughout Europe as symbolizing
+the fall of absolute monarchy, and the victory of the insurgents had
+momentous consequences. Recognizing the 300 electors as a temporary
+municipal government, the Assembly sent a deputation to confer with them
+at the Hôtel de Ville, and on a sudden impulse one of these deputies,
+Bailly, lately president of the Assembly, was chosen to be mayor of
+Paris. The marquis Lafayette, doubly popular as a veteran of the
+American War and as one of the nobles who heartily upheld the cause of
+the Assembly, was chosen commandant of the new civic force,
+thenceforwards known as the National Guard. On the 17th Louis himself
+visited Paris and gave his sanction to the new authorities. In the
+course of the following weeks the example of Paris was copied throughout
+France. All the cities and towns set up new elective authorities and
+organized a National Guard. At the same time the revolution spread to
+the country districts. In most of the provinces the peasants rose and
+stormed and burnt the houses of the _seigneurs_, taking peculiar care to
+destroy their title-deeds. Some of the _seigneurs_ were murdered and the
+rest were driven into the towns or across the frontier. Amid the
+universal confusion the old administrative system vanished. The
+intendants and sub-delegates quitted or were driven from their posts.
+The old courts of justice, whether royal or feudal, ceased to act. In
+many districts there was no more police, public works were suspended and
+the collection of taxes became almost impossible. The insurrection of
+July really ended the _ancien régime_.
+
+
+  The 4th of August.
+
+Disorder in the provinces led directly to the proceedings on the famous
+night of the 4th of August. While the Assembly was considering a
+declaration which might calm revolt, the vicomte de Noailles and the duc
+d'Aiguillon moved that it should proclaim equality of taxation and the
+suppression of feudal burdens. Other deputies rose to demand the repeal
+of the game laws, the enfranchisement of such serfs as were still to be
+found in France, and the abolition of tithes and of feudal courts and to
+renounce all privileges, whether of classes, of cities, or of provinces.
+Amid indescribable enthusiasm the Assembly passed resolution after
+resolution embodying these changes. The resolutions were followed by
+decrees sometimes hastily and unskilfully drawn. In vain Sieyès remarked
+that in extinguishing tithes the Assembly was making a present to every
+landed proprietor. In vain the king, while approving most of the
+decrees, tendered some cautious criticisms of the rest. The majority did
+not, indeed, design to confiscate property wholesale. They drew a
+distinction between feudal claims which did and did not carry a moral
+claim to compensation. But they were embarrassed by the wording of their
+own decrees and forestalled by the violence of the people. The
+proceedings of the 4th of August issued in a wholesale transfer of
+property from one class to another without any indemnity for the losers.
+
+
+  Parties in the Assembly.
+
+The work of drafting a constitution for France had already been begun.
+Parties in the Assembly were numerous and ill-defined. The Extreme
+Right, who desired to keep the government as it stood, were a mere
+handful. The Right who wanted to revive, as they said, the ancient
+constitution, in other words, to limit the king's power by periodic
+States-General of the old-fashioned sort, were more numerous and had
+able chiefs in Cazalès and Maury, but strove in vain against the spirit
+of the time. The Right Centre, sometimes called the Monarchiens, were a
+large body and included several men of talent, notably Mounier and
+Malouet, as well as many men of rank and wealth. They desired a
+constitution like that of England which should reserve a large
+executive power to the king, while entrusting the taxing and legislative
+powers to a modern parliament. The Left or Constitutionals, known
+afterwards as the Feuillants, among whom Barnave and Charles and
+Alexander Lameth were conspicuous, also wished to preserve monarchy but
+disdained English precedent. They were possessed with feelings then
+widespread, weariness of arbitrary government, hatred of ministers and
+courtiers, and distrust not so much of Louis as of those who surrounded
+him and influenced his judgment. Republicans without knowing it, they
+grudged every remnant of power to the Crown. The Extreme Left, still
+more republican in spirit, of whom Robespierre was the most noteworthy,
+were few and had little power. Mirabeau's independence of judgment
+forbids us to place him in any party.
+
+
+  Declaration of the Rights of Man.
+
+  The royal veto.
+
+The first Constitutional Committee, elected on the 14th of July, had
+Mounier for its reporter. It was instructed to begin with drafting a
+Declaration of the Rights of Man. Six weeks were spent by the Assembly
+in discussing this document. The Committee then presented a report which
+embodied the principle of two Chambers. This principle contradicted the
+extreme democratic theories so much in fashion. It also offended the
+self-love of most of the nobles and the clergy who were loath that a few
+of their number should be erected into a House of Lords. The Assembly
+rejected the principle of two Chambers by nearly 10 to 1. The question
+whether the king should have a veto on legislation was next raised.
+Mounier contended that he should have an absolute veto, and was
+supported by Mirabeau, who had already described the unlimited power of
+a single Chamber as worse than the tyranny of Constantinople. The Left
+maintained that the king, as depositary of the executive, should be
+wholly excluded from the legislative power. Lafayette, who imagined
+himself to be copying the American constitution, proposed that the king
+should have a suspensive veto. Thinking that it would be politic to
+claim no more, Necker persuaded the king to intimate that he was
+satisfied with Lafayette's proposal. The suspensive veto was therefore
+adopted. As the king had no power of dissolution, it was an idle form.
+Mounier and his friends having resigned their places in the
+Constitutional Committee, it came to an end and the Assembly elected a
+new Committee which represented the opinions of the Left.
+
+
+  Removal of the royal family and Assembly to Paris.
+
+Soon afterwards a fresh revolt in Paris caused the king and the Assembly
+to migrate thither. The old causes of disorder were still working in
+that city. The scarcity of bread was set down to conspirators against
+the Revolution. Riots were frequent and persons supposed hostile to the
+Assembly and the nation were murdered with impunity. The king still had
+counsellors who wished for his departure as a means to regaining freedom
+of action. At the end of September the Flanders regiment came to
+Versailles to reinforce the Gardes du Corps. The officers of the Gardes
+du Corps entertained the officers of the Flanders regiment and of the
+Versailles National Guard at dinner in the palace. The king, queen and
+dauphin visited the company. There followed a vehement outbreak of
+loyalty. Rumour enlarged the incident into a military plot against
+freedom. Those who wanted a more thorough revolution wrought up the
+crowd and even respectable citizens wished to have the king among them
+and amenable to their opinion. On the 5th of October a mob which had
+gathered to assault the Hôtel de Ville was diverted into a march on
+Versailles. Lafayette was slow to follow it and, when he arrived, took
+insufficient precautions. At daybreak on the 6th some of the rioters
+made their way into the palace and stormed the apartment of the queen
+who escaped with difficulty. At length the National Guards arrived and
+the mob was quieted by the announcement that the king had resolved to go
+to Paris. The Assembly declared itself inseparable from the king's
+person. Louis and his family reached Paris on the same evening and took
+up their abode in the Tuileries. A little later the Assembly established
+itself in the riding school of the palace. Thenceforward the king and
+queen were to all intents prisoners. The Assembly itself was subject to
+constant intimidation. Many members of the Right gave up the struggle
+and emigrated, or at least withdrew from attendance, so that the Left
+became supreme.
+
+
+  Mirabeau and the court.
+
+Mirabeau had already taken alarm at the growing violence of the
+Revolution. In September he had foretold that it would not stop short of
+the death of both king and queen. After the insurrection of October he
+sought to communicate with them through his friend the comte de la
+Marck. In a remarkable correspondence he sketched a policy for the king.
+The abolition of privilege and the establishment of a parliamentary
+system were, he wrote, unalterable facts which it would be madness to
+dispute. But a strong executive authority was essential, and a king who
+frankly adopted the Revolution might still be powerful. In order to
+rally the sound part of the nation Louis should leave Paris, and, if
+necessary, he should prepare for a civil war; but he should never appeal
+to foreign powers. Neither the king nor the queen could grasp the wisdom
+of this advice. They distrusted Mirabeau as an unscrupulous adventurer,
+and were confirmed in this feeling by his demands for money. His
+correspondence with the court, although secret, was suspected. The
+politicians who envied his talents and believed him a rascal raised the
+cry of treason. In the Assembly Mirabeau, though sometimes successful on
+particular questions, never had a chance of giving effect to his policy
+as a whole. Whether even he could have controlled the Revolution is
+highly doubtful; but his letters and minutes drawn up for the king form
+the most striking monument of his genius (see MIRABEAU and MONTMORIN DE
+SAINT-HÉREM).
+
+
+  The Assembly and the royal power.
+
+  Reorganization of France.
+
+Early in the year 1790 a dispute with England concerning the frontier in
+North America induced the Spanish government to claim the help of France
+under the Family Compact. This demand led the Assembly to consider in
+what hands the power of concluding alliances and of making peace and war
+should be placed. Mirabeau tried to keep the initiative for the king,
+subject to confirmation by the Chamber. On Barnave's motion the Assembly
+decreed that the legislature should have the power of war and peace and
+the king a merely advisory power. Mirabeau was defeated on another point
+of the highest consequence, the inclusion of ministers in the National
+Assembly. His colleagues generally adhered to the principle that the
+legislative and executive powers should be totally separate. The Left
+assumed that, if deputies could hold office, the king would have the
+means of corrupting the ablest and most influential. It was decreed that
+no deputy should be minister while sitting in the House or for two years
+after. Ministers excluded from the House being necessarily objects of
+suspicion, the Assembly was careful to allow them the least possible
+power. The old provinces were abolished, and France was divided anew
+into eighty departments. Each department was subdivided into districts,
+cantons and communes. The main business of administration, even the
+levying of taxes, was entrusted to the elective local authorities. The
+judicature was likewise made elective. The army and the navy were so
+organized as to leave the king but a small share in appointing officers
+and to leave the officers but scanty means of maintaining discipline.
+Even the cases in which the sovereign might be deposed were foreseen and
+expressly stated. Monarchy was retained, but the monarch was regarded as
+a possible traitor and every precaution was taken to render him harmless
+even at the cost of having no effective national government.
+
+
+  Executive committees of the Assembly.
+
+  Confiscation of church property.
+
+  The assignats.
+
+The distrust which the Assembly felt for the actual ministers led it to
+undertake the business of government as well as the business of reform.
+There were committees for all the chief departments of state, a
+committee for the army, a committee for the navy, another for diplomacy,
+another for finance. These committees sometimes asked the ministers for
+information, but rarely took their advice. Even Necker found the
+Assembly heedless of his counsels. The condition of the treasury became
+worse day by day. The yield of the indirect taxes fell off through the
+interruption of business, and the direct taxes were in large measure
+withheld, for want of an authority to enforce payment. With some trouble
+Necker induced the Assembly to sanction first a loan of 30,000,000
+livres and then a loan of 80,000,000 livres. The public having shown no
+eagerness to subscribe, Necker proposed that every man should be invited
+to make a patriotic contribution of one-fourth of his income. This
+expedient also failed. On the 10th of October 1789 Talleyrand, bishop of
+Autun, proposed that the Assembly should take possession of the lands of
+the church. In November the Assembly enacted that they should be at the
+disposal of the nation, which would provide for the maintenance of the
+clergy. Since the church lands were supposed to occupy one-fifth of
+France, the Assembly thought that it had found an inexhaustible source
+of public wealth. On the security of the church lands it based a paper
+currency (the famous assignats). In December it ordered an issue to the
+amount of 400,000,000 livres. As the revenue still declined and the
+reforms enacted by the Assembly involved a heavy outlay, it recurred
+again and again to this expedient. Before its dissolution the Assembly
+had authorized the creation of 1,800,000,000 livres of assignats and the
+depreciation of its paper had begun. Finding that he had lost all credit
+with the Assembly, Necker resigned office and left France in September
+1790.
+
+
+  Power of the municipalities and popular clubs.
+
+  Disaffection in the army.
+
+Even the committees of the Assembly had far less power than the new
+municipal authorities throughout France. They really governed so far as
+there was any government. Often full of public spirit, they lacked
+experience and in a time of peculiar difficulty had no guide save their
+own discretion. They opened letters, arrested suspects, controlled the
+trade in corn, and sent their National Guards on such errands as they
+thought proper. The political clubs which sprang up all over the country
+often presumed to act as though they were public authorities (see
+JACOBINS). The revolutionary journalists, Desmoulins in his _Révolutions
+de France et de Brabant_, Loustallot in his _Révolutions de Paris_,
+Marat in his _Ami du peuple_, continued to feed the fire of discord.
+Amid this anarchy it became a practice for the National Guards of
+different districts to form federations, that is, to meet and swear
+loyalty to each other and obedience to the laws made by the National
+Assembly. At the suggestion of the municipality of Paris the Assembly
+decreed a general federation of all France, to be held on the
+anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. The ceremony took place in the
+Champ de Mars (July 14, 1790) in presence of the king, the queen, the
+Assembly, and an enormous concourse of spectators. It was attended by
+deputations from the National Guards in every part of the kingdom, from
+the regular regiments, and from the crews of the fleet. Talleyrand
+celebrated Mass, and Lafayette was the first to swear fidelity to the
+Assembly and the nation. In this gathering the provincial deputations
+caught the revolutionary fever of Paris. Still graver was the effect
+upon the regular army. It had been disaffected since the outbreak of the
+Revolution. The rank and file complained of their food, their lodging
+and their pay. The non-commissioned officers, often intelligent and
+hard-working, were embittered by the refusal of promotion. The officers,
+almost all nobles, rarely showed much concern for their men, and were
+often mere courtiers and triflers. After the festival of the federation
+the soldiers were drawn into the political clubs, and named regimental
+committees to defend their interests. Not content with asking for
+redress of grievances, they sometimes seized the regimental chest or
+imprisoned their officers. In August a formidable outbreak at Nancy was
+only quelled with much loss of life. Desertion became more frequent than
+ever, and the officers, finding their position unbearable, began to
+emigrate. Similar causes produced an even worse effect upon the navy.
+
+
+  Civil constitution of the clergy.
+
+By its rough handling of the church the Assembly brought fresh trouble
+upon France. The suppression of tithe and the confiscation of church
+lands had reduced the clergy to live on whatever stipend the legislature
+might think fit to give them. A law of February 1790 suppressed the
+religious orders not engaged in education or in works of charity, and
+forbade the introduction of new ones. Monastic vows were deprived of
+legal force and a pension was granted to the religious who were cast
+upon the world. These measures aroused no serious discontent; but the
+so-called civil constitution of the clergy went much further. Old
+ecclesiastical divisions were set aside. Henceforth the diocese was to
+be conterminous with the department, and the parish with the commune.
+The electors of the commune were to choose the curé, the electors of the
+department the bishop. Every curé was to receive at least 1200 livres
+(about £50) a year. Relatively modest stipends were assigned to bishops
+and archbishops. French citizens were forbidden to acknowledge any
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction outside the kingdom. The Assembly not only
+adopted this constitution but decreed that all beneficed ecclesiastics
+should swear to its observance. As the constitution implicitly abrogated
+the papal authority and entrusted the choice of bishops and curés to
+electors who often were not Catholics, most of the clergy declined to
+swear and lost their preferments. Their places were filled by election.
+Thenceforwards the clergy were divided into hostile factions, the
+Constitutionals and the Nonjurors. As the generality of Frenchmen at
+that time were orthodox although not zealous Catholics, the Nonjurors
+carried with them a large part of the laity. The Assembly was misled by
+its Jansenist, Protestant and Free-thinking members, natural enemies of
+an established church which had persecuted them to the best of its
+power.
+
+
+  The Assembly, the colonies, and foreign powers.
+
+In colonial affairs the Assembly acted with the same imprudence. Eager
+to set an example of suppressing slavery, it took measures which
+prepared a terrible negro insurrection in St Domingo. With regard to
+foreign relations the Assembly showed itself well-meaning but
+indiscreet. It protested in good faith that it desired no conquests and
+aimed only at peace. Yet it laid down maxims which involved the utmost
+danger of war. It held that no treaty could be binding without the
+national consent. As this consent had not been given to any existing
+treaty, they were all liable to be revised by the French government
+without consulting the other parties. Thus the Assembly treated the
+Family Compact as null and void. Similarly, when it abolished feudal
+tenures in France, it ignored the fact that the rights of certain German
+princes over lands in Alsace were guaranteed by the treaties of
+Westphalia. It offered them compensation in money, and when this was
+declined, took no heed of their protests. Again, in the papal territory
+of Avignon a large number of the inhabitants declared for union with
+France. The Assembly could hardly be restrained by Mirabeau from acting
+upon their vote and annexing Avignon. Some time after his death it was
+annexed. The other states of Europe did not admit the doctrines of the
+Assembly, but peace was not broken. Foreign statesmen who flattered
+themselves that France was sinking into anarchy and therefore into decay
+were content to follow their respective ambitions without the dread of
+French interference.
+
+
+  Attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from Paris.
+
+Deprived of authority and in fact a prisoner, Louis had for many months
+acquiesced in the decrees of the Assembly however distasteful. But the
+civil constitution of the clergy wounded him in his conscience as well
+as in his pride. From the autumn of 1790 onwards he began to scheme for
+his liberation. Himself incapable of strenuous effort, he was spurred on
+by Marie Antoinette, who keenly felt her own degradation and the
+curtailment of that royal prerogative which her son would one day
+inherit. The king and queen failed to measure the forces which had
+caused the Revolution. They ascribed all their misfortunes to the work
+of a malignant faction, and believed that, if they could escape from
+Paris, a display of force by friendly powers would enable them to
+restore the supremacy of the crown. But no foreign ruler, not even the
+emperor Leopold II., gave the king or queen any encouragement. Whatever
+secrecy they might observe, the adherents of the Revolution divined
+their wish to escape. When Louis tried to leave the Tuileries for St
+Cloud at Easter 1791, in order to enjoy the ministrations of a nonjuring
+priest, the National Guards of Paris would not let him budge. Mirabeau,
+who had always dissuaded the king from seeking foreign help, died on the
+2nd of April. Finally the king and queen resolved to fly to the army of
+the East, which the marquis de Bouillé had in some measure kept under
+discipline. Sheltered by him they could await foreign succour or a
+reaction at home. On the evening of the 20th of June they escaped from
+the Tuileries. Louis left behind him a declaration complaining of the
+treatment which he had received and revoking his assent to all measures
+which had been laid before him while under restraint. On the following
+day the royal party was captured at Varennes and sent back to Paris. The
+king's eldest brother, the count of Provence, who had laid his plans
+much better, made his escape to Brussels and joined the _émigrés_.
+
+It was no longer possible to pretend that the Revolution had been made
+with the free consent of the king. Some Republicans called for his
+deposition. Afraid to take a course which involved danger both at home
+and abroad, the Assembly decreed that Louis should be suspended from his
+office. The club of the Cordeliers (q.v.), led by Danton, demanded not
+only his deposition but his trial. A petition to that effect having been
+exposed for signature on the altar in the Champ de Mars, a disturbance
+ensued and the National Guard fired on the crowd, killing a few and
+wounding many. This incident afterwards became known as the massacre of
+the Champ de Mars. On the other hand, the leaders of the Left, Barnave
+and the Lameths, felt that they had weakened the executive power too
+much. They would gladly have come to an understanding with the king and
+revised the constitution so as to strengthen his prerogative. They
+failed in both objects. Louis and still more Marie Antoinette regarded
+them with incurable distrust. The Constitutional Act without any
+material change was voted on the 3rd of September. On the 14th Louis
+swore to the Constitution, thus regaining his nominal sovereignty. The
+National Assembly was dissolved on the 30th. Upon Robespierre's motion
+it had decreed that none of its members should be capable of sitting in
+the next legislature.
+
+
+  Review of the work of the National Assembly.
+
+If we view the work of the National Assembly as a whole, we are struck
+by the immense demolition which it effected. No other legislature has
+ever destroyed so much in the same time. The old form of government, the
+old territorial divisions, the old fiscal system, the old judicature,
+the old army and navy, the old relations of Church and State, the old
+law relating to property in land, all were shattered. Such a destruction
+could not have been effected without the support of popular opinion.
+Most of what the Assembly did had been suggested in the _cahiers_, and
+many of its decrees were anticipated by actual revolt. In its
+constructive work many sound maxims were embodied. It asserted the
+principles of civil equality and freedom of conscience, it reformed the
+criminal law, and laid down a just scheme of taxation. Not intelligence
+and public spirit but political wisdom was lacking to the National
+Assembly. Its members did not suspect how limited is the usefulness of
+general propositions in practical life. Nor did they perceive that new
+ideas can be applied only by degrees in an old world. The Constitution
+of 1791 was impracticable and did not last a year. The civil
+constitution of the clergy was wholly mischievous. In the attempt to
+govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty
+treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, a people debauched by safe and
+successful riot.
+
+
+  The Legislative Assembly.
+
+At the elections of 1791 the party which desired to carry the Revolution
+further had a success out of all keeping with its numbers. This was due
+partly to a weariness of politics which had come over the majority of
+French citizens, partly to downright intimidation exercised by the
+Jacobin Club and by its affiliated societies throughout the kingdom. The
+Legislative Assembly met on the 1st of October. It consisted of 745
+members. Few were nobles, very few were clergymen, and the great body
+was drawn from the middle class. The members were generally young, and,
+since none had sat in the previous Assembly, they were wholly without
+experience. The Right consisted of the Feuillants (q.v.). They numbered
+about 160, and among them were some able men, such as Matthieu Dumas and
+Bigot de Préamenau, but they were guided chiefly by persons outside the
+House, because incapable of re-election, Barnave, Duport and the
+Lameths. The Left consisted of the Jacobins, a term which still included
+the party afterwards known as the Girondins or Girondists (q.v.)--so
+termed because several of their leaders came from the region of the
+Gironde in southern France. They numbered about 330. Among the extreme
+Left sat Cambon, Couthon, Merlin de Thionville. The Girondins could
+claim the most brilliant orators, Vergniaud, Guadet, Isnard. Inferior to
+these men in talent, Brissot de Warville, a restless pamphleteer,
+exerted more influence over the party which has sometimes gone by his
+name. The Left as a whole was republican, although it did not care to
+say so. Strong in numbers, it was reinforced by the disorderly elements
+in Paris and throughout France. The remainder of the House, about 250
+deputies, scarcely belonged to any definite party, but voted oftenest
+with the Left, as the Left was the most powerful.
+
+
+  The court and the émigrés.
+
+The Left had three objects of enmity: first, the king, the queen and the
+royal family; secondly, the _émigrés_; and thirdly, the clergy. The king
+could not like the new constitution, although, if left to himself,
+indolence and good nature might have rendered him passive. The queen
+throughout had only one thought, to shake off the impotence and
+humiliation of the crown; and for this end she still clung to the hope
+of foreign succour and corresponded with Vienna. Those _émigrés_ who had
+assembled in arms on the territories of the electors of Mainz and Treves
+(Trier) and in the Austrian Netherlands had put themselves in the
+position of public enemies. Their chiefs were the king's brothers, who
+affected to consider Louis as a captive and his acts as therefore
+invalid. The count of Provence gave himself the airs of a regent and
+surrounded himself with a ministry. The _émigrés_ were not, however,
+dangerous. They were only a few thousand strong; they had no competent
+leader and no money; they were unwelcome to the rulers whose hospitality
+they abused. The nonjuring clergy, although harassed by the local
+authorities, kept the respect and confidence of most Catholics. No acts
+of disloyalty were proved against them, and commissioners of the
+National Assembly reported to its successor that their flocks only
+desired to be let alone. But the anti-clerical bias of the Legislative
+Assembly was too strong for such a policy.
+
+The king's ministers, named by him and excluded from the Assembly, were
+mostly persons of little mark. Montmorin gave up the portfolio of
+foreign affairs on the 31st of October and was succeeded by De Lessart.
+Cahier de Gerville was minister of the interior; Tarbé, minister of
+finance; and Bertrand de Molleville, minister of marine. But the only
+minister who influenced the course of affairs was the comte de Narbonne,
+minister of war.
+
+
+  The king and the nonjurors.
+
+  Declaration of Pillnitz.
+
+On the 9th of November the Assembly decreed that the _émigrés_ assembled
+on the frontiers should be liable to the penalties of death and
+confiscation unless they returned to France by the 1st of January
+following. Louis did not love his brothers, and he detested their
+policy, which without rendering him any service made his liberty and
+even his life precarious; yet, loath to condemn them to death, he vetoed
+the decree. On the 29th of November the Assembly decreed that every
+nonjuring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath,
+substantially the same as the oath previously administered, on pain of
+losing his pension and, if any troubles broke out, of being deported.
+This decree Louis vetoed as a matter of conscience. In either case his
+resistance only served to give a weapon to his enemies in the Assembly.
+But foreign affairs were at this time the most critical. The armed
+bodies of _émigrés_ on the territory of the Empire afforded matter of
+complaint to France. The persistence of the French in refusing more than
+a money compensation to the German princes who had claims in Alsace
+afforded matter of complaint to the Empire. Foreign statesmen noticed
+with alarm the effect of the French Revolution upon opinion in their own
+countries, and they resented the endeavours of French revolutionists to
+make converts there. Of these statesmen, the emperor Leopold was the
+most intelligent. He had skilfully extricated himself from the
+embarrassments at home and abroad left by his predecessor Joseph. He was
+bound by family ties to Louis, and he was obliged, as chief of the Holy
+Roman Empire, to protect the border princes. On the other hand, he
+understood the weakness of the Habsburg monarchy. He knew that the
+Austrian Netherlands, where he had with difficulty restored his
+authority, were full of friends of the Revolution and that a French army
+would be welcomed by many Belgians. He despised the weakness and the
+folly of the _émigrés_ and excluded them from his councils. He earnestly
+desired to avoid a war which might endanger his sister or her husband.
+In August 1791 he had met Frederick William II. of Prussia at Pillnitz
+near Dresden, and the two monarchs had joined in a declaration that they
+considered the restoration of order and of monarchy in France an object
+of interest to all sovereigns. They further declared that they would be
+ready to act for this purpose in concert with the other powers. This
+declaration appears to have been drawn from Leopold by pressure of
+circumstances. He well knew that concerted action of the powers was
+impossible, as the English government had firmly resolved not to meddle
+with French affairs. After Louis had accepted the constitution, Leopold
+virtually withdrew his declaration. Nevertheless it was a grave error of
+judgment and contributed to the approaching war.
+
+In France many persons desired war for various reasons. Narbonne trusted
+to find in it the means of restoring a certain authority to the crown
+and limiting the Revolution. He contemplated a war with Austria only.
+The Girondins desired war in the hope that it would enable them to
+abolish monarchy altogether. They desired a general war because they
+believed that it would carry the Revolution into other countries and
+make it secure in France by making it universal. The extreme Left had
+the same objects, but it held that a war for those objects could not
+safely be entrusted to the king and his ministers. Victory would revive
+the power of the crown; defeat would be the undoing of the Revolution.
+Hence Robespierre and those who thought with him desired peace. The
+French nation generally had never approved of the Austrian alliance, and
+regarded the Habsburgs as traditional enemies. The king and queen,
+however, who looked for help from abroad and especially from Leopold,
+dreaded a war with Austria and had no faith in the schemes of Narbonne.
+Nor was France in a condition to wage a serious war. The constitution
+was unworkable and the governing authorities were mutually hostile. The
+finances remained in disorder, and assignats of the face value of
+900,000,000 livres were issued by the Legislative Assembly in less than
+a year. The army had been thinned by desertion and was enervated by long
+indiscipline. The fortresses were in bad condition and short of
+supplies.
+
+In October Leopold ordered the dispersion of the _émigrés_ who had
+mustered in arms in the Austrian Netherlands. His example was followed
+by the electors of Treves and Mainz. At the same time they implored the
+emperor's protection, and the Austrian chancellor Kaunitz informed
+Noailles the French ambassador that this protection would be given if
+necessary. Narbonne demanded a credit of 20,000,000 livres, which the
+Assembly granted. He made a tour of inspection in the north of France
+and reported untruly to the Assembly that all was in readiness for war.
+On the 14th of January 1792 the diplomatic committee reported to the
+Assembly that the emperor should be required to give satisfactory
+assurances before the 10th of February. The Assembly put off the term to
+the 1st of March. In February Leopold concluded a defensive treaty with
+Frederick William. But there was no mutual confidence between the
+sovereigns, who were at that very time pursuing opposite policies with
+regard to Poland. Leopold still hesitated and still hoped to avoid war.
+He died on the 1st of March, and the imperial dignity became vacant. The
+hereditary dominions of Austria passed to his son Francis, afterwards
+the emperor Francis II., a youth of small abilities and no experience.
+The real conduct of affairs fell, therefore, to the aged Kaunitz. In
+France Narbonne failed to carry the king or his colleagues along with
+him. The king took courage to dismiss him on the 9th of March,
+whereupon the assembly testified its confidence in Narbonne. De Lessart
+having incurred its anger by the tameness of his replies to Austrian
+dictation, the Assembly voted his impeachment.
+
+
+  War declared against Austria.
+
+The king, seeing no other course open, formed a new ministry which was
+chiefly Girondin. Roland became minister of the interior, Clavière of
+finance, De Grave of war, and Lacoste of marine. Far abler and more
+resolute than any of these men was Dumouriez, the new minister for
+foreign affairs. A soldier by profession, he had been employed in the
+secret diplomacy of Louis XV. and had thus gained a wide knowledge of
+international politics. He stood aloof from parties and had no rigid
+principles, but held views closely resembling those of Narbonne. He
+wished for a war with Austria which should restore some influence to the
+crown and make himself the arbiter of France. The king bent to
+necessity, and on the 20th of April came to the Assembly with the
+proposal that war should be declared against Austria. It was carried by
+acclamation. Dumouriez intended to begin with an invasion of the
+Austrian Netherlands. As this would awaken English jealousy, he sent
+Talleyrand to London with assurances that, if victorious, the French
+would annex no territory.
+
+It was designed that the French should invade the Netherlands at three
+points simultaneously. Lafayette was to march against Namur, Biron
+against Mons, and Dillon against Tournay. But the first movement
+disclosed the miserable state of the army. Smitten with panic, Dillon's
+force fled at sight of the enemy, and Dillon, after receiving a wound
+from one of his own soldiers, was murdered by the mob of Lille. Biron
+was easily routed before Mons. On hearing of these disasters Lafayette
+found it necessary to retreat. This shameful discomfiture quickened all
+the suspicion and jealousy fermenting in France. De Grave had to resign
+and was succeeded by Servan. The Austrian forces in the Netherlands
+were, however, so weak that they could not take the offensive. Austria
+demanded help from Prussia under the recent alliance, and the claim was
+admitted. Prussia declared war against France, and the duke of Brunswick
+was chosen to command the allied forces, but various causes delayed
+action. Austrian and Prussian interests clashed in Poland. The Austrian
+government wished to preserve a harmless neighbour. The Prussian
+government desired another partition and a large tract of Polish
+territory. Only after long discussion was it agreed that Prussia should
+be free to act in Poland, while Austria might find compensation in
+provinces conquered from France.
+
+
+  Émeute of the 20th of June 1792.
+
+A respite was thus given and something was done to improve the army.
+Meantime the Assembly passed three decrees: one for the deportation of
+nonjuring priests, another to suppress the king's Constitutional Guard,
+and a third for the establishment of a camp of _fédérés_ near Paris.
+Louis consented to sacrifice his guard, but vetoed the other decrees.
+Roland having addressed to him an arrogant letter of remonstrance, the
+king with the support of Dumouriez dismissed Roland, Servan and
+Clavière. Dumouriez then took the ministry of war, and the other places
+were filled with such men as could be had. Dumouriez, who cared only for
+the successful prosecution of the war, urged the king to accept the
+decrees. As Louis was obstinate, he felt that he could do no more,
+resigned office on the 15th of June and went to join the army of the
+north. Lafayette, who remained faithful to the constitution of 1791,
+ventured on a letter of remonstrance to the Assembly. It paid no
+attention, for Lafayette could no longer sway the people. The Jacobins
+tried to frighten the king into accepting the decrees and recalling his
+ministers. On the 20th of June the armed populace invaded the hall of
+the Assembly and the royal apartments in the Tuileries. For some hours
+the king and queen were in the utmost peril. With passive courage Louis
+refrained from making any promise to the insurgents.
+
+The failure of the insurrection encouraged a movement in favour of the
+king. Some twenty thousand Parisians signed a petition expressing
+sympathy with Louis. Addresses of like tenour poured in from the
+departments and the provincial cities. Lafayette himself came to Paris
+in the hope of rallying the constitutional party, but the king and
+queen eluded his offers of assistance. They had always disliked and
+distrusted Lafayette and the Feuillants, and preferred to rest their
+hopes of deliverance on the foreigner. Lafayette returned to his troops
+without having effected anything. The Girondins made a last advance to
+Louis, offering to save the monarchy if he would accept them as
+ministers. His refusal united all the Jacobins in the project of
+overturning the monarchy by force. The ruling spirit of this new
+revolution was Danton, a barrister only thirty-two years of age, who had
+not sat in either Assembly, although he had been the leader of the
+Cordeliers, an advanced republican club, and had a strong hold on the
+common people of Paris. Danton and his friends were assisted in their
+work by the fear of invasion, for the allied army was at length
+mustering on the frontier. The Assembly declared the country in danger.
+All the regular troops in or near Paris were sent to the front.
+Volunteers and _fédérés_ were constantly arriving in Paris, and,
+although most went on to join the army, the Jacobins enlisted those who
+were suitable for their purpose, especially some 500 whom Barbaroux, a
+Girondin, had summoned from Marseilles. At the same time the National
+Guard was opened to the lowest class. Brunswick's famous declaration of
+the 25th of July, announcing that the allies would enter France to
+restore the royal authority and would visit the Assembly and the city of
+Paris with military execution if any further outrage were offered to the
+king, heated the republican spirit to fury. It was resolved to strike
+the decisive blow on the 10th of August.
+
+
+  Rising of the 10th of August.
+
+On the night of the 9th a new revolutionary Commune took possession of
+the hôtel de ville, and early on the morning of the 10th the insurgents
+assailed the Tuileries. As the preparations of the Jacobins had been
+notorious, some measures of defence had been taken. Beside a few
+gentlemen in arms and a number of National Guards the palace was
+garrisoned by the Swiss Guard, about 950 strong. The disparity of force
+was not so great as to make resistance altogether hopeless. But Louis
+let himself be persuaded into betraying his own cause and retiring with
+his family under the shelter of the Assembly. The National Guards either
+dispersed or fraternized with the assailants. The Swiss Guard stood
+firm, and, possibly by accident, a fusillade began. The enemy were
+gaining ground when the Swiss received an order from the king to cease
+firing and withdraw. They were mostly shot down as they were retiring,
+and of those who surrendered many were murdered in cold blood next day.
+The king and queen spent long hours in a reporter's box while the
+Assembly discussed their fate and the fate of the French monarchy.
+Little more than a third of the deputies were present and they were
+almost all Jacobins. They decreed that Louis should be suspended from
+his office and that a convention should be summoned to give France a new
+constitution. An executive council was formed by recalling Roland,
+Clavière and Servan to office and joining with them Danton as minister
+of justice, Lebrun as minister of foreign affairs, and Monge as minister
+of marine.
+
+
+  The revolutionary Commune of Paris.
+
+  The September massacres.
+
+When Lafayette heard of the insurrection in Paris he tried to rally his
+troops in defence of the constitution, but they refused to follow him.
+He was driven to cross the frontier and surrender himself to the
+Austrians. Dumouriez was named his successor. But the new government was
+still beset with danger. It had no root in law and little hold on public
+opinion. It could not lean on the Assembly, a mere shrunken remnant,
+whose days were numbered. It remained dependent on the power which had
+set it up, the revolutionary Commune of Paris. The Commune could
+therefore extort what concessions it pleased. It got the custody of the
+king and his family who were imprisoned in the Temple. Having obtained
+an indefinite power of arrest, it soon filled the prisons of Paris. As
+the elections to the Convention were close at hand, the Commune resolved
+to strike the public with terror by the slaughter of its prisoners. It
+found its opportunity in the progress of invasion. On the 19th Brunswick
+crossed the frontier. On the 22nd Longwy surrendered. Verdun was
+invested and seemed likely to fall. On the 1st of September the Commune
+decreed that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all
+able-bodied citizens convened in the Champs de Mars, and 60,000
+volunteers enrolled for the defence of the country. While this assembly
+was in progress gangs of assassins were sent to the prisons and began a
+butchery which lasted four days and consumed 1400 victims. The Commune
+addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them
+to follow the example. A number of state prisoners awaiting trial at
+Orleans were ordered to Paris and on the way were murdered at
+Versailles. The Assembly offered a feeble resistance to these crimes.
+Danton can hardly be acquitted of connivance at them. Roland hinted
+disapproval, but did not venture more. He with many other Girondins had
+been marked for slaughter in the original project.
+
+
+  The National Convention.
+
+  Abolition of the monarchy.
+
+The elections to the Convention were by almost universal suffrage, but
+indifference or intimidation reduced the voters to a small number. Many
+who had sat in the National, and many more who had sat in the
+Legislative Assembly were returned. The Convention met on the 20th of
+September. Like the previous assemblies, it did not fall into
+well-defined parties. The success of the Jacobins in overthrowing the
+monarchy had ended their union. Thenceforwards the name of Jacobin was
+confined to the smaller and more fanatical group, while the rest came to
+be known as the Girondins. The Jacobins, about 100 strong, formed the
+Left of the Convention, afterwards known from the raised benches on
+which they sat as the Mountain (q.v.). The Girondins, numbering perhaps
+180, formed the Right. The rest of the House, nearly 500 members, voted
+now on one side now on the other, until in the course of the Terror they
+fell under the Jacobin domination. This neutral mass is often termed the
+Plain, in allusion to its seats on the floor of the House. The
+Convention as a whole was Republican, if not on principle, from the
+feeling that no other form of government could be established. It
+decreed the abolition of monarchy on the 21st of September. A committee
+was named to draft a new constitution, which was presented and decreed
+in the following June, but never took effect and was superseded by a
+third constitution in 1795. The actual government of France was by
+committees of the Convention, but some months passed before it could be
+fully organized.
+
+
+  Jacobins and Girondins.
+
+The inner history of the Convention was strange and terrible. It turned
+on the successive schisms in the ruling minority. Whichever side
+prevailed destroyed its adversaries only to divide afresh and renew the
+strife until the victors were at length so reduced that their yoke was
+shaken off and the mass of the Convention, hitherto benumbed by fear,
+resumed its freedom and the government of France. The first and most
+memorable of these contests was the quarrel between Jacobin and
+Girondin. Both parties were republican and democratic; both wished to
+complete the Revolution; both were determined to maintain the integrity
+of France. But they differed in circumstances and temperament. Although
+the leaders on both sides were of the middle class, the Girondins
+represented the _bourgeoisie_, the Jacobins represented the populace.
+The Girondins desired a speedy return to law and order; the Jacobins
+thought that they could keep power only by violence. The Jacobins leant
+on the revolutionary commune and the mob of Paris; the Girondins leant
+on the thriving burghers of the provincial cities. Despite their smaller
+number the Jacobins were victors. They were the more resolute and
+unscrupulous. The Girondins numbered many orators, but not one man of
+action. The Jacobins controlled the parent club with its affiliated
+societies and the whole machinery of terror. The Girondins had no
+organized force at their disposal. The Jacobins perpetuated in a new
+form the old centralization of power to which France was accustomed. The
+Girondins addressed themselves to provincials who had lost the power of
+initiative. They were termed federalists by their enemies and accused,
+unjustly enough, of wishing to dissolve the national unity.
+
+Even in the first days of the Convention the feud broke out. The
+Girondins condemned the September massacres and dreaded the Parisian
+populace. Barbaroux accused Robespierre of aiming at a dictatorship, and
+Buzot demanded a guard recruited in the departments to protect the
+Convention. In October Louvet reiterated the charge against Robespierre,
+and Barbaroux called for the dissolution of the Commune of Paris. But
+the Girondins gained no tangible result from this wordy warfare. For a
+time the question how to dispose of the king diverted the thoughts of
+all parties. It was approached in a political, not in a judicial spirit.
+The Jacobins desired the death of Louis, partly because they hated kings
+and deemed him a traitor, partly because they wished to envenom the
+Revolution, defy Europe and compromise their more temperate colleagues.
+The Girondins wished to spare Louis, but were afraid of incurring the
+reproach of royalism. At this critical moment the discovery of the
+famous iron chest, containing papers which showed that many public men
+had intrigued with the court, was disastrous for Louis. Members of the
+Convention were anxious to be thought severe lest they should be thought
+corrupt. Robespierre frankly demanded that Louis as a public enemy
+should be put to death without form of trial. The majority shrank from
+such open injustice and decreed on the 3rd of December that Louis should
+be tried by the Convention.
+
+
+  Trial and execution of Louis XVI.
+
+A committee of twenty-one was chosen to frame the indictment against
+Louis, and on the 11th of December he was brought to the bar for the
+first time to hear the charges read. The most essential might be summed
+up in the statement that he had plotted against the Constitution and
+against the safety of the kingdom. On the 26th Louis appeared at the bar
+a second time, and the trial began. The advocates of Louis could plead
+that all his actions down to the dissolution of the National Assembly
+came within the amnesty then granted, and that the Constitution had
+proclaimed his person inviolable, while enacting for certain offences
+the penalty of deposition which he had already undergone. Such arguments
+were not likely to weigh with such a tribunal. The Mountain called for
+immediate sentence of death; the Girondins desired an appeal to the
+people of France. The galleries of the Convention were packed with
+adherents of the Jacobins, whose fury, not confined to words, struck
+terror into all who might incline towards mercy. In Paris unmistakable
+signs announced a new insurrection, to be followed perhaps by new
+massacres. On the question whether Louis was guilty none ventured to
+give a negative vote. The motion for an appeal to the people was
+rejected by 424 votes to 283. The penalty of death was adopted by 361
+votes against 360 in favour of other penalties or of postponing at least
+the execution of the sentence. On the 21st of January 1793 Louis was
+beheaded in the Place de la Révolution, now the Place de la Concorde.
+
+
+  Battle of Valmy.
+
+Between the deposition and the death of Louis the war had run a
+surprising course. Accompanied by King Frederick William, Brunswick had
+entered France with 80,000 men, of whom more than half were Prussians,
+the best soldiers in Europe. The disorder of France was such that many
+expected a triumphal march to Paris. But the Allies had opened the
+campaign late; they moved slowly; the weather broke, and sickness began
+to waste their ranks. Dumouriez succeeded in rousing the spirit of the
+French; he occupied the defiles of the forest of Argonne, thus causing
+the enemy to lose many valuable days, and when at last they turned his
+position, he retreated without loss. At Valmy on the 20th of September
+the two armies came in contact. The affair was only a cannonade, but the
+French stood firm and the advance of the Allies was stayed. Brunswick
+had no heart for his work; the king was ill satisfied with the
+Austrians, and both were alarmed by the ravages of disease among the
+soldiers. Within ten days after the affair of Valmy they began their
+retreat. Dumouriez, who still hoped to detach Prussia from Austria, left
+them unmolested. When the enemy had quitted France, he invaded Hainaut
+and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes on the 6th of November. In
+Belgium a large party regarded the French as deliverers. Dumouriez
+entered Brussels without further resistance, and was soon master of the
+whole country. Elsewhere the French were equally successful. With a
+slight force Custine assailed the electorate of Mainz. The common
+people were friendly, and he had no trouble in occupying the country as
+far as the Rhine. The king of Sardinia having shown a hostile temper,
+Montesquiou made an easy conquest of Savoy. At the close of 1792 the
+relative position of France and her enemies had been reversed. It was
+seen that the French were still able to wage war, and that the
+revolutionary spirit had permeated the adjoining countries, while the
+old governments of Europe, jealous of one another and uncertain of the
+loyalty of their subjects, were ill qualified for resistance.
+
+
+  The first coalition against France.
+
+Intoxicated with these victories, the Convention abandoned itself to the
+fervour of propaganda and conquest. The river Scheldt had been closed to
+commerce by various treaties to which England and Holland, neutral
+powers, were parties. Without a pretence of negotiation the French
+government declared on the 16th of November that the Scheldt was
+thenceforwards open. On the 19th a decree of the Convention offered the
+aid of France to all nations which were striving after freedom--in other
+words, to the malcontents in every neighbouring state. Not long
+afterwards the Convention annexed Savoy, with the consent, it should be
+added, of many Savoyards. On the 15th of December the Convention decreed
+that all peoples freed by its assistance should carry out a revolution
+like that which had been made in France on pain of being treated as
+enemies. Towards Great Britain the executive council and the Convention
+behaved with singular folly. There, in spite of a growing antipathy to
+the Revolution, Pitt earnestly desired to maintain peace. The conquest
+of the Netherlands and the symptoms of a wish to annex that country made
+his task most difficult. But the French government underrated the
+strength of Great Britain, imagining that all Englishmen who desired
+parliamentary reform desired revolution, and that a few democratic
+societies represented the nation. When Monge announced the intention of
+attacking Great Britain on behalf of the English republicans, the
+British government and nation were thoroughly alarmed and roused; and
+when the news of the execution of Louis XVI. was received, Chauvelin,
+the French envoy, was ordered to quit England. France declared war
+against England and Holland on the 1st of February and soon afterwards
+against Spain. In the course of the year 1793 the Empire, the kings of
+Portugal and Naples and the grand-duke of Tuscany declared war against
+France. Thus was formed the first coalition.
+
+France was not prepared to encounter so many enemies. Administrative
+confusion had been heightened by the triumph of the Jacobins. Servan was
+succeeded as minister of war by Pache who was incapable and dishonest.
+The army of Dumouriez was left in such want that it dwindled rapidly.
+The commissioners of the Convention plundered the Netherlands with so
+little remorse that the people became bitterly hostile. The attempt to
+enforce a revolution of the French sort on the Catholic and conservative
+Belgians drove them to fury. By every unfair means the commissioners
+extorted the semblance of a popular vote in favour of incorporation, and
+France annexed the Netherlands. This was the last outrage. When a new
+Austrian army under the prince of Coburg entered the country, Dumouriez,
+who had invaded Holland, was unable to defend Belgium. On the 18th of
+March he was defeated at Neerwinden, and a few days later he was driven
+back to the frontier. Alike on public and personal grounds Dumouriez was
+the enemy of the government. Trusting in his influence over the army he
+resolved to lead it against the Convention, and, in order to secure his
+rear, he negotiated with the enemy. But he could make no impression on
+his soldiers, and deserted to the Austrians. Events followed a similar
+course in the Rhine valley. There also the French wore out the goodwill
+at first shown to them. They summoned a convention and obtained a vote
+for incorporation with France. But they were unable to hold their ground
+on the approach of a Prussian army. By April they had lost the country
+with the exception of Mainz, which was invested. France thus lay open to
+invasion from the east and the north. The Convention decreed a levy of
+300,000 men.
+
+
+  Rising in La Vendée.
+
+About the same time began the first formidable uprising against the
+Revolution, the War of La Vendée, the region lying to the south of the
+lower Loire and facing the Atlantic. Its inhabitants differed in many
+ways from the mass of the nation. Living far from large towns and busy
+routes of commerce, they remained primitive in all their thoughts and
+ways. The peasants had always been on friendly terms with the gentry,
+and the agrarian changes made by the Revolution had not been appreciated
+so highly as elsewhere. The people were ardent Catholics, who venerated
+the nonjuring clergy and resented the measures taken against them. But
+they remained passive until the enforcement of the decree for the levy
+of 300,000 men. Caring little for the Convention and knowing nothing of
+events on the northern or eastern frontier, the peasants were determined
+not to serve and preferred to fight the Republic at home. When once they
+had taken up arms they found gentlemen to lead and priests to exhort,
+and their rebellion became Royalist and Catholic. The chiefs were drawn
+from widely different classes. If Bonchamps and La Roche-jacquelin were
+nobles, Stofflet was a gamekeeper and Cathelineau a mason. As the
+country was favourable to guerilla warfare, and the government could not
+spare regular troops from the frontiers, the rebels were usually
+successful, and by the end of May had almost expelled the Republicans
+from La Vendée.
+
+
+  The Committee of Public Safety.
+
+Danger without and within prompted the Convention to strengthen the
+executive authority. That the executive and legislative powers ought to
+be absolutely separate had been an axiom throughout the Revolution.
+Ministers had always been excluded from a seat in the legislature. But
+the Assemblies were suspicious of the executive and bent on absorbing
+the government. They had nominated committees of their own members to
+control every branch of public affairs. These committees, while reducing
+the ministers to impotence, were themselves clumsy and ineffectual. It
+may be said that since the first meeting of the states-general the
+executive authority had been paralysed in France. The Convention in
+theory maintained the separation of powers. Even Danton had been forced
+to resign office when he was elected a member. But unity of government
+was restored by the formation of a central committee. In January the
+first Committee of General Defence was formed of members of the
+committees for the several departments of state. Too large and too much
+divided for strenuous labour, it was reduced in April to nine members
+and re-named the Committee of Public Safety. It deliberated in secret
+and had authority over the ministers; it was entrusted with the whole of
+the national defence and empowered to use all the resources of the
+state, and it quickly became the supreme power in the republic. Under it
+the ministers were no more than head clerks. About the same time were
+instituted the deputies on mission in the provinces, who could overrule
+any local authority, and who corresponded regularly with the Committee.
+France thus returned under new forms to its traditional government: a
+despotic authority in Paris with all-powerful agents in the provinces.
+Against disaffection the government was armed with formidable weapons:
+the Committee of General Security and the Revolutionary Tribunal. The
+Committee of General Security, first established in October 1792, was
+several times remodelled. In September 1793 the Convention decreed that
+its members should be nominated by the Committee of Public Safety. The
+Committee of General Security had unlimited powers for the prevention or
+discovery of crime against the state. The Revolutionary Tribunal was
+decreed on the 10th of March. It was an extraordinary Court, destined to
+try all offences against the Revolution without appeal. The jury, which
+received wages, voted openly, so that condemnation was almost certain.
+The director of the jury or public prosecutor was Fouquier Tinville. The
+first condemnation took place on the 11th of April.
+
+
+  Fall of the Girondins.
+
+Enmity between Girondin and Jacobin grew fiercer as the perils of the
+Republic increased. Danton strove to unite all partisans of the
+Revolution in defence of the country; but the Girondins, detesting his
+character and fearing his ambition, rejected all advances. The Commune
+of Paris and the journalists who were its mouthpieces, Hébert and Marat,
+aimed frankly at destroying the Girondins. In April the Girondins
+carried a decree that Marat should be sent before the Revolutionary
+Tribunal for incendiary writings, but his acquittal showed that a
+Jacobin leader was above the law. In May they proposed that the Commune
+of Paris should be dissolved, and that the _suppléants_, the persons
+elected to fill vacancies occurring in the Convention, should assemble
+at Bourges, where they would be safe from that violence which might be
+applied to the Convention itself. Barère, who was rising into notice by
+the skill with which he trimmed between parties, opposed this motion,
+and carried a decree appointing a Committee of Twelve to watch over the
+safety of the Convention. Then the Commune named as commandant of the
+National Guard, Hanriot, a man concerned in the September massacres. It
+raised an insurrection on the 31st of May. On Barère's proposal the
+Convention stooped to dissolving the Committee of Twelve. The Commune,
+which had hoped for the arrest of the Girondin leaders, was not
+satisfied. It undertook a new and more formidable outbreak on the 2nd of
+June. Enclosed by Hanriot's troops and thoroughly cowed, the Convention
+decreed the arrest of the Committee of Twelve and of twenty-two
+principal Girondins. They were put under confinement in their own
+houses. Thus the Jacobins became all-powerful.
+
+
+  Revolt of the provinces.
+
+A tremor of revolt ran through the cities of the south which chafed
+under the despotism of the Parisian mob. These cities had their own
+grievances. The Jacobin clubs menaced the lives and properties of all
+who were guilty of wealth or of moderate opinions, while the
+representatives on mission deposed the municipal authorities and placed
+their own creatures in power. At the end of April the citizens of
+Marseilles closed the Jacobin club, put its chiefs on their trial and
+drove out the representatives on mission. In May Lyons rose. The Jacobin
+municipality was overturned, and Challier, their fiercest demagogue, was
+arrested. In June the citizens of Bordeaux declared that they would not
+acknowledge the authority of the Convention until the imprisoned
+deputies were set free. In July Toulon rebelled. But in the north the
+appeals of such Girondins as escaped from Paris were of no avail. Even
+the southern uprising proved far less dangerous than might have been
+expected. The peasants, who had gained more by the Revolution than any
+other class, held aloof from the citizens. The citizens lacked the
+qualities necessary for the successful conduct of civil war. Bordeaux
+surrendered almost without waiting to be summoned. Marseilles was taken
+in August and treated with great cruelty. Lyons, where the Royalists
+were strong, defended itself with courage, for the trial and execution
+of Challier made the townsmen hopeless of pardon. Toulon, also largely
+Royalist, invited the English and Spanish admirals, Hood and Langara,
+who occupied the port and garrisoned the town. At the same time the
+Vendean War continued formidable. In June the insurgents took the
+important town of Saumur, although they failed in an attempt upon
+Nantes. At the end of July the Republicans were still unable to make any
+impression upon the revolted territory.
+
+
+  Disunion of the allied powers.
+
+Thus in the summer of 1793 France seemed to be falling to pieces. It was
+saved by the imbecility and disunion of the hostile powers. In the north
+the French army after the treason of Dumouriez could only attempt to
+cover the frontier. The Austrians were joined by British, Dutch and
+Prussian forces. Had the Allies pushed straight upon Paris, they might
+have ended the war. But the desire of each ally to make conquests on his
+own account led them to spend time and strength in sieges. When Condé
+and Valenciennes had been taken, the British went off to assail Dunkirk
+and the Prussians retired into Luxemburg. In the east the Prussians and
+Austrians took Mainz at the end of July, allowing the garrison to depart
+on condition of not serving against the Allies for a year. Then they
+invaded Alsace, but their mutual jealousy prevented them from going
+farther. Thus the summer passed away without any decisive achievement of
+the coalition. Meanwhile the Committee of Public Safety, inspired by
+Danton, strove to rebuild the French administrative system. In July the
+Committee was renewed and Danton fell out; but soon afterwards it was
+reinforced by two officers, Carnot, who undertook the organization of
+the army, and Prieur of the Côte d'Or, who undertook its equipment.
+Administrators of the first rank, these men renovated the warlike power
+of France, and enabled her to deal those crushing blows which broke up
+the coalition.
+
+
+  The reign of terror.
+
+The Royalist and Girondin insurrections and the critical aspect of the
+war favoured the establishment of what is known as the reign of terror.
+Terrorism had prevailed more or less since the beginning of the
+Revolution, but it was the work of those who desired to rule, not of the
+nominal rulers. It had been lawless and rebellious. It ended by becoming
+legal and official. While Danton kept power Terrorism remained
+imperfect, for Danton, although unscrupulous, did not love cruelty and
+kept in view a return to normal government. But soon after Danton had
+ceased to be a member of the Committee of Public Safety Robespierre was
+elected, and now became the most powerful man in France. Robespierre was
+an acrid fanatic, and unlike Danton, who only cared to secure the
+practical results of the Revolution, he had a moral and religious ideal
+which he intended to force on the nation. All who rejected his ideal
+were corrupt; all who resented his ascendancy were traitors. The death
+of Marat, who was stabbed by Charlotte Corday (q.v.) to avenge the
+Girondins, gave yet another pretext for terrible measures of repression.
+In Paris the armed ruffians who had long preyed upon respectable
+citizens were organized as a revolutionary army, and other revolutionary
+armies were established in the provinces. Two new laws placed almost
+everybody at the mercy of the government. The Law of the Maximum, passed
+on the 17th of September, fixed the price of food and made it capital to
+ask for more. The Law of Suspects, passed at the same time, declared
+suspect every person who was of noble birth, or had held office before
+the Revolution, or had any connexion with an _émigré_, or could not
+produce a card of _civisme_ granted by the local authority, which had
+full discretion to refuse. Any suspect might be arrested and imprisoned
+until the peace or sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal. An earlier
+law had established in every commune an elective committee of
+surveillance. These bodies, better known as revolutionary committees,
+were charged with the enforcement of the Law of Suspects. On the 10th of
+October the new constitution was suspended and the government declared
+revolutionary until the peace.
+
+
+  Execution of the queen.
+
+The spirit of those in power was shown by the massacres which followed
+on the surrender of Lyons in that month. In Paris the slaughter of
+distinguished victims began with the trial of Marie Antoinette, who was
+guillotined on the 16th. Twenty-one Girondin deputies were next brought
+to the bar and, with the exception of Valazé who stabbed himself, were
+beheaded on the last day of October, Madame Roland and other Girondins
+of note suffered later. In November the duke of Orleans, who had styled
+himself Philippe Égalité, had sat in the Convention, and had voted for
+the king's death, went to the scaffold. Bailly, Barnave and many others
+of note followed before the end of the year. As the bloody work went on
+the pretence of trial became more and more hollow, the chance of
+acquittal fainter and fainter. The Revolutionary Tribunal was a mere
+instrument of state. Knowing the slight foundation of its power the
+government deliberately sought to destroy all whose birth, political
+connexions or past career might mark them out as leaders of opposition.
+At the same time it took care to show that none was so obscure or so
+impotent as to be safe when its policy was to destroy.
+
+The disastrous effects of the Terror were heightened by the financial
+mismanagement of the Jacobins. Assignats were issued with such reckless
+profusion that the total for the three years of the Convention has been
+estimated at 7250 millions of francs. Enormous depreciation ensued and,
+although penalties rising to death itself were denounced against all who
+should refuse to take them at par, they fell to little more than 1% of
+their nominal value. What were known as revolutionary taxes were
+imposed at discretion by the representatives on mission and the local
+authorities. A forced loan of 1000 millions was exacted from those
+citizens who were reputed to be prosperous. Immense supplies of all
+kinds were requisitioned for the armies, and were sometimes allowed to
+rot unused. Anarchy and state interference having combined to check the
+trade in necessaries, the government undertook to feed the people, and
+spent huge sums, especially on bread for the starving inhabitants of
+Paris. As no regular budget was attempted, as accounts were not kept,
+and as audit was unknown, the opportunities for fraud and embezzlement
+were endless. Even when due allowance has been made for the financial
+disorder which the Convention inherited from previous assemblies, and
+for the war which it had to wage against a formidable alliance, it
+cannot be acquitted of reckless and wasteful maladministration.
+
+
+  Revolutionary legislation. The new calendar.
+
+Notwithstanding the disorder of the time, the mass of new laws produced
+by the Convention was extraordinary. A new system of weights and
+measures, a new currency, a new chronological era (that of the
+Republic), and a new calendar were introduced (see the section
+_Republican Calendar_ below). A new and elaborate system of education
+was decreed. Two drafts of a complete civil code were made and, although
+neither was enacted, particular changes of great moment were decreed.
+Many of the new laws were stamped with the passions of the time. Such
+were the laws which suppressed all the remaining bodies corporate, even
+the academies, and which extinguished all manorial rights without any
+indemnity to the owners. Such too were the laws which took away the
+power of testation, placed natural children upon an absolute equality
+with legitimate, and gave a boundless freedom of divorce. It would be
+absurd, however, to dismiss all the legislative work of the Convention
+as merely partisan or eccentric. Much of it was enlightened and skilful,
+the product of the best minds in the assembly. To compete for power or
+even to express an opinion on public affairs was dangerous, and wholly
+to refrain from attendance might be construed as disaffection. Able men
+who wished to be useful without hazarding their lives took refuge in the
+committees where new laws were drafted and discussed. The result of
+their labours was often decreed as a matter of course. Whether the
+decree would be carried into effect was always uncertain.
+
+
+  Overthrow of the Paris Commune. Fall of the Dantonists.
+
+The ruling faction was still divided against itself. The Commune of
+Paris, which had overthrown the Girondins, was jealous of the Committee
+of Public Safety, which meant to be supreme. Robespierre, the leading
+member of the committee, abhorred the chiefs of the Commune, not merely
+because they conflicted with his ambition but from difference of
+character. He was orderly and temperate, they were gross and debauched;
+he was a deist, they were atheists. In November the Commune fitted up
+Notre Dame as a temple of Reason, selected an opera girl to impersonate
+the goddess, and with profane ceremony installed her in the choir. All
+the churches in Paris were closed. Danton, when he felt power slipping
+from his hands, had retired from public business to his native town of
+Arcis-sur-Aube. When he became aware of the feud between Robespierre and
+the Commune, he conceived the hope of limiting the Terror and guiding
+the Revolution into a sane course. He returned to Paris and joined with
+Robespierre in carrying the law of 14 Frimaire (December 4), which gave
+the Committee of Public Safety absolute control over all municipal
+authorities. He became the advocate of mercy, and his friend Camille
+Desmoulins pleaded for the same cause in the _Vieux Cordelier_. Then the
+oppressed nation took courage and began to demand pardon for the
+innocent and even justice upon murderers. A sharp contest ensued between
+the Dantonists and the Commune, Robespierre inclining now to this side,
+now to that, for he was really a friend to neither. His friend St Just,
+a younger and fiercer man, resolved to destroy both. Hébert and his
+followers in despair planned a new insurrection, but they were deserted
+by Hanriot, their military chief. Their doom was thus fixed. Twenty
+leaders of the Commune were arrested on the 17th of March 1794 and
+guillotined a week later. It was then Danton's turn. He had several
+warnings, but either through over-confidence or weariness of life he
+scorned to fly. On the 30th he was arrested along with his friends
+Desmoulins, Delacroix, Philippeaux and Westermann. St Just read to the
+Convention a report on their case pre-eminent even in that day for its
+shameless disregard of truth, nay, of plausibility. Before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal Danton defended himself with such energy that St
+Just took means to have him silenced. Danton and his friends were
+executed on the 5th of April.
+
+
+  Supremacy of Robespierre.
+
+For a moment the conflict of parties seemed at an end. None could
+presume to challenge the authority of the Committee of Public Safety,
+and in the committee none disputed the leadership of Robespierre.
+Robespierre was at last free to establish the republic of virtue. On the
+7th of May he persuaded the Convention to decree that the French people
+acknowledged the existence of a Supreme Being and the immortality of the
+soul. On the 4th of June he was elected president of the Convention, and
+from that time forward he appeared to be dictator of France. On the 8th
+the festival of the Supreme Being was solemnized, Robespierre acting as
+pontiff amid the outward deference and secret jeers of his colleagues.
+But Robespierre knew what a gulf parted him from almost all his
+countrymen. He knew that he could be safe only by keeping power and
+powerful only by making the Terror more stringent. Two days after the
+festival his friend Couthon presented the crowning law of the Terror,
+known as the Law of 22 Prairial. As the Revolutionary Tribunal was said
+to be paralysed by forms and delays, this law abolished the defence of
+prisoners by counsel and the examination of witnesses. Thenceforward the
+impressions of judges and jurors were to decide the fate of the accused.
+For all offences the penalty was to be death. The leave of the
+Convention was no longer required for the arrest of a member. In spite
+of some murmurs even this law was adopted. Its effect was fearful. The
+Revolutionary Tribunal had hitherto pronounced 1200 death sentences. In
+the next six weeks it pronounced 1400. With Robespierre's approval St
+Just sketched at this time the plan of an ideal society in which every
+man should have just enough land to maintain him; in which domestic life
+should be regulated by law and all children over seven years should be
+educated by the state. Pending this regeneration of society St Just
+advised the rule of a dictator.
+
+
+  The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.
+
+The growing ferocity of the Terror appeared more hideous as the dangers
+threatening the government receded. The surrender of Toulon in December
+1793 closed the south of France to foreign enemies. The war in La Vendée
+turned against the insurgents from the time when the veteran garrison of
+Mainz came to reinforce the Republican army. After a severe defeat at
+Cholet on the 16th of October the Royalists determined to cross the
+Loire and raise Brittany and Anjou, where the Chouans, or Royalist
+partisans, were already stirring. They failed in an attempt on the
+little seaport of Granville and in another upon Angers. In December they
+were defeated with immense loss at Le Mans and at Savenay. The rebellion
+would probably have died out but for the measures of the new Republican
+general Turreau, who wasted La Vendée so horribly with his "infernal
+columns" that he drove the peasants to take up arms once more. Yet
+Turreau's crimes were almost surpassed by Carrier, the representative on
+mission at Nantes, who, finding the guillotine too slow in the
+destruction of his prisoners, adopted the plan of drowning them
+wholesale. In the autumn of 1793 the war against the coalition took a
+turn favourable to France. The energy of Danton, the organizing skill of
+Carnot, and the high spirit of the French nation, resolute at all costs
+to avoid dismemberment, had well employed the respite given by the
+sluggishness of the Allies. In Flanders the English were defeated at
+Hondschoote (September 8) and the Austrians at Wattignies (October 15).
+In the east Hoche routed the Austrians at Weissenburg and forced them to
+recross the Rhine before the end of 1793. The summer of 1794 saw France
+victorious on all her frontiers. Jourdan won the battle of Fleurus
+(June 25), which decided the fate of the Belgian provinces. The
+Prussians were driven out of the eastern departments. Against the
+Spaniards and the Sardinians the French were also successful.
+
+
+  Fall of Robespierre. The 9th Thermidor.
+
+Under these circumstances government by terror could not endure.
+Robespierre was not a man of action; he knew not how to form or lead a
+party; he lived not with his fellows but with his own thoughts and
+ambitions. He was hated and feared by most of the oligarchy. They
+laughed at his religion, resented his puritanism, and felt themselves in
+daily peril. His only loyal friends in the Committee of Public Safety,
+Couthon and St Just, were themselves unpopular. Robespierre professed
+consideration for the deputies of the Plain, who were glad to buy safety
+by conforming to his will; but he could not reckon on their help in time
+of danger. By degrees a coalition against Robespierre was formed in the
+Mountain. It included old followers of Danton like Taillen, independent
+Jacobins like Cambon, some of the worst Terrorists like Fouché, and such
+a consummate time-server as Barère. In the course of July its influence
+began to be felt. When St Just proposed Robespierre to the committees as
+dictator, he found no response. On the 8th Thermidor (26th of July)
+Robespierre addressed the Convention, deploring the invectives against
+himself and the Revolutionary Tribunal and demanding the purification of
+the committees and the punishment of traitors. His enemies took the
+speech as a declaration of war and thwarted a proposal that it should be
+circulated in the departments. Robespierre felt his ascendancy totter.
+He repeated his speech with more success to the Jacobin Club. His
+friends determined to strike, and Hanriot ordered the National Guards to
+hold themselves in readiness. Robespierre's enemies called on the
+Committee of Public Safety to arrest the traitors, but the committee was
+divided. On the morning of the 9th Thermidor St Just was beginning to
+speak in the Convention when Tallien cut him short. Robespierre and all
+who tried to speak in his behalf were shouted down. The Plain was deaf
+to Robespierre's appeal. Finally the Convention decreed the arrest of
+Robespierre, of his brother Augustin, of Couthon and of St Just. But the
+Commune and the Jacobin Club were on the alert. They sounded the tocsin,
+mustered their partisans, and released the prisoners. The Convention
+outlawed Robespierre and his friends and sent out commissioners to rally
+the citizens. It named Barras, a deputy who had served in the royal
+army, to lead its forces. Had Robespierre possessed Danton's energy, the
+result might have been doubtful. He did nothing himself and benumbed his
+followers. Without an effort Barras captured the Hôtel de Ville.
+Robespierre, whose jaw had been shattered by a pistol shot, was left in
+agony for the night. On the next morning he was beheaded along with his
+brother, Couthon, St Just, Hanriot and seventeen more of his adherents.
+On the day after seventy-one members of the Commune followed them to the
+scaffold. Such was the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (27th of July
+1794) which ended the Reign of Terror.
+
+In a period of fifteen months, it has been calculated, about 17,000
+persons had been executed in France under form of law. The number of
+those who were shot, drowned or otherwise massacred without the pretence
+of a trial can never be accurately known, but must be reckoned far
+greater. The number of persons arrested and imprisoned reached hundreds
+of thousands, of whom many died in their crowded and filthy jails. The
+names on the list of _émigrés_ at the close of the Terror were about
+150,000. Of these a small proportion had borne arms against their
+country. The rest were either harmless fugitives from destruction or had
+never quitted France and had been placed on the list simply in order
+that they might incur the penalties of emigration. Every one of this
+multitude was liable to instant death if found in French territory.
+Their relatives were subjected to various pains and penalties. All the
+property of those condemned to death and of _émigrés_ was confiscated.
+The carnage of the Terror spread far beyond the clergy and the nobility,
+beyond even the middle class, for peasants and artisans were among the
+victims. It spread far beyond those who could conspire or rebel, for
+bedridden old men and women and young boys and girls were often
+sacrificed. It made most havoc in the flower of the nation, since every
+kind of eminence marked men for death. By imbuing Frenchmen with such a
+mutual hatred as nothing but the arm of despotic power could control the
+Reign of Terror rendered political liberty impossible for many years.
+The rule of the Terrorists made inevitable the reign of Napoleon.
+
+
+  Reaction after the Terror.
+
+The fall of Robespierre had consequences unforeseen by his destroyers.
+Long kept mute by fear, the mass of the nation found a voice and
+demanded a total change of government. When once the reaction against
+Jacobin tyranny had begun, it was impossible to halt. Great numbers of
+prisoners were set at liberty. The Commune of Paris was abolished and
+the office of commandant of the National Guard was suppressed. The
+Revolutionary Tribunal was reorganized, and thenceforwards condemnations
+were rare. The Committees of Public Safety and General Security were
+remodelled, in virtue of a law that one-fourth of their number should
+retire at the end of every month and not be re-eligible until another
+month had elapsed. Somewhat later the Convention declared itself to be
+the only centre of authority, and executive business was parcelled out
+among sixteen committees. Most of the representatives on mission were
+recalled, and many office-holders were displaced. The trial of 130
+prisoners sent up from Nantes led to so many terrible disclosures that
+public feeling turned still more fiercely against the Jacobins; Carrier
+himself was condemned and executed; and in November the Jacobin Club was
+closed. In December 73 members of the Convention who had been imprisoned
+for protesting against the violence done to the Girondins on the 2nd of
+June 1793 were allowed to resume their seats, and gave a decisive
+majority to the anti-Jacobins. Soon afterwards the law of the Maximum
+was repealed. A decree was passed in February 1795 severing the
+connexion of church and state and allowing general freedom of worship.
+At the beginning of March those Girondin deputies who survived came back
+to their places in the Convention.
+
+
+  Parties in the Assembly after Thermidor.
+
+But the return to normal life after the Jacobin domination was not
+destined to be smooth or continuous. Beside the remnant of Terrorists,
+such as Billaud Varennes and Collot d'Herbois, who had joined in the
+revolt against Robespierre, there were in the Convention at that time
+three principal factions. The so-called Independents, such as Barras and
+Merlin of Douai, who were all Jacobins, but had stood aloof from the
+internal conflicts of the party, hated Royalism as much as ever and
+desired the continuance of the war which was essential to their power.
+The Thermidorians, the immediate agents in Robespierre's overthrow, such
+as Tallien, had loudly professed Jacobinism, but wanted to make their
+peace with the nation. They sought for an understanding with the
+Girondins and Feuillants, and some went so far as to correspond with the
+exiled princes. Lastly, those members who had never been Jacobins wanted
+a speedy return to legal government at home and therefore wished for
+peace abroad. While bent on preserving the civil equality introduced by
+the Revolution, many of these men were indifferent as between
+constitutional monarchy and a republic. The government, mainly
+Thermidorian, trimmed between Moderates and Independents, and for this
+reason its actions were often inconsistent.
+
+
+  Progress of the reaction.
+
+The Jacobins were strong enough to carry a decree for keeping the
+anniversary of the execution of Louis XVI. as a national festival. They
+could count on the populace, because work was still scarce, food was
+still dear, and a multitude of Parisians knew not where to find bread. A
+committee having recommended the indictment of Collot d'Herbois and
+three other Terrorists, there ensued the rising of the 12th Germinal
+(April 1). The mob forced their way into the hall of the Convention and
+remained there until the National Guards of the wealthy quarters drove
+them out. By a decree of the Convention the four accused persons were
+deported to Cayenne, a new mode of dealing with political offenders
+almost as effective as the guillotine, while less apt to excite
+compassion. The National Guard was reorganized so as to exclude the
+lowest class. The property of persons executed since the 10th of March
+1793 was restored to their families. The signs of reaction daily became
+more unmistakable. Worshippers crowded to the churches; the _émigrés_
+returned by thousands; and Anti-Jacobin outbreaks, followed by massacre,
+took place in the south. The despair of the Jacobins produced a second
+rising in Paris on the 1st Prairial (May 20). Again the mob invaded the
+Convention, murdered a deputy named Féraud who attempted to shield the
+president, and set his head on a pike. The ultra-Jacobin members took
+possession and embodied their wishes in decrees. Again the hall was
+cleared by the National Guards, but order was restored in Paris only by
+employing regular troops, a new precedent in the history of the
+Revolution. Paris was disarmed, and several leaders of the insurrection
+were sentenced to death. The Revolutionary Tribunal was suppressed.
+Toleration was proclaimed for all priests who would declare their
+obedience to the laws of the state. Royalists began to count upon the
+restoration of young Louis the Dauphin, otherwise Louis XVII.; but his
+health had been ruined by persevering cruelty, and he died on the 10th
+of June.
+
+
+  Progress of the war.
+
+The Thermidorian government also endeavoured to pacify the rebels of the
+west. Its best adviser, Hoche, recommended an amnesty and the assurance
+of religious freedom. On these terms peace was made with the Vendéans at
+La Jaunaie in February and with the Chouans at La Mabilais in April.
+Some of the Vendean leaders persevered in resistance until May, and even
+after their submission the peace was ill observed, for the Royalists
+hearkened to the solicitations of the princes and their advisers. In the
+hope of rekindling the civil war a body of _émigrés_ sailed under cover
+of the British fleet and landed on the peninsula of Quiberon. They were
+presently hemmed in by Hoche, and all who could not make their escape to
+the ships were forced to surrender at discretion (July 20). Nearly 700
+were executed by court-martial. Yet the spirit of revolt lingered in the
+west and broke out time after time. Against the coalition the Republic
+was gloriously successful. (See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) In the
+summer of 1794 the French invaded Spain at both ends of the Pyrenees,
+and at the close of the year they made good their footing in Catalonia
+and Navarre. By the beginning of 1795 the Rhine frontier had been won.
+Against the king of Sardinia alone they accomplished little. At sea the
+French had sustained a severe defeat from Lord Howe, and several of
+their colonies had been taken by the British. But Great Britain, when
+the Netherlands were lost, could do little for her allies. Even before
+the close of 1794 the king of Prussia retired from any active part in
+the war, and on the 5th of April 1795 he concluded with France the
+treaty of Basel, which recognized her occupation of the left bank of the
+Rhine. The new democratic government which the French had established in
+Holland purchased peace by surrendering Dutch territory to the south of
+that river. A treaty of peace between France and Spain followed in July.
+The grand duke of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The
+coalition thus fell into ruin and France occupied a more commanding
+position than in the proudest days of Louis XIV.
+
+
+  Constitution of the year III. The Directory.
+
+But this greatness was unsure so long as France remained without a
+stable government. A constitutional committee was named in April. It
+resolved that the constitution of 1793 was impracticable and proceeded
+to frame a new one. The draft was submitted to the Convention in June.
+In its final shape the constitution established a parliamentary system
+of two houses: a Council of Five Hundred and a Council of Ancients, 250
+in number. Members of the Five Hundred were to be at least thirty years
+of age, members of the Ancients at least forty. The system of indirect
+election was maintained but universal suffrage was abandoned. A moderate
+qualification was required for electors in the first degree, a higher
+one for electors in the second degree.
+
+When the 750 persons necessary had been elected they were to choose the
+Ancients out of their own body. A legislature was to last for three
+years, and one-third of the members were to be renewed every year. The
+Ancients had a suspensory veto, but no initiative in legislation. The
+executive was to consist of five directors chosen by the Ancients out of
+a list elected by the Five Hundred. One director was to retire every
+year. The directors were aided by ministers for the various departments
+of State. These ministers did not form a council and had no general
+powers of government. Provision was made for the stringent control of
+all local authorities by the central government. Since the separation of
+powers was still deemed axiomatic, the directors had no voice in
+legislation or taxation, nor could directors or ministers sit in either
+house. Freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of labour
+were guaranteed. Armed assemblies and even public meetings of political
+societies were forbidden. Petitions were to be tendered only by
+individuals or through the public authorities. The constitution was not,
+however, allowed free play from the beginning. The Convention was so
+unpopular that, if its members had retired into private life, they would
+not have been safe and their work might have been undone. It was
+therefore decreed that two-thirds of the first legislature must be
+chosen out of the Convention.
+
+
+  Insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire.
+
+When the constitution was submitted to the primary assemblies, most
+electors held aloof, 1,050,000 voting for and only 5,000 voting against
+it. On the 23rd of September it was declared to be law. Then all the
+parties which resented the limit upon freedom of election combined to
+rise in Paris. The government entrusted its defence to Barras; but its
+true man of action was young General Bonaparte, who could dispose of a
+few thousand regular troops and a powerful artillery. The Parisians were
+ill-equipped and ill-led, and on the 13th of Vendémiaire (October 5)
+their insurrection was quelled almost without loss to the victors. No
+further resistance was possible. The Convention dissolved itself on the
+26th of October.
+
+
+  Balance of parties in the new legislature.
+
+The feeling of the nation was clearly shown in the elections. Among
+those who had sat in the Convention the anti-Jacobins were generally
+preferred. A leader of the old Right was sometimes chosen by many
+departments at once. Owing to this circumstance, 104 places reserved to
+members of the Convention were left unfilled. When the persons elected
+met they had no choice but to co-opt the 104 from the Left of the
+Convention. The new one-third were, as a rule, enemies of the Jacobins,
+but not of the Revolution. Many had been members of the Constituent or
+of the Legislative Assembly. When the new legislature was complete, the
+Jacobins had a majority, although a weak one. After the Council of the
+Ancients had been chosen by lot, it remained to name the directors. For
+its own security the Left resolved that all five must be old members of
+the Convention and regicides. The persons chosen were Rewbell, Barras,
+La Révellière Lépeaux, Carnot and Letourneur. Rewbell was an able,
+although unscrupulous, man of action, Barras a dissolute and shameless
+adventurer, La Révellière Lépeaux the chief of a new sect, the
+Theophilanthropists, and therefore a bitter foe to other religions,
+especially the Catholic. Severe integrity and memorable public services
+raised Carnot far above his colleagues, but he was not a statesman and
+was hampered by his past. Letourneur, a harmless insignificant person,
+was his admirer and follower. The division in the legislature was
+reproduced in the Directory. Rewbell, Barras and La Révellière Lépeaux
+had a full measure of the Jacobin spirit; Carnot and Letourneur favoured
+a more temperate policy.
+
+
+  Character of the Directory.
+
+With the establishment of the Directory the Revolution might seem
+closed. The nation only desired rest and the healing of its many wounds.
+Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII. and the _ancien régime_ and
+those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in
+number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the
+failure of the coalition. Nevertheless the four years of the Directory
+were a time of arbitrary government and chronic disquiet. The late
+atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible.
+The same instinct of self-preservation which had led the members of the
+Convention to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole
+of the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance. As the
+majority of Frenchmen wanted to be rid of them, they could achieve their
+purpose only by extraordinary means. They habitually disregarded the
+terms of the constitution, and, when the elections went against them,
+appealed to the sword. They resolved to prolong the war as the best
+expedient for prolonging their power. They were thus driven to rely upon
+the armies, which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic
+in temper. Other reasons influenced them in this direction. The finances
+had been so thoroughly ruined that the government could not have met its
+expenses without the plunder and the tribute of foreign countries. If
+peace were made, the armies would return home and the directors would
+have to face the exasperation of the rank and file who had lost their
+livelihood, as well as the ambition of generals who could in a moment
+brush them aside. Barras and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt themselves
+and screened corruption in others. The patronage of the directors was
+ill bestowed, and the general maladministration heightened their
+unpopularity.
+
+
+  Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte.
+
+The constitutional party in the legislature desired a toleration of the
+nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives of the
+_émigrés_, and some merciful discrimination toward the _émigrés_
+themselves. The directors baffled all such endeavours. On the other
+hand, the socialist conspiracy of Babeuf was easily quelled (see BABEUF,
+FRANÇOIS N.). Little was done to improve the finances, and the
+_assignats_ continued to fall in value. But the Directory was sustained
+by the military successes of the year 1796. Hoche again pacified La
+Vendée. Bonaparte's victories in Italy more than compensated for the
+reverses of Jourdan and Moreau in Germany. The king of Sardinia made
+peace in May, ceding Nice and Savoy to the Republic and consenting to
+receive French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses. By the treaty of
+San Ildefonso, concluded in August, Spain became the ally of France. In
+October Naples made peace. In 1797 Bonaparte finished the conquest of
+northern Italy and forced Austria to make the treaty of Campo Formio
+(October), whereby the emperor ceded Lombardy and the Austrian
+Netherlands to the Republic in exchange for Venice and undertook to urge
+upon the Diet the surrender of the lands beyond the Rhine.
+Notwithstanding the victory of Cape St Vincent, England was brought into
+such extreme peril by the mutinies in the fleet that she offered to
+acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands and to restore the
+French colonies. The selfishness of the three directors threw away this
+golden opportunity. In March and April the election of a new third of
+the Councils had been held. It gave a majority to the constitutional
+party. Among the directors the lot fell on Letourneur to retire, and he
+was succeeded by Barthélemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself
+with Carnot. The political disabilities imposed upon the relatives of
+_émigrés_ were repealed. Priests who would declare their submission to
+the Republic were restored to their rights as citizens. It seemed likely
+that peace would be made and that moderate men would gain power.
+
+
+  Coup d'état of the 18th Fructidor.
+
+Barras, Rewbell and La Révellière-Lépeaux then sought help from the
+armies. Although Royalists formed but a petty fraction of the majority,
+they raised the alarm that it was seeking to restore monarchy and undo
+the work of the Revolution. Hoche, then in command of the army of the
+Sambre and Meuse, visited Paris and sent troops. Bonaparte sent General
+Augereau, who executed the _coup d'état_ of the 18th Fructidor
+(September 4). The councils were purged, the elections in forty-nine
+departments were cancelled, and many deputies and other men of note were
+arrested. Some of them, including Barthélemy, were deported to Cayenne.
+Carnot made good his escape. The two vacant places in the Directory were
+filled by Merlin of Douai and François of Neufchâteau. Then the
+government frankly returned to Jacobin methods. The law against the
+relatives of _émigrés_ was reenacted, and military tribunals were
+established to condemn _émigrés_ who should return to France. The
+nonjuring priests were again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent
+to Cayenne or imprisoned in the hulks of Ré and Oleron. La Révellière
+Lépeaux seized the opportunity to propagate his religion. Many churches
+were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The government strained its
+power to secure the recognition of the _décadi_ as the day of public
+worship and the non-observance of Sunday. Liberty of the press ceased.
+Newspapers were confiscated and journalists were deported wholesale. It
+was proposed to banish from France all members of the old _noblesse_.
+Although the proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be
+foreigners and were forced to obtain naturalization if they would enjoy
+the rights of other citizens. A formal bankruptcy of the state, the
+cancelling of two-thirds of the interest on the public debt, crowned the
+misgovernment of this disastrous time.
+
+In the spring of 1798 not only a new third of the legislature had to be
+chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution of
+Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had been rendered
+helpless, and the mass of the electors were indifferent. But among the
+Jacobins themselves there had arisen an extreme party hostile to the
+directors. With the support of many who were not Jacobins but detested
+the government, it bade fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies
+could take their seats the directors forced through the councils the law
+of the 22nd Floréal (May 11), annulling or perverting the elections in
+thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies by name. Even this
+_coup d'état_ did not secure harmony between the executive and the
+legislature. In the councils the directors were loudly charged with
+corruption and misgovernment. The retirement of François of Neufchâteau
+and the choice of Treilhard as his successor made no difference in the
+position of the Directory.
+
+While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were doubly bound
+to husband the national strength and practise moderation towards other
+states. Since December 1797 a congress had been sitting at Rastadt to
+regulate the future of Germany. That it should be brought to a
+successful conclusion was of the utmost import for France. But the
+directors were driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad.
+Bonaparte was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors
+were anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris; they therefore
+sanctioned the expedition to Egypt which deprived the Republic of its
+best army and most renowned captain. Coveting the treasures of Bern,
+they sent Brune to invade Switzerland and remodel its constitution; in
+revenge for the murder of General Duphot, they sent Berthier to invade
+the papal states and erect the Roman Republic; they occupied and
+virtually annexed Piedmont. In all these countries they organized such
+an effective pillage that the French became universally hateful. As the
+armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded
+conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of conscription was passed
+in the summer of 1798. The attempt to enforce it caused a revolt of the
+peasants in the Belgian departments. The priests were made responsible
+and some eight thousand were condemned in a mass to deportation,
+although much the greater part escaped by the goodwill of the people.
+Few soldiers were obtained by the conscription, for the government was
+as weak as it was tyrannical.
+
+
+  The second coalition.
+
+Under these circumstances Nelson's victory of Aboukir (1st of August),
+which gave the British full command of the Mediterranean and secluded
+Bonaparte in Egypt, was the signal for a second coalition. Naples,
+Austria, Russia and Turkey joined Great Britain against France.
+Ferdinand of Naples, rashly taking the offensive before his allies were
+ready, was defeated and forced to seek a refuge in Sicily. In January
+1799 the French occupied Naples and set up the Parthenopean republic.
+But the consequent dispersion of their weak forces only exposed them to
+greater peril. At home the Directory was in a most critical position. In
+the elections of April 1799 a large number of Jacobins gained seats. A
+little later Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his place with a
+man of ability and influence. The choice fell upon Sieyès, who had kept
+aloof from office and retained not only his immeasurable self-conceit
+but the respect of the public. Sieyès felt that the Directory was
+bankrupt of reputation, and he intended to be far more than a mere
+member of a board. He hoped to concentrate power in his own hands, to
+bridle the Jacobins, and to remodel the constitution. With the help of
+Barras he proceeded to rid himself of the other directors. An
+irregularity having been discovered in Treilhard's election, he retired,
+and his place was taken by Gohier. Merlin of Douai and La Révellière
+Lépeaux were driven to resign in June. They were succeeded by Moulin and
+Ducos. The three new directors were so insignificant that they could
+give no trouble, but for the same reason they were of little service.
+
+
+  French reverses. The Directory discredited.
+
+Such a government was ill fitted to cope with the dangers then gathering
+round France. The directors having resolved on the offensive in Germany,
+the French crossed the Rhine early in March, but were defeated by the
+archduke Charles at Stockach on the 25th. The congress at Rastadt, which
+had sat for fifteen months without doing anything, broke up in April and
+the French envoys were murdered by Austrian hussars. In Italy the allies
+took the offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly Russian under
+the command of Suvárov. After defeating Moreau at Cassano on the 27th of
+April, he occupied Milan and Turin. The republics established by the
+French in Italy were overthrown, and the French army retreating from
+Naples was defeated by Suvárov on the Trebbia. Thus threatened with
+invasion on her German and Italian frontiers, France was disabled by
+anarchy within. The finances were in the last distress; the
+anti-religious policy of the government kept many departments on the
+verge of revolt; and commerce was almost suspended by the decay of roads
+and the increase of bandits. There was no real political freedom, yet
+none of the ease or security which enlightened despotism can bestow. The
+Terrorists lifted their heads in the Council of Five Hundred. A Law of
+Hostages, which was really a new Law of Suspects, and a progressive
+income tax showed the temper of the majority. The Jacobin Club was
+reopened and became once more the focus of disorder. The Jacobin press
+renewed the licence of Hébert and Marat. Never since the outbreak of the
+Revolution had the public temper been so gloomy and desponding.
+
+In this extremity Sieyès chose as minister of police the old Terrorist
+Fouché, who best understood how to deal with his brethren. Fouché closed
+the Jacobin Club and deported a number of journalists. But like his
+predecessors Sieyès felt that for the revolution which he meditated he
+must have the help of a soldier. As his man of action he chose General
+Joubert, one of the most distinguished among French officers. Joubert
+was sent to restore the fortune of the war in Italy. At Novi on the 15th
+of August he encountered Suvárov. He was killed at the outset of the
+battle and his men were defeated. After this disaster the French held
+scarcely anything south of the Alps save Genoa. The Russian and Austrian
+governments then agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to
+invade France from the east. At the same time Holland was assailed by
+the joint forces of Great Britain and Russia. But the second coalition,
+like the first, was doomed to failure by the narrow views and
+conflicting interests of its members. The invasion of Switzerland was
+baffled by want of concert between Austrians and Russians and by
+Masséna's victory at Zürich on the 25th and 26th of September. In
+October the British and the Russians were forced to evacuate Holland.
+All immediate danger to France was ended, but the issue of the war was
+still in suspense. The directors had been forced to recall Bonaparte
+from Egypt. He anticipated their order and on the 9th of October landed
+at Fréjus.
+
+
+  Coup d'état of the 18th Brumaire.
+
+Dazzled by his victories in the East the public forgot that the Egyptian
+expedition was ending in calamity. It received him with an ardour which
+convinced Sieyès that he was the indispensable soldier. Bonaparte was
+ready to act, but at his own time and for his own ends. Since the close
+of the Convention affairs at home and abroad had been tending more and
+more surely to the establishment of a military dictatorship. Feeling his
+powers equal to such an office he only hesitated about the means of
+attainment. At first he thought of becoming a director; finally he
+decided upon a partnership with Sieyès. They resolved to end the actual
+government by a fresh _coup d'état_. Means were to be taken for removing
+the councils from Paris to St Cloud, where pressure could more easily be
+applied. Then the councils would be induced to decree a provisional
+government by three consuls and the appointment of a commission to
+revise the constitution. The pretext for this irregular proceeding was
+to be a vast Jacobin conspiracy. Perhaps the gravest obstacles were to
+be expected from the army. Of the generals, some, like Jourdan, were
+honest republicans; others, like Bernadotte, believed themselves capable
+of governing France. With perfect subtlety Bonaparte worked on the
+feelings of all and kept his own intentions secret.
+
+On the morning of the 18th Brumaire (November 9) the Ancients, to whom
+that power belonged, decreed the transference of the councils to St
+Cloud. Of the directors, Sieyès and his friend Ducos had arranged to
+resign; Barras was cajoled and bribed into resigning; Gohier and
+Moulins, who were intractable, found themselves imprisoned in the
+Luxemburg palace and helpless. So far all had gone well. But when the
+councils met at St Cloud on the following day, the majority of the Five
+Hundred showed themselves bent on resistance, and even the Ancients gave
+signs of wavering. When Bonaparte addressed the Ancients, he lost his
+self-possession and made a deplorable figure. When he appeared among the
+Five Hundred, they fell upon him with such fury that he was hardly
+rescued by his officers. A motion to outlaw him was only baffled by the
+audacity of the president, his brother Lucien. At length driven to
+undisguised violence, he sent in his grenadiers, who turned out the
+deputies. Then the Ancients passed a decree which adjourned the Councils
+for three months, appointed Bonaparte, Sieyès and Ducos provisional
+consuls, and named the Legislative Commission. Some tractable members of
+the Five Hundred were afterwards swept up and served to give these
+measures the confirmation of their House. Thus the Directory and the
+Councils came to their unlamented end. A shabby compound of brute force
+and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay
+applauded, by the French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more
+than to be wisely and firmly governed.
+
+
+  General estimate of the Revolution.
+
+Although the French Revolution seemed to contemporaries a total break in
+the history of France, it was really far otherwise. Its results were
+momentous and durable in proportion as they were the outcome of causes
+which had been working long. In France there had been no historic
+preparation for political freedom. The desire for such freedom was in
+the main confined to the upper classes. During the Revolution it was
+constantly baffled. No Assembly after the states-general was freely
+elected and none deliberated in freedom. After the Revolution Bonaparte
+established a monarchy even more absolute than the monarchy of Louis
+XIV. But the desire for uniformity, for equality and for what may be
+termed civil liberty was the growth of ages, had been in many respects
+nurtured by the action of the crown and its ministers, and had become
+intense and general. Accordingly it determined the principal results of
+the Revolution. Uniformity of laws and institutions was enforced
+throughout France. The legal privileges formerly distinguishing
+different classes were suppressed. An obsolete and burthensome agrarian
+system was abolished. A number of large estates belonging to the crown,
+the clergy and the nobles were broken up and sold at nominal prices to
+men of the middle or lower class. The new jurisprudence encouraged the
+multiplication of small properties. The new fiscal system taxed men
+according to their means and raised no obstacle to commerce within the
+national boundaries. Every calling and profession was made free to all
+French citizens, and in the public service the principle of an open
+career for talent was adopted. Religious disabilities vanished, and
+there was well-nigh complete liberty of thought. It was because Napoleon
+gave a practical form to these achievements of the Revolution and
+ensured the public order necessary to their continuance that the
+majority of Frenchmen endured so long the fearful sacrifices which his
+policy exacted.
+
+That a revolution largely inspired by generous and humane feeling should
+have issued in such havoc and such crimes is a paradox which astounded
+spectators and still perplexes the historian. Something in the cruelty
+of the French Revolution may be ascribed to national character. From the
+time when Burgundians and Armagnacs strove for dominion down to the last
+insurrection of Paris, civil discord in France has always been cruel.
+More, however, was due to the total dissolution of society which
+followed the meeting of the states-general. In the course of the
+Revolution we can discover no well-organized party, no governing mind.
+Mirabeau had the stuff of a great statesman, and Danton was capable of
+statesmanship. But these men were not followed or obeyed save by
+accident or for a moment. Those who seemed to govern were usually the
+sport of chance, often the victims of their colleagues. Neither
+Royalists nor Feuillants nor Girondins had the instinct of government.
+In the chaotic state of France all ferocious and destructive passions
+found ample scope. The same conditions explain the triumph of the
+Jacobins. Devoid of wisdom and virtue in the highest sense, they at
+least understood how power might be seized and kept. The Reign of Terror
+was the expedient of a party which knew its weakness and unpopularity.
+It was not necessary either to secure the lasting benefits of the
+Revolution or to save France from dismemberment; for nine Frenchmen out
+of ten were agreed on both of these points and were ready to lay down
+their lives for the national cause.
+
+In the history of the French Revolution the influence which it exerted
+upon the surrounding countries demands peculiar attention. The French
+professed to act upon principles of universal authority, and from an
+early date they began to seek converts outside their own limits. The
+effect was slight upon England, which had already secured most of the
+reforms desired by the French, and upon Spain, where the bulk of the
+people were entirely submissive to church and king. But in the
+Netherlands, in western Germany and in northern Italy, countries which
+had attained a degree of civilization resembling that of France, where
+the middle and lower classes had grievances and aspirations not very
+different from those of the French, the effect was profound. Fear of
+revolution at home was one of the motives which led continental
+sovereigns to attack revolution in France. Their incoherent efforts only
+confirmed the Jacobin supremacy. Wherever the victorious French extended
+their dominion, they remodelled institutions in the French manner. Their
+sway proved so oppressive that the very classes which had welcomed them
+with most fervour soon came to long for their expulsion. But
+revolutionary ideas kept their charm. Under Napoleon the essential part
+of the changes made by the Republic was preserved in these countries
+also. Moreover the effacement of old boundaries, the overthrow of
+ancestral governments, and the invocation, however hollow, of the
+sovereignty of the people, awoke national feeling which had slumbered
+long and prepared the struggle for national union and independence in
+the 19th century.
+
+  See also FRANCE, sections _History_ and _Law and Institutions_. For
+  the leading figures in the Revolution see their biographies under
+  separate headings. Particular phases, facts, and institutions of the
+  period are also separately dealt with, e.g. ASSIGNATS, CONVENTION, THE
+  NATIONAL, JACOBINS.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The MS. authorities for the history of the French
+  Revolution are exceedingly copious. The largest collection is in the
+  Archives Nationales in Paris, but an immense number of documents are
+  to be found in other collections in Paris and the provinces. The
+  printed materials are so abundant and varied that any brief notice of
+  them must be imperfect.
+
+  The condition of France and the state of public opinion at the
+  beginning of the Revolution may be studied in the printed collections
+  of _Cahiers_. The _Cahiers_ were the statements of grievances drawn up
+  for the guidance of deputies to the States-General by those who had
+  elected them. In every _bailliage_ and _sénéchaussée_ each estate drew
+  up its own cahier and the cahiers of the Third Estate were condensed
+  from separate cahiers drawn up by each parish in the district. Thus
+  the cahiers of the Third Estate number many thousands, the greater
+  part of which have not yet been printed. Among the collections printed
+  we may mention _Les Élections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789_, by C.
+  L. Chassin (4 vols., Paris, 1888); _Cahiers de plaintes et doléances
+  des paroisses de la province de Maine_, by A. Bellée and V. Duchemin
+  (4 vols., Le Mans, 1881-1893); _Cahiers de doléances de 1789 dans le
+  département du Pas-de-Calais_, by H. Loriquet (2 vols., Arras, 1891);
+  _Cahiers des paroisses et communautés du bailliage d'Autun_, by A.
+  Charmasse (Autun, 1895). New collections are printed from time to
+  time. A more general collection of cahiers than any above named is
+  given in vols. i.-vi. of the _Archives parlementaires_. The cahiers
+  must not be read in a spirit of absolute faith, as they were
+  influenced by certain models circulated at the time of the elections
+  and by popular excitement, but they remain an authority of the utmost
+  value and a mine of information as to old France. Reference should
+  also be made to the works of travellers who visited France at the
+  outbreak of the Revolution. Among these Arthur Young's _Travels in
+  France during the years 1787, 1788 and 1789_ (2 vols., Bury St
+  Edmunds, 1792-1794) are peculiarly instructive.
+
+  For the history of the Assemblies during the Revolution a main
+  authority is their _Procès verbaux_ or Journals; those of the
+  Constituent Assembly in 75 vols., those of the Legislative Assembly in
+  16 vols.; those of the Convention in 74 vols., and those of the
+  Councils under the Directory in 99 vols. See also the _Archives
+  parlementaires_ edited by J. Mavidal and E. Laurent (Paris, 1867, and
+  the following years); the _Histoire parlementaire de la Révolution_,
+  by P. J. B. Buchez and P. C. Roux (Paris, 1838), and the _Histoire de
+  la Révolution par deux amis de la liberté_ (Paris, 1792-1803).
+
+  The newspapers, of which a few have been mentioned in the text, were
+  numerous. They are useful chiefly as illustrating the ideas and
+  passions of the time, for they give comparatively little information
+  as to facts and that little is peculiarly inaccurate. The ablest of
+  the Royalist journals was Mallet du Pan's _Mercure de France_.
+  Pamphlets of the Revolution period number many thousands. Such
+  pamphlets as Mounier's _Nouvelles Observations sur les États-Généraux
+  de France_ and Sieyès's _Qu'est-ce que le Tiers État_ had a notable
+  influence on opinion. The richest collections of Revolution pamphlets
+  are in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris and in the British Museum.
+
+  The contemporary memoirs, &c., already published are numerous and
+  fresh ones are always coming forth. A few of the best known and most
+  useful are, for the Constituent Assembly, the memoirs of Bailly, of
+  Ferrières, of Malouet. The _Correspondence of Mirabeau with the Count
+  de la Marck_, edited by Bacourt (3 vols., Paris, 1851), is especially
+  valuable. Dumont's _Recollections of Mirabeau_ and the _Diary and
+  Letters of Gouverneur Morris_ give the impressions of foreigners with
+  peculiar advantages for observing. For the Legislative Assembly and
+  the Convention the memoirs of Madame Roland, of Bertrand de
+  Molleville, of Barbaroux, of Buzot, of Louvet, of Dumouriez are
+  instructive. For the Directory the memoirs of Barras, of La Révellière
+  Lépeaux and of Thibaudeau deserve mention. The memoirs of Lafayette
+  are useful. Those of Talleyrand are singularly barren, the result, no
+  doubt, of deliberate suppression. The memoirs of the marquise de La
+  Rochejacquelein are important for the war of La Vendée. The most
+  notable Jacobins have seldom left memoirs, but the works of
+  Robespierre and St Just enable us to form a clearer conception of the
+  authors. The correspondence of the count of Mercy-Argenteau, the
+  imperial ambassador, with Joseph II. and Kaunitz, and the
+  correspondence of Mallet du Pan with the court of Vienna, are also
+  instructive. But the contemporary literature of the French Revolution
+  requires to be read in an unusually critical spirit. At no other
+  historical crisis have passions been more fiercely excited; at none
+  have shameless disregard of truth and blind credulity been more
+  common.
+
+  Among later works based on these original materials the first place
+  belongs to general histories. In French Louis Blanc's _Histoire de la
+  Révolution_ (12 vols., Paris, 1847-1862), and Michelet's _Histoire de
+  la Révolution Française_ (9 vols., Paris, 1847-1853), are the most
+  elaborate of the older works. Michelet's book is marked by great
+  eloquence and power. In H. Taine's _Origines de la France
+  contemporaine_ (Paris, 1876-1894) three volumes are devoted to the
+  Revolution. They show exceptional talent and industry, but their value
+  is impaired by the spirit of system and by strong prepossessions. F.
+  A. M. Mignet's _Histoire de la Révolution Française_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1861), short and devoid of literary charm, has the merits of learning
+  and judgment and is still useful. F. A. Aulard's _Histoire politique
+  de la Révolution Française_ (Paris, 1901) is a most valuable précis of
+  political history, based on deep knowledge and lucidly set forth,
+  although not free from bias. The volume on the Revolution in Lavisse
+  and Rambaud's _Histoire générale de l'Europe_ (Paris, 1896) is the
+  work of distinguished scholars using the latest information. In
+  English, general histories of the Revolution are few. Carlyle's famous
+  work, published in 1837, is more of a prose epic than a history,
+  omitting all detail which would not heighten the imaginative effect
+  and tinged by all the favourite ideas of the author. Some fifty years
+  later H. M. Stephens published the first (1886) and second (1892)
+  volumes of a _History of the French Revolution_. They are marked by
+  solid learning and contain much information. Volume viii. of the
+  _Cambridge Modern History_, published in 1904, contains a general
+  survey of the Revolution.
+
+  The most notable German work is H. von Sybel's _Geschichte der
+  Revolutionszeit_ (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1853-1879). It is strongest in
+  those carts which relate to international affairs and foreign policy.
+  There is an English translation.
+
+  None of the general histories of the Revolution above named is really
+  satisfactory. The immense mass of material has not yet been thoroughly
+  sifted; and the passions of that age still disturb the judgment of the
+  historian. More successful have been the attempts to treat particular
+  aspects of the Revolution.
+
+  The foreign relations of France during the Revolution have been most
+  ably unravelled by A. Sorel in _L'Europe et la Révolution Française_
+  (8 vols., Paris, 1885-1904) carrying the story down to the settlement
+  of Vienna. Five volumes cover the years 1789-1799.
+
+  The financial history of the Revolution has been traced by C. Gomel,
+  _Histoire financière de l'Assemblée Constituante_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1897), and R. Stourm, _Les Finances de l'Ancien Régime et de la
+  Révolution_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885).
+
+  The relations of Church and State are sketched in E. Pressensé's
+  _L'Église et la Révolution Française_ (Paris, 1889).
+
+  The general legislation of the period has been discussed by Ph.
+  Sagnac, _La Législation civile de la Révolution Française_ (Paris,
+  1898). The best work upon the social life of the period is the
+  _Histoire de la société française sous la Révolution_, by E. and J. de
+  Goncourt (Paris, 1889). For military history see A. Duruy, _L'Armée
+  royale en 1789_ (Paris, 1888); E. de Hauterive, _L'Armée sous la
+  Révolution, 1789-1794_ (Paris, 1894); A. Chuquet, _Les Guerres de la
+  Révolution_ (Paris, 1886, &c.). See also the memoirs and biographies
+  of the distinguished soldiers of the Republic and Empire, too numerous
+  for citation here.
+
+  Modern lives of the principal actors in the Revolution are numerous.
+  Among the most important are _Mémoires de Mirabeau_, by L. de Montigny
+  (Paris, 1834); _Les Mirabeau_, by L. de Loménie (Paris, 1889-1891); H.
+  L. de Lanzac de Laborie's _Jean Joseph Mounier_ (Paris, 1889); B.
+  Mallet's _Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution_ (London, 1902);
+  Robinet's _Danton_ (Paris, 1889); Hamel's _Histoire de Robespierre_
+  (Paris, 1865-1867) and _Histoire de St-Just_ (2 vols., Brussels,
+  1860); A. Bigeon, _Sieyès_ (Paris, 1893); _Memoirs of Carnot_, by his
+  son (2 vols., Paris, 1861-1864).
+
+  For fuller information see M. Tourneux, _Les Sources bibliographiques
+  de l'histoire de la Révolution Française_ (Paris, 1898, etc.), and
+  _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution_ (Paris,
+  1890, etc.).     (F. C. M.)
+
+
+_French Republican Calendar._--Among the changes made during the
+Revolution was the substitution of a new calendar, usually called the
+revolutionary or republican calendar, for the prevailing Gregorian
+system. Something of the sort had been suggested in 1785 by a certain
+Riboud, and a definite scheme had been promulgated by Pierre Sylvain
+Maréchal (1750-1803) in his _Almanach des honnêtes gens_ (1788). The
+objects which the advocates of a new calendar had in view were to strike
+a blow at the clergy and to divorce all calculations of time from the
+Christian associations with which they were loaded, in short, to abolish
+the Christian year; and enthusiasts were already speaking of "the first
+year of liberty" and "the first year of the republic" when the national
+convention took up the matter in 1793. The business of drawing up the
+new calendar was entrusted to the president of the committee of public
+instruction, Charles Gilbert Romme (1750-1795), who was aided in the
+work by the mathematicians Gaspard Monge and Joseph Louis Lagrange, the
+poet Fabre d'Églantine and others. The result of their labours was
+submitted to the convention in September; it was accepted, and the new
+calendar became law on the 5th of October 1793. The new arrangement was
+regarded as beginning on the 22nd of September 1792, this day being
+chosen because on it the republic was proclaimed and because it was in
+this year the day of the autumnal equinox.
+
+By the new calendar the year of 365 days was divided into twelve months
+of thirty days each, every month being divided into three periods of ten
+days, each of which were called _décades_, and the tenth, or last, day
+of each decade being a day of rest. It was also proposed to divide the
+day on the decimal system, but this arrangement was found to be highly
+inconvenient and it was never put into practice. Five days of the 365
+still remained to be dealt with, and these were set aside for national
+festivals and holidays and were called _Sans-culottides_. They were to
+fall at the end of the year, i.e. on the five days between the 17th and
+the 21st of September inclusive, and were called the festivals of
+virtue, of genius, of labour, of opinion and of rewards. A similar
+course was adopted with regard to the extra day which occurred once in
+every four years, but the first of these was to fall in the year III.,
+i.e. in 1795, and not in 1796, the leap year in the Gregorian calendar.
+This day was set apart for the festival of the Revolution and was to be
+the last of the _Sans-culottides_. Each period of four years was to be
+called a _Franciade_.
+
+  +----------------------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  |               AN II.             |     AN III.    |     AN IV.    |     AN V.    |     AN VI.    |     AN VII.    |     AN VIII.    |     AN IX.    |
+  |             1793-1794            |   1794-1795.   |   1795-1796.  |  1796-1797.  |   1797-1798.  |   1798-1799.   |    1799-1800.   |   1800-1801.  |
+  +-----------------+----------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  | 1 Vendémiaire   | 22 Sept. 1793  | 22 Sept. 1794  | 23 Sept. 1795 | 22 Sept. 1796| 22 Sept. 1797 |  22 Sept. 1798 |  23 Sept. 1799  | 23 Sept. 1800 |
+  | 1 Brumaire      | 22 Oct.   "    | 22 Oct.    "   | 23 Oct.    "  | 22 Oct.    " | 22 Oct.    "  |  22 Oct.    "  |  23 Oct.    "   | 23 Oct.   "   |
+  | 1 Frimaire      | 21 Nov.   "    | 21 Nov.    "   | 22 Nov.    "  | 21 Nov.    " | 21 Nov.    "  |  21 Nov.    "  |  22 Nov.    "   | 22 Nov.   "   |
+  | 1 Nivôse        | 21 Déc.   "    | 21 Déc.    "   | 22 Déc.    "  | 21 Déc.    " | 21 Déc.    "  |  21 Déc.    "  |  22 Déc.    "   | 22 Déc.   "   |
+  | 1 Pluviôse      | 20 Janv. 1794  | 20 Janv. 1795  | 21 Janv. 1796 | 20 Janv. 1797| 20 Janv. 1798 |  20 Janv. 1799 |  21 Janv. 1800  | 21 Janv. 1801 |
+  | 1 Ventôse       | 19 Févr.  "    | 19 Févr.   "   | 20 Févr.   "  | 19 Févr.   " | 19 Fév.    "  |  19 Fév.    "  |  20 Fév.    "   | 20 Fév.   "   |
+  | 1 Germinal      | 21 Mars   "    | 21 Mars    "   | 21 Mars    "  | 21 Mars    " |  1 Mars    "  |  21 Mars    "  |  22 Mars    "   | 22 Mars   "   |
+  | 1 Floréal       | 20 Avr.   "    | 20 Avr.    "   | 20 Avr.    "  | 20 Avr.    " | 20 Avr.    "  |  20 Avr.    "  |  21 Avr.    "   | 21 Avr.   "   |
+  | 1 Prairial      | 20 Mai    "    | 20 Mai     "   | 20 Mai     "  | 20 Mai     " | 20 Mai     "  |  20 Mai     "  |  21 Mai     "   | 21 Mai    "   |
+  | 1 Messidor      | 19 Juin   "    | 19 Juin    "   | 19 Juin    "  | 19 Juin    " | 19 Juin    "  |  19 Juin    "  |  20 Juin    "   | 20 Juin   "   |
+  | 1 Thermidor     | 19 Juil.  "    | 19 Juil.   "   | 19 Juil.   "  | 19 Juil.   " | 19 Juil.   "  |  19 Juil.   "  |  20 Juil.   "   | 20 Juil.  "   |
+  | 1 Fructidor     | 18 Août   "    | 18 Août    "   | 18 Août    "  | 18 Août    " | 18 Août    "  |  18 Août    "  |  19 Août    "   | 19 Août   "   |
+  +-----------------+----------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  |1 Sans-culottides| 17 Sept. 1794  | 17 Sept. 1795  | 17 Sept. 1796 | 17 Sept. 1797| 17 Sept. 1798 |  17 Sept. 1799 |  18 Sept. 1800  | 18 Sept. 1801 |
+  |6       "        |                | 22  "      "   |               |              |               |  22   "     "  |                 |               |
+  +-----------------+----------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  |                 AN X.                 |       AN XI.      |      AN XII.      |      AN XIII.     |      AN XIV.      |
+  |               1801-1802.              |     1802-1803.    |     1803-1804.    |     1804-1805.    |       1805.       |
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | 1 Vendémiaire     | 23 Septembre 1801 | 23 Septembre 1802 | 24 Septembre 1803 | 23 Septembre 1804 | 23 Septembre 1805 |
+  | 1 Brumaire        | 23 Octobre    "   | 23 Octobre     "  | 24 Octobre    "   | 23 Octobre    "   | 23 Octobre     "  |
+  | 1 Frimaire        | 22 Novembre   "   | 22 Novembre    "  | 23 Novembre   "   | 22 Novembre   "   | 22 Novembre    "  |
+  | 1 Nivôse          | 22 Décembre   "   | 22 Décembre    "  | 23 Décembre   "   | 22 Décembre   "   | 22 Décembre    "  |
+  | 1 Pluviôse        | 21 Janvier   1802 | 21 Janvier   1803 | 22 Janvier   1804 | 21 Janvier   1805 |                   |
+  | 1 Ventôse         | 20 Février    "   | 20 Février     "  | 21 Février    "   | 20 Février    "   |                   |
+  | 1 Germinal        | 22 Mars       "   | 22 Mars        "  | 22 Mars       "   | 22 Mars       "   |                   |
+  | 1 Floréal         | 21 Avril      "   | 21 Avril       "  | 21 Avril      "   | 21 Avril      "   |                   |
+  | 1 Prairial        | 21 Mai        "   | 21 Mai         "  | 21 Mai        "   | 21 Mai        "   |                   |
+  | 1 Messidor        | 20 Juin       "   | 20 Juin        "  | 20 Juin       "   | 20 Juin       "   |                   |
+  | 1 Thermidor       | 20 Juillet    "   | 20 Juillet     "  | 20 Juillet    "   | 20 Juillet    "   |                   |
+  | 1 Fructidor       | 19 Août       "   | 19 Août        "  | 19 Août       "   | 19 Août       "   |                   |
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | 1 Sans-culottides | 18 Septembre 1802 | 18 Septembre 1803 | 18 Septembre 1804 | 18 Septembre 1805 |                   |
+  | 6          "      |                   | 23   "        "   |                   |                   |                   |
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+
+Some discussion took place about the nomenclature of the new divisions
+of time. Eventually this work was entrusted to Fabre d'Églantine, who
+gave to each month a name taken from some seasonal event therein.
+Beginning with the new year on the 22nd of September the autumn months
+were _Vendémiaire_, the month of vintage, _Brumaire_, the months of fog,
+and _Frimaire_, the month of frost. The winter months were _Nivôse_,
+the snowy, _Pluviôse_, the rainy, and _Ventôse_, the windy month; then
+followed the spring months, _Germinal_, the month of buds, _Floréal_,
+the month of flowers, and _Prairial_, the month of meadows; and lastly
+the summer months, _Messidor_, the month of reaping, _Thermidor_, the
+month of heat, and _Fructidor_, the month of fruit. To the days Fabre
+d'Églantine gave names which retained the idea of their numerical order,
+calling them Primedi, Duodi, &c., the last day of the ten, the day of
+rest, being named Décadi. The new order was soon in force in France and
+the new method was employed in all public documents, but it did not last
+many years. In September 1805 it was decided to restore the Gregorian
+calendar, and the republican one was officially discontinued on the 1st
+of January 1806.
+
+  It will easily be seen that the connecting link between the old and
+  the new calendars is very slight indeed and that the expression of a
+  date in one calendar in terms of the other is a matter of some
+  difficulty. A simple method of doing this, however, is afforded by the
+  table on the preceding page, which is taken from the article by J.
+  Dubourdieu in _La Grande Encyclopédie_.
+
+  Thus Robespierre was executed on 10 Thermidor An II., i.e. the 28th of
+  July 1794. The insurrection of 12 Germinal An III. took place on the
+  1st of April 1795. The famous 18 Brumaire An VIII. fell on the 9th of
+  November 1799, and the _coup d'état_ of 18 Fructidor An V. on the 4th
+  of September 1797.
+
+  For a complete concordance of the Gregorian and the republican
+  calendars see Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, tome iii. (Leiden, 1889);
+  also G. Villain, "Le Calendrier républicain," in _La Révolution
+  Française_ for 1884-1885.     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS (1792-1800), the general name for the first
+part of the series of French wars which went on continuously, except for
+some local and temporary cessations of hostilities, from the declaration
+of war against Britain in 1792 to the final overthrow of Napoleon in
+1815. The most important of these cessations--viz. the peace of
+1801-1803--closes the "Revolutionary" and opens the "Napoleonic" era of
+land warfare, for which see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, PENINSULAR WAR and
+WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. The naval history of the period is divided somewhat
+differently; the first period, treated below, is 1792-1799; for the
+second, 1799-1815, see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.
+
+France declared war on Austria on the 20th of April 1792. But Prussia
+and other powers had allied themselves with Austria in view of war, and
+it was against a coalition and not a single power that France found
+herself pitted, at the moment when the "emigration," the ferment of the
+Revolution, and want of material and of funds had thoroughly
+disorganized her army. The first engagements were singularly
+disgraceful. Near Lille the French soldiers fled at sight of the
+Austrian outposts, crying _Nous sommes trahis_, and murdered their
+general (April 29). The commanders-in-chief of the armies that were
+formed became one after another "suspects"; and before a serious action
+had been fought, the three armies of Rochambeau, Lafayette and Lückner
+had resolved themselves into two commanded by Dumouriez and Kellermann.
+Thus the disciplined soldiers of the Allies had apparently good reason
+to consider the campaign before them a military promenade. On the Rhine,
+a combined army of Prussians, Austrians, Hessians and _émigrés_ under
+the duke of Brunswick was formed for the invasion of France, flanked by
+two smaller armies on its right and left, all three being under the
+supreme command of the king of Prussia. In the Netherlands the Austrians
+were to besiege Lille, and in the south the Piedmontese also took the
+field. The first step, taken against Brunswick's advice, was the issue
+(July 25) of a proclamation which, couched in terms in the last degree
+offensive to the French nation, generated the spirit that was afterwards
+to find expression in the "armed nation" of 1793-4, and sealed the fate
+of Louis XVI. The duke, who was a model sovereign in his own
+principality, sympathized with the constitutional side of the
+Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success of
+the enterprise. After completing its preparations in the leisurely
+manner of the previous generation, his army crossed the French frontier
+on the 19th of August. Longwy was easily captured; and the Allies slowly
+marched on to Verdun, which was more indefensible even than Longwy. The
+commandant, Colonel Beaurepaire, shot himself in despair, and the place
+surrendered on the 3rd of September. Brunswick now began his march on
+Paris and approached the defiles of the Argonne. But Dumouriez, who had
+been training his raw troops at Valenciennes in constant small
+engagements, with the purpose of invading Belgium, now threw himself
+into the Argonne by a rapid and daring flank march, almost under the
+eyes of the Prussian advanced guard, and barred the Paris road,
+summoning Kellermann to his assistance from Metz. The latter moved but
+slowly, and before he arrived the northern part of the line of defence
+had been forced. Dumouriez, undaunted, changed front so as to face
+north, with his right wing on the Argonne and his left stretching
+towards Châlons, and in this position Kellermann joined him at St
+Menehould on the 19th of September.
+
+
+  Valmy.
+
+Brunswick meanwhile had passed the northern defiles and had then swung
+round to cut off Dumouriez from Châlons. At the moment when the Prussian
+manoeuvre was nearly completed, Kellermann, commanding in Dumouriez's
+momentary absence, advanced his left wing and took up a position between
+St Menehould and Valmy. The result was the world-renowned Cannonade of
+Valmy (September 20, 1792). Kellermann's infantry, nearly all regulars,
+stood steady. The French artillery justified its reputation as the best
+in Europe, and eventually, with no more than a half-hearted infantry
+attack, the duke broke off the action and retired. This trivial
+engagement was the turning-point of the campaign and a landmark in the
+world's history. Ten days later, without firing another shot, the
+invading army began its retreat. Dumouriez's pursuit was not seriously
+pressed; he occupied himself chiefly with a series of subtle and curious
+negotiations which, with the general advance of the French troops,
+brought about the complete withdrawal of the enemy from the soil of
+France.
+
+
+  Jemappes.
+
+Meanwhile, the French forces in the south had driven back the
+Piedmontese and had conquered Savoy and Nice. Another French success was
+the daring expedition into Germany made by Custine from Alsace. Custine
+captured Mainz itself on the 21st of October and penetrated as far as
+Frankfurt. In the north the Austrian siege of Lille had completely
+failed, and Dumouriez now resumed his interrupted scheme for the
+invasion of the Netherlands. His forward movement, made as it was late
+in the season, surprised the Austrians, and he disposed of enormously
+superior forces. On the 6th of November he won the first great victory
+of the war at Jemappes near Mons and, this time advancing boldly, he
+overran the whole country from Namur to Antwerp within a month.
+
+Such was the prelude of what is called the "Great War" in England and
+the "Épopée" in France. Before going further it is necessary to
+summarize the special features of the French army--in leadership,
+discipline, tactics, organization and movement--which made these
+campaigns the archetype of modern warfare.
+
+  At the outbreak of the Revolution the French army, like other armies
+  in Europe, was a "voluntary" long-service army, augmented to some
+  extent in war by drafts of militia.
+
+
+    The French army, 1792-1796.
+
+  One of the first problems that the Constituent Assembly took upon
+  itself to solve was the nationalization of this strictly royal and
+  professional force, and as early as October 1789 the word
+  "Conscription" was heard in its debates. But it was decreed
+  nevertheless that free enlistment alone befitted a free people, and
+  the regular army was left unaltered in form. However, a National Guard
+  came into existence side by side with it, and the history of French
+  army organization in the next few years is the history of the fusion
+  of these two elements. The first step, as regards the regular army,
+  was the abolition of proprietary rights, the serial numbering of
+  regiments throughout the Army, and the disbandment of the _Maison du
+  roi_. The next was the promotion of deserving soldiers to fill the
+  numerous vacancies caused by the emigration. Along with these,
+  however, there came to the surface many incompetent leaders,
+  favourites in the political clubs of Paris, &c., and the old strict
+  discipline became impossible owing to the frequent intervention of the
+  civil authorities in matters affecting it, the denunciation of
+  generals, and especially the wild words and wild behaviour of
+  "Volunteer" (embodied national guard) battalions.
+
+  When war came, it was soon found that the regulars had fallen too low
+  in numbers and that the national guard demanded too high pay, to
+  admit of developing the expected field strength. Arms, discipline,
+  training alike were wanting to the new levies, and the repulse of
+  Brunswick was effected by manoeuvring and fighting on the old lines
+  and chiefly with the old army. The cry of _La patrie en danger_, after
+  giving, at the crisis, the highest moral support to the troops in the
+  front, dwindled away after victory, and the French government
+  contented itself with the half-measures that had, apparently, sufficed
+  to avert the peril. More, when the armies went into winter quarters,
+  the Volunteers claimed leave of absence and went home.
+
+  But in the spring of 1793, confronted by a far more serious peril, the
+  government took strong measures. Universal liability was asserted, and
+  passed into law. Yet even now whole classes obtained exemption and the
+  right of substitution as usual forced the burden of service on the
+  poorer classes, so that of the 100,000 men called on for the regular
+  army and 200,000 for the Volunteers, only some 180,000 were actually
+  raised. Desertion, generally regarded as the curse of professional
+  armies, became a conspicuous vice of the defenders of the Republic,
+  except at moments when a supreme crisis called forth supreme
+  devotion--moments which naturally were more or less prolonged in
+  proportion to the gravity of the situation. Thus, while it almost
+  disappeared in the great effort of 1793-1794, when the armies
+  sustained bloody reverses in distant wars of conquest, as in 1799, it
+  promptly rose again to an alarming height.
+
+
+    Universal service of the "Amalgam."
+
+  While this unsatisfactory general levy was being made, defeats,
+  defections and invasion in earnest came in rapid succession, and to
+  deal with the almost desperate emergency, the ruthless Committee of
+  Public Safety sprang into existence. "The levy is to be universal.
+  Unmarried citizens and widowers without children of ages from 18 to 25
+  are to be called up first," and 450,000 recruits were immediately
+  obtained by this single act. The complete amalgamation of the regular
+  and volunteer units was decided upon. The white uniforms of the line
+  gave place to the blue of the National Guard in all arms and services.
+  The titles of officers were changed, and in fact every relic of the
+  old régime, save the inherited solidity of the old regular battalions,
+  was swept away. This rough combination of line and volunteers
+  therefore--for the "Amalgam" was not officially begun until 1794--must
+  be understood when we refer to the French army of Hondschoote or of
+  Wattignies. It contained, by reason of its universality and also
+  because men were better off in the army than out of it--if they stayed
+  at home they went in daily fear of denunciation and the
+  guillotine--the best elements of the French nation. To some extent at
+  any rate the political _arrivistes_ had been weeded out, and though
+  the informer, here as elsewhere, struck unseen blows, the mass of the
+  army gradually evolved its true leaders and obeyed them. It was,
+  therefore, an army of individual citizen-soldiers of the best type,
+  welded by the enemy's fire, and conscious of its own solidarity in the
+  midst of the Revolutionary chaos.
+
+  After 1794 the system underwent but little radical change until the
+  end of the Revolutionary period. Its regiments grew in military value
+  month by month and attained their highest level in the great campaign
+  of 1796. In 1795 the French forces (now all styled National Guard)
+  consisted of 531,000 men, of whom 323,000 were infantry (100
+  3-battalion demi-brigades), 97,000 light infantry (30 demi-brigades),
+  29,000 artillery, 20,000 engineers and 59,000 cavalry. This novel army
+  developed novel fighting methods, above all in the infantry. This arm
+  had just received a new drill-book, as the result of a prolonged
+  controversy (see INFANTRY) between the advocates of "lines" and
+  "columns," and this drill-book, while retaining the principle of the
+  line, set controversy at rest by admitting battalion columns of
+  attack, and movements at the "quick" (100-120 paces to the minute)
+  instead of at the "slow" march (76). On these two prescriptions,
+  ignoring the rest, the practical troop leaders built up the new
+  tactics little by little, and almost unconsciously. The process of
+  evolution cannot be stated exactly, for the officers learned to use
+  and even to invent now one form, now another, according to ground and
+  circumstances. But the main stream of progress is easily
+  distinguishable.
+
+
+    Tactics.
+
+  The earlier battles were fought more or less according to the
+  drill-book, partly in line for fire action, partly in column for the
+  bayonet attack. But line movements required the most accurate drill,
+  and what was attainable after years of practice with regulars moving
+  at the slow march was wholly impossible for new levies moving at 120
+  paces to the minute. When, therefore, the line marched off, it broke
+  up into a shapeless swarm of individual firers. This was the form, if
+  form it can be called, of the tactics of 1793--"horde-tactics," as
+  they have quite justly been called--and a few such experiences as that
+  of Hondschoote sufficed to suggest the need of a remedy. This was
+  found in keeping as many troops as possible out of the firing line.
+  From 1794 onwards the latter becomes thinner and thinner, and instead
+  of the drill-book form, with half the army firing in line (practically
+  in hordes) and the other half in support in columns, we find the rear
+  lines becoming more and more important and numerous, till at last the
+  fire of the leading line (skirmishers) becomes insignificant, and the
+  decision rests with the bayonets of the closed masses in rear. Indeed,
+  the latter often used mixed line and column formations, which enabled
+  them not only to charge, but to fire close-order volleys--absolutely
+  regardless of the skirmishers in front. In other words, the bravest
+  and coolest marksmen were let loose to do what damage they could, and
+  the rest, massed in close order, were kept under the control of their
+  officers and only exposed to the dissolving influence of the fight
+  when the moment arrived to deliver, whether by fire or by shock, the
+  decisive blow.
+
+
+    Cavalry. Artillery. Engineers.
+
+  The cavalry underwent little change in its organization and tactics,
+  which remained as in the drill-books founded on Frederick's practice.
+  But except in the case of the hussars, who were chiefly Alsatians, it
+  was thoroughly disorganized by the emigration or execution of the
+  nobles who had officered it, and for long it was incapable of facing
+  the hostile squadrons in the open. Still, its elements were good, it
+  was fairly well trained, and mounted, and not overwhelmed with
+  national guard drafts, and like the other arms it duly evolved and
+  obeyed new leaders.
+
+  In artillery matters this period, 1792-1796, marks an important
+  progress, due above all to Gribeauval (q.v.) and the two du Teils,
+  Jean Pierre (1722-1794) and Jean (1733-1820) who were Napoleon's
+  instructors. The change was chiefly in organization and equipment--the
+  great tactical development of the arm was not to come until the time
+  of the _Grande Armée_--and may be summarized as the transition from
+  battalion guns and reserve artillery to batteries of "horse and
+  field."
+
+  The engineers, like the artillery, were a technical and non-noble
+  corps. They escaped, therefore, most of the troubles of the
+  Revolution--indeed the artillery and engineer officers, Napoleon and
+  Carnot amongst them, were conspicuous in the political regeneration of
+  France--and the engineers carried on with little change the traditions
+  of Vauban and Cormontaingne (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). Both
+  these corps were, after the Revolution as before it, the best in
+  Europe, other armies admitting their superiority and following their
+  precepts.
+
+  In all this the army naturally outgrew its old "linear" organization.
+  Temporary divisions, called for by momentary necessities, placed under
+  selected generals and released from the detailed supervision of the
+  commander-in-chief, soon became, though in an irregular and haphazard
+  fashion, permanent organisms, and by 1796 the divisional system had
+  become practically universal. The next step, as the armies became
+  fewer and larger, was the temporary grouping of divisions; this too in
+  turn became permanent, and bequeathed to the military world of to-day
+  both the army corps and the capable, self-reliant and enterprising
+  subordinate generals, for whom the old linear organization had no
+  room.
+
+
+    The starting point of modern warfare.
+
+  This subdivision of forces was intimately connected with the general
+  method of making war adopted by the "New French," as their enemies
+  called them. What astonished the Allies most of all was the number and
+  the velocity of the Republicans. These improvised armies had in fact
+  nothing to delay them. Tents were unprocurable for want of money,
+  untransportable for want of the enormous number of wagons that would
+  have been required, and also unnecessary, for the discomfort that
+  would have caused wholesale desertion in professional armies was
+  cheerfully borne by the men of 1793-1794. Supplies for armies of then
+  unheard-of size could not be carried in convoys, and the French soon
+  became familiar with "living on the country." Thus 1793 saw the birth
+  of the modern system of war--rapidity of movement, full development of
+  national strength, bivouacs and requisitions, and force, as against
+  cautious manoeuvring, small professional armies, tents and full
+  rations, and chicane. The first represented the decision-compelling
+  spirit, the second the spirit of risking little to gain a little.
+  Above all, the decision-compelling spirit was reinforced by the
+  presence of the emissaries of the Committee of Public Safety, the
+  "representatives on mission" who practically controlled the
+  guillotine. There were civil officials with the armies of the Allies
+  too, but their chief function was not to infuse desperate energy into
+  the military operations, but to see that the troops did not maltreat
+  civilians. Such were the fundamental principles of the "New French"
+  method of warfare, from which the warfare of to-day descends in the
+  direct line. But it was only after a painful period of trial and
+  error, of waste and misdirection, that it became possible for the
+  French army to have evolved Napoleon, and for Napoleon to evolve the
+  principles and methods of war that conformed to and profited to the
+  utmost by the new conditions.
+
+  Those campaigns and battles of this army which are described in detail
+  in the present article have been selected, some on account of their
+  historical importance--as producing great results; others from their
+  military interest--as typifying and illustrating the nature of the
+  revolution undergone by the art of war in these heroic years.
+
+
+CAMPAIGNS IN THE NETHERLANDS
+
+The year 1793 opened disastrously for the Republic. As a consequence of
+Jemappes and Valmy, France had taken the offensive both in Belgium,
+which had been overrun by Dumouriez's army, and in the Rhine countries,
+where Custine had preached the new gospel to the sentimental and
+half-discontented Hessians and Mainzers. But the execution of Louis XVI.
+raised up a host of new and determined enemies. England, Holland,
+Austria, Prussia, Spain and Sardinia promptly formed the First
+Coalition. England poured out money in profusion to pay and equip her
+Allies' land armies, and herself began the great struggle for the
+command of the sea (see _Naval Operations_, below).
+
+
+  Neerwinden.
+
+In the Low Countries, while Dumouriez was beginning his proposed
+invasion of Holland, Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg, the new Austrian
+commander on the Lower Rhine, advanced with 42,000 men from the region
+of Cologne, and drove in the various detachments that Dumouriez had
+posted to cover his right. The French general thereupon abandoned his
+advance into Holland, and, with what forces he could gather, turned
+towards the Meuse. The two armies met at Neerwinden (q.v.) on the 18th
+of March 1793. Dumouriez had only a few thousand men more than his
+opponent, instead of the enormous superiority he had had at Jemappes.
+Thus the enveloping attack could not be repeated, and in a battle on
+equal fronts the old generalship and the old armies had the advantage.
+Dumouriez was thoroughly defeated, the house of cards collapsed, and the
+whole of the French forces retreated in confusion to the strong line of
+border fortresses, created by Louis XIV. and Vauban.[1] Dumouriez,
+witnessing the failure of his political schemes, declared against the
+Republic, and after a vain attempt to induce his own army to follow his
+example, fled (April 5) into the Austrian lines. The leaderless
+Republicans streamed back to Valenciennes. There, however, they found a
+general. Picot (comte de) Dampierre was a regimental officer of the old
+army, who, in spite of his vanity and extravagance, possessed real
+loyalty to the new order of things, and brilliant personal courage. At
+the darkest hour he seized the reins without orders and without
+reference to seniority, and began to reconstruct the force and the
+spirit of the shattered army by wise administration and dithyrambic
+proclamations. Moreover, he withdrew it well behind Valenciennes out of
+reach of a second reverse. The region of Dunkirk and Cassel, the camp of
+La Madeleine near Lille, and Bouchain were made the rallying points of
+the various groups, the principal army being at the last-named. But the
+blow of Neerwinden had struck deep, and the army was for long incapable
+of service, what with the general distrust, the misconduct of the newer
+battalions, and the discontent of the old white-coated regiments that
+were left ragged and shoeless to the profit of the "patriot" corps.
+"Beware of giving horses to the 'Hussars of Liberty,'" wrote Carnot,
+"all these new corps are abominable."
+
+
+  Assembly of the Allies.
+
+France was in fact defenceless, and the opportunity existed for the
+military promenade to Paris that the allied statesmen had imagined in
+1792. But Coburg now ceased to be a purely Austrian commander, for one
+by one allied contingents, with instructions that varied with the
+political aims of the various governments, began to arrive. Moreover, he
+had his own views as to the political situation, fearing especially to
+be the cause of the queen's death as Brunswick had been of the king's,
+and negotiated for a settlement. The story of these negotiations should
+be read in Chuquet's _Valenciennes_--it gives the key to many mysteries
+of the campaign and shows that though the revolutionary spirit had
+already passed all understanding, enlightened men such as Coburg and his
+chief-of-staff Mack sympathized with its first efforts and thought the
+constitution of 1791 a gain to humanity. "If you come to Paris you will
+find 80,000 patriots ready to die," said the French negotiators. "The
+patriots could not resist the Austrian regulars," replied Coburg, "but I
+do not propose to go to Paris. I desire to see a stable government, with
+a chief, king or other, with whom we can treat." Soon, however, these
+personal negotiations were stopped by the emperor, and the idea of
+restoring order in France became little more than a pretext for a
+general intrigue amongst the confederate powers, each seeking to
+aggrandize itself at France's expense. "If you wish to deal with the
+French," observed Dumouriez ironically to Coburg, "talk 'constitution.'
+You may beat them but you cannot subdue them." And their subjugation was
+becoming less and less possible as the days went on and men talked of
+the partition of France as a question of the moment like the partition
+of Poland--a pretension that even the émigrés resented.
+
+Coburg's plan of campaign was limited to the objects acceptable to all
+the Allies alike. He aimed at the conquest of a first-class
+fortress--Lille or Valenciennes--and chiefly for this reason. War meant
+to the burgher of Germany and the Netherlands a special form of _haute
+politique_ with which it was neither his business nor his inclination to
+meddle. He had no more compunction, therefore, in selling his worst
+goods at the best price to the army commissaries than in doing so to his
+ordinary customers. It followed that, owing to the distance between
+Vienna and Valenciennes, and the exorbitant prices charged by carters
+and horse-owners, a mere concentration of Austrian troops at the latter
+place cost as much as a campaign, and the transport expenses rose to
+such a figure that Coburg's first duty was to find a strong place to
+serve as a market for the country-side and a depot for the supplies
+purchased, and to have it as near as possible to the front to save the
+hire of vehicles. As for the other governments which Coburg served as
+best he could, the object of the war was material concessions, and it
+would be easy to negotiate for the cession of Dunkirk and Valenciennes
+when the British and Austrian colours already waved there. The Allies,
+therefore, instead of following up their advantage over the French field
+army and driving forward on the open Paris road, set their faces
+westward, intending to capture Valenciennes, Le Quesnoy, Dunkirk and
+Lille one after the other.
+
+
+  Dampierre at Valenciennes.
+
+Dampierre meanwhile grew less confident as responsibility settled upon
+his shoulders. Quite unable to believe that Coburg would bury himself in
+a maze of rivers and fortresses when he could scatter the French army to
+the winds by a direct advance, he was disquieted and puzzled by the
+Austrian investment of Condé. This was followed by skirmishes around
+Valenciennes, so unfavourable to the French that their officers felt it
+would be madness to venture far beyond the support of the fortress guns.
+But the representatives on mission ordered Dampierre, who was
+reorganizing his army at Bouchain, to advance and occupy Famars camp,
+east of Valenciennes, and soon afterwards, disregarding his protests,
+bade him relieve Condé at all costs. His skill, though not commensurate
+with his personal courage and devotion, sufficed to give him the idea of
+attacking Coburg on the right bank of the Scheldt while Clerfayt, with
+the corps covering the siege of Condé, was on the left, and then to turn
+against Clerfayt--in fact, to operate on interior lines--but it was far
+from being adequate to the task of beating either with the disheartened
+forces he commanded. On the 1st of May, while Clerfayt was held in check
+by a very vigorous demonstration, Coburg's positions west of Quiévrain
+were attacked by Dampierre himself. The French won some local successes
+by force of numbers and surprise, but the Allies recovered themselves,
+thanks chiefly to the address and skill of Colonel Mack, and drove the
+Republicans in disorder to their entrenchments. Dampierre's
+discouragement now became desperation, and, urged on by the
+representatives (who, be it said, had exposed their own lives freely
+enough in the action), he attacked Clerfayt on the 8th at Raismes. The
+troops fought far better in the woods and hamlets west of the Scheldt
+than they had done in the plains to the east. But in the heat of the
+action Dampierre, becoming again the brilliant soldier that he had been
+before responsibility stifled him, risked and lost his life in leading a
+storming party, and his men retired sullenly, though this time in good
+order, to Valenciennes. Two days later the French gave up the open field
+and retired into Valenciennes. Dampierre's remains were by a vote of the
+Convention ordered to be deposited in the Panthéon. But he was a
+"ci-devant" noble, the demagogues denounced him as a traitor, and the
+only honour finally paid to the man who had tided over the weeks of
+greatest danger was the placing of his bust, in the strange company of
+those of Brutus and Marat, in the chamber of deputies.
+
+Another pause followed, Coburg awaiting the British contingent under the
+duke of York, and the Republicans endeavouring to assimilate the
+reinforcements of conscripts, for the most part "undesirables," who now
+arrived. Mutiny and denunciations augmented the confusion in the French
+camp. Plan of campaign there was none, save a resolution to stay at
+Valenciennes in the hope of finding an opportunity of relieving Condé
+and to create diversions elsewhere by expeditions from Dunkirk, Lille
+and Sedan. These of course came to nothing, and before they had even
+started, Coburg, resuming the offensive, had stormed the lines of Famars
+(May 24), whereupon the French army retired to Bouchain, leaving not
+only Condé[2] but also Valenciennes to resist as best they could. The
+central point of the new positions about Bouchain was called Caesar's
+Camp. Here, surrounded by streams and marshes, the French generals
+thought that their troops were secure from the rush of the dreaded
+Austrian cavalry, and Mack himself shared their opinion.
+
+
+  Fall of Valenciennes.
+
+Custine now took command of the abjectly dispirited army, the fourth
+change of command within two months. His first task was to institute a
+severe discipline, and his prestige was so great that his mere threat of
+death sentences for offenders produced the desired effect. As to
+operations, he wished for a concentration of all possible forces from
+other parts of the frontier towards Valenciennes, even if necessary at
+the cost of sacrificing his own conquest of Mainz. But after he had
+induced the government to assent to this, the generals of the numerous
+other armies refused to give up their troops, and on the 17th of June
+the idea was abandoned in view of the growing seriousness of the Vendéan
+insurrection (see VENDÉE). Custine, therefore, could do no more than
+continue the work of reorganization. Military operations were few.
+Coburg, who had all this time succeeded in remaining concentrated, now
+found himself compelled to extend leftwards towards Flanders,[3] for
+Custine had infused some energy into the scattered groups of the
+Republicans in the region of Douai, Lille and Dunkirk--and during this
+respite the Paris Jacobins sent to the guillotine both Custine and his
+successor La Marlière before July was ended. Both were "ci-devant"
+nobles and, so far as is ascertainable, neither was guilty of anything
+worse than attempts to make his orders respected by, and himself popular
+with, the soldiers. By this time, owing to the innumerable denunciations
+and arrests, the confusion in the Army of the North was at its height,
+and no further attempt was made either to relieve Valenciennes and
+Condé, or to press forward from Lille and Dunkirk. Condé, starved out as
+Coburg desired, capitulated on the 10th of June, and the Austrians, who
+had done their work as soldiers, but were filled with pity for their
+suffering and distracted enemies, marched in with food for the women and
+children. Valenciennes, under the energetic General Ferrand, held out
+bravely until the fire of the Allies became intolerable, and then the
+civil population began to plot treachery, and to wear the Bourbon
+cockade in the open street. Ferrand and the representatives with him
+found themselves obliged to surrender to the duke of York, who commanded
+the siege corps, on the 28th of July, after rejecting the first draft of
+a capitulation sent in by the duke and threatening to continue the
+defence to the bitter end. Impossible as this was known to be--for
+Valenciennes seemed to have become a royalist town--Ferrand's soldierly
+bearing carried the day, and honourable terms were arranged. The duke
+even offered to assist the garrison in repressing disorder. Shortly
+after this the wreck of the field army was forced to evacuate Caesar's
+Camp after an unimportant action (Aug. 7-8) and retired on Arras. By
+this they gave up the direct defence of the Paris road, but placed
+themselves in a "flank position" relatively to it, and secured to
+themselves the resources and reinforcements available in the region of
+Dunkirk-Lille. Bouchain and Cambrai, Landrecies and Le Quesnoy, were
+left to their own garrisons.
+
+With this ended the second episode of the amazing campaign of 1793.
+Military operations were few and spasmodic, on the one side because the
+Allied statesmen were less concerned with the nebulous common object of
+restoring order in France than with their several schemes of
+aggrandisement, on the other owing to the almost incredible confusion of
+France under the régime of Danton and Marat. The third episode shows
+little or no change in the force and direction of the allied efforts,
+but a very great change in France. Thoroughly roused by disaster and now
+dominated by the furious and bloodthirsty energy of the terrorists, the
+French people and armies at last set before themselves clear and
+definite objects to be pursued at all costs.
+
+
+  Houchard.
+
+Jean Nicolas Houchard, the next officer appointed to command, had been a
+heavy cavalry trooper in the Seven Years' War. His face bore the scars
+of wounds received at Minden, and his bravery, his stature, his bold and
+fierce manner, his want of education, seemed to all to betoken the ideal
+sans-culotte general. But he was nevertheless incapable of leading an
+army, and knowing this, carefully conformed to the advice of his staff
+officers Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the latter of whom, an exceptionally
+capable officer, had been Custine's chief of staff and was consequently
+under suspicion. At one moment, indeed, operations had to be suspended
+altogether because his papers were seized by the civil authorities, and
+amongst them were all the confidential memoranda and maps required for
+the business of headquarters. It was the darkest hour. The Vendéans, the
+people of Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon, were in open and hitherto
+successful revolt. Valenciennes had fallen and Coburg's hussar parties
+pressed forward into the Somme valley. Again the Allies had the decision
+of the war in their own hands. Coburg, indeed, was still afraid, on
+Marie Antoinette's account, of forcing the Republicans to extremities,
+and on military grounds too he thought an advance on Paris hazardous.
+But, hazardous or not, it would have been attempted but for the English.
+The duke of York had definite orders from his government to capture
+Dunkirk--at present a nest of corsairs which interfered with the Channel
+trade, and in the future, it was hoped, a second Gibraltar--and after
+the fall of Valenciennes and the capture of Caesar's Camp the English
+and Hanoverians marched away, via Tournai and Ypres, to besiege the
+coast fortress. Thereupon the king of Prussia in turn called off his
+contingent for operations on the middle Rhine. Holland, too, though she
+maintained her contingent in face of Lille (where it covered Flanders),
+was not disposed to send it to join the imperialists in an adventure in
+the heart of France. Coburg, therefore, was brought to a complete
+standstill, and the scene of the decision was shifted to the district
+between Lille and the coast.
+
+
+  Dunkirk.
+
+Thither came Carnot, the engineer officer who was in charge of military
+affairs In the Committee of Public Safety and is known to history as the
+"Organizer of Victory." His views of the strategy to be pursued indicate
+either a purely geographical idea of war, which does not square with his
+later principles and practice, or, as is far more likely, a profound
+disbelief in the capacity of the Army of the North, as it then stood, to
+fight a battle, and they went no further than to recommend an inroad
+into Flanders on the ground that no enemy would be encountered there.
+This, however, in the event developed into an operation of almost
+decisive importance, for at the moment of its inception the duke of York
+was already on the march. Fighting _en route_ a very severe but
+successful action (Lincelles, Aug. 18) with the French troops encamped
+near Lille, the Anglo-Hanoverians entered the district--densely
+intersected with canals and morasses--around Dunkirk and Bergues on the
+21st and 22nd. On the right, by way of Furnes, the British moved towards
+Dunkirk and invested the east front of the weak fortress, while on the
+left the Hanoverian field marshal v. Freytag moved via Poperinghe on
+Bergues. The French had a chain of outposts between Furnes and Bergues,
+but Freytag attacked them resolutely, and the defenders, except a brave
+handful who stood to cross bayonets, fled in all directions. The east
+front of Bergues was invested on the 23rd, and Freytag spread out his
+forces to cover the duke of York's attack on Dunkirk, his right being
+opposite Bergues and his centre at Bambeke, while his left covered the
+space between Roosbrugge and Ypres with a cordon of posts. Houchard was
+in despair at the bad conduct of his troops. But one young general,
+Jourdan, anticipating Houchard's orders, had already brought a strong
+force from Lille to Cassel, whence he incessantly harried Freytag's
+posts. Carnot encouraged the garrisons of Dunkirk and Bergues, and
+caused the sluices to be opened. The _moral_ of the defenders rose
+rapidly. Houchard prepared to bring up every available man of the Army
+of the North, and only waited to make up his mind as to the direction in
+which his attack should be made. The Allies themselves recognized the
+extreme danger of their position. It was cut in half by the Great
+Morass, stretches of which extended even to Furnes. Neither Dunkirk nor
+Bergues could be completely invested owing to the inundations, and
+Freytag sent a message to King George III. to the effect that if Dunkirk
+did not surrender in a few days the expedition would be a complete
+failure.
+
+As for the French, they could hardly believe their good fortune.
+Generals, staff officers and representatives on mission alike were eager
+for a swift and crushing offensive. "'Attack' and 'attack in mass'
+became the shibboleth and the catch-phrase of the camps" (Chuquet), and
+fortresses and armies on other parts of the frontier were imperiously
+called upon to supply large drafts for the Army of the North.
+Gay-Vernon's strategical instinct found expression in a wide-ranging
+movement designed to secure the absolute annihilation of the duke of
+York's forces. Beginning with an attack on the Dutch posts north and
+east of Lille, the army was then to press forward towards Furnes, the
+left wing holding Freytag's left wing in check, and the right swinging
+inwards and across the line of retreat of both allied corps. At that
+moment all men were daring, and the scheme was adopted with enthusiasm.
+On the 28th of August, consequently, the Dutch posts were attacked and
+driven away by the mobile forces at Lille, aided by parts of the main
+army from Arras. But even before they had fired their last shot the
+Republicans dispersed to plunder and compromised their success. Houchard
+and Gay-Vernon began to fear that their army would not emerge
+successfully from the supreme test they were about to impose on it, and
+from this moment the scheme of destroying the English began to give way
+to the simpler and safer idea of relieving Dunkirk. The place was so
+ill-equipped that after a few days' siege it was _in extremis_, and the
+political importance of its preservation led not merely the civilian
+representatives, but even Carnot, to implore Houchard to put an end to
+the crisis at once. On the 30th, Cassel, instead of Ypres, was
+designated as the point of concentration for the "mass of attack." This
+surprised the representatives and Carnot as much as it surprised the
+subordinate generals, all of whom thought that there would still be time
+to make the détour through Ypres and to cut off the Allies' retreat
+before Dunkirk fell. But Houchard and Gay-Vernon were no longer under
+any illusions as to the manoeuvring power of their forces, and the
+government agents wisely left them to execute their own plans.
+Thirty-seven thousand men were left to watch Coburg and to secure Arras
+and Douai, and the rest, 50,000 strong, assembled at Cassel. Everything
+was in Houchard's favour could he but overcome the indiscipline of his
+own army. The duke of York was more dangerous in appearance than in
+reality--as the result must infallibly have shown had Houchard and
+Gay-Vernon possessed the courage to execute the original plan--and
+Freytag's covering army extended in a line of disconnected posts from
+Bergues to Ypres.
+
+
+  Hondschoote.
+
+Against the left and centre of this feeble cordon 40,000 men advanced in
+many columns on the 6th of September. A confused outpost fight, in which
+the various assailing columns dissolved into excited swarms, ended, long
+after nightfall, in the orderly withdrawal of the various allied posts
+to Hondschoote. The French generals were occupied the whole of next day
+in sorting out their troops, who had not only completely wasted their
+strength against mere outposts, but had actually consumed their rations
+and used up their ammunition. On the 8th, the assailants, having more or
+less recovered themselves, advanced again. They found Wallmoden (who had
+succeeded Freytag, disabled on the 6th) entrenched on either side of the
+village of Hondschoote, the right resting on the great morass and the
+left on the village of Leysele. Here was the opportunity for the "attack
+in mass" that had been so freely discussed; but Houchard was now
+concerned more with the relief of Dunkirk than with the defeat of the
+enemy. He sent away one division to Dunkirk, another to Bergues, and a
+third towards Ypres, and left himself only some 20,000 men for the
+battle. But Wallmoden had only 13,000--so great was the disproportion
+between end and means in this ill-designed enterprise against Dunkirk.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Hondschoote.
+
+Redrawn from a map in Fortescue's _History of the British Army_, by
+permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.]
+
+Houchard despatched a column, guided by his staff officer Berthelmy, to
+turn the Hanoverians' left, but this column lost its way in the dense
+country about Loo. The centre waited motionless under the fire of the
+allied guns near Hondschoote. In vain the representative Delbrel
+implored the general to order the advance. Houchard was obstinate, and
+ere long the natural result followed. Though Delbrel posted himself in
+front of the line, conspicuous by his white horse and tricoloured sash
+and plume, to steady the men, the bravest left the ranks and skirmished
+forward from bush to bush, and the rest sought cover. Then the allied
+commander ordered forward one regiment of Hessians, and these, advancing
+at a ceremonial slow march, and firing steady rolling volleys, scattered
+the Republicans before them. At this crisis Houchard uttered the fatal
+word "retreat," but Delbrel overwhelmed him with reproaches and stung
+him into renewed activity. He hurried away to urge forward the right
+wing while Jourdan rallied the centre and led it into the fight again.
+Once more Jourdan awaited in vain the order to advance, and once more
+the troops broke. But at last the exasperated Delbrel rose to the
+occasion. "You fear the responsibility," he cried to Jourdan; "well, I
+assume it. My authority overrides the general's and I give you the
+formal order to attack at once!" Then, gently, as if to soften a rebuke,
+he continued, "You have forced me to speak as a superior; now I will be
+your aide-de-camp," and at once hurried off to bring up the reserves
+and to despatch cavalry to collect the fugitives. This incident, amongst
+many, serves to show that the representatives on mission were no mere
+savage marplots, as is too generally assumed. They were often wise and
+able men, brave and fearless of responsibility in camp and in action.
+Jourdan led on the reserves, and the men fighting in the bushes on
+either side of the road heard their drums to right and left. Jourdan
+fell wounded, but Delbrel headed a wild irregular bayonet charge which
+checked the Hanoverians, and Houchard himself, in his true place as a
+cavalry leader, came up with 500 fresh sabres and flung himself on the
+Allies. The Hanoverians, magnificently disciplined troops that they
+were, soon re-formed after the shock, but by this time the fugitives
+collected by Delbrel's troopers, reanimated by new hopes of victory,
+were returning to the front in hundreds, and a last assault on
+Hondschoote met with complete success.
+
+Hondschoote was a psychological victory. Materially, it was no more than
+the crushing of an obstinate rearguard at enormous expense to the
+assailants, for the duke of York was able to withdraw while there was
+still time. Houchard had indeed called back the division he had sent to
+Bergues, and despatched it by Loo against the enemy's rear, but the
+movement was undertaken too late in the day to be useful. The struggle
+was practically a front to front battle, numbers and enthusiasm on the
+one side, discipline, position and steadiness on the other. Hence,
+though its strategical result was merely to compel the duke of York to
+give up an enterprise that he should never have undertaken, Hondschoote
+established the fact that the "New French" were determined to win, at
+any cost and by sheer weight and energy. It was long before they were
+able to meet equal numbers with confidence, and still longer before they
+could freely oppose a small corps to a larger one. But the nightmare of
+defeats and surrenders was dispelled.
+
+The influence of Houchard on the course of the operations had been
+sometimes null, sometimes detrimental, and only occasionally good. The
+plan and its execution were the work of Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the
+victory itself was Jourdan's and, above all, Delbrel's. To these errors,
+forgiven to a victor, Houchard added the crowning offence of failure, in
+the reaction after the battle, to pursue his advantage. His enemies in
+Paris became more and more powerful as the campaign continued.
+
+
+  Menin.
+
+Having missed the great opportunity of crushing the English, Houchard
+turned his attention to the Dutch posts about Menin. As far as the
+Allies were concerned Hondschoote was a mere reverse, not a disaster,
+and was counterbalanced in Coburg's eyes by his own capture of Le
+Quesnoy (Sept. 11). The proximity of the main body of the French to
+Menin induced him to order Beaulieu's corps (hitherto at Cysoing and
+linking the Dutch posts with the central group) to join the prince of
+Orange there, and to ask the duke of York to do the same. But this last
+meant negotiation, and before anything was settled Houchard, with the
+army from Hondschoote and a contingent from Lille, had attacked the
+prince at Menin and destroyed his corps (Sept. 12-13).
+
+After this engagement, which, though it was won by immensely superior
+forces, was if not an important at any rate a complete victory, Houchard
+went still farther inland--leaving detachments to observe York and
+replacing them by troops from the various camps as he passed along the
+cordon--in the hope of dealing with Beaulieu as he had dealt with the
+Dutch, and even of relieving Le Quesnoy. But in all this he failed. He
+had expected to meet Beaulieu near Cysoing, but the Austrian general had
+long before gone northward to assist the prince of Orange. Thus Houchard
+missed his target. Worse still, one of his protective detachments
+chanced to meet Beaulieu near Courtrai on the 15th, and was not only
+defeated but driven in rout from Menin. Lastly, Coburg had already
+captured Le Quesnoy, and had also repulsed a straggling attack of the
+Landrecies, Bouchain and other French garrisons on the positions of his
+covering army (12th).[4]
+
+Houchard's offensive died away completely, and he halted his army
+(45,000 strong excluding detachments) at Gaverelle, half-way between
+Douai and Arras, hoping thereby to succour Bouchain, Cambrai or Arras,
+whichever should prove to be Coburg's next objective. After standing
+still for several days, a prey to all the conflicting rumours that
+reached his ears, he came to the conclusion that Coburg was about to
+join the duke of York in a second siege of Dunkirk, and began to close
+on his left. But his conclusion was entirely wrong. The Allies were
+closing on _their_ left inland to attack Maubeuge. Coburg drew in
+Beaulieu, and even persuaded the Dutch to assist, the duke of York
+undertaking for the moment to watch the whole of the Flanders cordon
+from the sea to Tournai. But this concentration of force was merely
+nominal, for each contingent worked in the interests of its own masters,
+and, above all, the siege that was the object of the concentration was
+calculated to last four weeks, i.e. gave the French four weeks unimpeded
+liberty of action.
+
+Houchard was now denounced and brought captive to Paris. Placed upon his
+trial, he offered a calm and reasoned defence of his conduct, but when
+the intolerable word "coward" was hurled at him by one of his judges he
+wept with rage, pointing to the scars of his many wounds, and then, his
+spirit broken, sank into a lethargic indifference, in which he remained
+to the end. He was guillotined on the 16th of November 1793.
+
+After Houchard's arrest, Jourdan accepted the command, though with many
+misgivings, for the higher ranks were filled by officers with even less
+experience than he had himself, equipment and clothing was wanting, and,
+perhaps more important still, the new levies, instead of filling up the
+depleted ranks of the line, were assembled in undisciplined and
+half-armed hordes at various frontier camps, under elected officers who
+had for the most part never undergone the least training. The field
+states showed a total of 104,000 men, of whom less than a third formed
+the operative army. But an enthusiasm equal to that of Hondschoote, and
+similarly demanding a plain, urgent and recognizable objective, animated
+it, and although Jourdan and Carnot (who was with him at Gaverelle,
+where the army had now reassembled) began to study the general strategic
+situation, the Committee brought them back to realities by ordering them
+to relieve Maubeuge at all costs.
+
+
+  Wattignies.
+
+The Allies disposed in all of 66,000 men around the threatened fortress,
+but 26,000 of these were actually employed in the siege, and the
+remainder, forming the covering army, extended in an enormous semicircle
+of posts facing west, south and east. Thus the Republicans, as before,
+had two men to one at the point of contact (44,000 against 21,000), but
+so formidable was the discipline and steadiness of manoeuvre of the old
+armies that the chances were considered as no more than "rather in
+favour" of the French. Not that these chances were seriously weighed
+before engaging. The generals might squander their energies in the
+council chamber on plans of sieges and expeditions, but in the field
+they were glad enough to seize the opportunity of a battle which they
+were not skilful enough to compel. It took place on the 15th and 16th of
+October, and though the allied right and centre held their ground, on
+their left the plateau of Wattignies (q.v.), from which the battle
+derives its name, was stormed on the second day, Carnot, Jourdan and the
+representatives leading the columns in person. Coburg indeed retired in
+unbroken order, added to which the Maubeuge garrison had failed to
+co-operate with their rescuers by a sortie,[5] and the duke of York had
+hurried up with all the men he could spare from the Flanders cordon. But
+the Dutch generals refused to advance beyond the Sambre, and Coburg
+broke up the siege of Maubeuge and retired whence he had come, while
+Jourdan, so far from pressing forward, was anxiously awaiting a
+counter-attack, and entrenching himself with all possible energy. So
+ended the episode of Wattignies, which, alike in its general outline and
+in its details, gives a perfect picture of the character, at once
+intense and spasmodic, of the "New French" warfare in the days of the
+Terror.
+
+  To complete the story of '93 it remains to sketch, very briefly, the
+  principal events on the eastern and southern frontiers of France.
+  These present, in the main, no special features, and all that it is
+  necessary to retain of them is the fact of their existence. What this
+  multiplication of their tasks meant to the Committee of Public Safety
+  and to Carnot in particular it is impossible to realize. It was not
+  merely on the Sambre and the Scheldt, nor against one army of
+  heterogeneous allies that the Republic had to fight for life, but
+  against Prussians and Hessians on the Rhine, Sardinians in the Alps,
+  Spaniards in the Pyrenees, and also (one might say, indeed, above all)
+  against Frenchmen in Vendée, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon.
+
+  On the Rhine, the advance of a Prussian-Hessian army, 63,000 strong,
+  rapidly drove back Custine from the Main into the valleys of the Saar
+  and the Lauter. An Austrian corps under Wurmser soon afterwards
+  invaded Alsace. Here, as on the northern frontier, there was a long
+  period of trial and error, of denunciations and indiscipline, and of
+  wholly trivial fighting, before the Republicans recovered themselves.
+  But in the end the ragged enthusiasts found their true leader in
+  Lazare Hoche, and, though defeated by Brunswick at Pirmasens and
+  Kaiserslautern, they managed to develop almost their full strength
+  against Wurmser in Alsace. On the 26th of December the latter, who had
+  already undergone a series of partial reverses, was driven by main
+  force from the lines of Weissenburg, after which Hoche advanced into
+  the Palatinate and delivered Landau, and Pichegru moved on to
+  recapture Mainz, which had surrendered in July. On the Spanish
+  frontier both sides indulged in a fruitless war of posts in broken
+  ground. The Italian campaign of 1793, equally unprofitable, will be
+  referred to below. Far more serious than either was the insurrection
+  of Vendée (q.v.) and the counter-revolution in the south of France,
+  the principal incidents of which were the terrible sieges of Lyons and
+  Toulon.
+
+
+  Campaign of 1794.
+
+For 1794 Carnot planned a general advance of all the northern armies,
+that of the North (Pichegru) from Dunkirk-Cassel by Ypres and Oudenarde
+on Brussels, the minor Army of the Ardennes to Charleroi, and the Army
+of the Moselle (Jourdan) to Liége, while between Charleroi and Lille
+demonstrations were to be made against the hostile centre. He counted
+upon little as regards the two armies near the Meuse, but hoped to force
+on a decisive battle by the advance of the left wing towards Ypres.
+Coburg, on the other side, intended, if not forced to develop his
+strength on the Ypres side, to make his main effort against the French
+centre about Landrecies. This produced the siege of Landrecies, which
+need not concern us, a forward movement of the French to Menin and
+Courtrai which resulted in the battles of Tourcoing and Tournai, and the
+campaign of Fleurus, which, almost fortuitously, produced the
+long-sought decision.
+
+The first crisis was brought about by the advance of the left wing of
+the Army of the North, under Souham, to Menin-Courtrai. This advance
+placed Souham in the midst of the enemy's right wing, and at last
+stimulated the Allies into adopting the plan that Mack had advocated, in
+season and out of season, since before Neerwinden--that of _annihilating
+the enemy's army_. This vigorous purpose, and the leading part in its
+execution played by the duke of York and the British contingent, give
+these operations, to Englishmen at any rate, a living interest which is
+entirely lacking in, say, the sieges of Le Quesnoy and Landrecies. On
+the other side, the "New French" armies and their leaders, without
+losing the energy of 1793, had emerged from confusion and inexperience,
+and the powers of the new army and the new system had begun to mature.
+Thus it was a fair trial of strength between the old way and the new.
+
+In the second week of May the left wing of the Army of the North--the
+centre was towards Landrecies, and the right, fused in the Army of the
+Ardennes, towards Charleroi--found itself interposed at
+Menin-Courtrai-Lille between two hostile masses, the main body of the
+allied right wing about Tournai and a secondary corps at Thielt.
+Common-sense, therefore, dictated a converging attack for the Allies and
+a series of rapid radial blows for the French. In the allied camp
+common-sense had first to prevail over routine, and the emperor's first
+orders were for a raid of the Thielt corps towards Ypres, which his
+advisers hoped would of itself cause the French to decamp. But the duke
+of York formed a very different plan, and Feldzeugmeister Clerfayt, in
+command at Thielt, agreed to co-operate. Their proposal was to surround
+the French on the Lys with their two corps, and by the 15th the emperor
+had decided to use larger forces with the same object.
+
+[Illustration: Sketch of French positions about Courtrai, Tourcoing &
+Lille May 16th., 1794]
+
+
+  Mack's "annihilation plan."
+
+On that day Coburg himself, with 6000 men under Feldzeugmeister Kinsky
+from the central (Landrecies) group, entered Tournai and took up the
+general command, while another reinforcement under the archduke Charles
+marched towards Orchies. Orders were promptly issued for a general
+offensive. Clerfayt's corps was to be between Rousselaer and Menin on
+the 16th, and the next day to force its way across the Lys at Werwick
+and connect with the main army. The main army was to advance in four
+columns. The first three, under the duke of York, were to move off, at
+daylight on the 17th, by Dottignies, Leers and Lannoy respectively to
+the line Mouscron-Tourcoing-Mouveaux. The fourth and fifth under Kinsky
+and the archduke Charles were to defeat the French corps on the upper
+Marque, and then, leaving Lille on their left and guaranteeing
+themselves by a cordon system against being cut off from Tournai (either
+by the troops just defeated or by the Lille garrison), to march rapidly
+forward towards Werwick, getting touch on their right with the duke of
+York and on their left with Clerfayt, and thus completing the investing
+circle around Souham's and Moreau's isolated divisions. Speed was
+enjoined on all. Picked volunteers to clear away the enemy's
+skirmishers, and pioneers to make good difficult places on the roads,
+were to precede the heads of the columns. Then came at the head of the
+main body the artillery with an infantry escort. All this might have
+been designed by the Japanese for the attack of some well-defined
+Russian position in the war of 1904. Outpost and skirmisher resistance
+was to be overpowered the instant it was offered, and the attack on the
+closed bodies of the enemy was to be initiated by a heavy artillery fire
+at the earliest possible moment. But in 1904 the Russians stood still,
+which was the last thing that the Revolutionary armies of 1794 would or
+could do. Mack's well-considered and carefully balanced combinations
+failed, and doubtless helped to create the legend of his incapacity,
+which finds no support either in the opinion of Coburg, the
+representative of the old school, or in that of Scharnhorst, the founder
+of the new.
+
+Souham, who commanded in the temporary absence of Pichegru, had formed
+his own plan. Finding himself with the major part of his forces between
+York and Clerfayt, he had decided to impose upon the former by means of
+a covering detachment, and to fall upon Clerfayt near Rousselaer with
+the bulk of his forces. This plan, based as it was on a sound
+calculation of time, space, strength and endurance, merits close
+consideration, for it contains more than a trace of the essential
+principles of modern strategy, yet with one vital difference, that
+whereas, in the present case, the factor of the enemy's independent will
+wrecked the scheme, Napoleon would have guaranteed to himself, before
+and during its development, the power of executing it in spite of the
+enemy. The appearance of fresh allied troops (Kinsky) on his right front
+at once modified these general arrangements. Divining Coburg's
+intentions from the arrival of the enemy near Pont-à-Marque and at
+Lannoy, he ordered Bonnaud (Lille group, 27,000) to leave enough troops
+on the upper Marque to amuse the enemy's leftmost columns, and with
+every man he had left beyond this absolute minimum to attack the left
+flank of the columns moving towards Tourcoing, which his weak centre
+(12,000 men at Tourcoing, Mouscron and Roubaix) was to stop by frontal
+defence. No rôle was as yet assigned to the principal mass (50,000 under
+Moreau) about Courtrai. Vandamme's brigade was to extend along the Lys
+from Menin to Werwick and beyond, to deny as long as possible the
+passage to Clerfayt.
+
+This second plan failed like the first, because the enemy's counter-will
+was not controlled. All along the line Coburg's advance compelled the
+French to fight as they were without any redistribution. But the French
+were sufficiently elastic to adapt themselves readily to unforeseen
+conditions, and on Coburg's side too the unexpected happened. When
+Clerfayt appeared on the Lys above Menin, he found Werwick held. This
+was an accident, for the battalion there was on its way to Menin, and
+Vandamme, who had not yet received his new orders, was still far away.
+But the battalion fought boldly, Clerfayt sent for his pontoons, and ere
+they arrived Vandamme's leading troops managed to come up on the other
+side. Thus it was not till 1 A.M. on the 18th that the first Austrian
+battalions passed the Lys.
+
+On the front of the main allied group the "annihilation plan" was
+crippled at the outset by the tardiness of the archduke's (fifth or
+left) column. On this the smooth working of the whole scheme depended,
+for Coburg considered that he must _defeat_ Bonnaud before carrying out
+his intended envelopment of the Menin-Courtrai group (the idea of
+"binding" the enemy by a detachment while the main scheme proceeded had
+not yet arisen). The allied general, indeed, on discovering the
+backwardness of the archduke, went so far as to order all the other
+columns to begin by swerving southward against Bonnaud, but these were
+already too deeply committed to the original plan to execute any new
+variation.
+
+The rightmost column (Hanoverians) under von dem Bussche moved on
+Mouscron, overpowering the fragmentary, if energetic, resistance of the
+French advanced posts. Next on the left, Lieutenant Field Marshal Otto
+moved by Leers and Watrelos, driving away a French post at Lis (near
+Lannoy) on his left flank, and entered Tourcoing. But meantime a French
+brigade had driven von dem Bussche away from Mouscron, so that Otto felt
+compelled to keep troops at Leers and Watrelos to protect his rear,
+which seriously weakened his hold on Tourcoing. The third column, led by
+the duke of York, advanced from Templeuve on Lannoy, at the same time
+securing its left by expelling the French from Willems. Lannoy was
+stormed by the British Guards under Sir R. Abercromby with such vigour
+that the cavalry which had been sent round the village to cut off the
+French retreat had no time to get into position. Beyond Lannoy, the
+French resistance, still disjointed, became more obstinate as the
+ground favoured it more, and the duke called up the Austrians from
+Willems to turn the right of the French position at Roubaix by way of a
+small valley. Once again, however, the Guards dislodged the enemy before
+the turning movement had taken effect. A third French position now
+appeared, at Mouvaux, and this seemed so formidable that the duke halted
+to rest his now weary men. The emperor himself, however, ordered the
+advance to be resumed, and Mouvaux too was carried by Abercromby. It was
+now nightfall, and the duke having attained his objective point prepared
+to hold it against a counter attack.
+
+Kinsky meanwhile with the fourth column had made feints opposite
+Pont-à-Tressin, and had forced the passage of the Marque near Bouvines
+with his main body. But Bonnaud gave ground so slowly that up to 4 P.M.
+Kinsky had only progressed a few hundred paces from his crossing point.
+The fifth column, which was behind time on the 16th, did not arrive at
+Orchies till dawn on the 17th, and had to halt there for rest and food.
+Thence, moving across country in fighting formation, the archduke made
+his way to Pont-à-Marque. But he was unable to do more, before calling a
+halt, than deploy his troops on the other side of the stream.
+
+So closed the first day's operations. The "annihilation plan" had
+already undergone a serious check. The archduke and Kinsky, instead of
+being ready for the second part of their task, had scarcely completed
+the first, and the same could be said of Clerfayt, while von dem Bussche
+had definitively failed. Only the duke of York and Otto had done their
+share in the centre, and they now stood at Tourcoing and Mouvaux
+isolated in the midst of the enemy's main body, with no hope of support
+from the other columns and no more than a chance of meeting Clerfayt.
+Coburg's entire force was, without deducting losses, no more than 53,000
+for a front of 18 m., and only half of the enemy's available 80,000 men
+had as yet been engaged. Mack sent a staff officer, at 1 A.M., to
+implore the archduke to come up to Lannoy at once, but the young prince
+was asleep and his suite refused to wake him.
+
+Matters did not, of course, present themselves in this light at Souham's
+headquarters, where the generals met in an informal council. The project
+of flinging Bonnaud's corps against the flank of the duke of York had
+not received even a beginning of execution, and the outposts, reinforced
+though they were from the main group, had everywhere been driven in. All
+the subordinate leaders, moreover (except Bonnaud), sent in the most
+despondent reports. "Councils of war never fight" is an old maxim,
+justified in ninety-nine cases in a hundred. But this council determined
+to do so, and with all possible vigour. The scheme was practically that
+which Coburg's first threat had produced and his first brusque advance
+had inhibited. Vandamme was to hold Clerfayt, the garrison of Lille and
+a few outlying corps to occupy the archduke and Kinsky, and in the
+centre Moreau and Bonnaud, with 40,000 effectives, were to attack the
+Tourcoing-Mouvaux position in front and flank at dawn with all possible
+energy.
+
+
+  Battle of Tourcoing.
+
+The first shots were fired on the Lys, where, it will be remembered,
+Clerfayt's infantry had effected its crossing in the night. Vandamme,
+who was to defend the river, had in the evening assembled his troops
+(fatigued by a long march) near Menin instead of pushing on at once.
+Thus only one of his battalions had taken part in the defence of Werwick
+on the 17th, and the remainder were by this chance massed on the flank
+of Clerfayt's subsequent line of advance. Vandamme used his advantage
+well. He attacked, with perhaps 12,000 men against 21,000, the head and
+the middle of Clerfayt's columns as they moved on Lincelles. Clerfayt
+stopped at once, turned upon him and drove him towards Roncq and Menin.
+Still, fighting in succession, rallying and fighting again, Vandamme's
+regiments managed to spin out time and to commit Clerfayt deeper and
+deeper to a false direction till it was too late in the day to influence
+the battle elsewhere.
+
+V. dem Bussche's column at Dottignies, shaken by the blow it had
+received the day before, did nothing, and actually retreated to the
+Scheldt. On the other flank, Kinsky and the archduke Charles
+practically remained inactive despite repeated orders to proceed to
+Lannoy, Kinsky waiting for the archduke, and the latter using up his
+time and forces in elaborating a protective cordon all around his left
+and rear. Both alleged that "the troops were tired," but there was a
+stronger motive. It was felt that Belgium was about to be handed over to
+France as the price of peace, and the generals did not see the force of
+wasting soldiers on a lost cause. There remained the two centre columns,
+Otto's and the duke of York's. The orders of the emperor to the duke
+were that he should advance to establish communication with Clerfayt at
+Lincelles. Having thus cut off the French Courtrai group, he was to
+initiate a general advance to crush it, in which all the allied columns
+would take part, Clerfayt, York and Otto in front, von dem Bussche on
+the right flank and the archduke and Kinsky in support. These airy
+schemes were destroyed at dawn on the 18th. Macdonald's brigade carried
+Tourcoing at the first rush, though Otto's guns and the volleys of the
+infantry checked its further progress. Malbrancq's brigade swarmed
+around the duke of York's entrenchments at Mouvaux, while Bonnaud's mass
+from the side of Lille passed the Marque and lapped round the flanks of
+the British posts at Roubaix and Lannoy. The duke had used up his
+reserves in assisting Otto, and by 8 A.M. the positions of Roubaix,
+Lannoy and Mouvaux were isolated from each other. But the Allies fought
+magnificently, and by now the Republicans were in confusion, excited to
+the highest pitch and therefore extremely sensitive to waves of
+enthusiasm or panic; and at this moment Clerfayt was nearing success,
+and Vandamme fighting almost back to back with Malbrancq. Otto was able
+to retire gradually, though with heavy losses, to Leers, before
+Macdonald's left column was able to storm Watrelos, or Daendels'
+brigade, still farther towards the Scheldt, could reach his rear. The
+resistance of the Austrians gave breathing space to the English, who
+held on to their positions till about 11.30, attacked again and again by
+Bonnaud, and then, not without confusion, retired to join Otto at Leers.
+
+With the retreat of the two sorely tried columns and the suspension of
+Clerfayt's attack between Lincelles and Roncq, the battle of Tourcoing
+ended. It was a victory of which the young French generals had reason to
+be proud. The main attack was vigorously conducted, and the two-to-one
+numerical superiority which the French possessed at the decisive point
+is the best testimony at once to Souham's generalship and to Vandamme's
+bravery. As for the Allies, those of them who took part in the battle at
+all, generals and soldiers, covered themselves with glory, but the
+inaction of two-thirds of Coburg's army was the bankruptcy declaration
+of the old strategical system. The Allies lost, on this day, about 4000
+killed and wounded and 1500 prisoners besides 60 guns. The French loss,
+which was probably heavier, is not known. The duke of York defeated,
+Souham at once turned his attention to Clerfayt, against whom he
+directed all the forces he could gather after a day's "horde-tactics."
+The Austrian commander, however, withdrew over the river unharmed. On
+the 19th he was at Rousselaer and Ingelminster, 9 or 10 m. north of
+Courtrai, while Coburg's forces assembled and encamped in a strong
+position some 3 m. west and north-west of Tournai, the Hanoverians
+remaining out in advance of the right on the Espierre.
+
+Souham's victory, thanks to his geographical position, had merely given
+him air. The Allies, except for the loss of some 5500 men, were in no
+way worse off. The plan had failed, but the army as a whole had not been
+defeated, while the troops of the duke of York and Otto were far too
+well disciplined not to take their defeat as "all in the day's work."
+Souham was still on the Lys and midway between the two allied masses,
+able to strike each in turn or liable to be crushed between them in
+proportion as the opposing generals calculated time, space and endurance
+accurately. Souham, therefore, as early as the 19th, had decided that
+until Clerfayt had been pushed back to his old positions near Thielt he
+could not deal with the main body of the Allies on the side of Tournai,
+and he had left Bonnaud to hold the latter while he concentrated most of
+his forces towards Courtrai. This move had the desired effect, for
+Clerfayt retired without a contest, and on the 21st of May Souham issued
+his orders for an advance on Coburg's army, which, as he knew, had
+meantime been reinforced. Vandamme alone was left to face Clerfayt, and
+this time with outposts far out, at Ingelminster and Roosebeke, so as to
+ensure his chief, not a few hours', but two or three days' freedom from
+interference.
+
+
+  Battle of Tournai.
+
+Pichegru now returned and took up the supreme command, Souham remaining
+in charge of his own and Moreau's divisions. On the extreme right, from
+Pont-à-Tressin, only demonstrations were to be made; the centre, between
+Baisieux and Estaimbourg, was to be the scene of the holding attack of
+Bonnaud's command, while Souham, in considerably greater density,
+delivered the decisive attack on the allied right by St Leger and
+Warcoing. At Helchin a brigade was to guard the outer flank of the
+assailants against a movement by the Hanoverians and to keep open
+communication with Courtrai in case of attack from the direction of
+Oudenarde. The details of the allied position were insufficiently known
+owing to the multiplicity of their advanced posts and the intricate and
+densely cultivated nature of the ground. The battle of Tournai opened in
+the early morning of the 22nd and was long and desperately contested.
+The demonstration on the French extreme right was soon recognized by the
+defenders to be negligible, and the allied left wing thereupon closed on
+the centre. There Bonnaud attacked with vigour, forcing back the various
+advanced posts, especially on the left, where he dislodged the Allies
+from Nechin. The defenders of Templeuve then fell back, and the
+attacking swarms--a dissolved line of battle--fringed the brook beyond
+Templeuve, on the other side of which was the Allies' main position, and
+even for a moment seized Blandain. Meanwhile the French at Nechin, in
+concert with the main attack, pressed on towards Ramegnies.
+
+Macdonald's and other brigades had forced the Espierre rivulet and
+driven von dem Bussche's Hanoverians partly over the Scheldt (they had a
+pontoon bridge), partly southward. The main front of the Allies was
+defined by the brook that flows between Templeuve and Blandain, then
+between Ramegnies and Pont-à-Chin and empties into the Scheldt near the
+last-named hamlet. On this front till close on nightfall a fierce battle
+raged. Pichegru's main attack was still by his left, and Pont-à-Chin was
+taken and retaken by French, Austrians, British and Hanoverians in turn.
+Between Blandain and Pont-à-Chin Bonnaud's troops more than once entered
+the line of defence. But the attack was definitively broken off at
+nightfall and the Republicans withdrew slowly towards Lannoy and Leers.
+They had for the first time in a fiercely contested "soldier's battle"
+measured their strength, regiment for regiment, against the Allies, and
+failed, but by so narrow a margin that henceforward the Army of the
+North realized its own strength and solidity. The Army of the
+Revolution, already superior in numbers and imbued with the
+decision-compelling spirit, had at last achieved self-confidence.
+
+But the actual decision was destined by a curious process of evolution
+to be given by Jourdan's far-distant Army of the Moselle, to which we
+now turn.
+
+The Army of the Moselle had been ordered to assemble a striking force on
+its left wing, without prejudicing the rest of its cordon in Lorraine,
+and with this striking force to operate towards Liége and Namur. Its
+first movement on Arlon, in April, was repulsed by a small Austrian
+corps under Beaulieu that guarded this region. But in the beginning of
+May the advance was resumed though the troops were ill-equipped and
+ill-fed, and requisitions had reduced the civil population to
+semi-starvation and sullen hostility. We quote Jourdan's instructions to
+his advanced guard, not merely as evidence of the trivial purpose of the
+march as originally planned, but still more as an illustration of the
+driving power that made the troops march at all, and of the new method
+of marching and subsisting them.
+
+
+  Jourdan's movement on Liége.
+
+Its commander was "to keep in mind the purpose of cutting the
+communications between Luxemburg and Namur, and was therefore to throw
+out strong bodies against the enemy daily and at different points, to
+parry the enemy's movements by rapid marches, to prevent any transfer
+of troops to Belgium, and lastly to seek an occasion for giving battle,
+for cutting off his convoys and for seizing his magazines." So much for
+the purpose. The method of achieving it is defined as follows. "General
+Hatry, in order to attain the object of these instructions, will have
+with him the minimum of wagons. He is to live at the expense of the
+enemy as much as possible, and to send back into the interior of the
+Republic whatever may be useful to it; he will maintain his
+communications with Longwy, report every movement to me, and when
+necessary to the Committee of Public Safety and to the minister of war,
+maintain order and discipline, and firmly oppose every sort of pillage."
+How the last of these instructions was to be reconciled with the rest,
+Hatry was not informed. In fact, it was ignored. "I am far from
+believing," wrote the representative on mission Gillet, "that we ought
+to adopt the principles of philanthropy with which we began the war."
+
+At the moment when, on these terms, Jourdan's advance was resumed, the
+general situation east of the Scheldt was as follows: The Allies' centre
+under Coburg had captured Landrecies, and now (May 4) lay around that
+place, about 65,000 strong, while the left under Kaunitz (27,000) was
+somewhat north of Maubeuge, with detachments south of the Sambre as far
+as the Meuse. Beyond these again were the detachment of Beaulieu (8000)
+near Arlon, and another, 9000 strong, around Trier. On the side of the
+French, the Army of the Moselle (41,000 effectives) was in cordon
+between Saargemünd and Longwy; the Army of the Ardennes (22,000) between
+Beaumont and Givet; of the Army of the North, the right wing (38,000) in
+the area Beaumont--Maubeuge and the centre (24,000) about Guise. In the
+aggregate the allied field armies numbered 139,000 men, those of the
+French 203,000. Tactically the disproportion was sufficient to give the
+latter the victory, if, strategically, it could be made effective at a
+given time and place. But the French had mobility as a remedy for
+over-extension, and though their close massing on the extreme flanks
+left no more than equal forces opposite Coburg in the centre, the latter
+felt unable either to go forward or to close to one flank when on his
+right the storm was brewing at Menin and Tournai, and on his left
+Kaunitz reported the gathering of important masses of the French around
+Beaumont.
+
+Thus the initiative passed over to the French, but they missed their
+opportunity, as Coburg had missed his in 1793. Pichegru's right was
+ordered to march on Mons, and his left to master the navigation of the
+Scheldt so as to reduce the Allies to wagon-drawn supplies--the latter
+an objective dear to the 18th-century general; while Jourdan's task, as
+we know, was to conquer the Liége or Namur country without unduly
+stripping the cordon on the Saar and the Moselle. Jourdan's orders and
+original purpose were to get Beaulieu out of his way by the usual
+strategical tricks, and to march through the Ardennes as rapidly as
+possible, living on what supplies he could pick up from the enemy or the
+inhabitants. But he had scarcely started when Beaulieu made his
+existence felt by attacking a French post at Bouillon. Thereupon Jourdan
+made the active enemy, instead of Namur, his first object.
+
+The movement of the operative portion of the Army of the Moselle began
+on the 21st of May from Longwy through Arlon towards Neufchâteau.
+Irregular fighting, sometimes with the Austrians, sometimes with the
+bitterly hostile inhabitants, marked its progress. Beaulieu was nowhere
+forced into a battle. But fortune was on Jourdan's side. The Austrians
+were a detachment of Coburg's army, not an independent force, and when
+threatened they retired towards Ciney, drawing Jourdan after them in the
+very direction in which he desired to go. On the 28th the French, after
+a vain detour made in the hope of forcing Beaulieu to fight--"les
+esclaves n'osent pas se mesurer avec des hommes libres," wrote Jourdan
+in disgust,--reached Ciney, and there heard that the enemy had fallen
+back to a strongly entrenched position on the east bank of the Meuse
+near Namur. Jourdan was preparing to attack them there, when
+considerations of quite another kind intervened to change his direction,
+and thereby to produce the drama of Charleroi and Fleurus--which
+military historians have asserted to be the foreseen result of the
+initial plan.
+
+The method of "living on the country" had failed lamentably in the
+Ardennes, and Jourdan, though he had spoken of changing his line of
+supply from Arlon to Carignan, then to Mézières and so on as his march
+progressed, was still actually living from hand to mouth on the convoys
+that arrived intermittently from his original base. When he sought to
+take what he needed from the towns on the Meuse, he infringed on the
+preserves of the Army of the Ardennes.[6] The advance, therefore, came
+for the moment to a standstill, while Beaulieu, solicitous for the
+safety of Charleroi--in which fortress he had a magazine--called up the
+outlying troops left behind on the Moselle to rejoin him by way of
+Bastogne. At the same moment (29th) Jourdan received new orders from
+Paris--(a) to take Dinant and Charleroi and to clear the country between
+the Meuse and the Sambre, and (b) to attack Namur, either by assault or
+by regular siege. In the latter case the bulk of the forces were to form
+a covering army beyond the place, to demonstrate towards Nivelles,
+Louvain and Liége, and to serve at need as a support to the right flank
+of the Ardennes Army. From these orders and from the action of the enemy
+the campaign at last took a definite shape.
+
+
+  Charleroi.
+
+When the Army of the Moselle passed over to the left bank of the Meuse,
+it was greeted by the distant roar of guns towards Charleroi and by news
+that the Army of the Ardennes, which had already twice been defeated by
+Kaunitz, was for the third time deeply and unsuccessfully engaged beyond
+the Sambre. The resumption of the march again complicated the supply
+question, and it was only slowly that the army advanced towards
+Charleroi, sweeping the country before it and extending its right
+towards Namur. But at last on the 3rd of June the concentration of parts
+of three armies on the Sambre was effected. Jourdan took command of the
+united force (Army of the Sambre and Meuse) with a strong hand, the
+40,000 new-comers inspired fresh courage in the beaten Ardennes troops,
+and in the sudden dominating enthusiasm of the moment pillaging and
+straggling almost ceased. Troops that had secured bread shared it with
+less fortunate comrades, and even the Liégois peasantry made free gifts
+of supplies. "We must believe," says the French general staff of to-day,
+"that the idea symbolized by the Tricolour, around which marched ever
+these sansculottes, shoeless and hungry, unchained a mysterious force
+that preceded our columns and aided the achievement of military
+success."
+
+Friction, however, arose between Jourdan and the generals of the
+Ardennes Army, to whom the representatives thought it well to give a
+separate mission. This detachment of 18,000 men was followed by another,
+of 16,000, to keep touch with Maubeuge. Deducting another 6000 for the
+siege of Charleroi, when this should be made, the covering army destined
+to fight the Imperialists dwindled to 55,000 out of 96,000 effectives.
+Even now, we see, the objective was not primarily the enemy's army. The
+Republican leaders desired to strike out beyond the Sambre, and as a
+preliminary to capture Charleroi. They would not, however, risk the loss
+of their connexion with Maubeuge before attaining the new foothold.
+
+Meanwhile, Tourcoing and Tournai had at last convinced Coburg that
+Pichegru was his most threatening opponent, and he had therefore, though
+with many misgivings, decided to move towards his right, leaving the
+prince of Orange with not more than 45,000 men on the side of
+Maubeuge-Charleroi-Namur.
+
+Jourdan crossed the Sambre on the 12th of June, practically unopposed.
+Charleroi was rapidly invested and the covering army extended in a
+semicircular position. For the fourth time the Allies counter-attacked
+successfully, and after a severe struggle the French had to abandon
+their positions and their siege works and to recross the Sambre (June
+16). But the army was not beaten. On the contrary, it was only desirous
+of having its revenge for a stroke of ill-fortune, due, the soldiers
+said, to the fog and to the want of ammunition. The fierce threats of
+St Just (who had joined the army) to _faire tomber les têtes_ if more
+energy were not shown were unnecessary, and within two days the army was
+advancing again. On the 18th Jourdan's columns recrossed the river and
+extended around Charleroi in the same positions as before. This time,
+having in view the weariness of his troops and their heavy losses on the
+16th, the prince of Orange allowed the siege to proceed. His reasons for
+so doing furnish an excellent illustration of the different ideas and
+capacities of a professional army and a "nation in arms." "The Imperial
+troops," wrote General Alvintzi, "are very fatigued. We have fought nine
+times since the 10th of May, we have bivouacked constantly, and made
+forced marches. Further, we are short of officers." All this, it need
+hardly be pointed out, applied equally to the French.
+
+Charleroi, garrisoned by less than 3000 men, was intimidated into
+surrender (25th) when the third parallel was barely established. Thus
+the object of the first operations was achieved. As to the next neither
+Jourdan nor the representatives seem to have had anything further in
+view than the capture of more fortresses. But within twenty-four hours
+events had decided for them.
+
+Coburg had quickly abandoned his intention of closing on his right wing,
+and (after the usual difficulties with his Allies on that side) had
+withdrawn 12,000 Austrians from the centre of his cordon opposite
+Pichegru, and made forced marches to join the prince of Orange. On the
+24th of June he had collected 52,000 men at various points round
+Charleroi, and on the 25th he set out to relieve the little fortress.
+But he was in complete ignorance of the state of affairs at Charleroi.
+Signal guns were fired, but the woods drowned even the roar of the siege
+batteries, and at last a party under Lieutenant Radetzky made its way
+through the covering army and discovered that the place had fallen. The
+party was destroyed on its return, but Radetzky was reserved for greater
+things. He managed, though twice wounded, to rejoin Coburg with his bad
+news in the midst of the battle of Fleurus.
+
+On the 26th Jourdan's army (now some 73,000 strong) was still posted in
+a semicircle of entrenched posts, 20 m. in extent, round the captured
+town, pending the removal of the now unnecessary pontoon bridge at
+Marchiennes and the selection of a shorter line of defence.
+
+
+  Fleurus.
+
+Coburg was still more widely extended. Inferior in numbers as he was, he
+proposed to attack on an equal front, and thus gave himself, for the
+attack of an entrenched position, an order of battle of three men to
+every two yards of front, all reserves included. The Allies were to
+attack in five columns, the prince of Orange from the west and
+north-west towards Trazegnies and Monceau wood, Quasdanovich from the
+north on Gosselies, Kaunitz from the north-east, the archduke Charles
+from the east through Fleurus, and finally Beaulieu towards Lambusart.
+The scheme was worked out in such minute detail and with so entire a
+disregard of the chance of unforeseen incidents, that once he had given
+the executive command to move, the Austrian general could do no more. If
+every detail worked out as planned, victory would be his; if accidents
+happened he could do nothing to redress them, and unless these righted
+themselves (which was improbable in the case of the stiffly organized
+old armies) he could only send round the order to break off the action
+and retreat.
+
+In these circumstances the battle of Fleurus is the sum rather than the
+product of the various fights that took place between each allied column
+and the French division that it met. The prince of Orange attacked at
+earliest dawn and gradually drove in the French left wing to Courcelles,
+Roux and Marchiennes, but somewhat after noon the French, under the
+direction for the most part of Kléber, began a series of counterstrokes
+which recovered the lost ground, and about 5, without waiting for
+Coburg's instructions, the prince retired north-westward off the
+battlefield. The French centre division, under Morlot, made a gradual
+fighting retreat on Gosselies, followed up by the Quasdanovich column
+and part of Kaunitz's force. No serious impression was made on the
+defenders, chiefly because the brook west of Mellet was a serious
+obstacle to the rigid order of the Allies and had to be bridged before
+their guns could be got over. Kaunitz's column and Championnet's
+division met on the battlefield of 1690. The French were gradually
+driven in from the outlying villages to their main position between
+Heppignies and Wangenies. Here the Allies, well led and taking every
+advantage of ground and momentary chances, had the best of it. They
+pressed the French hard, necessitated the intervention of such small
+reserves as Jourdan had available, and only gave way to the defenders'
+counterstroke at the moment they received Coburg's orders for a general
+retreat.
+
+On the allied left wing the fighting was closer and more severe than at
+any point. Beaulieu on the extreme left advanced upon Velaine and the
+French positions in the woods to the south in several small groups of
+all arms. Here were the divisions of the Army of the Ardennes, markedly
+inferior in discipline and endurance to the rest, and only too mindful
+of their four previous reverses. For six hours, more or less, they
+resisted the oncoming Allies, but then, in spite of the example and the
+despairing appeals of their young general Marceau, they broke and fled,
+leaving Beaulieu free to combine with the archduke Charles, who carried
+Fleurus after obstinate fighting, and then pressed on towards
+Campinaire. Beaulieu took command of all the allied forces on this side
+about noon, and from then to 5 P.M. launched a series of terrible
+attacks on the French (Lefebvre's division, part of the general reserve,
+and the remnant of Marceau's troops) above Campinaire and Lambusart. The
+disciplined resolution of the imperial battalions, and the enthusiasm of
+the French Revolutionaries, were each at their height. The Austrians
+came on time after time over ground that was practically destitute of
+cover. Villages, farms and fields of corn caught fire. The French grew
+more and more excited--"No retreat to-day!" they called out to their
+leaders, and finally, clamouring to be led against the enemy, they had
+their wish. Lefebvre seized the psychological moment when the fourth
+attack of the Allies had failed, and (though he did not know it) the
+order to retreat had come from Coburg. The losses of the unit that
+delivered it were small, for the charge exactly responded to the moral
+conditions of the moment, but the proportion of killed to wounded (55 to
+81) is good evidence of the intensity of the momentary conflict.
+
+So ended the battle. Coburg had by now learned definitely that Charleroi
+had surrendered, and while the issue of the battle was still
+doubtful--for though the prince of Orange was beaten, Beaulieu was in
+the full tide of success--he gave (towards 3 P.M.) the order for a
+general retreat. This was delivered to the various commanders between 4
+and 5, and these, having their men in hand even in the heat of the
+engagement, were able to break off the battle without undue confusion.
+The French were far too exhausted to pursue them (they had lost twice as
+many men as the Allies), and their leader had practically no formed body
+at hand to follow up the victory, thanks to the extraordinary
+dissemination of the army.
+
+  Tourcoing, Tournay and Fleurus represent the maximum result achievable
+  under the earlier Revolutionary system of making war, and show the men
+  and the leaders at the highest point of combined steadiness and
+  enthusiasm they ever reached--that is, as a "Sansculotte" army.
+  Fleurus was also the last great victory of the French, in point of
+  time, prior to the advent of Napoleon, and may therefore be considered
+  as illustrating the general conditions of warfare at one of the most
+  important points in its development.
+
+  The sequel of these battles can be told in a few words. The Austrian
+  government had, it is said, long ago decided to evacuate the
+  Netherlands, and Coburg retired over the Meuse, practically unpursued,
+  while the duke of York's forces fell back in good order, though
+  pursued by Pichegru through Flanders. The English contingent embarked
+  for home, the rest retired through Holland into Hanoverian territory,
+  leaving the Dutch troops to surrender to the victors. The last phase
+  of the pursuit reflected great glory on Pichegru, for it was conducted
+  in midwinter through a country bare of supplies and densely
+  intersected with dykes and meres. The crowning incident was the
+  dramatic capture of the Dutch fleet, frozen in at the Texel, by a
+  handful of hussars who rode over the ice and browbeat the crews of the
+  well-armed battleships into surrender. It was many years before a
+  prince of Orange ruled again in the United provinces, while the
+  Austrian whitecoats never again mounted guard in Brussels.
+
+  The Rhine campaign of 1794, waged as before chiefly by the Prussians,
+  was not of great importance. General v. Möllendorf won a victory at
+  Kaiserslautern on the 23rd of May, but operations thereafter became
+  spasmodic, and were soon complicated by Coburg's retreat over the
+  Meuse. With this event the offensive of the Allies against the French
+  Revolution came to an inglorious end. Poland now occupied the thoughts
+  of European statesmen, and Austria began to draw her forces on to the
+  east. England stopped the payment of subsidies, and Prussia made the
+  Peace of Basel on the 5th of April 1795. On the Spanish frontier the
+  French under General Dugommier (who was killed in the last battle)
+  were successful in almost every encounter, and Spain, too, made peace.
+  Only the eternal enemies, France and Austria, were left face to face
+  on the Rhine, and elsewhere, of all the Allies, Sardinia alone (see
+  below under _Italian Campaigns_) continued the struggle in a
+  half-hearted fashion.
+
+  The operations of 1795 on the Rhine present no feature of the
+  Revolutionary Wars that other and more interesting campaigns fail to
+  show. Austria had two armies on foot under the general command of
+  Clerfayt, one on the upper Rhine, the other south of the Main, while
+  Mainz was held by an army of imperial contingents. The French, Jourdan
+  on the lower; Pichegru on the upper Rhine, had as usual superior
+  numbers at their disposal. Jourdan combined a demonstrative frontal
+  attack on Neuwied with an advance in force via Düsseldorf, reunited
+  his wings beyond the river near Neuwied, and drove back the Austrians
+  in a series of small engagements to the Main, while Pichegru passed at
+  Mannheim and advanced towards the Neckar. But ere long both were
+  beaten, Jourdan at Höchst and Pichegru at Mannheim, and the investment
+  of Mainz had to be abandoned. This was followed by the invasion of the
+  Palatinate by Clerfayt and the retreat of Jourdan to the Moselle. The
+  position was further compromised by secret negotiations between
+  Pichegru and the enemy for the restoration of the Bourbons. The
+  meditated treason came to light early in the following year, and the
+  guilty commander disappeared into the obscure ranks of the royalist
+  secret agents till finally brought to justice in 1804.
+
+
+THE CAMPAIGN OF 1796 IN GERMANY
+
+The wonder of Europe now transferred itself from the drama of the French
+Revolution to the equally absorbing drama of a great war on the Rhine.
+"Every day, for four terrible years," wrote a German pamphleteer early
+in 1796, "has surpassed the one before it in grandeur and terror, and
+to-day surpasses all in dizzy sublimity." That a manoeuvre on the Lahn
+should possess an interest to the peoples of Europe surpassing that of
+the Reign of Terror is indeed hardly imaginable, but there was a good
+reason for the tense expectancy that prevailed everywhere. France's
+policy was no longer defensive. She aimed at invading and
+"revolutionizing" the monarchies and principalities of old Europe, and
+to this end the campaign of 1796 was to be the great and conclusive
+effort. The "liberation of the oppressed" had its part in the decision,
+and the glory of freeing the serf easily merged itself in the glory of
+defeating the serf's masters. But a still more pressing motive for
+carrying the war into the enemy's country was the fact that France and
+the lands she had overrun could no longer subsist her armies. The
+Directory frankly told its generals, when they complained that their men
+were starving and ragged, that they would find plenty of subsistence
+beyond the Rhine.
+
+On her part, Austria, no longer fettered by allied contingents nor by
+the expenses of a far distant campaign, could put forth more strength
+than on former campaigns, and as war came nearer home and the citizen
+saw himself threatened by "revolutionizing" and devastating armies, he
+ceased to hamper or to swindle the troops. Thus the duel took place on
+the grandest scale then known in the history of European armies. Apart
+from the secondary theatre of Italy, the area embraced in the struggle
+was a vast triangle extending from Düsseldorf to Basel and thence to
+Ratisbon, and Carnot sketched the outlines in accordance with the scale
+of the picture. He imagined nothing less than the union of the armies of
+the Rhine and the Riviera before the walls of Vienna. Its practicability
+cannot here be discussed, but it is worth contrasting the attitude of
+contemporaries and of later strategical theorists towards it. The
+former, with their empirical knowledge of war, merely thought it
+impracticable with the available means, but the latter have condemned it
+root and branch as "an operation on exterior lines."
+
+
+  Jourdan and Moreau.
+
+The scheme took shape only gradually. The first advance was made partly
+in search of food, partly to disengage the Palatinate, which Clerfayt
+had conquered in 1795. "If you have reason to believe that you would
+find some supplies on the Lahn, hasten thither with the greater part of
+your forces," wrote the Directory to Jourdan (Army of the
+Sambre-and-Meuse, 72,000) on the 29th of March. He was to move at once,
+before the Austrians could concentrate, and to pass the Rhine at
+Düsseldorf, thereby bringing back the centre of the enemy over the
+river. He was, further, to take every advantage of their want of
+concentration to deliver blow after blow, and to do his utmost to break
+them up completely. A fortnight later Moreau (Army of the
+Rhine-and-Moselle, 78,000) was ordered to take advantage of Jourdan's
+move, which would draw most of the Austrian forces to the Mainz region,
+to enter the Breisgau and Suabia. "You will attack Austria at home, and
+capture her magazines. You will enter a new country, the resources of
+which, properly handled, should suffice for the needs of the Army of the
+Rhine-and-Moselle."
+
+Jourdan, therefore, was to take upon himself the destruction of the
+enemy, Moreau the invasion of South Germany. The first object of both
+was to subsist their armies beyond the Rhine, the second to defeat the
+armies and terrorize the populations of the empire. Under these
+instructions the campaign opened. Jourdan crossed at Düsseldorf and
+reached the Lahn, but the enemy concentrated against him very swiftly
+and he had to retire over the river. Still, if he had not been able to
+"break them up completely," he had at any rate drawn on himself the
+weight of the Austrian army, and enabled Moreau to cross at Strassburg
+without much difficulty.
+
+The Austrians were now commanded by the archduke Charles, who, after all
+detachments had been made, disposed of some 56,000 men. At first he
+employed the bulk of this force against Jourdan, but on hearing of
+Moreau's progress he returned to the Neckar country with 20,000 men,
+leaving Feldzeugmeister v. Wartensleben with 36,000 to observe Jourdan.
+In later years he admitted himself that his own force was far too small
+to deal with Moreau, who, he probably thought, would retire after a few
+manoeuvres.
+
+
+  The archduke's plan.
+
+But by now the two French generals were aiming at something more than
+alternate raids and feints. Carnot had set before them the ideal of a
+decisive battle as the great object. Jourdan was instructed, if the
+archduke turned on Moreau, to follow him up with all speed and to bring
+him to action. Moreau, too, was not retreating but advancing. The two
+armies, Moreau's and the archduke's, met in a straggling and indecisive
+battle at Malsch on the 9th of July, and soon afterwards Charles learned
+that Jourdan had recrossed the Rhine and was driving Wartensleben before
+him. He thereupon retired both armies from the Rhine valley into the
+interior, hoping that at least the French would detach large forces to
+besiege the river fortresses. Disappointed of this, and compelled to
+face a very grave situation, he resorted to an expedient which may be
+described in his own words: "to retire both armies step by step without
+committing himself to a battle, and to seize the first opportunity to
+unite them so as to throw himself with superior or at least equal
+strength on one of the two hostile enemies." This is the ever-recurring
+idea of "interior lines." It was not new, for Frederick the Great had
+used similar means in similar circumstances, as had Souham at Tourcoing
+and even Dampierre at Valenciennes. Nor was it differentiated, as were
+Napoleon's operations in this same year, by the deliberate use of a
+small containing force at one point to obtain relative superiority at
+another. A general of the 18th century did not believe in the efficacy
+of superior numbers--had not Frederick the Great disproved it?--and for
+him operations on "interior lines" were simply successive blows at
+successive targets, the efficacy of the blow in each case being
+dependent chiefly on his own personal qualities and skill as a general
+on the field of battle. In the present case the point to be observed is
+not the expedient, which was dictated by the circumstances, but the
+courage of the young general, who, unlike Wartensleben and the rest of
+his generals, unlike, too, Moreau and Jourdan themselves, surmounted
+difficulties instead of lamenting them.
+
+On the other side, Carnot, of course, foresaw this possibility. He
+warned the generals not to allow the enemy to "use his forces sometimes
+against one, sometimes against the other, as he did in the last
+campaign," and ordered them to go forward respectively into Franconia
+and into the country of the upper Neckar, with a view to seeking out and
+defeating the enemy's army. But the plan of operations soon grew bolder.
+Jourdan was informed on the 21st of July that if he reached the Regnitz
+without meeting the enemy, or if his arrival there forced the latter to
+retire rapidly to the Danube, he was not to hesitate to advance to
+Ratisbon and even to Passau if the disorganization of the enemy admitted
+it, but in these contingencies he was to detach a force into Bohemia to
+levy contributions. "We presume that the enemy is too weak to offer a
+successful resistance and will have united his forces on the Danube; we
+hope that our two armies will act in unison to rout him completely. Each
+is, in any case, strong enough to attack by itself, and nothing is so
+pernicious as slowness in war." Evidently the fear that the two Austrian
+armies would unite against one of their assailants had now given place
+to something like disdain.
+
+
+  Neresheim.
+
+This was due in all probability to the rapidity with which Moreau was
+driving the archduke before him. After a brief stand on the Neckar at
+Cannstadt, the Austrians, only 25,000 strong, fell back to the Rauhe
+Alb, where they halted again, to cover their magazines at Ulm and
+Günzburg, towards the end of July. Wartensleben was similarly falling
+back before Jourdan, though the latter, starting considerably later than
+Moreau, had not advanced so far. The details of the successive positions
+occupied by Wartensleben need not be stated; all that concerns the
+general development of the campaign is the fact that the hitherto
+independent leader of the "Lower Rhine Army" resented the loss of his
+freedom of action, and besides lamentations opposed a dull passive
+resistance to all but the most formal orders of the prince. Many weeks
+passed before this was overcome sufficiently for his leader even to
+arrange for the contemplated combination, and in these weeks the
+archduke was being driven back day by day, and the German principalities
+were falling away one by one as the French advanced and preached the
+revolutionary formula. In such circumstances as these--the general
+facts, if not the causes, were patent enough--it was natural that the
+confident Paris strategists should think chiefly of the profits of their
+enterprise and ignore the fears of the generals at the front. But the
+latter were justified in one important respect; their operating armies
+had seriously diminished in numbers, Jourdan disposing of not more than
+45,000 and Moreau of about 50,000. The archduke had now, owing to the
+arrival of a few detachments from the Black Forest and elsewhere, about
+34,000 men, Wartensleben almost exactly the same, and the former, for
+some reason which has never been fully explained but has its
+justification in psychological factors, suddenly turned and fought a
+long, severe and straggling battle above Neresheim (August 11). This did
+not, however, give him much respite, and on the 12th and 13th he retired
+over the Danube. At this date Wartensleben was about Amberg, almost as
+far away from the other army as he had been on the Rhine, owing to the
+necessity of retreating round instead of through the principality of
+Bayreuth, which was a Prussian possession and could therefore make its
+neutrality respected.
+
+Hitherto Charles had intended to unite his armies on the Danube against
+Moreau. His later choice of Jourdan's army as the objective of his
+combination grew out of circumstances and in particular out of the
+brilliant reconnaissance work of a cavalry brigadier of the Lower Rhine
+Army, Nauendorff. This general's reports--he was working in the country
+south and south-east of Nürnberg, Wartensleben being at
+Amberg--indicated first an advance of Jourdan's army from Forchheim
+through Nürnberg to the _south_, and induced the archduke, on the 12th,
+to begin a concentration of his own army towards Ingolstadt. This was a
+purely defensive measure, but Nauendorff reported on the 13th and 14th
+that the main columns of the French were swinging away to the east
+against Wartensleben's front and inner flank, and on the 14th he boldly
+suggested the idea that decided the campaign. "If your Royal Highness
+will or can advance 12,000 men against Jourdan's rear, he is lost. We
+could not have a better opportunity." When this message arrived at
+headquarters the archduke had already issued orders to the same effect.
+Lieutenant Field Marshal Count Latour, with 30,000 men, was to keep
+Moreau occupied--another expedient of the moment, due to the very close
+pressure of Moreau's advance, and the failure of the attempt to put him
+out of action at Neresheim. The small remainder of the army, with a few
+detachments gathered _en route_, in all about 27,000 men, began to
+recross the Danube on the 14th, and slowly advanced north on a broad
+front, its leader being now sure that at some point on his line he would
+encounter the French, whether they were heading for Ratisbon or Amberg.
+Meanwhile, the Directory had, still acting on the theory of the
+archduke's weakness, ordered Moreau to combine the operations with those
+of Bonaparte in Italian Tirol, and Jourdan to turn both flanks of his
+immediate opponent, and thus to prevent his joining the archduke, as
+well as his retreat into Bohemia. And curiously enough it was this
+latter, and not Moreau's move, which suggested to the archduke that his
+chance had come. The chance was, in fact, one dear to the 18th century
+general, catching his opponent in the act of executing a manoeuvre. So
+far from "exterior lines" being fatal to Jourdan, it was not until the
+French general began to operate against Wartensleben's _inner_ flank
+that the archduke's opportunity came.
+
+
+  Amberg and Würzburg.
+
+The decisive events of the campaign can be described very briefly, the
+ideas that directed them having been made clear. The long thin line of
+the archduke wrapped itself round Jourdan's right flank near Amberg,
+while Wartensleben fought him in front. The battle (August 24) was a
+series of engagements between the various columns that met; it was a
+repetition in fact of Fleurus, without the intensity of fighting spirit
+that redeems that battle from dulness. Success followed, not upon
+bravery or even tactics, but upon the pre-existing strategical
+conditions. At the end of the day the French retired, and next morning
+the archduke began another wide extension to his left, hoping to head
+them off. This consumed several days. In the course of it Jourdan
+attempted to take advantage of his opponent's dissemination to regain
+the direct road to Würzburg, but the attempt was defeated by an almost
+fortuitous combination of forces at the threatened point. More
+effective, indeed, than this indirect pursuit was the very active
+hostility of the peasantry, who had suffered in Jourdan's advance and
+retaliated so effectually during his retreat that the army became
+thoroughly demoralized, both by want of food and by the strain of
+incessant sniping. Defeated again at Würzburg on the 3rd of September,
+Jourdan continued his retreat to the Lahn, and finally withdrew the
+shattered army over the Rhine, partly by Düsseldorf, partly by Neuwied.
+In the last engagement on the Lahn the young and brilliant Marceau was
+mortally wounded. Far away in Bavaria, Moreau had meantime been driving
+Latour from one line of resistance to another. On receiving the news of
+Jourdan's reverses, however, he made a rapid and successful retreat to
+Strassburg, evading the prince's army, which had ascended the Rhine
+valley to head him off, in the nick of time.
+
+This celebrated campaign is pre-eminently strategical in its character,
+in that the positions and movements anterior to the battle preordained
+its issue. It raised the reputation of the archduke Charles to the
+highest point, and deservedly, for he wrested victory from the most
+desperate circumstances by the skilful and resolute employment of his
+one advantage. But this was only possible because Moreau and Jourdan
+were content to accept strategical failure without seeking to redress
+the balance by hard fighting. The great question of this campaign is,
+why did Moreau and Jourdan fail against inferior numbers, when in Italy
+Bonaparte with a similar army against a similar opponent won victory
+after victory against equal and superior forces? The answer will not be
+supplied by any theory of "exterior and interior lines." It lies far
+deeper. So far as it is possible to summarize it in one phrase, it lies
+in the fact that though the Directory meant this campaign to be the
+final word on the Revolutionary War, for the nation at large this final
+word had been said at Fleurus. The troops were still the nation; they no
+longer fought for a cause and for bare existence, and Moreau and Jourdan
+were too closely allied in ideas and sympathies with the misplaced
+citizen soldiers they commanded to be able to dominate their collective
+will. In default of a cause, however, soldiers will fight for a man, and
+this brings us by a natural sequence of ideas to the war in Italy.
+
+
+THE WAR IN ITALY 1793-97
+
+Hitherto we have ignored the operations on the Italian frontier, partly
+because they were of minor importance and partly because the conditions
+out of which Napoleon's first campaign arose can be best considered in
+connexion with that campaign itself, from which indeed the previous
+operations derive such light as they possess. It has been mentioned that
+in 1792 the French overran Savoy and Nice. In 1793 the Sardinian army
+and a small auxiliary corps of Austrians waged a desultory mountain
+warfare against the Army of the Alps about Briançon and the Army of
+Italy on the Var. That furious offensive on the part of the French,
+which signalized the year 1793 elsewhere, was made impossible here by
+the counter-revolution in the cities of the Midi.
+
+
+  Saorgio.
+
+In 1794, when this had been crushed, the intention of the French
+government was to take the offensive against the Austro-Sardinians. The
+first operation was to be the capture of Oneglia. The concentration of
+large forces in the lower Rhone valley had naturally infringed upon the
+areas told off for the provisioning of the Armies of the Alps
+(Kellermann) and of Italy (Dumerbion); indeed, the sullen population
+could hardly be induced to feed the troops suppressing the revolt, still
+less the distant frontier armies. Thus the only source of supply was the
+Riviera of Genoa: "Our connexion with this district is imperilled by the
+corsairs of Oneglia (a Sardinian town) owing to the cessation of our
+operations afloat. The army is living from hand to mouth," wrote the
+younger Robespierre in September 1793. Vessels bearing supplies from
+Genoa could not avoid the corsairs by taking the open sea, for there the
+British fleet was supreme. Carnot therefore ordered the Army of Italy to
+capture Oneglia, and 21,000 men (the rest of the 67,000 effectives were
+held back for coast defence) began operations in April. The French left
+moved against the enemy's positions on the main road over the Col di
+Tenda, the centre towards Ponte di Nava, and the right along the
+Riviera. All met with success, thanks to Masséna's bold handling of the
+centre column. Not only was Oneglia captured, but also the Col di Tenda.
+Napoleon Bonaparte served in these affairs on the headquarter staff.
+Meantime the Army of the Alps had possessed itself of the Little St
+Bernard and Mont Cenis, and the Republicans were now masters of several
+routes into Piedmont (May). But the Alpine roads merely led to
+fortresses, and both Carnot and Bonaparte--Napoleon had by now
+captivated the younger Robespierre and become the leading spirit in
+Dumerbion's army--considered that the Army of the Alps should be
+weakened to the profit of the Army of Italy, and that the time had come
+to disregard the feeble neutrality of Genoa, and to advance over the Col
+di Tenda.
+
+
+  Napoleon in 1794.
+
+Napoleon's first suggestion for a rapid condensation of the French
+cordon, and an irresistible blow on the centre of the Allies by
+Tenda-Coni,[7] came to nothing owing to the waste of time in
+negotiations between the generals and the distant Committee, and
+meanwhile new factors came into play. The capture of the pass of
+Argentera by the right wing of the Army of the Alps suggested that the
+main effort should be made against the barrier fortress of Demonte, but
+here again Napoleon proposed a concentration of effort on the primary
+and economy of force in the secondary objective. About the same time, in
+a memoir on the war in general, he laid down his most celebrated maxim:
+"The principles of war are the same as those of a siege. Fire must be
+concentrated on one point, and as soon as the breach is made, the
+equilibrium is broken and the rest is nothing." In the domain of tactics
+he was and remains the principal exponent of the art of breaking the
+equilibrium, and already he imagined the solution of problems of policy
+and strategy on the same lines. "Austria is the great enemy; Austria
+crushed, Germany, Spain, Italy fall of themselves. We must not disperse,
+but concentrate our attack." Napoleon argued that Austria could be
+effectively wounded by an offensive against Piedmont, and even more
+effectively by an ulterior advance from Italian soil into Germany. In
+pursuance of the single aim he asked for the appointment of a single
+commander-in-chief to hold sway from Bayonne to the Lake of Geneva, and
+for the rejection of all schemes for "revolutionizing" Italy till after
+the defeat of the arch-enemy.
+
+Operations, however, did not after all take either of these forms. The
+younger Robespierre perished with his brother in the _coup d'état_ of
+9th Thermidor, the advance was suspended, and Bonaparte, amongst other
+leading spirits of the Army of Italy, was arrested and imprisoned.
+Profiting by this moment, Austria increased her auxiliary corps. An
+Austrian general took command of the whole of the allied forces, and
+pronounced a threat from the region of Cairo (where the Austrians took
+their place on the left wing of the combined army) towards the Riviera.
+The French, still dependent on Genoa for supplies, had to take the
+offensive at once to save themselves from starvation, and the result was
+the expedition of Dego, planned chiefly by Napoleon, who had been
+released from prison and was at headquarters, though unemployed. The
+movement began on the 17th of September; and although the Austrian
+general Colloredo repulsed an attack at Dego (Sept. 21) he retreated to
+Acqui, and the incipient offensive of the Allies ended abruptly.
+
+The first months of the winter of 1794-1795 were spent in re-equipping
+the troops, who stood in sore need after their rapid movements in the
+mountains. For the future operations, the enforced condensation of the
+army on its right wing with the object of protecting its line of supply
+to Genoa and the dangers of its cramped situation on the Riviera
+suggested a plan roughly resembling one already recommended by Napoleon,
+who had since the affair of Dego become convinced that the way into
+Italy was through the Apennines and not the Alps. The essence of this
+was to anticipate the enemy by a very early and rapid advance from Vado
+towards Carcare by the Ceva road, the only good road of which the French
+disposed and which they significantly called the _chemin de canon_.
+
+
+  Schérer and Kellermann.
+
+The plan, however, came to nothing; the Committee, which now changed its
+personnel at fixed intervals, was in consequence wavering and
+non-committal, troops were withdrawn for a projected invasion of
+Corsica, and in November 1794 Dumerbion was replaced by Schérer, who
+assembled only 17,000 of his 54,000 effectives for field operations, and
+selected as his line of advance the Col di Tenda-Coni road. Schérer,
+besides being hostile to any suggestion emanating from Napoleon, was
+impressed with the apparent danger to his right wing concentrated in the
+narrow Riviera, which it was at this stage impossible to avert by a
+sudden and early assumption of the offensive. After a brief tenure
+Schérer was transferred to the Spanish frontier, but Kellermann, who now
+received command of the Army of Italy in addition to his own, took the
+same view as his predecessor--the view of the ordinary general. But not
+even the Schérer plan was put into execution, for spring had scarcely
+arrived when the prospect of renewed revolts in the south of France
+practically paralysed the army.
+
+This encouraged the enemy to deliver the blow that had so long been
+feared. The combined forces, under Devins,--the Sardinians, the Austrian
+auxiliary corps and the newly arrived Austrian main army,--advanced
+together and forced the French right wing to evacuate Vado and the
+Genoese littoral. But at this juncture the conclusion of peace with
+Spain released the Pyrenees armies, and Schérer returned to the Army of
+Italy at the head of reinforcements. He was faced with a difficult
+situation, but he had the means wherewith to meet it, as Napoleon
+promptly pointed out. Up to this, Napoleon said, the French commanded
+the mountain crest, and therefore covered Savoy and Nice, and also
+Oneglia, Loano and Vado, the ports of the Riviera. But now that Vado was
+lost the breach was made. Genoa was cut off, and the south of France was
+the only remaining resource for the army commissariat. Vado must
+therefore be retaken and the line reopened to Genoa, and to do this it
+was essential first to close up the over-extended cordon--and with the
+greatest rapidity, lest the enemy, with the shorter line to move on,
+should gather at the point of contact before the French--and to advance
+on Vado. Further, knowing (as every one knew) that the king of Sardinia
+was not inclined to continue the struggle indefinitely, he predicted
+that this ruler would make peace once the French army had established
+itself in his dominions, and for this the way into the interior, he
+asserted, was the great road Savona-Ceva. But Napoleon's mind ranged
+beyond the immediate future. He calculated that once the French advanced
+the Austrians would seek to cover Lombardy, the Piedmontese Turin, and
+this separation, already morally accomplished, it was to be the French
+general's task to accentuate in fact. Next, Sardinia having been coerced
+into peace, the Army of Italy would expel the Austrians from Lombardy,
+and connect its operations with those of the French in South Germany by
+way of Tirol. The supply question, once the soldiers had gained the rich
+valley of the Po, would solve itself.
+
+
+  Loano.
+
+This was the essence of the first of four memoranda on this subject
+prepared by Napoleon in his Paris office. The second indicated the means
+of coercing Sardinia--first the Austrians were to be driven or scared
+away towards Alessandria, then the French army would turn sharp to the
+left, driving the Sardinians eastward and north-eastward through Ceva,
+and this was to be the signal for the general invasion of Piedmont from
+all sides. In the third paper he framed an elaborate plan for the
+retaking of Vado, and in the fourth he summarized the contents of the
+other three. Having thus cleared his own mind as to the conditions and
+the solution of the problem, he did his best to secure the command for
+himself.
+
+The measures recommended by Napoleon were translated into a formal and
+detailed order to recapture Vado. To Napoleon the miserable condition of
+the Army of Italy was the most urgent incentive to prompt action. In
+Schérer's judgment, however, the army was unfit to take the field, and
+therefore _ex hypothesi_ to attack Vado, without thorough
+reorganization, and it was only in November that the advance was finally
+made. It culminated, thanks once more to the resolute Masséna, in the
+victory of Loano (November 23-24). But Schérer thought more of the
+destitution of his own army than of the fruits of success, and contented
+himself with resuming possession of the Riviera.
+
+Meanwhile the Mentor whose suggestions and personality were equally
+repugnant to Schérer had undergone strange vicissitudes of
+fortune--dismissal from the headquarters' staff, expulsion from the list
+of general officers, and then the "whiff of grapeshot" of 13th
+Vendémiaire, followed shortly by his marriage with Josephine, and his
+nomination to command the Army of Italy. These events had neither shaken
+his cold resolution nor disturbed his balance.
+
+
+  Napoleon in command.
+
+The Army of Italy spent the winter of 1795-1796 as before in the narrow
+Riviera, while on the one side, just over the mountains, lay the
+Austro-Sardinians, and on the other, out of range of the coast batteries
+but ready to pounce on the supply ships, were the British frigates. On
+Bonaparte's left Kellermann, with no more than 18,000, maintained a
+string of posts between Lake Geneva and the Argentera as before. Of the
+Army of Italy, 7000 watched the Tenda road and 20,000 men the
+coast-line. There remained for active operations some 27,000 men,
+ragged, famished and suffering in every way in spite of their victory of
+Loano. The Sardinian and Austrian auxiliaries (Colli), 25,000 men, lay
+between Mondovi and Ceva, a force strung out in the Alpine valleys
+opposed Kellermann, and the main Austrian army (commanded by Beaulieu),
+in widely extended cantonments between Acqui and Milan, numbered 27,000
+field troops. Thus the short-lived concentration of all the allied
+forces for the battle against Schérer had ended in a fresh separation.
+Austria was far more concerned with Poland than with the moribund French
+question, and committed as few of her troops as possible to this distant
+and secondary theatre of war. As for Piedmont, "peace" was almost the
+universal cry, even within the army. All this scarcely affected the
+regimental spirit and discipline of the Austrian squadrons and
+battalions, which had now recovered from the defeat of Loano. But they
+were important factors for the new general-in-chief on the Riviera, and
+formed the basis of his strategy.
+
+Napoleon's first task was far more difficult than the writing of
+memoranda. He had to grasp the reins and to prepare his troops, morally
+and physically, for active work. It was not merely that a young general
+with many enemies, a political favourite of the moment, had been thrust
+upon the army. The army itself was in a pitiable condition. Whole
+companies with their officers went plundering in search of mere food,
+the horses had never received as much as half-rations for a year past,
+and even the generals were half-starved. Thousands of men were
+barefooted and hundreds were without arms. But in a few days he had
+secured an almost incredible ascendancy over the sullen, starved,
+half-clothed army.
+
+"Soldiers," he told them, "you are famished and nearly naked. The
+government owes you much, but can do nothing for you. Your patience,
+your courage, do you honour, but give you no glory, no advantage. I will
+lead you into the most fertile plains of the world. There you will find
+great towns, rich provinces. There you will find honour, glory and
+riches. Soldiers of Italy, will you be wanting in courage?"
+
+Such words go far, and little as he was able to supply material
+deficiencies--all he could do was to expel rascally contractors, sell a
+captured privateer for £5000 and borrow £2500 from Genoa--he cheerfully
+told the Directory on the 28th of March that "the worst was over." He
+augmented his army of operations to about 40,000, at the expense of the
+coast divisions, and set on foot also two small cavalry divisions,
+mounted on the half-starved horses that had survived the winter. Then he
+announced that the army was ready and opened the campaign.
+
+The first plan, emanating from Paris, was that, after an expedition
+towards Genoa to assist in raising a loan there, the army should march
+against Beaulieu, previously neutralizing the Sardinians by the
+occupation of Ceva. When Beaulieu was beaten it was thought probable
+that the Piedmontese would enter into an alliance with the French
+against their former comrades. A second plan, however, authorized the
+general to begin by subduing the Piedmontese to the extent necessary to
+bring about peace and alliance, and on this Napoleon acted. If the
+present separation of the Allies continued, he proposed to overwhelm the
+Sardinians first, before the Austrians could assemble from winter
+quarters, and then to turn on Beaulieu. If, on the other hand, the
+Austrians, before he could strike his blow, united with Colli, he
+proposed to frighten them into separating again by moving on Acqui and
+Alessandria. Hence Carcare, where the road from Acqui joined the
+"cannon-road," was the first objective of his march, and from there he
+could manoeuvre and widen the breach between the allied armies. His
+scattered left wing would assist in the attack on the Sardinians as well
+as it could--for the immediate attack on the Austrians its co-operation
+would of course have been out of the question. In any case he grudged
+every week spent in administrative preparation. The delay due to this,
+as a matter of fact, allowed a new situation to develop. Beaulieu was
+himself the first to move, and he moved towards Genoa instead of towards
+his Allies. The gap between the two allied wings was thereby widened,
+but it was no longer possible for the French to use it, for their plan
+of destroying Colli _while Beaulieu was ineffective_ had collapsed.
+
+
+  Opening movements.
+
+In connexion with the Genoese loan, and to facilitate the movement of
+supply convoys, a small French force had been pushed forward to Voltri.
+Bonaparte ordered it back as soon as he arrived at the front, but the
+alarm was given. The Austrians broke up from winter quarters at once,
+and rather than lose the food supplies at Voltri, Bonaparte actually
+reinforced Masséna at that place, and gave him orders to hold on as long
+as possible, cautioning him only to watch his left rear (Montenotte).
+But he did not abandon his purpose. Starting from the new conditions, he
+devised other means, as we shall see, for reducing Beaulieu to
+ineffectiveness. Meanwhile Beaulieu's plan of offensive operations, such
+as they were, developed. The French advance to Voltri had not only
+spurred him into activity, but convinced him that the bulk of the French
+army lay east of Savona. He therefore made Voltri the objective of a
+converging attack, not with the intention of destroying the French army
+but with that of "cutting its communications with Genoa," and expelling
+it from "the only place in the Riviera where there were sufficient ovens
+to bake its bread." (Beaulieu to the Aulic Council, 15 April.) The
+Sardinians and auxiliary Austrians were ordered to extend leftwards on
+Dego to close the gap that Beaulieu's advance on Genoa-Voltri opened up,
+which they did, though only half-heartedly and in small force, for,
+unlike Beaulieu, they knew that masses of the enemy were still in the
+western stretch of the Riviera. The rightmost of Beaulieu's own columns
+was on the road between Acqui and Savona with orders to seize Monte
+Legino as an advanced post, the others were to converge towards Voltri
+from the Genoa side and the mountain passes about Campofreddo and
+Sassello. The wings were therefore so far connected that Colli wrote to
+Beaulieu on this day "the enemy will never dare to place himself between
+our two armies." The event belied the prediction, and the proposed minor
+operation against granaries and bakeries became the first act of a
+decisive campaign.
+
+On the night of the 9th of April the French were grouped as follows:
+brigades under Garnier and Macquard at the Finestre and Tenda passes,
+Sérurier's division and Rusca's brigade east of Garessio; Augereau's
+division about Loano, Meynier's at Finale, Laharpe's at Savona with an
+outpost on the Monte Legino, and Cervoni's brigade at Voltri. Masséna
+was in general charge of the last-named units. The cavalry was far in
+rear beyond Loano. Colli's army, excluding the troops in the valleys
+that led into Dauphiné, was around Coni and Mondovi-Ceva, the latter
+group connecting with Beaulieu by a detachment under Provera between
+Millesimo and Carcare. Of Beaulieu's army, Argenteau's division, still
+concentrating to the front in many small bodies, extended over the area
+Acqui-Dego-Sassello. Vukassovich's brigade was equally extended between
+Ovada and the mountain-crests above Voltri, and Pittoni's division was
+grouped around Gavi and the Bocchetta, the two last units being destined
+for the attack on Voltri. Farther to the rear was Sebottendorf's
+division around Alessandria-Tortona.
+
+On the afternoon of the 10th Beaulieu delivered his blow at Voltri, not,
+as he anticipated, against three-quarters of the French army, but
+against Cervoni's detachment. This, after a long irregular fight,
+slipped away in the night to Savona. Discovering his mistake next
+morning, Beaulieu sent back some of his battalions to join Argenteau.
+But there was no road by which they could do so save the détour through
+Acqui and Dego, and long before they arrived Argenteau's advance on
+Monte Legino had forced on the crisis. On the 11th (a day behind time),
+this general drove in the French outposts, but he soon came on three
+battalions under Colonel Rampon, who threw himself into some old
+earthworks that lay near, and said to his men, "We must win or die here,
+my friends." His redoubt and his men stood the trial well, and when day
+broke on the 12th Bonaparte was ready to deliver his first
+"Napoleon-stroke."
+
+
+  Montenotte.
+
+The principle that guided him in the subsequent operations may be called
+"superior numbers at the decisive point." Touch had been gained with the
+enemy all along the long line between the Tenda and Voltri, and he
+decided to concentrate swiftly upon the nearest enemy--Argenteau.
+Augereau's division, or such part of it as could march at once, was
+ordered to Mallare, picking up here and there on the way a few horsemen
+and guns. Masséna, with 9000 men, was to send two brigades in the
+direction of Carcare and Altare, and with the third to swing round
+Argenteau's right and to head for Montenotte village in his rear.
+Laharpe with 7000 (it had become clear that the enemy at Voltri would
+not pursue their advantage) was to join Rampon, leaving only Cervoni and
+two battalions in Savona. Sérurier and Rusca were to keep the Sardinians
+in front of them occupied. The far-distant brigades of Garnier and
+Macquard stood fast, but the cavalry drew eastward as quickly as its
+condition permitted. In rain and mist on the early morning of the 12th
+the French marched up from all quarters, while Argenteau's men waited in
+their cold bivouacs for light enough to resume their attack on Monte
+Legino. About 9 the mists cleared, and heavy fighting began, but Laharpe
+held the mountain, and the vigorous Masséna with his nearest brigade
+stormed forward against Argenteau's right. A few hours later, seeing
+Augereau's columns heading for their line of retreat, the Austrians
+retired, sharply pressed, on Dego. The threatened intervention of
+Provera was checked by Augereau's presence at Carcare.
+
+[Illustration: Sketch of the positions occupied on the night of April
+14th.]
+
+
+  Millesimo.
+
+Montenotte was a brilliant victory, and one can imagine its effects on
+the but lately despondent soldiers of the Army of Italy, for all
+imagined that Beaulieu's main body had been defeated. This was far from
+being the case, however, and although the French spent the night of the
+battle at Cairo-Carcare-Montenotte, midway between the allied wings,
+only two-thirds of Argenteau's force, and none of the other divisions,
+had been beaten, and the heaviest fighting was to come. This became
+evident on the afternoon of the 13th, but meanwhile Bonaparte, eager to
+begin at once the subjugation of the Piedmontese (for which purpose he
+wanted to bring Sérurier and Rusca into play) sent only Laharpe's
+division and a few details of Masséna's, under the latter, towards Dego.
+These were to protect the main attack from interference by the forces
+that had been engaged at Montenotte (presumed to be Beaulieu's main
+body), the said main attack being delivered by Augereau's division,
+reinforced by most of Masséna's, on the positions held by Provera. The
+latter, only 1000 strong to Augereau's 9000, shut himself in the castle
+of Cossaria, which he defended _à la_ Rampon against a series of furious
+assaults. Not until the morning of the 14th was his surrender secured,
+after his ammunition and food had been exhausted.
+
+Argenteau also won a day's respite on the 13th, for Laharpe did not join
+Masséna till late, and nothing took place opposite Dego but a little
+skirmishing. During the day Bonaparte saw for himself that he had
+overrated the effects of Montenotte. Beaulieu, on the other hand,
+underrated them, treating it as a mishap which was more than
+counterbalanced by his own success in "cutting off the French from
+Genoa." He began to reconstruct his line on the front Dego-Sassello,
+trusting to Colli to harry the French until the Voltri troops had
+finished their détour through Acqui and rejoined Argenteau. This, of
+course, presumed that Argenteau's troops were intact and Colli's able to
+move, which was not the case with either. Not until the afternoon of the
+14th did Beaulieu place a few extra battalions at Argenteau's disposal
+"to be used only in case of extreme necessity," and order Vukassovich
+from the region of Sassello to "make a diversion" against the French
+right with _two_ battalions.
+
+
+  Dego.
+
+Thus Argenteau, already shaken, was exposed to destruction. On the 14th,
+after Provera's surrender, Masséna and Laharpe, reinforced until they
+had nearly a two-to-one superiority, stormed Dego and killed or captured
+3000 of Argenteau's 5500 men, the remnant retreating in disorder to
+Acqui. But nothing was done towards the accomplishment of the purpose of
+destroying Colli on that day, save that Sérurier and Rusca began to
+close in to meet the main body between Ceva and Millesimo. Moreover, the
+victory at Dego had produced its usual results on the wild fighting
+swarms of the Republicans, who threw themselves like hungry wolves on
+the little town, without pursuing the beaten enemy or even placing a
+single outpost on the Acqui road. In this state, during the early hours
+of the 15th, Vukassovich's brigade,[8] marching up from Sassello,
+surprised them, and they broke and fled in an instant. The whole morning
+had to be spent in rallying them at Cairo, and Bonaparte had for the
+second time to postpone his union with Sérurier and Rusca, who
+meanwhile, isolated from one another and from the main army, were
+groping forward in the mountains. A fresh assault on Dego was ordered,
+and after very severe fighting, Masséna and Laharpe succeeded late in
+the evening in retaking it. Vukassovich lost heavily, but retired
+steadily and in order on Spigno. The killed and wounded numbered
+probably about 1000 French and 1500 Austrians, out of considerably less
+than 10,000 engaged on each side--a loss which contrasted very forcibly
+with those suffered in other battles of the Revolutionary Wars, and by
+teaching the Army of Italy to bear punishment, imbued it with
+self-confidence. But again success bred disorder, and there was a second
+orgy in the houses and streets of Dego which went on till late in the
+morning and paralysed the whole army.
+
+This was perhaps the crisis of the campaign. Even now it was not certain
+that the Austrians had been definitively pushed aside, while it was
+quite clear that Beaulieu's main body was intact and Colli was still
+more an unknown quantity. But Napoleon's intention remained the same, to
+attack the Piedmontese as quickly and as heavily as possible, Beaulieu
+being held in check by a containing force under Masséna and Laharpe. The
+remainder of the army, counting in now Rusca and Sérurier, was to move
+westward towards Ceva. This disposition, while it illustrates the
+Napoleonic principle of delivering a heavy blow on the selected target
+and warding off interference at other points, shows also the difficulty
+of rightly apportioning the available means between the offensive mass
+and the defensive system, for, as it turned out, Beaulieu was already
+sufficiently scared, and thought of nothing but self-defence on the line
+Acqui-Ovada-Bocchetta, while the French offensive mass was very weak
+compared with Colli's unbeaten and now fairly concentrated army about
+Ceva and Montezemolo.
+
+On the afternoon of the 16th the real advance was begun by Augereau's
+division, reinforced by other troops. Rusca joined Augereau towards
+evening, and Sérurier approached Ceva from the south. Colli's object was
+now to spin out time, and having repulsed a weak attack by Augereau, and
+feeling able to repeat these tactics on each successive spur of the
+Apennines, he retired in the night to a new position behind the
+Cursaglia. On the 17th, reassured by the absence of fighting on the Dego
+side, and by the news that no enemy remained at Sassello, Bonaparte
+released Masséna from Dego, leaving only Laharpe there, and brought him
+over towards the right of the main body, which thus on the evening of
+the 17th formed a long straggling line on both sides of Ceva, Sérurier
+on the left, écheloned forward, Augereau, Joubert and Rusca in the
+centre, and Masséna, partly as support, partly as flank guard, on
+Augereau's right rear. Sérurier had been bidden to extend well out and
+to strive to get contact with Masséna, i.e. to encircle the enemy. There
+was no longer any idea of waiting to besiege Ceva, although the
+artillery train had been ordered up from the Riviera by the
+"cannon-road" for eventual use there. Further, the line of supply, as an
+extra guarantee against interference, was changed from that of
+Savona-Carcare to that of Loano-Bardinetto. When this was accomplished,
+four clear days could be reckoned on with certainty in which to deal
+with Colli.
+
+
+  San Michele.
+
+The latter, still expecting the Austrians to advance to his assistance,
+had established his corps (not more than 12,000 muskets in all) in the
+immensely strong positions of the Cursaglia, with a thin line of posts
+on his left stretching towards Cherasco, whence he could communicate, by
+a roundabout way, with Acqui. Opposite this position the long straggling
+line of the French arrived, after many delays due to the weariness of
+the troops, on the 19th. A day of irregular fighting followed,
+everywhere to the advantage of the defenders. Napoleon, fighting against
+time, ordered a fresh attack on the 20th, and only desisted when it
+became evident that the army was exhausted, and, in particular, when
+Sérurier reported frankly that without bread the soldiers would not
+march. The delay thus imposed, however, enabled him to clear the
+"cannon-road" of all vehicles, and to bring up the Dego detachment to
+replace Masséna in the valley of the western Bormida, the latter coming
+in to the main army. Further, part at any rate of the convoy service was
+transferred still farther westward to the line Albenga-Garessio-Ceva.
+Nelson's fleet, that had so powerfully contributed to force the French
+inland, was becoming less and less innocuous. If leadership and force of
+character could overcome internal friction, all the success he had hoped
+for was now within the young commander's grasp.
+
+
+  Mondovi.
+
+Twenty-four thousand men, for the first time with a due proportion of
+cavalry and artillery, were now disposed along Colli's front and beyond
+his right flank. Colli, outnumbered by two to one and threatened with
+envelopment, decided once more to retreat, and the Republicans occupied
+the Cursaglia lines on the morning of the 21st without firing a shot.
+But Colli halted again at Vico, half-way to Mondovi (in order, it is
+said, to protect the evacuation of a small magazine he had there), and
+while he was in this unfavourable situation the pursuers came on with
+true Republican swiftness, lapped round his flanks and crushed him. A
+few days later (27th April), the armistice of Cherasco put an end to the
+campaign before the Austrians moved a single battalion to his
+assistance.
+
+
+    The "Napoleon touch."
+
+  The interest of the campaign being above all Napoleonic, its moral
+  must be found by discovering the "Napoleon touch" that differentiated
+  it from other Revolutionary campaigns. A great deal is common to all,
+  on both sides. The Austrians and Sardinians worked together at least
+  as effectively as the Austrians, Prussians, British and Dutch in the
+  Netherlands. Revolutionary energy was common to the Army of Italy and
+  to the Army of the North. Why, therefore, when the war dragged on from
+  one campaign to another in the great plains of the Meuse and Rhine
+  countries, did Napoleon bring about so swift a decision in these
+  cramped valleys? The answer is to be found partly in the exigencies of
+  the supply service, but still more in Napoleon's own personality and
+  the strategy born of it. The first, as we have seen, was at the end of
+  its resources when Beaulieu placed himself across the Genoa road.
+  Action of some sort was the plain alternative to starvation, and at
+  this point Napoleon's personality intervened. He would have no
+  quarter-rations on the Riviera, but plenty and to spare beyond the
+  mountains. If there were many thousand soldiers who marched unarmed
+  and shoeless in the ranks, it was towards "the Promised Land" that he
+  led them. He looked always to the end, and met each day as if with
+  full expectation of attaining it before sunset. Strategical conditions
+  and "new French" methods of war did not save Bonaparte in the two
+  crises--the Dego rout and the sullen halt of the army at San
+  Michele--but the personality which made the soldiers, on the way to
+  Montenotte, march barefoot past a wagon-load of new boots.
+
+  We have said that Napoleon's strategy was the result of this personal
+  magnetism. Later critics evolved from his success the theory of
+  "interior lines," and then accounted for it by applying the criterion
+  they had evolved. Actually, the form in which the will to conquer
+  found expression was in many important respects old. What, therefore,
+  in the theory or its application was the product of Napoleon's own
+  genius and will-power? A comparison with Souham's campaign of
+  Tourcoing will enable us to answer this question. To begin with,
+  Souham found himself midway between Coburg and Clerfayt almost by
+  accident, and his utilization of the advantages of his position was an
+  expedient for the given case. Napoleon, however, placed himself
+  _deliberately_ and by fighting his way thither, in an analogous
+  situation at Carcare and Cairo. Military opinion of the time
+  considered it dangerous, as indeed it was, for no theory can alter the
+  fact that had not Napoleon made his men fight harder and march farther
+  than usual, he would have been destroyed. The effective play of forces
+  on interior lines depends on the two conditions that the outer enemies
+  are not so near together as to give no time for the inner mass to
+  defeat one before the arrival of the other, and that they are not so
+  far apart that before one can be brought to action the other has
+  inflicted serious damage elsewhere.
+
+  Neither condition was fully met at any time in the Montenotte
+  campaign. On the 11th Napoleon knew that the attack on Voltri had been
+  made by a part only of the Austrian forces, yet he flung his own
+  masses on Montenotte. On the 13th he thought that Beaulieu's main body
+  was at Dego and Colli's at Millesimo, and on this assumption had to
+  exact the most extraordinary efforts from Augereau's troops at
+  Cossaria. On the 19th and 20th he tried to exclude the risks of the
+  Austrians' intervention, and with this the chances of a victory over
+  them to follow his victory over Colli, by transferring the centre of
+  gravity of his army to Ceva and Garessio, and fighting it out with
+  Colli alone.
+
+  It was not, in fact, to gain a position on interior lines--with
+  respect to _two_ opponents--that Napoleon pushed his army to Carcare.
+  Before the campaign began he hoped by using the "cannon-road" to
+  destroy the Piedmontese _before the Austrians were in existence at
+  all_ as an army. But on the news from Voltri and Monte Legino he
+  swiftly "concentrated fire, made the breach, and broke the
+  equilibrium" at the spot where the interests and forces of the two
+  Allies converged and diverged. The hypothesis in the first case was
+  that the Austrians were practically non-existent, and the whole object
+  in the second was to breach the now connected front of the Allies
+  ("strategic penetration") and to cause them to break up into two
+  separate systems. More, having made the breach, he had the choice
+  (which he had not before) of attacking _either_ the Austrians or the
+  Sardinians, as every critic has pointed out. Indeed the Austrians
+  offered by far the better target. But he neither wanted nor used the
+  new alternative. His purpose was to crush Piedmont. "My enemies saw
+  too much at once," said Napoleon. Singleness of aim and of purpose,
+  the product of clear thinking and of "personality," was the
+  foundation-stone of the new form of strategy.
+
+
+    Relative superiority.
+
+  In the course of subduing the Sardinians, Napoleon found himself
+  placed on interior lines between two hostile masses, and another new
+  idea, that of "relative superiority." reveals itself. Whereas Souham
+  had been in superior force (90,000 against 70,000), Napoleon (40,000
+  against 50,000) was not, and yet the Army of Italy was always placed
+  in a position of relative superiority (at first about 3 to 2 and
+  ultimately 2 to 1) to the immediate antagonist. "The essence of
+  strategy," said Napoleon in 1797, "is, with a weaker army, always to
+  have more force at the crucial point than the enemy. But this art is
+  taught neither by books nor by practice; it is a matter of tact." In
+  this he expressed the result of his victories on his own mind rather
+  than a preconceived formula which produced those victories. But the
+  idea, though undefined, and the method of practice, though imperfectly
+  worked out, were in his mind from the first. As soon as he had made
+  the breach, he widened it by pushing out Masséna and Laharpe on the
+  one hand and Augereau on the other. This is mere common sense. But
+  immediately afterwards, though preparing to throw all available forces
+  against Colli, he posted Masséna and Laharpe at Dego to guard, not
+  like Vandamme on the Lys against a real and pressing enemy, but
+  against a _possibility_, and he only diminished the strength and
+  altered the position of this containing detachment in proportion as
+  the Austrian danger dwindled. Later in his career he defined this
+  offensive-defensive system as "having all possible strength at the
+  decisive point," and "being nowhere vulnerable," and the art of
+  reconciling these two requirements, in each case as it arose, was
+  always the principal secret of his generalship. At first his
+  precautions (judged by events and not by the probabilities of the
+  moment) were excessive, and the offensive mass small. But the latter
+  was handled by a general untroubled by multiple aims and anxieties,
+  and if such self-confidence was equivalent to 10,000 men on the
+  battlefield, it was legitimate to detach 10,000 men to secure it.
+  These 10,000 were posted 8 m. out on the dangerous flank, not almost
+  back to back with the main body as Vandamme had been,[9] and although
+  this distance was but little compared to those of his later campaigns,
+  when he employed small armies for the same purpose, it sufficed in
+  this difficult mountain country, where the covering force enjoyed the
+  advantage of strong positions. Of course, if Colli had been better
+  concentrated, or if Beaulieu had been more active, the calculated
+  proportions between covering force and main body might have proved
+  fallacious, and the system on which Napoleon's relative superiority
+  rested might have broken down. But the point is that such a system,
+  however rough its first model, had been imagined and put into
+  practice.
+
+  This was Napoleon's individual art of war, as raiding bakeries and
+  cutting communications were Beaulieu's speciality. Napoleon made the
+  art into a science, and in our own time, with modern conditions of
+  effective, armament and communications, it is more than possible that
+  Moreaus and Jourdans will prove able to practise it with success. But
+  in the old conditions it required a Napoleon. "Strategy," said Moltke,
+  "is a system of expedients." But it was the intense personal force, as
+  well as the genius, of Napoleon that forged these expedients into a
+  _system_.
+
+The first phase of the campaign satisfactorily settled, Napoleon was
+free to turn his attention to the "arch-enemy" to whom he was now
+considerably superior in numbers (35,000 to 25,000). The day after the
+signature of the armistice of Cherasco he began preparing for a new
+advance and also for the rôle of arbiter of the destinies of Italy. Many
+whispers there were, even in his own army, as to the dangers of passing
+on without "revolutionizing" aristocratic Genoa and monarchical
+Piedmont, and of bringing Venice, the pope and the Italian princes into
+the field against the French. But Bonaparte, flushed with victory, and
+better informed than the malcontents of the real condition of Italy,
+never hesitated. His first object was to drive out Beaulieu, his second
+to push through Tirol, and his only serious restriction the chance that
+the armistice with Piedmont would not result in a definitive treaty.
+Beaulieu had fallen back into Lombardy, and now bordered the Po right
+and left of Valenza. To achieve further progress, Napoleon had first to
+cross that river, and the point and method of crossing was the immediate
+problem, a problem the more difficult as Napoleon had no bridge train
+and could only make use of such existing bridges as he could seize
+intact.[10] If he crossed above Valenza, he would be confronted by one
+river-line after another, on one of which at least Beaulieu would
+probably stand to fight. But quite apart from the immediate problem,
+Napoleon's intention was less to beat the Austrians than to dislodge
+them. He needed a foothold in Lombardy which would make him independent
+of, and even a menace to, Piedmont. If this were assured, he could for a
+few weeks entirely ignore his communications with France and strike out
+against Beaulieu, dethrone the king of Sardinia, or revolutionize Parma,
+Modena and the papal states according to circumstances.
+
+
+  Piacenza.
+
+Milan, therefore, was his objective, and Tortona-Piacenza his route
+thither. To give himself every chance, he had stipulated with the
+Piedmontese authorities for the right of passing at Valenza, and he had
+the satisfaction of seeing Beaulieu fall into the trap and concentrate
+opposite that part of the river. The French meantime had moved to the
+region Alessandria-Tortona. Thence on the 6th of May Bonaparte, with a
+picked body of troops, set out for a forced march on Piacenza, and that
+night the advanced guard was 30 m. on the way, at Castel San Giovanni,
+and Laharpe's and the cavalry divisions at Stradella, 10 m. behind them.
+Augereau was at Broni, Masséna at Sale and Sérurier near Valenza, the
+whole forming a rapidly extending fan, 50 m. from point to point. If the
+Piacenza detachment succeeded in crossing, the army was to follow
+rapidly in its track. If, on the other hand, Beaulieu fell back to
+oppose the advanced guard, the Valenza divisions would take advantage of
+his absence to cross there. In either case, be it observed, the
+Austrians were to be _evaded_, not brought to action.
+
+On the morning of the 7th, the swift advanced guard under General
+Dallemagne crossed at Piacenza,[11] and, hearing of this, Bonaparte
+ordered every division except Sérurier's thither with all possible
+speed. In the exultation of the moment he mocked at Beaulieu's
+incapacity, but the old Austrian was already on the alert. This game of
+manoeuvres he understood; already one of his divisions had arrived in
+close proximity to Dallemagne and the others were marching eastward by
+all available roads. It was not until the 8th that the French, after a
+series of partial encounters, were securely established on the left bank
+of the Po, and Beaulieu had given up the idea of forcing their most
+advanced troops to accept battle at a disadvantage. The success of the
+French was due less to their plan than to their mobility, which enabled
+them first to pass the river before the Austrians (who had actually
+started a day in advance of them) put in an appearance, and afterwards
+to be in superior numbers at each point of contact. But the episode was
+destined after all to culminate in a great event, which Napoleon himself
+indicated as the turning-point of his life. "Vendémiaire and even
+Montenotte did not make me think myself a superior being. It was after
+Lodi that the idea came to me.... That first kindled the spark of
+boundless ambition."
+
+
+  Lodi.
+
+The idea of a battle having been given up, Beaulieu retired to the Adda,
+and most of his troops were safely beyond it before the French arrived
+near Lodi, but he felt it necessary to leave a strong rearguard on the
+river opposite that place to cover the reassembly of his columns after
+their scattered march. On the afternoon of the 10th of May, Bonaparte,
+with Dallemagne, Masséna and Augereau, came up and seized the town. But
+200 yds. of open ground had to be passed from the town gate to the
+bridge, and the bridge itself was another 250 in length. A few hundred
+yards beyond it stood the Austrians, 9000 strong with 14 guns. Napoleon
+brought up all his guns to prevent the enemy from destroying the bridge.
+Then sending all his cavalry to turn the enemy's right by a ford above
+the town, he waited two hours, employing the time in cannonading the
+Austrian lines, resting his advanced infantry and closing up Masséna's
+and Augereau's divisions. Finally he gave the order to Dallemagne's 4000
+grenadiers, who were drawn up under cover of the town wall, to rush the
+bridge. As the column, not more than thirty men broad, made its
+appearance, it was met by the concentrated fire of the Austrian guns,
+and half way across the bridge it checked, but Bonaparte himself and
+Masséna rushed forward, the courage of the soldiers revived, and, while
+some jumped off the bridge and scrambled forward in the shallow water,
+the remainder stormed on, passed through the guns and drove back the
+infantry. This was, in bare outline, the astounding passage of the
+Bridge of Lodi. It was not till after the battle that Napoleon realized
+that only a rearguard was in front of him. When he launched his 4000
+grenadiers he thought that on the other side there were four or five
+times that number of the enemy. No wonder, then, that after the event he
+recognized in himself the flash of genius, the courage to risk
+everything, and the "tact" which, independent of, and indeed contrary to
+all reasoned calculations, told him that the moment had come for
+"breaking the equilibrium." Lodi was a tactical success in the highest
+sense, in that the principles of his tactics rested on psychology--on
+the "sublime" part of the art of war as Saxe had called it long ago. The
+spirit produced the form, and Lodi was the prototype of the Napoleonic
+battle--contact, manoeuvre, preparation, and finally the well-timed,
+massed and unhesitating assault. The absence of strategical results
+mattered little. Many months elapsed before this bold assertion of
+superiority ceased to decide the battles of France and Austria.
+
+
+  Milan.
+
+Next day, still under the vivid tactical impressions of the Bridge of
+Lodi, he postponed his occupation of the Milanese and set off in pursuit
+of Beaulieu, but the latter was now out of reach, and during the next
+few days the French divisions were installed at various points in the
+area Pavia-Milan-Pizzighetone, facing outwards in all dangerous
+directions, with a central reserve at Milan. Thus secured, Bonaparte
+turned his attention to political and military administration. This took
+the form of exacting from the neighbouring princes money, supplies and
+objects of art, and the once famished Army of Italy revelled in its
+opportunity. Now, however, the Directory, suspicious of the too
+successful and too sanguine young general, ordered him to turn over the
+command in Upper Italy to Kellermann, and to take an expeditionary corps
+himself into the heart of the Peninsula, there to preach the Republic
+and the overthrow of princes. Napoleon absolutely refused, and offered
+his resignation. In the end (partly by bribery) he prevailed, but the
+incident reawakened his desire to close with Beaulieu. This indeed he
+could now do with a free hand, since not only had the Milanese been
+effectively occupied, but also the treaty with Sardinia had been
+ratified.
+
+But no sooner had he resumed the advance than it was interrupted by a
+rising of the peasantry in his rear. The exactions of the French had in
+a few days generated sparks of discontent which it was easy for the
+priests and the nobles to fan into open flames. Milan and Pavia as well
+as the countryside broke into insurrection, and at the latter place the
+mob forced the French commandant to surrender. Bonaparte acted swiftly
+and ruthlessly. Bringing back a small portion of the army with him, he
+punished Milan on the 25th, sacked and burned Binasco on the 26th, and
+on the evening of the latter day, while his cavalry swept the open
+country, he broke his way into Pavia with 1500 men and beat down all
+resistance. Napoleon's cruelty was never purposeless. He deported
+several scores of hostages to France, executed most of the mob leaders,
+and shot the French officer who had surrendered. In addition, he gave
+his 1500 men three hours' leave to pillage. Then, as swiftly as they had
+come, they returned to the army on the Oglio. From this river Napoleon
+advanced to the banks of the Mincio, where the remainder of the Italian
+campaign was fought out, both sides contemptuously disregarding Venetian
+neutrality.
+
+It centred on the fortress of Mantua, which Beaulieu, too weak to keep
+the field, and dislodged from the Mincio in the action of Borghetto (May
+30), strongly garrisoned before retiring into Tirol. Beaulieu was soon
+afterwards replaced by Dagobert Siegmund, count von Wurmser (b. 1724),
+who brought considerable reinforcements from Germany.
+
+At this point, mindful of the narrow escape he had had of losing his
+command, Bonaparte thought it well to begin the resettlement of Italy.
+The scheme for co-operating with Moreau on the Danube was indefinitely
+postponed, and the Army of Italy (now reinforced from the Army of the
+Alps and counting 42,000 effectives) was again disposed in a protective
+"zone of manoeuvre," with a strong central reserve. Over 8000 men,
+however, garrisoned the fortresses of Piedmont and Lombardy, and the
+effective blockade of Mantua and political expeditions into the heart of
+the Peninsula soon used up the whole of this reserve.
+
+Moreover, no siege artillery was available until the Austrians in the
+citadel of Milan capitulated, and thus it was not till the 18th of July
+that the first parallel was begun. Almost at the same moment Wurmser
+began his advance from Trent with 55,000 men to relieve Mantua.
+
+
+  Siege of Mantua.
+
+The protective system on which his attack would fall in the first
+instance was now as follows:--Augereau (6000) about Legnago, Despinoy
+(8000) south-east of Verona, Masséna (13,000) at Verona and Peschiera,
+with outposts on the Monte Baldo and at La Corona, Sauret (4500) at Salo
+and Gavardo. Sérurier (12,000) was besieging Mantua, and the only
+central reserve was the cavalry (2000) under Kilmaine. The main road to
+Milan passed by Brescia. Sauret's brigade, therefore, was practically a
+detached post on the line of communication, and on the main defensive
+front less than 30,000 men were disposed at various points between La
+Corona and Legnago (30 m. apart), and at a distance of 15 to 20 m. from
+Mantua. The strength of such a disposition depended on the fighting
+power and handiness of the troops, who in each case would be called upon
+to act as a rearguard to gain time. Yet the lie of the country scarcely
+permitted a closer grouping, unless indeed Bonaparte fell back on the
+old-time device of a "circumvallation," and shut himself up, with the
+supplies necessary for the calculated duration of the siege, in an
+impregnable ring of earthworks round Mantua. This, however, he could not
+have done even if he had wished, for the wave of revolt radiating from
+Milan had made accumulations of food impossible, and the lakes above and
+below the fortress, besides being extremely unhealthy, would have
+extended the perimeter of the circumvallation so greatly that the
+available forces would not suffice to man it. It was not in this, but in
+the absence of an important central reserve that Bonaparte's disposition
+is open to criticism, which indeed could impugn the scheme in its
+entirety, as overtaxing the available resources, more easily than it
+could attack its details.
+
+[Illustration: Operations around Mantua 1796-7.
+
+Positions of the night of 2-3 August 1796 shown approximately.]
+
+  If Bonaparte has occasionally been criticized for his defensive
+  measures, Wurmser's attack procedure has received almost universal
+  condemnation, as to the justice of which it may be pointed out[12]
+  that the object of the expedition was not to win a battle by falling
+  on the disunited French with a well-concentrated army, but to
+  overpower one, any one, of the corps covering the siege, and to press
+  straight forward to the relief of Mantua, i.e. to the destruction of
+  Bonaparte's batteries and the levelling of his trench work. The old
+  principle that a battle was a grave event of doubtful issue was
+  reinforced in the actual case by Beaulieu's late experiences of French
+  élan, and as a temporary victory at one point would suffice for the
+  purpose in hand, there was every incentive to multiply the points of
+  contact. The soundness of Wurmser's plan was proved by the event. New
+  ideas and new forces, undiscernible to a man of seventy-two years of
+  age, obliterated his achievement by surpassing it, but such as it
+  was--a limited use of force for a limited object--the venture
+  undeniably succeeded.
+
+The Austrians formed three corps, one (Quasdanovich, 18,000 men)
+marching round the west side of the Lake of Garda on Gavardo, Salo and
+the Brescia road, the second (under Wurmser, about 30,000) moving
+directly down the Adige, and the third (Davidovich, 6000) making a
+détour by the Brenta valley and heading for Verona by Vicenza.
+
+On the 29th Quasdanovich attacked Sauret at Salo, drove him towards
+Desenzano, and pushed on to Gavardo and thence into Brescia. Wurmser
+expelled Masséna's advanced guard from La Corona, and captured in
+succession the Monte Baldo and Rivoli posts. The Brenta column
+approached Verona with little or no fighting. News of this column led
+Napoleon early in the day to close up Despinoy, Masséna and Kilmaine at
+Castelnuovo, and to order Augereau from Legnago to advance on Montebello
+(19 m. east of Verona) against Davidovich's left rear. But after these
+orders had been despatched came the news of Sauret's defeat, and this
+moment was one of the most anxious in Napoleon's career. He could not
+make up his mind to give up the siege of Mantua, but he hurried Augereau
+back to the Mincio, and sent order after order to the officers on the
+lines of communication to send all convoys by the Cremona instead of by
+the Brescia road. More, he had the baggage, the treasure and the sick
+set in motion at once for Marcaria, and wrote to Sérurier a despatch
+which included the words "perhaps we shall recover ourselves ... but I
+must take serious measures for a retreat." On the 30th he wrote: "The
+enemy have broken through our line in three places ... Sauret has
+evacuated Salo ... and the enemy has captured Brescia. You see that our
+communications with Milan and Verona are cut." The reports that came to
+him during the morning of the 30th enabled him to place the main body of
+the enemy opposite Masséna, and this, without in the least alleviating
+the gravity of the situation, helped to make his course less doubtful.
+Augereau was ordered to hold the line of the Molinella, in case
+Davidovich's attack, the least-known factor, should after all prove to
+be serious; Masséna to reconnoitre a road from Peschiera through
+Castiglione towards Orzinovi, and to stand fast at Castelnuovo opposite
+Wurmser as long as he could. Sauret and Despinoy were concentrated at
+Desenzano with orders on the 31st to clear the main line of retreat and
+to recapture Brescia. The Austrian movements were merely the
+continuation of those of the 29th. Quasdanovich wheeled inwards, his
+right finally resting on Montechiaro and his left on Salo. Wurmser drove
+back Masséna to the west side of the Mincio. Davidovich made a slight
+advance.
+
+
+  Relief of Mantua.
+
+In the late evening Bonaparte held a council of war at Roverbella. The
+proceedings of this council are unknown, but it at any rate enabled
+Napoleon to see clearly and to act. Hitherto he had been covering the
+siege of Mantua with various detachments, the defeat of any one of which
+might be fatal to the enterprise. Thus, when he had lost his main line
+of retreat, he could assemble no more than 8000 men at Desenzano to win
+it back. Now, however, he made up his mind that the siege could not be
+continued, and bitter as the decision must have been, it gave him
+freedom. At this moment of crisis the instincts of the great captain
+came into play, and showed the way to a victory that would more than
+counterbalance the now inevitable failure. Sérurier was ordered to spike
+the 140 siege guns that had been so welcome a few days before, and,
+after sending part of his force to Augereau, to establish himself with
+the rest at Marcaria on the Cremona road. The field forces were to be
+used on interior lines. On the 31st Sauret, Despinoy, Augereau and
+Kilmaine advanced westward against Quasdanovich. The first two found the
+Austrians at Salo and Lonato and drove them back, while with Augereau
+and the cavalry Bonaparte himself made a forced march on Brescia, never
+halting night or day till he reached the town and recovered his depots.
+Meantime Sérurier had retired (night of July 31), Masséna had gradually
+drawn in towards Lonato, and Wurmser's advanced guard triumphantly
+entered the fortress (August 1).
+
+
+  Lonato and Castiglione.
+
+The Austrian general now formed the plan of crushing Bonaparte between
+Quasdanovich and his own main body. But meantime Quasdanovich had
+evacuated Brescia under the threat of Bonaparte's advance and was now
+fighting a long irregular action with Despinoy and Sauret about Gavardo
+and Salo, and Bonaparte, having missed his expected target, had brought
+Augereau by another severe march back to Montechiaro on the Chiese.
+Masséna was now assembled between Lonato and Ponte San Marco, and
+Sérurier was retiring quietly on Marcaria. Wurmser's main body, weakened
+by the detachment sent to Mantua, crossed the Mincio about Valeggio and
+Goito on the 2nd, and penetrated as far as Castiglione, whence Masséna's
+rearguard was expelled. But a renewed advance of Quasdanovich, ordered
+by Wurmser, which drove Sauret and Despinoy back on Brescia and Lonato,
+in the end only placed a strong detachment of the Austrians within
+striking distance of Masséna, who on the 3rd attacked it, front to
+front, and by sheer fighting destroyed it, while at the same time
+Augereau recaptured Castiglione from Wurmser. On the 4th Sauret and
+Despinoy pressed back Quasdanovich beyond Salo and Gavardo. One of the
+Austrian columns, finding itself isolated and unable to retreat with the
+others, turned back to break its way through to Wurmser, and was
+annihilated by Masséna in the neighbourhood of Lonato. On this day
+Augereau fought his way towards Solferino, and Wurmser, thinking rightly
+or wrongly that he could not now retire to the Mincio without a battle,
+drew up his whole force, close on 30,000 men, in the plain between
+Solferino and Medole. The finale may be described in very few words.
+Bonaparte, convinced that no more was to be feared from Quasdanovich,
+and seeing that Wurmser meant to fight, called in Despinoy's division to
+the main body and sent orders to Sérurier, then far distant on the
+Cremona road, to march against the left flank of the Austrians. On the
+5th the battle of Castiglione was fought. Closely contested in the first
+hours of the frontal attack till Sérurier's arrival decided the day, it
+ended in the retreat of the Austrians over the Mincio and into Tirol
+whence they had come.
+
+  Thus the new way had failed to keep back Wurmser, and the old had
+  failed to crush Napoleon. Each was the result of its own conditions.
+  In former wars a commander threatened as Napoleon was, would have
+  fallen back at once to the Adda, abandoning the siege in such good
+  time that he would have been able to bring off his siege artillery.
+  Instead of this Bonaparte hesitated long enough to lose it, which,
+  according to accepted canons was a waste, and held his ground, which
+  was, by the same rules, sheer madness. But Revolutionary discipline
+  was not firm enough to stand a retreat. Once it turned back, the army
+  would have streamed away to Milan and perhaps to the Alps (cf. 1799),
+  and the only alternative to complete dissolution therefore was
+  fighting.
+
+  As to the manner of this fighting, even the principle of "relative
+  superiority" failed him so long as he was endeavouring to cover the
+  siege and again when his chief care was to protect his new line of
+  retreat and to clear his old. In this period, viz. up to his return
+  from Brescia on the 2nd of August, the only "mass" he collected
+  delivered a blow in the air, while the covering detachments had to
+  fight hard for bare existence. Once released from its trammels, the
+  Napoleonic principle had fair play. He stood between Wurmser and
+  Quasdanovich, ready to fight either or both. The latter was crushed,
+  thanks to local superiority and the resolute leading of Masséna, but
+  at Castiglione Wurmser actually outnumbered his opponent till the last
+  of Napoleon's precautionary dispositions had been given up, and
+  Sérurier brought back from the "alternative line of retreat" to the
+  battlefield. The moral is, again, that it was not the mere fact of
+  being on interior lines that gave Napoleon the victory, but his
+  "tact," his fine appreciation of the chances in his favour, measured
+  in terms of time, space, attacking force and containing power. All
+  these factors were greatly influenced by the ground, which favoured
+  the swarms and columns of the French and deprived the brilliant
+  Austrian cavalry of its power to act. But of far greater importance
+  was the mobility that Napoleon's personal force imparted to the
+  French. Napoleon himself rode five horses to death in three days, and
+  Augereau's division marched from Roverbella to Brescia and back to
+  Montechiaro, a total distance of nearly 50 m., in about thirty-six
+  hours. This indeed was the foundation of his "relative superiority,"
+  for every hour saved in the time of marching meant more freedom to
+  destroy one corps before the rest could overwhelm the covering
+  detachments and come to its assistance.
+
+  Wurmser's plan for the relief of Mantua, suited to its purpose,
+  succeeded. But when he made his objective the French field army, he
+  had to take his own army as he found it, disposed for an altogether
+  different purpose. A properly, combined attack of convergent columns
+  framed _ab initio_ by a good staff officer, such as Mack, might indeed
+  have given good results. But the success of such a plan depends
+  principally on the assailant's original possession of the initiative,
+  and not on the chances of his being able to win it over to his own
+  side when operations, as here, are already in progress. When the time
+  came to improvise such a plan, the initiative had passed over to
+  Napoleon, and the plan was foredoomed.
+
+By the end of the second week in August the blockade of Mantua had been
+resumed, without siege guns. But still under the impression of a great
+victory gained, Bonaparte was planning a long forward stride. He thought
+that by advancing past Mantua directly on Trieste and thence onwards to
+the Semmering he could impose a peace on the emperor. The Directory,
+however, which had by now focussed its attention on the German campaign,
+ordered him to pass through Tirol and to co-operate with Moreau, and
+this plan, Bonaparte, though protesting against an Alpine venture being
+made so late in the year, prepared to execute, drawing in reinforcements
+and collecting great quantities of supplies in boats on the Adige and
+Lake Garda. Wurmser was thought to have posted his main body near Trent,
+and to have detached one division to Bassano "to cover Trieste." The
+French advanced northward on the 2nd, in three disconnected columns
+(precisely as Wurmser had done in the reverse direction at the end of
+July)--Masséna (13,000) from Rivoli to Ala, Augereau (9000) from Verona
+by hill roads, keeping on his right rear, Vaubois (11,000) round the
+Lake of Garda by Riva and Torbole. Sahuguet's division (8000) remained
+before Mantua. The French divisions successfully combined and drove the
+enemy before them to Trent.
+
+There, however, they missed their target. Wurmser had already drawn over
+the bulk of his army (22,000) into the Val Sugana, whence, with the
+Bassano division as his advanced guard, he intended once more to relieve
+Mantua, while Davidovich with 13,000 (excluding detachments) was to hold
+Tirol against any attempt of Bonaparte to join forces with Moreau.
+
+Thus Austria was preparing to hazard a second (as in the event she
+hazarded a third and a fourth) highly trained and expensive professional
+army in the struggle for the preservation of a fortress, and we must
+conclude that there were weighty reasons which actuated so notoriously
+cautious a body as the Council of War in making this unconditional
+venture. While Mantua stood, Napoleon, for all his energy and
+sanguineness, could not press forward into Friuli and Carniola, and
+immunity from a Republican visitation was above all else important for
+the Vienna statesmen, governing as they did more or less discontented
+and heterogeneous populations that had not felt the pressure of war for
+a century and more. The Austrians, so far as is known, desired no more
+than to hold their own. They no longer possessed the superiority of
+_moral_ that guarantees victory to one side when both are materially
+equal. There was therefore nothing to be gained, commensurate with the
+risk involved, by fighting a battle in the open field. _In Italien siegt
+nicht die Kavallerie_ was an old saying in the Austrian army, and
+therefore the Austrians could not hope to win a victory of the first
+magnitude. The only practicable alternative was to strengthen Mantua as
+opportunities offered themselves, and to prolong the passive resistance
+as much as possible. Napoleon's own practice in providing for secondary
+theatres of war was to economize forces and to delay a decision, and the
+fault of the Austrians, viewed from a purely military standpoint, was
+that they squandered, instead of economizing, their forces to gain time.
+If we neglect pure theory, and regard strategy as the handmaiden of
+statesmanship--which fundamentally it is--we cannot condemn the Vienna
+authorities unless it be first proved that they grossly exaggerated the
+possible results of Bonaparte's threatened irruption. And if their
+capacity for judging the political situation be admitted, it naturally
+follows that their object was to preserve Mantua _at all costs_--which
+object Wurmser, though invariably defeated in action, did in fact
+accomplish.
+
+
+  Bassano.
+
+When Masséna entered Trent on the morning of the 5th of September,
+Napoleon became aware that the force in his front was a mere detachment,
+and news soon came in that Wurmser was in the Val Sugana about Primolano
+and at Bassano. This move he supposed to be intended to cover Trieste,
+being influenced by his own hopes of advancing in that direction, and
+underestimating the importance, to the Austrians, of preserving Mantua.
+He therefore informed the Directory that he could not proceed with the
+Tirol scheme, and spent one more day in driving Davidovich well away
+from Trent. Then, leaving Vaubois to watch him, Napoleon marched
+Augereau and Masséna, with a rapidity he scarcely ever surpassed, into
+the Val Sugana. Wurmser's rearguard was attacked and defeated again and
+again, and Wurmser himself felt compelled to stand and fight, in the
+hope of checking the pursuit before going forward into the plains. Half
+his army had already reached Montebello on the Verona road, and with the
+rear half he posted himself at Bassano, where on the 8th he was attacked
+and defeated with heavy losses. Then began a strategic pursuit or
+general chase, and in this the mobility of the French should have
+finished the work so well begun by their tactics.
+
+But Napoleon directed the pursuers so as to cut off Wurmser from
+Trieste, not from Mantua. Masséna followed up the Austrians to Vicenza,
+while Augereau hurried towards Padua, and it was not until late on the
+9th that Bonaparte realized that his opponent was heading for Mantua via
+Legnago. On the 10th Masséna crossed the Adige at Ronco, while Augereau
+from Padua reached Montagnara. Sahuguet from Mantua and Kilmaine from
+Verona joined forces at Castellaro on the 11th, with orders to interpose
+between Wurmser and the fortress. Wurmser meantime had halted for a day
+at Legnago, to restore order, and had then resumed his march. It was
+almost too late, for in the evening, after having to push aside the head
+of Masséna's column at Cerea, he had only reached Nogara, some miles
+short of Castellaro, and close upon his rear was Augereau, who reached
+Legnago that night. On the 12th, eluding Sahuguet by a detour to the
+southward, he reached Mantua, with all the columns of the French, weary
+as most of them were, in hot pursuit. After an attempt to keep the open
+field, defeated in a general action on the 15th, the relieving force was
+merged in the garrison, now some 28,000 in all. So ended the episode of
+Bassano, the most brilliant feature of which as usual was the marching
+power of the French infantry. This time it sufficed to redeem even
+strategical misconceptions and misdirections. Between the 5th and the
+11th, besides fighting three actions, Masséna had marched 100 m. and
+Augereau 114.
+
+Feldzeugmeister Alvintzi was now appointed to command a new army of
+relief. This time the mere distribution of the troops imposed a
+concentric advance of separate columns, for practically the whole of the
+fresh forces available were in Carniola, the Military Frontier, &c.,
+while Davidovich was still in Tirol. Alvintzi's intention was to
+assemble his new army (29,000) in Friuli, and to move on Bassano, which
+was to be occupied on the 4th of November. Meantime Davidovich (18,000)
+was to capture Trent, and the two columns were to connect by the Val
+Sugana. All being well, Alvintzi and Davidovich, still separate, were
+then to converge on the Adige between Verona and Legnago. Wurmser was to
+co-operate by vigorous sorties. At this time Napoleon's protective
+system was as follows: Kilmaine (9000) investing Mantua, Vaubois
+(10,000) at Trent, and Masséna (9000) at Bassano and Treviso, Augereau
+(9000) and Macquard (3000) at Verona and Villafranca constituting, for
+the first time in these operations, important mobile reserves. Hearing
+of Alvintzi's approach in good time, he meant first to drive back
+Davidovich, then with Augereau, Masséna, Macquard and 3000 of Vaubois's
+force to fall upon Alvintzi, who, he calculated, would at this stage
+have reached Bassano, and finally to send back a large force through the
+Val Sugana to attack Davidovich. This plan practically failed.
+
+
+  Caldiero.
+
+Instead of advancing, Vaubois was driven steadily backward. By the 6th,
+Davidovich had fought his way almost to Roveredo, and Alvintzi had
+reached Bassano and was there successfully repelling the attacks of
+Masséna and Augereau. That night Napoleon drew back to Vicenza. On the
+7th Davidovich drove in Vaubois to Corona and Rivoli, and Alvintzi came
+within 5 m. of Vicenza. Napoleon watched carefully for an opportunity to
+strike out, and on the 8th massed his troops closely around the central
+point of Verona. On the 9th, to give himself air, he ordered Masséna to
+join Vaubois, and to drive back Davidovich at all costs. But before this
+order was executed, reports came in to the effect that Davidovich had
+suspended his advance. The 10th and 11th were spent by both sides in
+relative inaction, the French waiting on events and opportunities, the
+Austrians resting after their prolonged exertions. Then, on the
+afternoon of the 11th, being informed that Alvintzi was approaching,
+Napoleon decided to attack him. On the 12th the advanced guard of
+Alvintzi's army was furiously assailed in the position of Caldiero. But
+the troops in rear came up rapidly, and by 4 P.M. the French were
+defeated all along the line and in retreat on Verona. Napoleon's
+situation was now indeed precarious. He was on "interior lines," it is
+true, but he had neither the force nor the space necessary for the
+delivery of rapid radial blows. Alvintzi was in superior numbers, as the
+battle of Caldiero had proved, and at any moment Davidovich, who had
+twice Vaubois's force, might advance to the attack of Rivoli. The
+reserves had proved insufficient, and Kilmaine had to be called up from
+Mantua, which was thus for the third time freed from the blockaders.
+Again the alternatives were retreat, in whatever order was possible to
+Republican armies, and beating the nearest enemy at any sacrifice.
+Napoleon chose the latter, though it was not until the evening of the
+14th that he actually issued the fateful order.
+
+The Austrians, too, had selected the 15th as the date of their final
+advance on Verona, Davidovich from the north, Alvintzi via Zevio from
+the south. But Napoleon was no longer there; leaving Vaubois to hold
+Davidovich as best he might, and posting only 3000 men in Verona, he had
+collected the rest of his small army between Albaro and Ronco. His plan
+seems to have been to cross the Adige well in rear of the Austrians, to
+march north on to the Verona-Vicenza highway, and there, supplying
+himself from their convoys, to fight to the last. On the 15th he had
+written to the Directory, "The weakness and the exhaustion of the army
+causes me to fear the worst. We are perhaps on the eve of losing Italy."
+In this extremity of danger the troops passed the Adige in three columns
+near Ronco and Albaredo, and marched forward along the dikes, with deep
+marshes and pools on either hand. If Napoleon's intention was to reach
+the dry open ground of S. Bonifacio in rear of the Austrians, it was not
+realized, for the Austrian army, instead of being at the gates of
+Verona, was still between Caldiero and S. Bonifacio, heading, as we
+know, for Zevio. Thus Alvintzi was able, easily and swiftly, to wheel to
+the south.
+
+
+  Arcola.
+
+The battle of Arcola almost defies description. The first day passed in
+a series of resultless encounters between the heads of the columns as
+they met on the dikes. In the evening Bonaparte withdrew over the Adige,
+expecting at every moment to be summoned to Vaubois's aid. But
+Davidovich remained inactive, and on the 16th the French again crossed
+the river. Masséna from Ronco advanced on Porcile, driving the Austrians
+along the causeway thither, but on the side of Arcola, Alvintzi had
+deployed a considerable part of his forces on the edge of the marshes,
+within musket shot of the causeway by which Bonaparte and Augereau had
+to pass, along the Austrian front, to reach the bridge of Arcola. In
+these circumstances the second day's battle was more murderous and no
+more decisive than the first, and again the French retreated to Ronco.
+But Davidovich again stood still, and with incredible obstinacy
+Bonaparte ordered a third assault for the 17th, using indeed more
+tactical expedients than before, but calculating chiefly on the fighting
+powers of his men and on the exhaustion of the enemy. Masséna again
+advanced on Porcile, Robert's brigade on Arcola, but the rest, under
+Augereau, were to pass the Alpone near its confluence with the Adige,
+and joining various small bodies which passed the main stream lower
+down, to storm forward on dry ground to Arcola. The Austrians, however,
+themselves advanced from Arcola, overwhelmed Robert's brigade on the
+causeway and almost reached Ronco. This was perhaps the crisis of the
+battle, for Augereau's force was now on the other side of the stream,
+and Masséna, with his back to the new danger, was approaching Porcile.
+But the fire of a deployed regiment stopped the head of the Austrian
+column; Masséna, turning about, cut into its flank on the dike; and
+Augereau, gathering force, was approaching Arcola from the south. The
+bridge and the village were evacuated soon afterwards, and Masséna and
+Augereau began to extend in the plain beyond. But the Austrians still
+sullenly resisted. It was at this moment that Bonaparte secured victory
+by a mere ruse, but a ruse which would have been unprofitable and
+ridiculous had it not been based on his fine sense of the moral
+conditions. Both sides were nearly fought out, and he sent a few
+trumpeters to the rear of the Austrian army to sound the charge. They
+did so, and in a few minutes the Austrians were streaming back to S.
+Bonifacio. This ended the drama of Arcola, which more than any other
+episode of these wars, perhaps of any wars in modern history, centres on
+the personality of the hero. It is said that the French fought without
+spirit on the first day, and yet on the second and third Bonaparte had
+so thoroughly imbued them with his own will to conquer that in the end
+they prevailed over an enemy nearly twice their own strength.
+
+The climax was reached just in time, for on the 17th Vaubois was
+completely defeated at Rivoli and withdrew to Peschiera, leaving the
+Verona and Mantua roads completely open to Davidovich. But on the 19th
+Napoleon turned upon him, and combining the forces of Vaubois, Masséna
+and Augereau against him, drove him back to Trent. Meantime Alvintzi
+returned from Vicenza to San Bonifacio and Caldiero (November 21st), and
+Bonaparte at once stopped the pursuit of Davidovich. On the return of
+the French main body to Verona, Alvintzi finally withdrew, Wurmser, who
+had emerged from Mantua on the 23rd, was driven in again, and this
+epilogue of the great struggle came to a feeble end because neither side
+was now capable of prolonging the crisis.
+
+Alvintzi renewed his advance in January 1797 with all the forces that
+could be assembled for a last attempt to save Mantua. At this time 8000
+men under Sérurier blockaded Mantua, Masséna (9000) was at Verona,
+Joubert (Vaubois's successor) at Rivoli with 10,000, Augereau at Legnago
+with 9000. In reserve were Rey's division (4000) between Brescia and
+Montechiaro, and Victor's brigade at Goito and Castelnuovo. On the other
+side, Alvintzi had 9000 men under Provera at Padua, 6000 under Bayalic
+at Bassano, and he himself with 28,000 men stood in the Tirol about
+Trent. This time he intended to make his principal effort on the Rivoli
+side. Provera was to capture Legnago on the 9th of January, and Bayalic
+Verona on the 12th, while the main army was to deliver its blow against
+the Rivoli position on the 13th.
+
+
+  Rivoli.
+
+The first marches of this scheme were duly carried out, and several days
+elapsed before Napoleon was able to discern the direction of the real
+attack. Augereau fell back, skirmishing a little, as Provera's and
+Bayalic's advance developed. On the 11th, when the latter was nearing
+Verona, Alvintzi's leading troops appeared in front of the Rivoli
+position. On the 12th Bayalic with a weak force (he had sent
+reinforcements to Alvintzi by the Val Pantena) made an unsuccessful
+attack on Verona, Provera, farther south, remaining inactive. On the
+13th Napoleon, still in doubt, launched Masséna's division against
+Bayalic, who was driven back to San Bonifacio; but at the same time
+definite news came from Joubert that Alvintzi's main army was in front
+of La Corona. From this point begins the decisive, though by no means
+the most intense or dramatic, struggle of the campaign. Once he felt
+sure of the situation Napoleon acted promptly. Joubert was ordered to
+hold on to Rivoli at all costs. Rey was brought up by a forced march to
+Castelnuovo, where Victor joined him, and ahead of them both Masséna was
+hurried on to Rivoli. Napoleon himself joined Joubert on the night of
+the 13th. There he saw the watch-fires of the enemy in a semicircle
+around him, for Alvintzi, thinking that he had only to deal with one
+division, had begun a widespread enveloping attack. The horns of this
+attack were as yet so far distant that Napoleon, instead of extending on
+an equal front, only spread out a few regiments to gain an hour or two
+and to keep the ground for Masséna and Rey, and on the morning of
+January 14th, with 10,000 men in hand against 26,000, he fell upon the
+central columns of the enemy as they advanced up the steep broken slopes
+of the foreground. The fighting was severe, but Bonaparte had the
+advantage. Masséna arrived at 9 A.M., and a little later the column of
+Quasdanovich, which had moved along the Adige and was now attempting to
+gain a foothold on the plateau in rear of Joubert, was crushed by the
+converging fire of Joubert's right brigade and by Masséna's guns, their
+rout being completed by the charge of a handful of cavalry under
+Lasalle. The right horn of Alvintzi's attack, when at last it swung in
+upon Napoleon's rear, was caught between Masséna and the advancing
+troops of Rey and annihilated, and even before this the dispirited
+Austrians were in full retreat. A last alarm, caused by the appearance
+of a French infantry regiment in their rear (this had crossed the lake
+in boats from Salo), completed their demoralization, and though less
+than 2000 had been killed and wounded, some 12,000 Austrian prisoners
+were left in the hands of the victors. Rivoli was indeed a moral
+triumph. After the ordeal of Arcola, the victory of the French was a
+foregone conclusion at each point of contact. Napoleon hesitated, or
+rather refrained from striking, so long as his information was
+incomplete, but he knew now from experience that his covering
+detachment, if well led, could not only hold its own without assistance
+until it had gained the necessary information, but could still give the
+rest of the army time to act upon it. Then, when the centre of gravity
+had been ascertained, the French divisions hurried thither, caught the
+enemy in the act of manoeuvring and broke them up. And if that
+confidence in success which made all this possible needs a special
+illustration, it may be found in Napoleon's sending Murat's regiment
+over the lake to place a mere two thousand bayonets across the line of
+retreat of a whole army. Alvintzi's manoeuvre was faulty neither
+strategically in the first instance nor tactically as regards the
+project of enveloping Joubert on the 14th. It failed because Joubert and
+his men were better soldiers than his own, and because a French division
+could move twice as fast as an Austrian, and from these two factors a
+new form of war was evolved, the essence of which was that, for a given
+time and in a given area, a small force of the French should engage and
+hold a much larger force of the enemy.
+
+  The remaining operations can be very briefly summarized. Provera,
+  still advancing on Mantua, joined hands there with Wurmser, and for a
+  time held Sérurier at a disadvantage. But hearing of this, Napoleon
+  sent back Masséna from the field of Rivoli, and that general, with
+  Augereau and Sérurier, not only forced Wurmser to retire again into
+  the fortress, but compelled Provera to lay down his arms. On the 2nd
+  of February 1797, after a long and honourable defence, Mantua, and
+  with it what was left of Wurmser's army, surrendered.
+
+
+    Leoben.
+
+  The campaign of 1797, which ended the war of the First Coalition, was
+  the brilliant sequel of these hard-won victories. Austria had decided
+  to save Mantua at all costs, and had lost her armies in the attempt, a
+  loss which was not compensated by the "strategic" victories of the
+  archduke. Thus the Republican "visitation" of Carinthia and Carniola
+  was one swift march--politically glorious, if dangerous from a purely
+  military standpoint--of Napoleon's army to the Semmering. The
+  archduke, who was called thither from Germany, could do no more than
+  fight a few rearguard actions, and make threats against Napoleon's
+  rear, which the latter, with his usual "tact," ignored. On the Rhine,
+  as in 1795 and 1796, the armies of the Sambre-and-Meuse (Hoche) and
+  the Rhine-and-Moselle (Moreau) were opposed by the armies of the Lower
+  Rhine (Werneck) and of the Upper Rhine (Latour). Moreau crossed the
+  river near Strassburg and fought a series of minor actions. Hoche,
+  like his predecessors, crossed at Düsseldorf and Neuwied and fought
+  his way to the Lahn, where for the last time in the history of these
+  wars, there was an irregular widespread battle. But Hoche, in this his
+  last campaign, displayed the brilliant energy of his first, and
+  delivered the "series of incessant blows" that Carnot had urged upon
+  Jourdan the year before. Werneck was driven with ever-increasing
+  losses from the lower Lahn to Wetzlar and Giessen. Thence, pressed
+  hard by the French left wing under Championnet, he retired on the
+  Nidda, only to find that Hoche's right had swung completely round him.
+  Nothing but the news of the armistice of Leoben saved him from
+  envelopment and surrender. This general armistice was signed by
+  Bonaparte, on his own authority and to the intense chagrin of the
+  Directory and of Hoche, on the 18th of April, and was the basis of the
+  peace of Campo Formio.
+
+
+  NAPOLEON IN EGYPT
+
+  Within the scope of this article, yet far more important from its
+  political and personal than from its general military interest, comes
+  the expedition of Napoleon to Egypt and its sequel (see also EGYPT:
+  _History_; NAPOLEON, &c.). A very brief summary must here suffice.
+  Napoleon left Toulon on the 19th of May 1798, at the same time as his
+  army (40,000 strong in 400 transports) embarked secretly at various
+  ports. Nelson's fleet was completely evaded, and, capturing Malta _en
+  route_, the armada reached the coast of Egypt on the 1st of July. The
+  republicans stormed Alexandria on the 2nd. Between Embabeh and Gizeh,
+  on the left bank of the Nile, 60,000 Mamelukes were defeated and
+  scattered on the 21st (battle of the Pyramids), the French for the
+  most part marching and fighting in the chequer of infantry squares
+  that afterwards became the classical formation for desert warfare.
+  While his lieutenants pursued the more important groups of the enemy,
+  Napoleon entered Cairo in triumph, and proceeded to organize Egypt as
+  a French protectorate. Meantime Nelson, though too late to head off
+  the expedition, had annihilated the squadron of Admiral Brueys. This
+  blow severed the army from the home country, and destroyed all hope of
+  reinforcements. But to eject the French already in Egypt, military
+  invasion of that country was necessary. The first attempts at this
+  were made in September by the Turks as overlords of Egypt.
+  Napoleon--after suppressing a revolt in Cairo--marched into Syria to
+  meet them, and captured El Arish and Jaffa (at the latter place the
+  prisoners, whom he could afford neither to feed, to release, nor to
+  guard, were shot by his order). But he was brought to a standstill
+  (March 17-May 20) before the half-defensible fortifications of Acre,
+  held by a Turkish garrison and animated by the leadership of Sir W.
+  Sidney Smith (q.v.). In May, though meantime a Turkish relieving army
+  had been severely beaten in the battle of Mount Tabor (April 16,
+  1799), Napoleon gave up his enterprise, and returned to Egypt, where
+  he won a last victory in annihilating at Aboukir, with 6000 of his own
+  men, a Turkish army 18,000 strong that had landed there (July 25,
+  1799). With this crowning tactical success to set against the Syrian
+  reverses, he handed over the command to Kléber and returned to France
+  (August 22) to ride the storm in a new _coup d'état_, the "18th
+  Brumaire." Kléber, attacked by the English and Turks, concluded the
+  convention of El Arish (January 27, 1800), whereby he secured free
+  transport for the army back to France. But this convention was
+  disavowed by the British government, and Kléber prepared to hold his
+  ground. On the 20th of March 1800 he thoroughly defeated the Turkish
+  army at Heliopolis and recovered Cairo, and French influence was once
+  more in the ascendant in Egypt, when its director was murdered by a
+  fanatic on the 14th of June, the day of Marengo. Kléber's successor,
+  the incompetent Menou, fell an easy victim to the British
+  expeditionary force under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801. The British
+  forced their way ashore at Aboukir on the 8th of March. On the 21st,
+  Abercromby won a decisive battle, and himself fell in the hour of
+  victory (see ALEXANDRIA: _Battle of 1801_). His successor, General
+  Hely Hutchinson, slowly followed up this advantage, and received the
+  surrender of Cairo in July and of Alexandria in August, the débris of
+  the French army being given free passage back to France. Meantime a
+  mixed force of British and native troops from India, under Sir David
+  Baird, had landed at Kosseir and marched across the desert to Cairo.
+
+
+THE WAR OF THE SECOND COALITION
+
+In the autumn of 1798, while Napoleon's Egyptian expedition was in
+progress, and the Directory was endeavouring at home to reduce the
+importance and the predominance of the army and its leaders, the powers
+of Europe once more allied themselves, not now against the principles of
+the Republic, but against the treaty of Campo Formio. Russia, Austria,
+England, Turkey, Portugal, Naples and the Pope formed the Second
+Coalition. The war began with an advance into the Roman States by a
+worthless and ill-behaved Neapolitan army (commanded, much against his
+will, by Mack), which the French troops under Championnet destroyed with
+ease. Championnet then revolutionized Naples. After this unimportant
+prelude the curtain rose on a general European war. The Directory which
+now had at its command neither numbers nor enthusiasm, prepared as best
+it could to meet the storm. Four armies, numbering only 160,000, were
+set on foot, in Holland (Brune, 24,000); on the Upper Rhine (Jourdan,
+46,000); in Switzerland, which had been militarily occupied in 1798
+(Masséna, 30,000); and in upper Italy (Schérer, 60,000). In addition
+there was Championnet's army, now commanded by Macdonald, in southern
+Italy. All these forces the Directory ordered, in January and February
+1799, to assume the offensive.
+
+
+  Stokach.
+
+Jourdan, in the Constance and Schaffhausen region, had only 40,000 men
+against the archduke Charles's 80,000, and was soon brought to a
+standstill and driven back on Stokach. The archduke had won these
+preliminary successes with seven-eighths of his army acting as one
+concentrated mass. But as he had only encountered a portion of Jourdan's
+army, he became uneasy as to his flanks, checked his bold advance, and
+ordered a reconnaissance in force. This practically extended his army
+while Jourdan was closing his, and thus the French began the battle of
+Stokach (March 25) in superior numbers, and it was not until late in the
+day that the archduke brought up sufficient strength (60,000) to win a
+victory. This was a battle of the "strategic" type, a widespread
+straggling combat in which each side took fifteen hours to inflict a
+loss of 12% on the other, and which ended in Jourdan accepting defeat
+and drawing off, unpursued by the magnificent Austrian cavalry, though
+these counted five times as many sabres as the French.
+
+The French secondary army in Switzerland was in the hands of the bold
+and active Masséna. The forces of both sides in the Alpine region were,
+from a military point of view, mere flank guards to the main armies on
+the Rhine and the Adige. But unrest, amounting to civil war, among the
+Swiss and Grison peoples tempted both governments to give these flank
+guards considerable strength.[13]
+
+
+  Masséna in Switzerland.
+
+The Austrians in the Vorarlberg and Grisons were under Hotze, who had
+13,000 men at Bregenz, and 7000 commanded by Auffenberg around Chur,
+with, between them, 5000 men at Feldkirch and a post of 1000 in the
+strong position of the Luziensteig near Mayenfeld. Masséna's available
+force was about 20,000, and he used almost the whole of it against
+Auffenberg. The Rhine was crossed by his principal column near
+Mayenfeld, and the Luziensteig stormed (March 6), while a second column
+from the Zürich side descended upon Disentis and captured its defenders.
+In three days, thanks to Masséna's energy and the ardent attacking
+spirit of his men, Auffenberg's division was broken up, Oudinot
+meanwhile holding off Hotze by a hard-fought combat at Feldkirch (March
+7). But a second attack on Feldkirch made on the 23rd by Masséna with
+15,000 men was repulsed and the advance of his left wing came to a
+standstill.
+
+Behind Auffenberg and Hotze was Bellegarde in Tirol with some 47,000
+men. Most of these were stationed north of Innsbruck and Landeck,
+probably as a sort of strategic reserve to the archduke. The rest, with
+the assistance of the Tirolese themselves, were to ward off irruptions
+from Italy. Here the French offensive was entrusted to two columns, one
+from Masséna's command under Lecourbe, the other from the Army of Italy
+under Dessolle. Simultaneously with Masséna, Lecourbe marched from
+Bellinzona with 10,000 men, by the San Bernadino pass into the Splügen
+valley, and thence over the Julier pass into the upper Engadine. A small
+Austrian force under Major-General Loudon attacked him near Zernetz, but
+was after three days of rapid manoeuvres and bold tactics driven back to
+Martinsbrück, with considerable losses, especially in prisoners. But ere
+long the country people flew to arms, and Lecourbe found himself between
+two fires, the levies occupying Zernetz and Loudon's regulars
+Martinsbrück. But though he had only some 5000 of his original force
+left, he was not disconcerted, and, by driving back the levies into the
+high valleys whence they had come, and constantly threatening Loudon,
+he was able to maintain himself and to wait for Dessolles. The latter,
+moving up the Valtelline, by now fought his way to the Stelvio pass, but
+beyond it the defile of Tauffers (S.W. of Glurns) was entrenched by
+Loudon, who thus occupied a position midway between the two French
+columns, while his irregulars beset all the passes and ways giving
+access to the Vintschgau and the lower Engadine. In this situation the
+French should have been destroyed in detail. But as usual their speed
+and dash gave them the advantage in every manoeuvre and at every point
+of contact.
+
+
+  Lecourbe and Dessolles in Tirol.
+
+On the 25th Lecourbe and Dessolles attacked Loudon at Nauders in the
+Engadine and Tauffers in the Vintschgau respectively. At Nauders the
+French passed round the flanks of the defence by scrambling along the
+high mountain crests adjacent, while at Tauffers the assailants, only
+4500 strong, descended into a deep ravine, debouched unnoticed in the
+Austrians' rear, and captured 6000 men and 16 guns. The Austrian leader
+with a couple of companies made his way through Glurns to Nauders, and
+there, finding himself headed off by Lecourbe, he took to the mountains.
+His corps, like Auffenberg's, was annihilated.
+
+This ended the French general offensive. Jourdan had been defeated by
+the archduke and forced or induced to retire over the Rhine. Masséna was
+at a standstill before the strong position of Feldkirch, and the
+Austrians of Hotze were still massed at Bregenz, but the Grisons were
+revolutionized, two strong bodies of Austrians numbering in all about
+20,000 men had been destroyed, and Lecourbe and Dessolles had advanced
+far into Tirol. A pause followed. The Austrians in the mountains needed
+time to concentrate and to recover from their astonishment. The archduke
+fell ill, and the Vienna war council forbade his army to advance lest
+Tirol should be "uncovered," though Bellegarde and Hotze still disposed
+of numbers equal to those of Masséna and Lecourbe. Masséna succeeded
+Jourdan in general command on the French side and promptly collected all
+available forces of both armies in the hilly non-Alpine country between
+Basel, Zürich and Schaffhausen, thereby directly barring the roads into
+France (Berne-Neuchâtel-Pontarlier and Basel-Besançon) which the
+Austrians appeared to desire to conquer. The protection of Alsace and
+the Vosges was left to the fortresses. There was no suggestion, it would
+appear, that the Rhine between Basel and Schaffhausen was a flank
+position sufficient of itself to bar Alsace to the enemy.
+
+It is now time to turn to events in Italy, where the Coalition intended
+to put forth its principal efforts. At the beginning of March the French
+had 80,000 men in Upper Italy and some 35,000 in the heart of the
+Peninsula, the latter engaged chiefly in supporting newly-founded
+republics. Of the former, 53,000 formed the field army on the Mincio
+under Schérer. The Austrians, commanded by Kray, numbered in all 84,000,
+but detachments reduced this figure to 67,000, of whom, moreover, 15,000
+had not yet arrived when operations began. They were to be joined by a
+Russian contingent under the celebrated Suvárov, who was to command the
+whole on arrival, and whose extraordinary personality gives the campaign
+its special interest. Kray himself was a resolute soldier, and when the
+French, obeying the general order to advance, crossed the Adige, he
+defeated them in a severely fought battle at Magnano near Verona (March
+5), the French losing 4000 killed and wounded and 4500 taken, out of
+41,000. The Austrians lost some 3800 killed and wounded and 1500
+prisoners, out of 46,000 engaged. The war, however, was undertaken not
+to annihilate, but to evict the French, and, probably under orders from
+Vienna, Kray allowed the beaten enemy to depart.
+
+
+  Suvárov.
+
+Suvárov appeared with 17,000 Russians on the 4th of April. His first
+step was to set Russian officers to teach the Austrian troops--whose
+feelings can be imagined--how to attack with the bayonet, his next to
+order the whole army forward. The Allies broke camp on the 17th, 18th
+and 19th of April, and on the 20th, after a forced march of close on 30
+m., they passed the Chiese. Brescia had a French garrison, but Suvárov
+soon cowed it into surrender by threats of a massacre, which no one
+doubted that he would carry into execution. At the same time,
+dissatisfied with the marching of the Austrian infantry, he sent the
+following characteristic reproof to their commander: "The march was in
+the service of the Kaiser. Fair weather is for my lady's chamber, for
+dandies, for sluggards. He who dares to cavil against his high duty
+(_der Grosssprecher wider den hohen Dienst_) is, as an egoist, instantly
+to vacate his command. Whoever is in bad health can stay behind. The
+so-called reasoners (_raisonneurs_) do no army any good...." One day
+later, under this unrelenting pressure, the advanced posts of the Allies
+reached Cremona and the main body the Oglio. The pace became slower in
+the following days, as many bridges had to be made, and meanwhile
+Moreau, Schérer's successor, prepared with a mere 20,000 men to defend
+Lodi, Cassano and Lecco on the Adda. On the 26th the Russian hero
+attacked him all along the line. The moral supremacy had passed over to
+the Allies. Melas, under Suvárov's stern orders, flung his battalions
+regardless of losses against the strong position of Cassano. The story
+of 1796 repeated itself with the rôles reversed. The passage was
+carried, and the French rearguard under Sérurier was surrounded and
+captured by an inferior corps of Austrians. The Austrians (the Russians
+at Lecco were hardly engaged) lost 6000 men, but they took 7000
+prisoners, and in all Moreau's little army lost half its numbers and
+retreated in many disconnected bodies to the Ticino, and thence to
+Alessandria. Everywhere the Italians turned against the French, mindful
+of the exactions of their commissaries. The strange Cossack cavalry that
+western Europe had never yet seen entered Milan on the 29th of April,
+eleven days after passing the Mincio, and next day the city received
+with enthusiasm the old field marshal, whose exploits against the Turks
+had long invested him with a halo of romance and legend. Here, for the
+moment, his offensive culminated. He desired to pass into Switzerland
+and to unite his own, the archduke's, Hotze's and Bellegarde's armies in
+one powerful mass. But the emperor would not permit the execution of
+this scheme until all the fortresses held by the enemy in Upper Italy
+should have been captured. In any case, Macdonald's army in southern
+Italy, cut off from France by the rapidity of Suvárov's onslaught, and
+now returning with all speed to join Moreau by force or evasion, had
+still to be dealt with.
+
+Suvárov's mobile army, originally 90,000 strong, had now dwindled, by
+reason of losses and detachments for sieges, to half that number, and
+serious differences arose between the Vienna government and himself. If
+he offended the pride of the Austrian army, he was at least respected as
+a leader who gave it victories, but in Vienna he was regarded as a
+madman who had to be kept within bounds. But at last, when he was
+becoming thoroughly exasperated by this treatment, Macdonald came within
+striking distance and the active campaign recommenced. In the second
+week of June, Moreau, who had retired into the Apennines about Gavi,
+advanced with the intention of drawing upon himself troops that would
+otherwise have been employed against Macdonald. He succeeded, for
+Suvárov with his usual rapidity collected 40,000 men at Alessandria,
+only to learn that Macdonald with 35,000 men was coming up on the Parma
+road. When this news arrived, Macdonald had already engaged an Austrian
+detachment at Modena and driven it back, and Suvárov found himself
+between Moreau and Macdonald with barely enough men under his hand to
+enable him to play the game of "interior lines." But at the crisis the
+rough energetic warrior who despised "raisonneurs," displayed
+generalship of the first order, and taking in hand all his scattered
+detachments, he manoeuvred them in the Napoleonic fashion.
+
+
+  The Trebbia.
+
+On the 14th Macdonald was calculated to be between Modena, Reggio and
+Carpi, but his destination was uncertain. Would he continue to hug the
+Apennines to join Moreau, or would he strike out northwards against
+Kray, who with 20,000 men was besieging Mantua? From Alessandria it is
+four marches to Piacenza and nine to Mantua, while from Reggio these
+places are four and two marches respectively. Piacenza, therefore, was
+the crucial point if Macdonald continued westward, while, in the other
+case, nothing could save Kray but the energetic conduct of
+Hohenzollern's detachment, which was posted near Reggio. This latter,
+however, was soon forced over the Po, and Ott, advancing from Cremona to
+join it, found himself sharply pressed in turn. The field marshal had
+hoped that Ott and Hohenzollern together would be able to win him time
+to assemble at Parma, where he could bring on a battle whichever way the
+French took. But on receipt of Ott's report he was convinced that
+Macdonald had chosen the western route, and ordering Ott to delay the
+French as long as possible by stubborn rearguard actions and to put a
+garrison into Piacenza under a general who was to hold out "on peril of
+his life and honour," he collected what forces were ready to move and
+hurried towards Piacenza, the rest being left to watch Moreau. He
+arrived just in time. When after three forced marches the main body
+(only 26,000 strong) reached Castel San Giovanni, Ott had been driven
+out of Piacenza, but the two joined forces safely. Both Suvárov and
+Macdonald spent the 17th in closing up and deploying for battle. The
+respective forces were Allies 30,000, French 35,000. Suvárov believed
+the enemy to be only 26,000 strong, and chiefly raw Italian regiments,
+but his temperament would not have allowed him to stand still even had
+he known his inferiority. He had already issued one of his peculiar
+battle-orders, which began with the words, "The hostile army will be
+taken prisoners" and continued with directions to the Cossacks to spare
+the surrendered enemy. But Macdonald too was full of energy, and
+believed still that he could annihilate Ott before the field marshal's
+arrival. Thus the battle of the Trebbia (June 17-19) was fought by both
+sides in the spirit of the offensive. It was one of the severest
+struggles in the Republican wars, and it ended in Macdonald's retreat
+with a loss of 15,000 men--probably 6000 in the battle and 9000 killed
+and prisoners when and after the equilibrium was broken--for Suvárov,
+unlike other generals, had the necessary surplus of energy after all the
+demands made upon him by a great battle, to order and to direct an
+effective pursuit. The Allies lost about 7000. Macdonald retreated to
+Parma and Modena, harassed by the peasantry, and finally recrossed the
+Apennines and made his way to Genoa. The battle of the Trebbia is one of
+the most clearly-defined examples in military history of the result of
+moral force--it was a matter not merely of energetic leading on the
+battlefield, but far more of educating the troops beforehand to meet the
+strain, of ingraining in the soldier the determination to win at all
+costs. "It was not," says Clausewitz, "a case of losing the key of the
+position, of turning a flank or breaking a centre, of a mistimed cavalry
+charge or a lost battery ... it is a pure trial of strength and expense
+of force, and victory is the sinking of the balance, if ever so
+slightly, in favour of one side. And we mean not merely physical, but
+even more moral forces."
+
+To return now to the Alpine region, where the French offensive had
+culminated at the end of March. Their defeated left was behind the Rhine
+in the northern part of Switzerland, the half-victorious centre athwart
+the Rhine between Mayenfeld and Chur, and their wholly victorious right
+far within Tirol between Glurns, Nauders and Landeck. But neither the
+centre nor the right could maintain itself. The forward impulse given by
+Suvárov spread along the whole Austrian front from left to right.
+Dessolles' column (now under Loison) was forced back to Chiavenna.
+Bellegarde drove Lecourbe from position to position towards the Rhine
+during April. There Lecourbe added to the remnant of his expeditionary
+column the outlying bodies of Masséna's right wing, but even so he had
+only 8000 men against Bellegarde's 17,000, and he was now exposed to the
+attack of Hotze's 25,000 as well. The Luziensteig fell to Hotze and Chur
+to Bellegarde, but the defenders managed to escape from the converging
+Austrian columns into the valley of the Reuss. Having thus reconquered
+all the lost ground and forced the French into the interior of
+Switzerland, Bellegarde and Hotze parted company, the former marching
+with the greater part of his forces to join Suvárov, the latter moving
+to his right to reinforce the archduke. Only a chain of posts was left
+in the Rhine Valley between Disentis and Feldkirch. The archduke's
+operations now recommenced.
+
+
+  Action of Zürich.
+
+Charles and Hotze stood, about the 15th of May, at opposite ends of the
+lake of Constance. The two together numbered about 88,000 men, but both
+had sent away numerous detachments to the flanks, and the main bodies
+dwindled to 35,000 for the archduke and 20,000 for Hotze. Masséna, with
+45,000 men in all, retired slowly from the Rhine to the Thur. The
+archduke crossed the Rhine at Stein, Hotze at Balzers, and each then
+cautiously felt his way towards the other. Their active opponent
+attempted to take advantage of their separation, and an irregular fight
+took place in the Thur valley (May 25), but Masséna, finding Hotze close
+on his right flank, retired without attempting to force a decision. On
+the 27th, having joined forces, the Austrians dislodged Masséna from his
+new position on the Töss without difficulty, and this process was
+repeated from time to time in the next few days, until at last Masséna
+halted in the position he had prepared for defence at Zürich. He had
+still but 25,000 of his 45,000 men in hand, for he maintained numerous
+small detachments on his right, behind the Zürcher See and the Wallen
+See, and on his left towards Basel. These 25,000 occupied an entrenched
+position 5 m. in length; against which the Austrians, detaching as usual
+many posts to protect their flanks and rear, deployed only 42,000 men,
+of whom 8000 were sent on a wide turning movement and 8000 held in
+reserve 4 m. in rear of the battlefield. Thus the frontal attack was
+made with forces not much greater than those of the defence and it
+failed accordingly (June 4). But Masséna, fearing perhaps to strain the
+loyalty of the Swiss to their French-made constitution by exposing their
+town to assault and sack, retired on the 5th.
+
+He did not fall back far, for his outposts still bordered the Limmat and
+the Linth, while his main body stood in the valley of the Aar between
+Baden and Lucerne. The archduke pressed Masséna as little as he had
+pressed Jourdan after Stokach (though in this case he had less to gain
+by pursuit), and awaited the arrival of a second Russian army, 30,000
+strong, under Korsákov, before resuming the advance, meantime throwing
+out covering detachments towards Basel, where Masséna had a division.
+Thus for two months operations, elsewhere than in Italy, were at a
+standstill, while Masséna drew in reinforcements and organized the
+fractions of his forces in Alsace as a skeleton army, and the Austrians
+distributed arms to the peasantry of South Germany.
+
+In the end, under pressure from Paris, it was Masséna who resumed active
+movements. Towards the middle of August, Lecourbe, who formed a loose
+right wing of the French army in the Reuss valley, was reinforced to a
+strength of 25,000 men, and pounced upon the extended left wing of the
+enemy, which had stretched itself, to keep pace with Suvárov, as far
+westward as the St Gothard. The movement began on the 14th, and in two
+days the Austrians were driven back from the St Gothard and the Furka to
+the line of the Linth, with the loss of 8000 men and many guns. At the
+same time an attempt to take advantage of Masséna's momentary weakness
+by forcing the Aar at Döttingen near its mouth failed completely (August
+16-17). Only 200 men guarded the point of passage, but the Austrian
+engineers had neglected to make a proper examination of the river, and
+unlike the French, the Austrian generals had no authority to waste their
+expensive battalions in forcing the passage in boats. No one regarded
+this war as a struggle for existence, and no one but Suvárov possessed
+the iron strength of character to send thousands of men to death for the
+realization of a diplomatic success--for ordinary men, the object of the
+Coalition was to upset the treaty of Campo Formio. This was the end of
+the archduke's campaign in Switzerland. Though he would have preferred
+to continue it, the Vienna government desired him to return to Germany.
+An Anglo-Russian expedition was about to land in Holland,[14] and the
+French were assembling fresh forces on the Rhine, and, with the double
+object of preventing an invasion of South Germany and of inducing the
+French to augment their forces in Alsace at the expense of those in
+Holland, the archduke left affairs in Switzerland to Hotze and Korsákov,
+and marched away with 35,000 men to join the detachment of Sztarray
+(20,000) that he had placed in the Black Forest before entering
+Switzerland. His new campaign never rose above the level of a war of
+posts and of manoeuvres about Mannheim and Philippsburg. In the latter
+stage of it Lecourbe commanded the French and obtained a slight
+advantage.
+
+
+  Suvárov ordered to Switzerland.
+
+Suvárov's last exploit in Italy coincided in time, but in no other
+respect, with the skirmish at Döttingen. Returning swiftly from the
+battlefield of the Trebbia, he began to drive back Moreau to the
+Riviera. At this point Joubert succeeded to the command on the French
+side, and against the advice of his generals, gave battle. Equally
+against the advice of his own subordinates, the field marshal accepted
+it, and won his last great victory at Novi on the 13th of August,
+Joubert being killed. This was followed by another rapid march against a
+new French "Army of the Alps" (Championnet) which had entered Italy by
+way of the Mont Cenis. But immediately after this he left all further
+operations in Italy to Melas with 60,000 men and himself with the
+Russians and an Austrian corps marched away, via Varese, for the St
+Gothard to combine operations against Masséna with Hotze and Korsákov.
+It was with a heavy heart that he left the scene of his battles, in
+which the force of his personality had carried the old-fashioned
+"linear" armies for the last time to complete victory. In the early
+summer he had himself suggested, eagerly and almost angrily, the
+concentration of his own and the archduke's armies in Switzerland with a
+view, not to conquering that country, but to forcing Jourdan and Masséna
+into a grand decisive battle. But, as we have seen, the Vienna
+government would not release him until the last Italian fortress had
+been reoccupied, and when finally he received the order that a little
+while before he had so ardently desired, it was too late. The archduke
+had already left Switzerland, and he was committed to a resultless
+warfare in the high mountains, with an army which was a mere detachment
+and in the hope of co-operating with two other detachments far away on
+the other side of Switzerland. As for the reasons which led to the issue
+of such an order, it can only be said that the bad feeling known to
+exist between the Austrians and Russians induced England to recommend,
+as the first essential of further operations, the separate concentration
+of the troops of each nationality under their own generals. Still
+stranger was the reason which induced the tsar to give his consent. It
+was alleged that the Russians would be healthier in Switzerland than the
+men of the southern plains! From such premises as these the Allied
+diplomats evolved a new plan of campaign, by which the Anglo-Russians
+under the duke of York were to reconquer Holland and Belgium, the
+Archduke Charles to operate on the Middle Rhine, Suvárov in Switzerland
+and Melas in Piedmont--a plan destitute of every merit but that of
+simplicity.
+
+
+  Battle of Zürich.
+
+It is often said that it is the duty of a commander to resign rather
+than undertake an operation which he believes to be faulty. So, however,
+Suvárov did not understand it. In the simplicity of his loyalty to the
+formal order of his sovereign he prepared to carry out his instructions
+to the letter. Masséna's command (77,000 men) was distributed, at the
+beginning of September, along an enormous S, from the Simplon, through
+the St Gothard and Glarus, and along the Linth, the Züricher See and the
+Limmat to Basel. Opposite the lower point of this S, Suvárov (28,000)
+was about to advance. Hotze's corps (25,000 Austrians), extending from
+Utznach by Chur to Disentis, formed a thin line roughly parallel to the
+lower curve of the S, Korsákov's Russians (30,000) were opposite the
+centre at Zürich, while Nauendorff with a small Austrian corps at
+Waldshut faced the extreme upper point. Thus the only completely safe
+way in which Suvárov could reach the Zürich region was by skirting the
+lower curve of the S, under protection of Hotze. But this detour would
+be long and painful, and the ardent old man preferred to cross the
+mountains once for all at the St Gothard, and to follow the valley of
+the Reuss to Altdorf and Schwyz--i.e. to strike vertically upward to
+the centre of the S--and to force his way through the French cordon to
+Zürich, and if events, so far as concerned his own corps, belied his
+optimism, they at any rate justified his choice of the shortest route.
+For, aware of the danger gathering in his rear, Masséna gathered up all
+his forces within reach towards his centre, leaving Lecourbe to defend
+the St Gothard and the Reuss valley and Soult on the Linth. On the 24th
+he forced the passage of the Limmat at Dietikon. On the 25th, in the
+second battle of Zürich, he completely routed Korsákov, who lost 8000
+killed and wounded, large numbers of prisoners and 100 guns. All along
+the line the Allies fell back, one corps after another, at the moment
+when Suvárov was approaching the foot of the St Gothard.
+
+
+  Suvárov in the Alps.
+
+On the 21st the field marshal's headquarters were at Bellinzona, where
+he made the final preparations. Expecting to be four days _en route_
+before he could reach the nearest friendly magazine, he took his trains
+with him, which inevitably augmented the difficulties of the expedition.
+On the 24th Airolo was taken, but when the far greater task of storming
+the pass itself presented itself before them, even the stolid Russians
+were terrified, and only the passionate protests of the old man, who
+reproached his "children" with deserting their father in his extremity,
+induced them to face the danger. At last after twelve hours' fighting,
+the summit was reached. The same evening Suvárov pushed on to
+Hospenthal, while a flanking column from Disentis made its way towards
+Amsteg over the Crispalt. Lecourbe was threatened in rear and pressed in
+front, and his engineers, to hold off the Disentis column, had broken
+the Devil's Bridge. Discovering this, he left the road, threw his guns
+into the river and made his way by fords and water-meadows to Göschenen,
+where by a furious attack he cleared the Disentis troops off his line of
+retreat. His rearguard meantime held the ruined Devil's Bridge. This
+point and the tunnel leading to it, called the Urner Loch, the Russians
+attempted to force, with the most terrible losses, battalion after
+battalion crowding into the tunnel and pushing the foremost ranks into
+the chasm left by the broken bridge. But at last a ford was discovered
+and the bridge, cleared by a turning movement, was repaired. More broken
+bridges lay beyond, but at last Suvárov joined the Disentis column near
+Göschenen. When Altdorf was reached, however, Suvárov found not only
+Lecourbe in a threatening position, but an entire absence of boats on
+the Lake of the Four Cantons. It was impossible (in those days the
+Axenstrasse did not exist) to take an army along the precipitous eastern
+shore, and thus passing through one trial after another, each more
+severe than the last, the Russians, men and horses and pack animals in
+an interminable single file, ventured on the path leading over the
+Kinzig pass into the Muotta Thal. The passage lasted three days, the
+leading troops losing men and horses over the precipices, the rearguard
+from the fire of the enemy, now in pursuit. And at last, on arrival in
+the Muotta Thal, the field marshal received definite information that
+Korsákov's army was no longer in existence. Yet even so it was long
+before he could make up his mind to retreat, and the pursuers gathered
+on all sides. Fighting, sometimes severe, and never altogether ceasing,
+went on day after day as the Allied column, now reduced to 15,000 men,
+struggled on over one pass after another, but at last it reached Ilanz
+on the Vorder Rhine (October 8). The Archduke Charles meanwhile had, on
+hearing of the disaster of Zürich, brought over a corps from the Neckar,
+and for some time negotiations were made for a fresh combined operation
+against Masséna. But these came to nothing, for the archduke and Suvárov
+could not agree, either as to their own relations or as to the plan to
+be pursued. Practically, Suvárov's retreat from Altdorf to Ilanz closed
+the campaign. It was his last active service, and formed a gloomy but
+grand climax to the career of the greatest soldier who ever wore the
+Russian uniform.
+
+
+MARENGO AND HOHENLINDEN
+
+The disasters of 1799 sealed the fate of the Directory, and placed
+Bonaparte, who returned from Egypt with the prestige of a recent
+victory, in his natural place as civil and military head of France. In
+the course of the campaign the field strength of the French had been
+gradually augmented, and in spite of losses now numbered 227,000 at the
+front. These were divided into the Army of Batavia, Brune (25,000), the
+Army of the Rhine, Moreau (146,000), the Army of Italy, Masséna
+(56,000), and, in addition, there were some 100,000 in garrisons and
+depots in France.
+
+Most of these field armies were in a miserable condition owing to the
+losses and fatigues of the last campaign. The treasury was empty and
+credit exhausted, and worse still--for spirit and enthusiasm, as in
+1794, would have remedied material deficiencies--the conscripts obtained
+under Jourdan's law of 1798 (see CONSCRIPTION) came to their regiments
+most unwillingly. Most of them, indeed, deserted on the way to join the
+colours. A large draft sent to the Army of Italy arrived with 310 men
+instead of 10,250, and after a few such experiences, the First Consul
+decided that the untrained men were to be assembled in the fortresses of
+the interior and afterwards sent to the active battalions in numerous
+small drafts, which they could more easily assimilate. Besides
+accomplishing the immense task of reorganizing existing forces, he
+created new ones, including the Consular Guard, and carried out at this
+moment of crisis two such far-reaching reforms as the replacement of the
+civilian drivers of the artillery by soldiers, and of the hired teams by
+horses belonging to the state, and the permanent grouping of divisions
+in army corps.
+
+
+  The Army of Reserve.
+
+As early as the 25th of January 1800 the First Consul provided for the
+assembly of all available forces in the interior in an "Army of
+Reserve." He reserved to himself the command of this army,[15] which
+gradually came into being as the pacification of Vendée and the return
+of some of Brune's troops from Holland set free the necessary nucleus
+troops. The conscription law was stringently reenforced, and impassioned
+calls were made for volunteers (the latter, be it said, did not produce
+five hundred useful men). The district of Dijon, partly as being central
+with respect to the Rhine and Italian Armies, partly as being convenient
+for supply purposes, was selected as the zone of assembly. Chabran's
+division was formed from some depleted corps of the Army of Italy and
+from the depots of those in Egypt. Chambarlhac's, chiefly of young
+soldiers, lost 5% of its numbers on the way to Dijon from desertion--a
+loss which appeared slight and even satisfactory after the wholesale
+_débandade_ of the winter months. Lechi's Italian legion was newly
+formed from Italian refugees. Boudet's division was originally assembled
+from some of the southern garrison towns, but the units composing it
+were frequently changed up to the beginning of May. The cavalry was
+deficient in saddles, and many of its units were new formations. The
+Consular Guard of course was a _corps d'élite_, and this and two and a
+half infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade coming from the veteran
+"Army of the West" formed the real backbone of the army. Most of the
+newer units were not even armed till they had left Dijon for the front.
+
+Such was the first constitution of the Army of Reserve. We can scarcely
+imagine one which required more accurate and detailed staff work to
+assemble it--correspondence with the district commanders, with the
+adjutant-generals of the various armies, and orders to the civil
+authorities on the lines of march, to the troops themselves and to the
+arsenals and magazines. No one but Napoleon, even aided by a Berthier,
+could have achieved so great a task in six weeks, and the great captain,
+himself doing the work that nowadays is apportioned amongst a crowd of
+administrative staff officers, still found time to administer France's
+affairs at home and abroad, and to think out a general plan of campaign
+that embraced Moreau's, Masséna's and his own armies.
+
+The Army of the Rhine, by far the strongest and best equipped, lay on
+the upper Rhine. The small and worn-out Army of Italy was watching the
+Alps and the Apennines from Mont Blanc to Genoa. Between them
+Switzerland, secured by the victory of Zürich, offered a starting-point
+for a turning movement on either side--this year the advantage of the
+flank position was recognized and acted upon. The Army of Reserve was
+assembling around Dijon, within 200 m. of either theatre of war. The
+general plan was that the Army of Reserve should march through
+Switzerland to close on the right wing of the Army of the Rhine. Thus
+supported to whatever degree might prove to be necessary, Moreau was to
+force the passage of the Rhine about Schaffhausen, to push back the
+Austrians rapidly beyond the Lech, and then, if they took the offensive
+in turn, to hold them in check for ten or twelve days. During this
+period of guaranteed freedom the decisive movement was to be made. The
+Army of Reserve, augmented by one large corps of the Army of the Rhine,
+was to descend by the Splügen (alternatively by the St Gothard and even
+by Tirol) into the plains of Lombardy. Magazines were to be established
+at Zürich and Lucerne (not at Chur, lest the plan should become obvious
+from the beginning), and all likely routes reconnoitred in advance. The
+Army of Italy was at first to maintain a strict defensive, then to
+occupy the Austrians until the entry of the Reserve Army into Italy was
+assured, and finally to manoeuvre to join it.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Italian Campaigns 1794-1800.]
+
+Moreau, however, owing to want of horses for his pontoon train and also
+because of the character of the Rhine above Basel, preferred to cross
+below that place, especially as in Alsace there were considerably
+greater supply facilities than in a country which had already been
+fought over and stripped bare. With the greatest reluctance Bonaparte
+let him have his way, and giving up the idea of using the Splügen and
+the St Gothard, began to turn his attention to the more westerly passes,
+the St Bernard and the Simplon. It was not merely Moreau's scruples that
+led to this essential modification in the scheme. At the beginning of
+April the enemy took the offensive against Masséna. On the 8th Melas's
+right wing dislodged the French from the Mont Cenis, and most of the
+troops that had then reached Dijon were shifted southward to be ready
+for emergencies. By the 25th Berthier reported that Masséna was
+seriously attacked and that he might have to be supported by the
+shortest route. Bonaparte's resolution was already taken. He waited no
+longer for Moreau (who indeed so far from volunteering assistance,
+actually demanded it for himself). Convinced from the paucity of news
+that Masséna's army was closely pressed and probably severed from
+France, and feeling also that the Austrians were deeply committed to
+their struggle with the Army of Italy, he told Berthier to march with
+40,000 men at once by way of the St Bernard unless otherwise advised.
+Berthier protested that he had only 25,000 effectives, and the equipment
+and armament was still far from complete--as indeed it remained to the
+end--but the troops marched, though their very means of existence were
+precarious from the time of leaving Geneva to the time of reaching
+Milan, for nothing could extort supplies and money from the sullen
+Swiss.
+
+
+  Napoleon's plan of campaign.
+
+At the beginning of May the First Consul learned of the serious plight
+of the Army of Italy. Masséna with his right wing was shut up in Genoa,
+Suchet with the left wing driven back to the Var. Meanwhile Moreau had
+won a preliminary victory at Stokach, and the Army of Reserve had begun
+its movement to Geneva. With these data the plan of campaign took a
+clear shape at last--Masséna to resist as long as possible; Suchet to
+resume the offensive, if he could do so, towards Turin; the Army of
+Reserve to pass the Alps and to debouch into Piedmont by Aosta; the Army
+of the Rhine to send a strong force into Italy by the St Gothard. The
+First Consul left Paris on the 6th of May. Berthier went forward to
+Geneva, and still farther on the route magazines were established at
+Villeneuve and St-Pierre. Gradually, and with immense efforts, the
+leading troops of the long column[16] were passed over the St Bernard,
+drawing their artillery on sledges, on the 15th and succeeding days.
+Driving away small posts of the Austrian army, the advance guard entered
+Aosta on the 16th and Châtillon on the 18th and the alarm was given.
+Melas, committed as he was to his Riviera campaign, began to look to his
+right rear, but he was far from suspecting the seriousness of his
+opponent's purpose.
+
+
+  Bard.
+
+Infinitely more dangerous for the French than the small detachment that
+Melas opposed to them, or even the actual crossing of the pass, was the
+unexpected stopping power of the little fort of Bard. The advanced guard
+of the French appeared before it on the 19th, and after three wasted
+days the infantry managed to find a difficult mountain by-way and to
+pass round the obstacle. Ivrea was occupied on the 23rd, and Napoleon
+hoped to assemble the whole army there by the 27th. But except for a few
+guns that with infinite precautions were smuggled one by one through the
+streets of Bard, the whole of the artillery, as well as a detachment
+(under Chabran) to besiege the fort, had to be left behind. Bard
+surrendered on the 2nd of June, having delayed the infantry of the
+French army for four days and the artillery for a fortnight.
+
+The military situation in the last week of May, as it presented itself
+to the First Consul at Ivrea, was this. The Army of Italy under Masséna
+was closely besieged in Genoa, where provisions were running short, and
+the population so hostile that the French general placed his field
+artillery to sweep the streets. But Masséna was no ordinary general, and
+the First Consul knew that while Masséna lived the garrison would resist
+to the last extremity. Suchet was defending Nice and the Var by vigorous
+minor operations. The Army of Reserve, the centre of which had reached
+at Ivrea the edge of the Italian plains, consisted of four weak army
+corps under Victor, Duhesme, Lannes and Murat. There were still to be
+added to this small army of 34,000 effectives, Turreau's division, which
+had passed over the Mont Cenis and was now in the valley of the Dora
+Riparia, Moncey's corps of the Army of the Rhine, which had at last been
+extorted from Moreau and was due to pass the St Gothard before the end
+of May, Chabran's division left to besiege Bard, and a small force under
+Béthencourt, which was to cross the Simplon and to descend by Arona
+(this place proved in the event a second Bard and immobilized
+Béthencourt until after the decisive battle). Thus it was only the
+simplest part of Napoleon's task to concentrate half of his army at
+Ivrea, and he had yet to bring in the rest. The problem was to
+reconcile the necessity for time, which he wanted to ensure the maximum
+force being brought over the Alps, with the necessity for haste, in view
+of the impending fall of Genoa and the probability that once this
+conquest was achieved, Melas would bring back his 100,000 men into the
+Milanese to deal with the Army of Reserve. As early as the 14th of May
+he had informed Moncey that from Ivrea the Army of Reserve would move on
+Milan. On the 25th of May, in response to Berthier's request for
+guidance, the First Consul ordered Lannes (advanced guard) to push out
+on the Turin road, "in order to deceive the enemy and to obtain news of
+Turreau," and Duhesme's and Murat's corps to proceed along the Milan
+road. On the 27th, after Lannes had on the 26th defeated an Austrian
+column near Chivasso, the main body was already advancing on Vercelli.
+
+
+    The march to Milan.
+
+  Very few of Napoleon's acts of generalship have been more criticized
+  than this resolution to march on Milan, which abandoned Genoa to its
+  fate and gave Melas a week's leisure to assemble his scattered forces.
+  The account of his motives he dictated at St Helena (_Nap.
+  Correspondence_, v. 30, pp. 375-377), in itself an unconvincing appeal
+  to the rules of strategy as laid down by the theorists--which rules
+  his own practice throughout transcended--gives, when closely examined,
+  some at least of the necessary clues. He says in effect that by
+  advancing directly on Turin he would have "risked a battle against
+  equal forces without an assured line of retreat, Bard being still
+  uncaptured." It is indeed strange to find Napoleon shrinking before
+  _equal_ forces of the enemy, even if we admit without comment that it
+  was more difficult to pass Bard the second time than the first. The
+  only incentive to go towards Turin was the chance of partial victories
+  over the disconnected Austrian corps that would be met in that
+  direction, and this he deliberately set aside. Having done so, for
+  reasons that will appear in the sequel, he could only defend it by
+  saying in effect that he might have been defeated--which was true, but
+  not the Napoleonic principle of war. Of the alternatives, one was to
+  hasten to Genoa; this in Napoleon's eyes would have been playing the
+  enemy's game, for they would have concentrated at Alessandria, facing
+  west "in their natural position." It is equally obvious that thus the
+  enemy would have played _his_ game, supposing that this was to relieve
+  Genoa, and the implication is that it was not. The third course, which
+  Napoleon took, and in this memorandum defended, gave his army the
+  enemy's depots at Milan, of which it unquestionably stood in sore
+  need, and the reinforcement of Moncey's 15,000 men from the Rhine,
+  while at the same time Moncey's route offered an "assured line of
+  retreat" by the Simplon[17] and the St Gothard. He would in fact make
+  for himself there a "natural position" without forfeiting the
+  advantage of being in Melas's rear. Once possessed of Milan, Napoleon
+  says, he could have engaged Melas with a light heart and with
+  confidence in the greatest possible results of a victory, whether the
+  Austrians sought to force their way back to the east by the right or
+  the left bank of the Po, and he adds that if the French passed on and
+  concentrated south of the Po there would be no danger to the Milan-St
+  Gothard line of retreat, as this was secured by the rivers Ticino and
+  Sesia. In this last, as we shall see, he is shielding an undeniable
+  mistake, but considering for the moment only the movement to Milan, we
+  are justified in assuming that his object was not the relief of Genoa,
+  but the most thorough defeat of Melas's field army, to which end,
+  putting all sentiment aside, he treated the hard-pressed Masséna as a
+  "containing force" to keep Melas occupied during the strategical
+  deployment of the Army of Reserve. In the beginning he had told
+  Masséna that he would "disengage" him, even if he had to go as far
+  east as Trent to find a way into Italy. From the first, then, no
+  direct relief was intended, and when, on hearing bad news from the
+  Riviera, he altered his route to the more westerly passes, it was
+  probably because he felt that Masséna's containing power was almost
+  exhausted, and that the passage and reassembly of the Reserve Army
+  must be brought about in the minimum time and by the shortest way. But
+  the object was still the defeat of Melas, and for this, as the
+  Austrians possessed an enormous numerical superiority, the assembly of
+  all forces, including Moncey's, was indispensable. One essential
+  condition of this was that the points of passage used should be out of
+  reach of the enemy. The more westerly the passes chosen, the more
+  dangerous was the whole operation--in fact the Mont Cenis column never
+  reached him at all--and though his expressed objections to the St
+  Bernard line seem, as we have said, to be written after the event, to
+  disarm his critics, there is no doubt that at the time he disliked it.
+  It was a _pis aller_ forced upon him by Moreau's delay and Masséna's
+  extremity, and from the moment at which he arrived at Milan he did, as
+  a fact, abandon it altogether in favour of the St Gothard. Lastly, so
+  strongly was he impressed with the necessity of completing the
+  deployment of all his forces, that though he found the Austrians on
+  the Turin side much scattered and could justifiably expect a series of
+  rapid partial victories, Napoleon let them go, and devoted his whole
+  energy to creating for himself a "natural" position about Milan. If he
+  sinned, at any rate he sinned handsomely, and except that he went to
+  Milan by Vercelli instead of by Lausanne and Domodossola[18] (on the
+  safe side of the mountains), his march is logistically beyond cavil.
+
+Napoleon's immediate purpose, then, was to reassemble the Army of
+Reserve in a zone of manoeuvre about Milan. This was carried out in the
+first days of June. Lannes at Chivasso stood ready to ward off a flank
+attack until the main army had filed past on the Vercelli road, then
+leaving a small force to combine with Turreau (whose column had not been
+able to advance into the plain) in demonstrations towards Turin, he
+moved off, still acting as right flank guard to the army, in the
+direction of Pavia. The main body meanwhile, headed by Murat, advanced
+on Milan by way of Vercelli and Magenta, forcing the passage of the
+Ticino on the 31st of May at Turbigo and Buffalora. On the same day the
+other divisions closed up to the Ticino,[19] and faithful to his
+principles Napoleon had an examination made of the little fortress of
+Novara, intending to occupy it as a _place du moment_ to help in
+securing his zone of manoeuvre. On the morning of the 2nd of June Murat
+occupied Milan, and in the evening of the same day the headquarters
+entered the great city, the Austrian detachment under Vukassovich (the
+flying right wing of Melas's general cordon system in Piedmont) retiring
+to the Adda. Duhesme's corps forced that river at Lodi, and pressed on
+with orders to organize Crema and if possible Orzinovi as temporary
+fortresses. Lechi's Italians were sent towards Bergamo and Brescia.
+Lannes meantime had passed Vercelli, and on the evening of the 2nd his
+cavalry reached Pavia, where, as at Milan, immense stores of food,
+equipment and warlike stores were seized.
+
+Napoleon was now safe in his "natural" position, and barred one of the
+two main lines of retreat open to the Austrians. But his ambitions went
+further, and he intended to cross the Po and to establish himself on the
+other likewise, thus establishing across the plain a complete barrage
+between Melas and Mantua. Here his end outranged his means, as we shall
+see. But he gave himself every chance that rapidity could afford him,
+and the moment that some sort of a "zone of manoeuvre" had been secured
+between the Ticino and the Oglio, he pushed on his main body--or rather
+what was left after the protective system had been provided for--to the
+Po. He would not wait even for his guns, which had at last emerged from
+the Bard defile and were ordered to come to Milan by a safe and
+circuitous route along the foot of the Alps.
+
+
+  Melas's movements.
+
+At this point the action of the enemy began to make itself felt. Melas
+had not gained the successes that he had expected in Piedmont and on the
+Riviera, thanks to Masséna's obstinacy and to Suchet's brilliant defence
+of the Var. These operations had led him very far afield, and the
+protection of his over-long line of communications had caused him to
+weaken his large army by throwing off many detachments to watch the
+Alpine valleys on his right rear. One of these successfully opposed
+Turreau in the valley of the Dora Riparia, but another had been severely
+handled by Lannes at Chivasso, and a third (Vukassovich) found itself,
+as we know, directly in the path of the French as they moved from Ivrea
+to Milan, and was driven far to the eastward. He was further handicapped
+by the necessity of supporting Ott before Genoa and Elsnitz on the Var,
+and hearing of Lannes's bold advance on Chivasso and of the presence of
+a French column with artillery (Turreau) west of Turin, he assumed that
+the latter represented the main body of the Army of Reserve--in so far
+indeed as he believed in the existence of that army at all.[20] Next,
+when Lannes moved away towards Pavia, Melas thought for a moment that
+fate had delivered his enemy into his hands, and began to collect such
+troops as were at hand at Turin with a view to cutting off the retreat
+of the French on Ivrea while Vukassovich held them in front. It was only
+when news came of Moncey's arrival in Italy and of Vukassovich's
+fighting retreat on Brescia that the magnitude and purpose of the French
+column that had penetrated by Ivrea became evident. Melas promptly
+decided to give up his western enterprises, and to concentrate at
+Alessandria, preparatory to breaking his way through the network of
+small columns--as the disseminated Army of Reserve still appeared to
+be--which threatened to bar his retreat. But orders circulated so slowly
+that he had to wait in Turin till the 8th of June for Elsnitz, whose
+retreat was, moreover, sharply followed up and made exceedingly costly
+by the enterprising Suchet. Ott, too, in spite of orders to give up the
+siege of Genoa at once and to march with all speed to hold the
+Alessandria-Piacenza road, waited two days to secure the prize, and
+agreed (June 4) to allow Masséna's army to go free and to join Suchet.
+And lastly, the cavalry of O'Reilly, sent on ahead from Alessandria to
+the Stradella defile, reached that point only to encounter the French.
+The barrage was complete, and it remained for Melas to break it with the
+mass that he was assembling, with all these misfortunes and delays,
+about Alessandria. His chances of doing so were anything but desperate.
+
+On the 5th of June Murat, with his own corps and part of Duhesme's, had
+moved on Piacenza, and stormed the bridge-head there. Duhesme with one
+of his divisions pushed out on Crema and Orzinovi and also towards
+Pizzighetone. Moncey's leading regiments approached Milan, and Berthier
+thereupon sent on Victor's corps to support Murat and Lannes. Meantime
+the half abandoned line of operations, Ivrea-Vercelli, was briskly
+attacked by the Austrians, who had still detachments on the side of
+Turin, waiting for Elsnitz to rejoin, and the French artillery train was
+once more checked. On the 6th Lannes from Pavia, crossing the Po at San
+Cipriano, encountered and defeated a large force, (O'Reilly's column),
+and barred the Alessandria-Parma main road. Opposite Piacenza Murat had
+to spend the day in gathering material for his passage, as the pontoon
+bridge had been cut by the retreating garrison of the bridge-head. On
+the eastern border of the "zone of manoeuvre" Duhesme's various columns
+moved out towards Brescia and Cremona, pushing back Vukassovich.
+Meantime the last divisions of the Army of Reserve (two of Moncey's
+excepted) were hurried towards Lannes's point of passage, as Murat had
+not yet secured Piacenza. On the 7th, while Duhesme continued to push
+back Vukassovich and seized Cremona, Murat at last captured Piacenza,
+finding there immense magazines. Meantime the army, division by
+division, passed over, slowly owing to a sudden flood, near Belgiojoso,
+and Lannes's advanced guard was ordered to open communication with Murat
+along the main road Stradella-Piacenza. "Moments are precious" said the
+First Consul. He was aware that Elsnitz was retreating before Suchet,
+that Melas had left Turin for Alessandria, and that heavy forces of the
+enemy were at or east of Tortona. He knew, too, that Murat had been
+engaged with certain regiments recently before Genoa and (wrongly)
+assumed O'Reilly's column, beaten by Lannes at San Cipriano, to have
+come from the same quarter. Whether this meant the deliverance or the
+surrender of Genoa he did not yet know, but it was certain that
+Masséna's holding action was over, and that Melas was gathering up his
+forces to recover his communications. Hence Napoleon's great object was
+concentration. "Twenty thousand men at Stradella," in his own words, was
+the goal of his efforts, and with the accomplishment of this purpose the
+campaign enters on a new phase.
+
+
+  Napoleon's dispositions.
+
+  Montebello.
+
+On the 8th of June, Lannes's corps was across, Victor following as
+quickly as the flood would allow. Murat was at Piacenza, but the road
+between Lannes and Murat was not known to be clear, and the First Consul
+made the establishment of the connexion, and the construction of a
+third point of passage midway between the other two, the principal
+objects of the day's work. The army now being disseminated between the
+Alps, the Apennines, the Ticino and the Chiese, it was of vital
+importance to connect up the various parts into a well-balanced system.
+But the Napoleon of 1800 solved the problem that lay at the root of his
+strategy, "concentrate, but be vulnerable nowhere," in a way that
+compares unfavourably indeed with the methods of the Napoleon of 1806.
+Duhesme was still absent at Cremona. Lechi was far away in the Brescia
+country, Béthencourt detained at Arona. Moncey with about 15,000 men had
+to cover an area of 40 m. square around Milan, which constituted the
+original zone of manoeuvre, and if Melas chose to break through the
+flimsy cordon of outposts on this side (the risk of which was the motive
+for detaching Moncey at all) instead of at the Stradella, it would take
+Moncey two days to concentrate his force on any battlefield within the
+area named, and even then he would be outnumbered by two to one. As for
+the main body at the Stradella, its position was wisely chosen, for the
+ground was too cramped for the deployment of the superior force that
+Melas might bring up, but the strategy that set before itself as an
+object 20,000 men at the decisive point out of 50,000 available, is, to
+say the least, imperfect. The most serious feature in all this was the
+injudicious order to Lannes to send forward his advanced guard, and to
+attack whatever enemy he met with on the road to Voghera. The First
+Consul, in fact, calculated that Melas could not assemble 20,000 men at
+Alessandria before the 12th of June, and he told Lannes that if he met
+the Austrians towards Voghera, they could not be more than 10,000
+strong. A later order betrays some anxiety as to the exactitude of these
+assumptions, warns Lannes not to let himself be surprised, indicates his
+line of retreat, and, instead of ordering him to advance on Voghera,
+authorizes him to attack any corps that presented itself at Stradella.
+But all this came too late. Acting on the earlier order Lannes fought
+the battle of Montebello on the 9th. This was a very severe running
+fight, beginning east of Casteggio and ending at Montebello, in which
+the French drove the Austrians from several successive positions, and
+which culminated in a savage fight at close quarters about Montebello
+itself. The singular feature of the battle is the disproportion between
+the losses on either side--French, 500 out of 12,000 engaged; Austrians,
+2100 killed and wounded and 2100 prisoners out of 14,000. These figures
+are most conclusive evidence of the intensity of the French military
+spirit in those days. One of the two divisions (Watrin's) was indeed a
+veteran organization, but the other, Chambarlhac's, was formed of young
+troops and was the same that, in the march to Dijon, had congratulated
+itself that only 5% of its men had deserted. On the other side the
+soldiers fought for "the honour of their arms"--not even with the
+courage of despair, for they were ignorant of the "strategic barrage"
+set in front of them by Napoleon, and the loss of their communications
+had not as yet lessened their daily rations by an ounce.
+
+Meanwhile, Napoleon had issued orders for the main body to stand fast,
+and for the detachments to take up their definitive covering positions.
+Duhesme's corps was directed, from its eastern foray, to Piacenza, to
+join the main body. Moncey was to provide for the defence of the Ticino
+line, Lechi to form a "flying camp" in the region of Orzinovi-Brescia
+and Cremona, and another mixed brigade was to control the Austrians in
+Pizzighetone and in the citadel of Piacenza. On the other side of the
+Po, between Piacenza and Montebello, was the main body (Lannes, Murat
+and part of Victor's and Duhesme's corps), and a flank guard was
+stationed near Pavia, with orders to keep on the right of the army as it
+advanced (this is the first and only hint of any intention to go
+westward) and to fall back fighting should Melas come on by the left
+bank. One division was to be always a day's march behind the army on the
+right bank, and a flotilla was to ascend the Po, to facilitate the
+speedy reinforcement of the flank guard. Farther to the north was a
+small column on the road Milan-Vercelli. All the protective troops,
+except the division of the main body detailed as an eventual support
+for the flank guard, was to be found by Moncey's corps (which had
+besides to watch the Austrians in the citadel of Milan) and Chabran's
+and Lechi's weak commands. On this same day Bonaparte tells the Minister
+of War, Carnot, that Moncey has only brought half the expected
+reinforcements and that half of these are unreliable. As to the result
+of the impending contest Napoleon counts greatly upon the union of
+18,000 men under Masséna and Suchet to crush Melas against the
+"strategic barrage" of the Army of Reserve, by one or other bank of the
+Po, and he seems equally confident of the result in either case. If
+Genoa had held out three days more, he says, it would have been easy to
+count the number of Melas's men who escaped. The exact significance of
+this last notion is difficult to establish, and all that could be
+written about it would be merely conjectural. But it is interesting to
+note that, without admitting it, Napoleon felt that his "barrage" might
+not stand before the flood. The details of the orders of the 9th to the
+main body (written before the news of Montebello arrived at
+headquarters) tend to the closest possible concentration of the main
+body towards Casteggio, in view of a decisive battle on the 12th or
+13th.
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+
+
+  Napoleon's advance.
+
+But another idea had begun to form itself in his mind. Still believing
+that Melas would attack him on the Stradella side, and hastening his
+preparations to meet this, he began to allow for the contingency of
+Melas giving up or failing in his attempt to re-establish his
+communication with the Mantovese, and retiring on Genoa, which was now
+in his hands and could be provisioned and reinforced by sea. On the 10th
+Napoleon ordered reserve ammunition to be sent from Pavia, giving
+Serravalle, which is south of Novi, as its probable destination. But
+this was surmise, and of the facts he knew nothing. Would the enemy move
+east on the Stradella, north-east on the Ticino or south on Genoa? Such
+reports as were available indicated no important movements whatever,
+which happened to be true, but could hardly appear so to the French
+headquarters. On the 11th, though he thereby forfeited the
+reinforcements coming up from Duhesme's corps at Cremona, Napoleon
+ordered the main body to advance to the Scrivia. Lapoype's division (the
+right flank guard), which was observing the Austrian posts towards
+Casale, was called to the south bank of the Po, the zone around Milan
+was stripped so bare of troops that there was no escort for the
+prisoners taken at Montebello, while information sent by Chabran (now
+moving up from Ivrea) as to the construction of bridges at Casale (this
+was a feint made by Melas on the 10th) passed unheeded. The crisis was
+at hand, and, clutching at the reports collected by Lapoype as to the
+quietude of the Austrians toward Valenza and Casale, Bonaparte and
+Berthier strained every nerve to bring up more men to the Voghera side
+in the hope of preventing the prey from slipping away to Genoa.
+
+On the 12th, consequently, the army (the _ordre de bataille_ of which
+had been considerably modified on the 11th) moved to the Scrivia, Lannes
+halting at Castelnuovo, Desaix (who had just joined the army from Egypt)
+at Pontecurone, Victor at Tortona with Murat's cavalry in front towards
+Alessandria. Lapoype's division, from the left bank of the Po, was
+marching in all haste to join Desaix. Moncey, Duhesme, Lechi and Chabran
+were absent. The latter represented almost exactly half of Berthier's
+command (30,000 out of 58,000), and even the concentration of 28,000 men
+on the Scrivia had only been obtained by practically giving up the
+"barrage" on the left bank of the Po. Even now the enemy showed nothing
+but a rearguard, and the old questions reappeared in a new and acute
+form. Was Melas still in Alessandria? Was he marching on Valenza and
+Casale to cross the Po? or to Acqui against Suchet, or to Genoa to base
+himself on the British fleet? As to the first, why had he given up his
+chances of fighting on one of the few cavalry battlegrounds in north
+Italy--the plain of Marengo--since he could not stay in Alessandria for
+any indefinite time? The second question had been answered in the
+negative by Lapoype, but his latest information was thirty-six hours
+old. As for the other questions, no answer whatever was forthcoming, and
+the only course open was to postpone decisive measures and to send
+forward the cavalry, supported by infantry, to gain information.
+
+
+  Marengo.
+
+On the 13th, therefore, Murat, Lannes and Victor advanced into the plain
+of Marengo, traversed it without difficulty and carrying the villages
+held by the Austrian rearguard, established themselves for the night
+within a mile of the fortress. But meanwhile Napoleon, informed we may
+suppose of their progress, had taken a step that was fraught with the
+gravest consequences. He had, as we know, no intention of forcing on a
+decision until his reconnaissance produced the information on which to
+base it, and he had therefore kept back three divisions under Desaix at
+Pontecurone. But as the day wore on without incident, he began to fear
+that the reconnaissance would be profitless, and unwilling to give Melas
+any further start, he sent out these divisions right and left to find
+and to hold the enemy, whichever way the latter had gone. At noon Desaix
+with one division was despatched southward to Rivalta to head off Melas
+from Genoa and at 9 A.M. on the 14th,[21] Lapoype was sent back over the
+Po to hold the Austrians should they be advancing from Valenza towards
+the Ticino. Thus there remained in hand only 21,000 men when at last, in
+the forenoon of the 14th the whole of Melas's army, more than 40,000
+strong, moved out of Alessandria, not southward nor northward, but due
+west into the plain of Marengo (q.v.). The extraordinary battle that
+followed is described elsewhere. The outline of it is simple enough. The
+Austrians advanced slowly and in the face of the most resolute
+opposition, until their attack had gathered weight, and at last they
+were carrying all before them, when Desaix returned from beyond Rivalta
+and initiated a series of counterstrokes. These were brilliantly
+successful, and gave the French not only local victory but the supreme
+self-confidence that, next day, enabled them to extort from Melas an
+agreement to evacuate all Lombardy as far as the Mincio. And though in
+this way the chief prize, Melas's army, escaped after all, Marengo was
+the birthday of the First Empire.
+
+One more blow, however, was required before the Second Coalition
+collapsed, and it was delivered by Moreau. We have seen that he had
+crossed the upper Rhine and defeated Kray at Stokach. This was followed
+by other partial victories, and Kray then retired to Ulm, where he
+reassembled his forces, hitherto scattered in a long weak line from the
+Neckar to Schaffhausen. Moreau continued his advance, extending his
+forces up to and over the Danube below Ulm, and winning several combats,
+of which the most important was that of Höchstädt, fought on the famous
+battlegrounds of 1703 and 1704, and memorable for the death of La Tour
+d'Auvergne, the "First Grenadier of France" (June 19). Finding himself
+in danger of envelopment, Kray now retired, swiftly and skilfully,
+across the front of the advancing French, and reached Ingolstadt in
+safety. Thence he retreated over the Inn, Moreau following him to the
+edge of that river, and an armistice put an end for the moment to
+further operations.
+
+This not resulting in a treaty of peace, the war was resumed both in
+Italy and in Germany. The Army of Reserve and the Army of Italy, after
+being fused into one, under Masséna's command, were divided again into a
+fighting army under Brune, who opposed the Austrians (Bellegarde) on the
+Mincio, and a political army under Murat, which re-established French
+influence in the Peninsula. The former, extending on a wide front as
+usual, won a few strategical successes without tactical victory, the
+only incidents of which worth recording are the gallant fight of
+Dupont's division, which had become isolated during a manoeuvre, at
+Pozzolo on the Mincio (December 25) and the descent of a corps under
+Macdonald from the Grisons by way of the Splügen, an achievement far
+surpassing Napoleon's and even Suvárov's exploits, in that it was made
+after the winter snows had set in.
+
+
+  Hohenlinden.
+
+In Germany the war for a moment reached the sublime. Kray had been
+displaced in command by the young archduke John, who ordered the
+denunciation of the armistice and a general advance. His plan, or that
+of his advisers, was to cross the lower Inn, out of reach of Moreau's
+principal mass, and then to swing round the French flank until a
+complete chain was drawn across their rear. But during the development
+of the manoeuvre, Moreau also moved, and by rapid marching made good the
+time he had lost in concentrating his over-dispersed forces. The weather
+was appalling, snow and rain succeeding one another until the roads were
+almost impassable. On the 2nd of December the Austrians were brought to
+a standstill, but the inherent mobility of the Revolutionary armies
+enabled them to surmount all difficulties, and thanks to the respite
+afforded him by the archduke's halt, Moreau was able to see clearly into
+the enemy's plans and dispositions. On the 3rd of December, while the
+Austrians in many disconnected columns were struggling through the dark
+and muddy forest paths about Hohenlinden, Moreau struck the decisive
+blow. While Ney and Grouchy held fast the head of the Austrian main
+column at Hohenlinden, Richepanse's corps was directed on its left
+flank. In the forest Richepanse unexpectedly met a subsidiary Austrian
+column which actually cut his column in two. But profiting by the
+momentary confusion he drew off that part of his forces which had passed
+beyond the point of contact and continued his march, striking the flank
+of the archduke's main column, most of which had not succeeded in
+deploying opposite Ney, at the village of Mattempost. First the baggage
+train and then the artillery park fell into his hands, and lastly he
+reached the rear of the troops engaged opposite Hohenlinden, whereupon
+the Austrian main body practically dissolved. The rear of Richepanse's
+corps, after disengaging itself from the Austrian column it had met in
+the earlier part of the day, arrived at Mattempost in time to head off
+thousands of fugitives who had escaped from the carnage at Hohenlinden.
+The other columns of the unfortunate army were first checked and then
+driven back by the French divisions they met, which, moving more swiftly
+and fighting better in the broken ground and the woods, were able to
+combine two brigades against one wherever a fight developed. On this
+disastrous day the Austrians lost 20,000 men, 12,000 of them being
+prisoners, and 90 guns.
+
+Marengo and Hohenlinden decided the war of the Second Coalition as
+Rivoli had decided that of the First, and the Revolutionary Wars came to
+an end with the armistice of Steyer (December 25, 1800) and the treaty
+of Lunéville (February 9, 1801). But only the first act of the great
+drama was accomplished. After a short respite Europe entered upon the
+Napoleonic Wars.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--By far the most important modern works are A. Chuquet's
+  _Guerres de la Révolution_ (11 monographs forming together a complete
+  history of the campaigns of 1792-93), and the publications of the
+  French General Staff. The latter appear first, as a rule, in the
+  official "Revue d'histoire" and are then republished in separate
+  volumes, of which every year adds to the number. V. Dupuis' _L'Armée
+  du nord 1793_; Coutanceau's _L'Armée du nord 1794_; J. Colin's
+  _Éducation militaire de Napoléon_ and _Campagne de 1793 en Alsace_;
+  and C. de Cugnac's _Campagne de l'armée de réserve 1800_ may be
+  specially named. Among other works of importance the principal are C.
+  von B(inder)-K(rieglstein), _Geist und Stoff im Kriege_ (Vienna,
+  1896); E. Gachot's works on Masséna's career (containing invaluable
+  evidence though written in a somewhat rhetorical style); Ritter von
+  Angeli, _Erzherzog Karl_ (Vienna, 1896); F. N. Maude, _Evolution of
+  Modern Strategy_; G. A. Furse, _Marengo and Hohenlinden_; C. von
+  Clausewitz, _Feldzug 1796 in Italien_ and _Feldzug 1799_ (French
+  translations); H. Bonnal, _De Rosbach à Ulm_; Krebs and Moris,
+  _Campagnes dans les Alpes_ (Paris, 1891-1895); Yorck von Wartenburg,
+  _Napoleon als Feldherr_ (English and French translations); F. Bouvier,
+  _Bonaparte en Italie 1796_; Kuhl, _Bonaparte's erster Feldzug_; J. W.
+  Fortescue, _Hist. of the British Army_, vol. iv.; G. D. v.
+  Scharnhorst, _Ursache des Glücks der Franzosen 1793-1794_ (reprinted
+  in A. Weiss's _Short German Military Readings_, London, 1892); E.
+  D'Hauterive, _L'Armée sous la Révolution_; C. Rousset, _Les
+  Volontaires_; Max Jähns, _Das französische Heer_; Shadwell, _Mountain
+  Warfare_; works of Colonel Camon (_Guerre Napoléonienne_, &c.);
+  Austrian War Office, Krieg gegen die franz. Revolution 1792-1797
+  (Vienna, 1905); Archduke Charles, _Grundsätze der Strategie_ (1796
+  campaign in Germany), and _Gesch. des Feldzuges 1799 in Deutschl. und
+  der Schweiz_; v. Zeissberg, _Erzherzog Karl_; the old history called
+  _Victoires et conquêtes des Français_ (27 volumes, Paris, 1817-1825);
+  M. Hartmann, _Anteil der Russen am Feldzug 1799 in der Schweiz_
+  (Zürich, 1892); Danélewski-Miliutin, _Der Krieg Russlands gegen
+  Frankreich unter Paul I._ (Munich, 1858); German General Staff,
+  "Napoleons Feldzug 1796-1797" (Suppl. _Mil. Wochenblatt_, 1889), and
+  _Pirmasens und Kaiserslautern_ ("Kriegsgesch. Einzelschriften," 1893).
+       (C. F. A.)
+
+
+NAVAL OPERATIONS
+
+The naval side of the wars arising out of the French Revolution was
+marked by unity, and even by simplicity. France had but one serious
+enemy, Great Britain, and Great Britain had but one purpose, to beat
+down France. Other states were drawn into the strife, but it was as the
+allies, the enemies and at times the victims, of the two dominating
+powers. The field of battle was the whole expanse of the ocean and the
+landlocked seas. The weapons, the methods and the results were the same.
+When a general survey of the whole struggle is taken, its unity is
+manifest. The Revolution produced a profound alteration in the
+government of France, but none in the final purposes of its policy. To
+secure for France its so-called "natural limits"--the Rhine, the Alps,
+the Pyrenees and the ocean; to protect both flanks by reducing Holland
+on the north and Spain on the south to submission; to confirm the mighty
+power thus constituted, by the subjugation of Great Britain, were the
+objects of the Republic and of Napoleon, as they had been of Louis XIV.
+The naval war, like the war on land, is here considered in the first of
+its two phases--the Revolutionary (1792-99). (For the Napoleonic phase
+(1800-15), see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.)
+
+The Revolutionary war began in April 1792. In the September of that year
+Admiral Truguet sailed from Toulon to co-operate with the French troops
+operating against the Austrians and their allies in northern Italy. In
+December Latouche Tréville was sent with another squadron to cow the
+Bourbon rulers of Naples. The extreme feebleness of their opponents
+alone saved the French from disaster. Mutinies, which began within ten
+days of the storming of the Bastille (14th of July 1789), had
+disorganized their navy, and the effects of these disorders continued to
+be felt so long as the war lasted. In February 1793 war broke out with
+Great Britain and Holland. In March Spain was added to the list of the
+powers against which France declared war. Her resources at sea were
+wholly inadequate to meet the coalition she had provoked. The Convention
+did indeed order that fifty-two ships of the line should be commissioned
+in the Channel, but it was not able in fact to do more than send out a
+few diminutive and ill-appointed squadrons, manned by mutinous crews,
+which kept close to the coast. The British navy was in excellent order,
+but the many calls made on it for the protection of world-wide commerce
+and colonial possessions caused the operations in the Channel to be
+somewhat languid. Lord Howe cruised in search of the enemy without being
+able to bring them to action. The severe blockade which in the later
+stages of the war kept the British fleet permanently outside of Brest
+was not enforced in the earlier stages. Lord Howe preferred to save his
+fleet from the wear and tear of perpetual cruising by maintaining his
+headquarters at St Helens, and keeping watch on the French ports by
+frigates. The French thus secured a freedom of movement which in the
+course of 1794 enabled them to cover the arrival of a great convoy laden
+with food from America (see FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF). This great effort
+was followed by a long period of languor. Its internal defects compelled
+the French fleet in the Channel to play a very poor part till the last
+days of 1796. Squadrons were indeed sent a short way to sea, but their
+inefficiency was conspicuously displayed when, on the 17th of June 1795,
+a much superior number of their line of battle ships failed to do any
+harm to the small force of Cornwallis, and when on the 22nd of the same
+month they fled in disorder before Lord Bridport at the Isle de Groix.
+
+Operations of a more decisive character had in the meantime taken place
+both in the Mediterranean and in the West Indies. In April 1793 the
+first detachment of a British fleet, which was finally raised to a
+strength of 21 sail of the line, under the command of Lord Hood, sailed
+for the Mediterranean. By August the admiral was off Toulon, acting in
+combination with a Spanish naval force. France was torn by the
+contentions of Jacobins and Girondins, and its dissensions led to the
+surrender of the great arsenal to the British admiral and his Spanish
+colleague Don Juan de Lángara, on the 27th of August. The allies were
+joined later by a contingent from Naples. But the military forces were
+insufficient to hold the land defences against the army collected to
+expel them. High ground commanding the anchorage was occupied by the
+besieging force, and on the 18th of December 1793 the allies retired.
+They carried away or destroyed thirty-three French vessels, of which
+thirteen were of the line. But partly through the inefficiency and
+partly through the ill-will of the Spaniards, who were indisposed to
+cripple the French, whom they considered as their only possible allies
+against Great Britain, the destruction was not so complete as had been
+intended. Twenty-five ships, of which eighteen were of the line, were
+left to serve as the nucleus of an active fleet in later years. Fourteen
+thousand of the inhabitants fled with the allies to escape the vengeance
+of the victorious Jacobins. Their sufferings, and the ferocious massacre
+perpetrated on those who remained behind by the conquerors, form one of
+the blackest pages of the French Revolution. The Spanish fleet took no
+further part in the war. Lord Hood now turned to the occupation of
+Corsica, where the intervention of the British fleet was invited by the
+patriotic party headed by Pascual Paoli. The French ships left at Toulon
+were refitted and came to sea in the spring of 1794, but Admiral Martin
+who commanded them did not feel justified in giving battle, and his
+sorties were mere demonstrations. From the 25th of January 1794 till
+November 1796 the British fleet in the Mediterranean was mainly occupied
+in and about Corsica, securing the island, watching Toulon and
+co-operating with the allied Austrians and Piedmontese in northern
+Italy. It did much to hamper the coastwise communications of the French.
+But neither Lord Hood, who went home at the end of 1794, nor his
+indolent successor Hotham, was able to deliver an effective blow at the
+Toulon squadron. The second of these officers fought two confused
+actions with Admiral Martin in the Gulf of Lyons on the 16th of March
+and the 12th of July 1795, but though three French ships were cut off
+and captured, the baffling winds and the placid disposition of Hotham
+united to prevent decisive results. A new spirit was introduced into the
+command of the British fleet when Sir John Jervis, afterwards Earl Saint
+Vincent, succeeded Hotham in November 1795.
+
+Jervis came to the Mediterranean with a high reputation, which had been
+much enhanced by his recent command in the West Indies. In every war
+with France it was the natural policy of the British government to
+seize on its enemy's colonial possessions, not only because of their
+intrinsic value, but because they were the headquarters of active
+privateers. The occupation of the little fishing stations of St Pierre
+and Miquelon (14th May 1793) and of Pondicherry in the East Indies (23rd
+Aug. 1793) were almost formal measures taken at the beginning of every
+war. But the French West Indian islands possessed intrinsic strength
+which rendered their occupation a service of difficulty and hazard. In
+1793 they were torn by dissensions, the result of the revolution in the
+mother country. Tobago was occupied in April, and the French part of the
+great island of San Domingo was partially thrown into British hands by
+the Creoles, who were threatened by their insurgent slaves. During 1794
+a lively series of operations, in which there were some marked
+alternations of fortune, took place in and about Martinique and
+Guadaloupe. The British squadron, and the contingent of troops it
+carried, after a first repulse, occupied them both in March and April,
+together with Santa Lucia. A vigorous counter-attack was carried out by
+the Terrorist Victor Hugues with ability and ferocity. Guadaloupe and
+Santa Lucia were recovered in August. Yet on the whole the British
+government was successful in its policy of destroying the French naval
+power in distant seas. The seaborne commerce of the Republic was
+destroyed.
+
+The naval supremacy of Great Britain was limited, and was for a time
+menaced, in consequence of the advance of the French armies on land. The
+invasion of Holland in 1794 led to the downfall of the house of Orange,
+and the establishment of the Batavian Republic. War with Great Britain
+under French dictation followed in January 1795. In that year a British
+expedition under the command of Admiral Keith Elphinstone (afterwards
+Lord Keith) occupied the Dutch colony at the Cape (August-September) and
+their trading station in Malacca. The British colonial empire was again
+extended, and the command of the sea by its fleet confirmed. But the
+necessity to maintain a blockading force in the German Ocean imposed a
+fresh strain on its naval resources, and the hostility of Holland closed
+a most important route to British commerce in Europe. In 1795 Spain made
+peace with France at Basel, and in September 1796 re-entered the war as
+her ally. The Spanish navy was most inefficient, but it required to be
+watched and therefore increased the heavy strain on the British fleet.
+At the same time the rapid advance of the French arms in Italy began to
+close the ports of the peninsula to Great Britain. Its ships were for a
+time withdrawn from the Mediterranean. Poor as it was in quality, the
+Spanish fleet was numerous. It was able to facilitate the movements of
+French squadrons sent to harass British commerce in the Atlantic, and a
+concentration of forces became necessary.
+
+It was the more important because the cherished French scheme for an
+attack on the heart of the British empire began to take shape. While
+Spain occupied one part of the British fleet to the south, and Holland
+another in the north, a French expedition, which was to have been aided
+by a Dutch expedition from the Texel, was prepared at Brest. The Dutch
+were confined to harbour by the vigilant blockade of Admiral Duncan,
+afterwards Lord Camperdown. But in December 1796 a French fleet
+commanded by Admiral Morard de Galle, carrying 13,000 troops under
+General Hoche, was allowed to sail from Brest for Ireland, by the slack
+management of the blockade under Admiral Colpoys. Being ill-fitted,
+ill-manned and exposed to constant bad weather the French ships were
+scattered. Some reached their destination, Bantry Bay, only to be driven
+out again by north-easterly gales. The expedition finally returned after
+much suffering, and in fragments, to Brest. Yet the year 1797 was one of
+extreme trial to Great Britain. The victory of Sir John Jervis over the
+Spaniards near Cape Saint Vincent on the 14th of February (see SAINT
+VINCENT, BATTLE OF) disposed of the Spanish fleet. In the autumn of the
+year the Dutch, having put to sea, were defeated at Camperdown by
+Admiral Duncan on the 11th of October. Admiral Duncan had the more
+numerous force, sixteen ships to fifteen, and they were on the average
+heavier. Attacking from windward he broke through the enemy's line and
+concentrated on his rear and centre. Eight line of battleships and two
+frigates were taken, but the good gunnery and steady resistance of the
+Dutch made the victory costly. Between these two battles the British
+fleet was for a time menaced in its very existence by a succession of
+mutinies, the result of much neglect of the undoubted grievances of the
+sailors. The victory of Camperdown, completing what the victory of Cape
+Saint Vincent had begun, seemed to put Great Britain beyond fear of
+invasion. But the government of the Republic was intent on renewing the
+attempt. The successes of Napoleon at the head of the army of Italy had
+reduced Austria to sign the peace of Campo Formio, on the 17th of
+October 1797, and he was appointed commander of the new army of
+invasion. It was still thought necessary to maintain the bulk of the
+British fleet in European waters, within call in the ocean. The
+Mediterranean was left free to the French, whose squadrons cruised in
+the Levant, where the Republic had become possessed of the Ionian
+Islands by the plunder of Venice. The absence of a British force in the
+Mediterranean offered to the government of the French Republic an
+alternative to an invasion of Great Britain or Ireland, which promised
+to be less hazardous and equally effective. It was induced largely by
+the persuasion of Napoleon himself, and the wish of the politicians who
+were very willing to see him employed at a distance. The expedition to
+Egypt under his command sailed on the 19th of May 1798, having for its
+immediate purpose the occupation of the Nile valley, and for its
+ultimate aim an attack on Great Britain "from behind" in India (see
+NILE, BATTLE OF THE). The British fleet re-entered the Mediterranean to
+pursue and baffle Napoleon. The destruction of the French squadron at
+the anchorage of Aboukir on the 1st of August gave it the complete
+command of the sea. A second invasion of Ireland on a smaller scale was
+attempted and to some extent carried out, while the great attack by
+Egypt was in progress. One French squadron of four frigates carrying
+1150 soldiers under General Humbert succeeded in sailing from Rochefort
+on the 6th of August. On the 22nd Humbert was landed at Killala Bay, but
+after making a vigorous raid he was compelled to surrender at
+Ballinamuck on the 8th of September. Eight days after his surrender,
+another French squadron of one sail of the line and eight frigates
+carrying 3000 troops, sailed from Brest under Commodore Bompart to
+support Humbert. It was watched and pursued by frigates, and on the 12th
+of October was overtaken and destroyed by a superior British force
+commanded by Sir John Borlase Warren, near Tory Island.
+
+From the close of 1798 till the _coup d'état_ of the 18th Brumaire (9th
+November) 1799, which established Napoleon as First Consul and master of
+France, the French navy had only one object--to reinforce and relieve
+the army cut off in Egypt by the battle of the Nile. The relief of the
+French garrison in Malta was a subordinate part of the main purpose. But
+the supremacy of the British navy was by this time so firmly founded
+that neither Egypt nor Malta could be reached except by small ships
+which ran the blockade. On the 25th of April, Admiral Bruix did indeed
+leave Brest, after baffling the blockading fleet of Lord Bridport, which
+was sent on a wild-goose chase to the south of Ireland by means of a
+despatch sent out to be captured and to deceive. Admiral Bruix succeeded
+in reaching Toulon, and his presence in the Mediterranean caused some
+disturbance. But, though his twenty-five sail of the line formed the
+best-manned fleet which the French had sent to sea during the war, and
+though he escaped being brought to battle, he did not venture to steer
+for the eastern Mediterranean. On the 13th of August he was back at
+Brest, bringing with him a Spanish squadron carried off as a hostage for
+the fidelity of the government at Madrid to its disastrous alliance with
+France. On the day on which Bruix re-entered Brest, the 13th of August
+1799, a combined Russian and British expedition sailed from the Downs to
+attack the French army of occupation in the Batavian Republic. The
+military operations were unsuccessful, and terminated in the withdrawal
+of the allies. But the naval part was well executed. Vice-admiral
+Mitchell forced the entrance to the Texel, and on the 30th of August
+received the surrender of the remainder of the Dutch fleet--thirteen
+vessels in the Nieuwe Diep--the sailors having refused to fight for the
+republic. In spite of the failure on land, the expedition did much to
+confirm the naval supremacy of Great Britain by the entire suppression
+of the most seamanlike of the forces opposed to it.
+
+  Authorities.--Chevalier, _Histoire de la marine française sous la
+  première République_ (Paris, 1886); James's _Naval History_ (London,
+  1837); Captain Mahan, _Influence of Sea Power upon the French
+  Revolution and the Empire_ (London, 1892). The French schemes of
+  invasion are exhaustively dealt with in Captain E. Desbrière's
+  _Projets et tentatives de débarquements aux Îles Britanniques_ (Paris,
+  1900, &c.).     (D. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the following operations see map in SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR.
+
+  [2] Coburg refrained from a regular siege of Condé. He wished to gain
+    possession of the fortress in a defensible state, intending to use it
+    as his own depot later in the year. He therefore reduced it by
+    famine. During the siege of Valenciennes the Allies appear to have
+    been supplied from Mons.
+
+  [3] Henceforth to the end of 1794 both armies were more or less "in
+    cordon," the cordon possessing greater or less density at any
+    particular moment or place, according to the immediate intentions of
+    the respective commanders and the general military situation.
+
+  [4] In the course of this the column from Bouchain, 4500 strong, was
+    caught in the open at Avesnes-le-Sec by 5 squadrons of the allied
+    cavalry and literally annihilated.
+
+  [5] One of the generals at Maubeuge, Chancel, was guillotined.
+
+  [6] Each of the fifteen armies on foot had been allotted certain
+    departments as supply areas, Jourdan's being of course far away in
+    Lorraine.
+
+  [7] Liguria was not at this period thought of, even by Napoleon, as
+    anything more than a supply area.
+
+  [8] Vukassovich had received Beaulieu's order to demonstrate with two
+    battalions, and also appeals for help from Argenteau. He therefore
+    brought most of his troops with him.
+
+  [9] We have seen that after Tourcoing, taught by experience, Souham
+    posted Vandamme's covering force 14 or 15 m. out. But Napoleon's
+    disposition was in advance of experience.
+
+  [10] The proposed alliance with the Sardinians came to nothing. The
+    kings of Sardinia had always made their alliance with either Austria
+    or France conditional on cessions of conquered territory. But,
+    according to Thiers, the Directory only desired to conquer the
+    Milanese to restore it to Austria in return for the definitive
+    cession of the Austrian Netherlands. If this be so, Napoleon's
+    proclamations of "freedom for Italy" were, if not a mere political
+    expedient, at any rate no more than an expression of his own desires
+    which he was not powerful enough to enforce.
+
+  [11] On entering the territory of the duke of Parma Bonaparte
+    imposed, besides other contributions, the surrender of twenty famous
+    pictures, and thus began a practice which for many years enriched the
+    Louvre and only ceased with the capture of Paris in 1814.
+
+  [12] See C. von B.-K., _Geist und Stoff_, pp. 449-451.
+
+  [13] The assumption by later critics (Clausewitz even included) that
+    the "flank position" held by these forces relatively to the main
+    armies in Italy and Germany was their _raison d'être_ is unsupported
+    by contemporary evidence.
+
+  [14] For this expedition, which was repulsed by Brune in the battle
+    of Castricum, see Fortescue's _Hist. of the British Army_, vol. iv.,
+    and Sachot's _Brune en Hollande_.
+
+  [15] He afterwards appointed Berthier to command the Army of Reserve,
+    but himself accompanied it and directed it, using Berthier as chief
+    of staff.
+
+  [16] Only one division of the main body used the Little St Bernard.
+
+  [17] When he made his decision he was unaware that Béthencourt had
+    been held up at Arona.
+
+  [18] This may be accounted for by the fact that Napoleon's mind was
+    not yet definitively made up when his advanced guard had already
+    begun to climb the St Bernard (12th). Napoleon's instructions for
+    Moncey were written on the 14th. The magazines, too, had to be
+    provided and placed before it was known whether Moreau's detachment
+    would be forthcoming.
+
+  [19] Six guns had by now passed Fort Bard and four of these were with
+    Murat and Duhesme, two with Lannes.
+
+  [20] It is supposed that the foreign spies at Dijon sent word to
+    their various employers that the Army was a bogy. In fact a great
+    part of it never entered Dijon at all, and the troops reviewed there
+    by Bonaparte were only conscripts and details. By the time that the
+    veteran divisions from the west and Paris arrived, either the spies
+    had been ejected or their news was sent off too late to be of use.
+
+  [21] On the strength of a report, false as it turned out, that the
+    Austrian rearguard had broken the bridges of the Bormida.
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH WEST AFRICA (_L'Afrique occidentale française_), the common
+designation of the following colonies of France:--(1) Senegal, (2) Upper
+Senegal and Niger, (3) Guinea, (4) the Ivory Coast, (5) Dahomey; of the
+territory of Mauretania, and of a large portion of the Sahara. The area
+is estimated at nearly 2,000,000 sq. m., of which more than half is
+Saharan territory. The countries thus grouped under the common
+designation French West Africa comprise the greater part of the
+continent west of the Niger delta (which is British territory) and south
+of the tropic of Cancer. It embraces the upper and middle course of the
+Niger, the whole of the basin of the Senegal and the south-western part
+of the Sahara. Its most northern point on the coast is Cape Blanco, and
+it includes Cape Verde, the most westerly point of Africa. Along the
+Guinea coast the French possessions are separated from one another by
+colonies of Great Britain and other powers, but in the interior they
+unite not only with one another but with the hinterlands of Algeria and
+the French Congo.
+
+[Illustration: Map of French West Africa and Adjacent Territories.]
+
+In physical characteristics French West Africa presents three types: (1)
+a dense forest region succeeding a narrow coast belt greatly broken by
+lagoons; (2) moderately elevated and fertile plateaus, generally below
+2000 ft., such as the region enclosed in the great bend of the Niger;
+(3) north of the Senegal and Niger, the desert lands forming part of the
+Sahara (q.v.). The most elevated districts are Futa Jallon, whence rise
+the Senegal, Gambia and Niger, and Gon--both massifs along the
+south-western edge of the plateau lands, containing heights of 5000 to
+6000 ft. or more. Among the chief towns are Timbuktu and Jenné on the
+Niger, Porto Novo in Dahomey, and St Louis and Dakar in Senegal, Dakar
+being an important naval and commercial port. The inhabitants are for
+the most part typical Negroes, with in Senegal and in the Sahara an
+admixture of Berber and Arab tribes. In the upper Senegal and Futa
+Jallon large numbers of the inhabitants are Fula. The total population
+of French West Africa is estimated at about 13,000,000. The European
+inhabitants number about 12,000.
+
+The French possessions in West Africa have grown by the extension inland
+of coast colonies, each having an independent origin. They were first
+brought under one general government in 1895, when they were placed
+under the supervision of the governor of Senegal, whose title was
+altered to meet the new situation. Between that date and 1905 various
+changes in the areas and administrations of the different colonies were
+made, involving the disappearance of the protectorates and military
+territories known as French Sudan and dependent on Senegal. These were
+partly absorbed in the coast colonies, whilst the central portion became
+the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. At the same time the central
+government was freed from the direct administration of the Senegal and
+Niger countries (Decrees of Oct. 1902 and Oct. 1904). Over the whole of
+French West Africa is a governor-general, whose headquarters are at
+Dakar.[1] He is assisted by a government council, composed of high
+functionaries, including the lieutenant-governors of all colonies under
+his control. The central government, like all other French colonial
+administrations, is responsible, not to the colonists, but to the home
+government, and its constitution is alterable at will by presidential
+decree save in matters on which the chambers have expressly legislated.
+To it is confided financial control over the colonies, responsibility
+for the public debt, the direction of the departments of education and
+agriculture, and the carrying out of works of general utility. It alone
+communicates with the home authorities. Its expenses are met by the
+duties levied on goods and vessels entering and leaving any port of
+French West Africa. It may make advances to the colonies under its care,
+and may, in case of need, demand from them contributions to the central
+exchequer. The administration of justice is centralized and uniform for
+all French West Africa. The court of appeal sits at Dakar. There is also
+a uniform system of land registration adopted in 1906 and based on that
+in force in Australia. Subject to the limitations indicated the five
+colonies enjoy autonomy. The territory of Mauretania is administered by
+a civil commissioner under the direct control of the governor-general.
+The colony of Senegal is represented in the French parliament by one
+deputy.
+
+Since the changes in administration effected in 1895 the commerce of
+French West Africa has shown a steady growth, the volume of external
+trade increasing in the ten years 1895-1904 from £3,151,094 to
+£6,238,091. In 1907 the value of the trade was £7,097,000; of this 53%
+was with France. Apart from military expenditure, about £600,000 a year,
+which is borne by France, French West Africa is self-supporting. The
+general budget for 1906 balanced at £1,356,000. There is a public debt
+of some £11,000,000, mainly incurred for works of general utility.
+
+  See SENEGAL, FRENCH GUINEA, IVORY COAST and DAHOMEY. For Anglo-French
+  boundaries east of the Niger see SAHARA and NIGERIA. For the
+  constitutional connexion between the colonies and France see FRANCE:
+  _Colonies_. An account of the economic situation of the colonies is
+  given by G. François in _Le Gouvernement général de l'Afrique
+  occidentale française_ (Paris, 1908). Consult also the annual _Report
+  on the Trade, Agriculture, &c. of French West Africa_ issued by the
+  British foreign office. A map of French West Africa by A. Meunier and
+  E. Barralier (6 sheets on the scale 1:2,000,000) was published in
+  Paris, 1903.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The organization of the new government was largely the work of E.
+    N. Roume (b. 1858), governor-general 1902-1907, an able and energetic
+    official, formerly director of Asian affairs at the colonial
+    ministry.
+
+
+
+
+FRENTANI, one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed an independent
+community on the east coast of Italy. They entered the Roman alliance
+after their capital, Frentrum, was taken by the Romans in 305 or 304 B.C.
+(Livy ix. 16. 45). This town either changed its name or perished some
+time after the middle of the 3rd century B.C., when it was issuing coins
+of its own with an Oscan legend. The town Larinum, which belonged to the
+same people (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 103), became latinized before 200
+B.C., as its coins of that epoch bear a legend--LARINOR(VM)--which cannot
+reasonably be treated as anything but Latin. Several Oscan inscriptions
+survive from the neighbourhood of Vasto (anc. _Histonium_), which was in
+the Frentane area.
+
+  On the forms of the name, and for further details see R. S. Conway,
+  _Italic Dialects_, p. 206 ff and p. 212: for the coins id. No.
+  195-196.
+
+
+
+
+FREPPEL, CHARLES ÉMILE (1827-1891), French bishop and politician, was
+born at Oberehnheim (Obernai), Alsace, on the 1st of June 1827. He was
+ordained priest in 1849 and for a short time taught history at the
+seminary of Strassburg, where he had previously received his clerical
+training. In 1854 he was appointed professor of theology at the
+Sorbonne, and became known as a successful preacher. He went to Rome in
+1869, at the instance of Pius IX., to assist in the steps preparatory to
+the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. He was consecrated
+bishop of Angers in 1870. During the Franco-German war Freppel organized
+a body of priests to minister to the French prisoners in Germany, and
+penned an eloquent protest to the emperor William I. against the
+annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. In 1880 he was elected deputy for Brest
+and continued to represent it until his death. Being the only priest in
+the Chamber of Deputies since the death of Dupanloup, he became the
+chief parliamentary champion of the Church, and, though no orator, was a
+frequent speaker. On all ecclesiastical affairs Freppel voted with the
+Royalist and Catholic party, yet on questions in which French colonial
+prestige was involved, such as the expedition to Tunis, Tong-King,
+Madagascar (1881, 1883-85), he supported the government of the day. He
+always remained a staunch Royalist and went so far as to oppose Leo
+XIII.'s policy of conciliating the Republic. He died at Angers on the
+12th of December 1891. Freppel's historical and theological works form
+30 vols., the best known of which are: _Les Pères apostoliques et leur
+époque_ (1859); _Les Apologistes chrétiens au II^e siècle_ (2 vols.,
+1860); _Saint Irénée et l'éloquence chrétienne dans la Gaule aux deux
+premiers siècles_ (1861); _Tertullien_ (2 vols., 1863); _Saint Cyprien
+et l'Église d'Afrique_ (1864); _Clément d'Alexandrie_ (1865); _Origène_
+(2 vols., 1867).
+
+  There are interesting lives by E. Cornut (Paris, 1893) and F.
+  Charpentier (Angers, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD (1815-1884), British administrator, born
+at Clydach in Brecknockshire, on the 29th of March 1815, was the son of
+Edward Frere, a member of an old east county family, and a nephew of
+John Hookham Frere, of _Anti-Jacobin_ and _Aristophanes_ fame. After
+leaving Haileybury, Bartle Frere was appointed a writer in the Bombay
+civil service in 1834, and went out to India by way of Egypt, crossing
+the Red Sea in an open boat from Kosseir to Mokha, and sailing thence to
+Bombay in an Arab dhow. Having passed his examination in the native
+languages, he was appointed assistant collector at Poona in 1835. There
+he did valuable work and was in 1842 chosen as private secretary to Sir
+George Arthur, governor of Bombay. Two years later he became political
+resident at the court of the rajah of Satara, where he did much to
+benefit the country by the development of its communications. On the
+rajah's death in 1848 he administered the province both before and after
+its formal annexation in 1849. In 1850 he was appointed chief
+commissioner of Sind, and took ample advantage of the opportunities
+afforded him of developing the province. He pensioned off the
+dispossessed amirs, improved the harbour at Karachi, where he also
+established municipal buildings, a museum and barracks, instituted
+fairs, multiplied roads, canals and schools.
+
+Returning to India in 1857 after a well-earned rest, Frere was greeted
+at Karachi with news of the mutiny. His rule had been so successful that
+he felt he could answer for the internal peace of his province. He
+therefore sent his only European regiment to Multan, thus securing that
+strong fortress against the rebels, and sent further detachments to aid
+Sir John Lawrence in the Punjab. The 178 British soldiers who remained
+in Sind proved sufficient to extinguish such insignificant outbreaks as
+occurred. His services were fully recognized by the Indian authorities,
+and he received the thanks of both houses of parliament and was made
+K.C.B. He became a member of the viceroy's council in 1859, and was
+especially serviceable in financial matters. In 1862 he was appointed
+governor of Bombay, where he effected great improvements, such as the
+demolition of the old ramparts, and the erection of handsome public
+offices upon a portion of the space, the inauguration of the university
+buildings and the improvement of the harbour. He established the Deccan
+College at Poona, as well as a college for instructing natives in civil
+engineering. The prosperity--due to the American Civil War--which
+rendered these developments possible brought in its train a speculative
+mania, which led eventually to the disastrous failure of the Bombay Bank
+(1866), an affair in which, from neglecting to exercise such means of
+control as he possessed, Frere incurred severe and not wholly undeserved
+censure. In 1867 he returned to England, was made G.C.S.I., and received
+honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge; he was also appointed a
+member of the Indian council.
+
+In 1872 he was sent by the foreign office to Zanzibar to negotiate a
+treaty with the sultan, Seyyid Burghash, for the suppression of the
+slave traffic. In 1875 he accompanied the prince of Wales to Egypt and
+India. The tour was beyond expectation successful, and to Frere, from
+Queen Victoria downwards, came acknowledgments of the service he had
+rendered in piloting the expedition. He was asked by Lord Beaconsfield
+to choose between being made a baronet or G.C.B. He chose the former,
+but the queen bestowed both honours upon him. But the greatest service
+that Frere undertook on behalf of his country was to be attempted not in
+Asia, but in Africa. Sir Bartle landed at Cape Town as high commissioner
+of South Africa on the 31st of March 1877. He had been chosen by Lord
+Carnarvon in the previous October as the statesman most capable of
+carrying his scheme of confederation into effect, and within two years
+it was hoped that he would be the first governor of the South African
+Dominion. He went out in harmony with the aims and enthusiasm of his
+chief, "hoping to crown by one great constructive effort the work of a
+bright and noble life." In this hope he was disappointed. As he stated
+at the close of his high commissionership, a great mistake seemed to
+have been made in trying to hasten what could only result from natural
+growth, and the state of South Africa during Frere's tenure of office
+was inimical to such growth.
+
+Discord or a policy of blind drifting seemed to be the alternatives
+presented to Frere upon his arrival at the Cape. He chose the former as
+the less dangerous, and the first year of his sway was marked by a
+Kaffir war on the one hand and by a rupture with the Cape
+(Molteno-Merriman) ministry on the other. The Transkei Kaffirs were
+subjugated early in 1878 by General Thesiger (the 2nd Lord Chelmsford)
+and a small force of regular and colonial troops. The constitutional
+difficulty was solved by Frere dismissing his obstructive cabinet and
+entrusting the formation of a ministry to Mr (afterwards Sir) Gordon
+Sprigg. Frere emerged successfully from a year of crisis, but the
+advantage was more than counterbalanced by the resignation of Lord
+Carnarvon early in 1878, at a time when Frere required the steadiest and
+most unflinching support. He had reached the conclusion that there was a
+widespread insurgent spirit pervading the natives, which had its focus
+and strength in the celibate military organization of Cetywayo and in
+the prestige which impunity for the outrages he had committed had gained
+for the Zulu king in the native mind. That organization and that evil
+prestige must be put an end to, if possible by moral pressure, but
+otherwise by force. Frere reiterated these views to the colonial office,
+where they found a general acceptance. When, however, Frere undertook
+the responsibility of forwarding, in December 1878, an ultimatum to
+Cetywayo, the home government abruptly discovered that a native war in
+South Africa was inopportune and raised difficulties about
+reinforcements. Having entrusted to Lord Chelmsford the enforcement of
+the British demands, Frere's immediate responsibility ceased. On the
+11th of January 1879 the British troops crossed the Tugela, and fourteen
+days later the disaster of Isandhlwana was reported; and Frere, attacked
+and censured in the House of Commons, was but feebly defended by the
+government. Lord Beaconsfield, it appears, supported Frere; the majority
+of the cabinet were inclined to recall him. The result was the
+unsatisfactory compromise by which he was censured and begged to stay
+on. Frere wrote an elaborate justification of his conduct, which was
+adversely commented on by the colonial secretary (Sir Michael Hicks
+Beach), who "did not see why Frere should take notice of attacks; and as
+to the war, all African wars had been unpopular." Frere's rejoinder was
+that no other sufficient answer had been made to his critics, and that
+he wished to place one on record. "Few may now agree with my view as to
+the necessity of the suppression of the Zulu rebellion. Few, I fear, in
+this generation. But unless my countrymen are much changed, they will
+some day do me justice. I shall not leave a name to be permanently
+dishonoured."
+
+The Zulu trouble and the disaffection that was brewing in the Transvaal
+reacted upon each other in the most disastrous manner. Frere had borne
+no part in the actual annexation of the Transvaal, which was announced
+by Sir Theophilus Shepstone a few days after the high commissioner's
+arrival at Cape Town. The delay in giving the country a constitution
+afforded a pretext for agitation to the malcontent Boers, a rapidly
+increasing minority, while the reverse at Isandhlwana had lowered
+British prestige. Owing to the Kaffir and Zulu wars Sir Bartle had
+hitherto been unable to give his undivided attention to the state of
+things in the Transvaal. In April 1879 he was at last able to visit that
+province, and the conviction was forced upon him that the government had
+been unsatisfactory in many ways. The country was very unsettled. A
+large camp, numbering 4000 disaffected Boers, had been formed near
+Pretoria, and they were terrorizing the country. Frere visited them
+unarmed and practically alone. Even yet all might have been well, for he
+won the Boers' respect and liking. On the condition that the Boers
+dispersed, Frere undertook to present their complaints to the British
+government, and to urge the fulfilment of the promises that had been
+made to them. They parted with mutual good feeling, and the Boers did
+eventually disperse--on the very day upon which Frere received the
+telegram announcing the government's censure. He returned to Cape Town,
+and his journey back was in the nature of a triumph. But bad news
+awaited him at Government House--on the 1st of June 1879 the prince
+imperial had met his death in Zululand--and a few hours later Frere
+heard that the government of the Transvaal and Natal, together with the
+high commissionership in the eastern part of South Africa, had been
+transferred from him to Sir Garnet Wolseley.
+
+When Gladstone's ministry came into office in the spring of 1880, Lord
+Kimberley had no intention of recalling Frere. In June, however, a
+section of the Liberal party memorialized Gladstone to remove him, and
+the prime minister weakly complied (1st August 1880). Upon his return
+Frere replied to the charges relating to his conduct respecting
+Afghanistan as well as South Africa, previously preferred in Gladstone's
+Midlothian speeches, and was preparing a fuller vindication when he died
+at Wimbledon from the effect of a severe chill on the 29th of May 1884.
+He was buried in St Paul's, and in 1888 a statue of Frere upon the
+Thames embankment was unveiled by the prince of Wales. Frere edited the
+works of his uncle, Hookham Frere, and the popular story-book, _Old
+Deccan Days_, written by his daughter, Mary Frere. He was three times
+president of the Royal Asiatic Society.
+
+  His _Life and Correspondence_, by John Martineau, was published in
+  1895. For the South African anti-confederation view, see P. A.
+  Molteno's _Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno_ (2 vols.,
+  London 1900). See also SOUTH AFRICA: _History_.
+
+
+
+
+FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769-1846), English diplomatist and author, was
+born in London on the 21st of May 1769. His father, John Frere, a
+gentleman of a good Suffolk family, had been educated at Caius College,
+Cambridge, and would have been senior wrangler in 1763 but for the
+redoubtable competition of Paley; his mother, daughter of John Hookham,
+a rich London merchant, was a lady of no small culture, accustomed to
+amuse her leisure with verse-writing. His father's sister Eleanor, who
+married Sir John Fenn (1739-1794), the learned editor of the _Paston
+Letters_, wrote various educational works for children under the
+pseudonyms "Mrs Lovechild" and "Mrs Teachwell." Young Frere was sent to
+Eton in 1785, and there began an intimacy with Canning which greatly
+affected his after life. From Eton he went to his father's college at
+Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1792 and M.A. in 1795. He entered
+public service in the foreign office under Lord Grenville, and sat from
+1796 to 1802 as member of parliament for the close borough of West Looe
+in Cornwall.
+
+From his boyhood he had been a warm admirer of Pitt, and along with
+Canning he entered heart and soul into the defence of his government,
+and contributed freely to the pages of the _Anti-Jacobin_, edited by
+Gifford. He contributed, in collaboration with Canning, "The Loves of
+the Triangles," a clever parody of Darwin's "Loves of the Plants," "The
+Needy Knife-Grinder" and "The Rovers." On Canning's removal to the board
+of trade in 1799 he succeeded him as under-secretary of state; in
+October 1800 he was appointed envoy extraordinary and plenipotentiary to
+Lisbon; and in September 1802 he was transferred to Madrid, where he
+remained for two years. He was recalled on account of a personal
+disagreement he had with the duke of Alcudia, but the ministry showed
+its approval of his action by a pension of £1700 a year. He was made a
+member of the privy council in 1805; in 1807 he was appointed
+plenipotentiary at Berlin, but the mission was abandoned, and Frere was
+again sent to Spain in 1808 as plenipotentiary to the Central Junta. The
+condition of Spain rendered his position a very responsible and
+difficult one. When Napoleon began to advance on Madrid it became a
+matter of supreme importance to decide whether Sir John Moore, who was
+then in the north of Spain, should endeavour to anticipate the
+occupation of the capital or merely make good his retreat, and if he did
+retreat whether he should do so by Portgual or by Galicia. Frere was
+strongly of opinion that the bolder was the better course, and he urged
+his views on Sir John Moore with an urgent and fearless persistency that
+on one occasion at least overstepped the limits of his commission. After
+the disastrous retreat to Corunna, the public accused Frere of having by
+his advice endangered the British army, and though no direct censure was
+passed upon his conduct by the government, he was recalled, and the
+marquess of Wellesley was appointed in his place.
+
+Thus ended Frere's public life. He afterwards refused to undertake an
+embassy to St Petersburg, and twice declined the honour of a peerage. In
+1816 he married Elizabeth Jemima, dowager countess of Erroll, and in
+1820, on account of her failing health, he went with her to the
+Mediterranean. There he finally settled in Malta, and though he
+afterwards visited England more than once, the rest of his life was for
+the most part spent in the island of his choice. In quiet retirement he
+devoted himself to literature, studied his favourite Greek authors, and
+taught himself Hebrew and Maltese. His hospitality was well known to
+many an English guest, and his charities and courtesies endeared him to
+his Maltese neighbours. He died at the Pietà Valetta on the 7th of
+January 1846. Frere's literary reputation now rests entirely upon his
+spirited verse translations of Aristophanes, which remain in many ways
+unrivalled. The principles according to which he conducted his task were
+elucidated in an article on Mitchell's _Aristophanes_, which he
+contributed to _The Quarterly Review_, vol. xxiii. The translations of
+_The Acharnians_, _The Knights_, _The Birds_, and _The Frogs_ were
+privately printed, and were first brought into general notice by Sir G.
+Cornewall Lewis in the _Classical Museum_ for 1847. They were followed
+some time after by _Theognis Restitutus, or the personal history of the
+poet Theognis, reduced from an analysis of his existing fragments_. In
+1817 he published a mock-heroic Arthurian poem entitled _Prospectus and
+Specimen of an intended National Work, by William and Robert
+Whistlecraft, of Stowmarket in Suffolk, Harness and Collar Makers,
+intended to comprise the most interesting particulars relating to King
+Arthur and his Round Table_. William Tennant in _Anster Fair_ had used
+the _ottava rima_ as a vehicle for semi-burlesque poetry five years
+earlier, but Frere's experiment is interesting because Byron borrowed
+from it the measure that he brought to perfection in _Don Juan_.
+
+  Frere's complete works were published in 1871, with a memoir by his
+  nephews, W. E. and Sir Bartle Frere, and reached a second edition in
+  1874. Compare also Gabrielle Festing, _J. H. Frere and his Friends_
+  (1899).
+
+
+
+
+FRÈRE, PIERRE ÉDOUARD (1819-1886), French painter, studied under
+Delaroche, entered the École des Beaux-Arts in 1836 and exhibited first
+at the Salon in 1843. The marked sentimental tendency of his art makes
+us wonder at Ruskin's enthusiastic eulogy which finds in Frère's work
+"the depth of Wordsworth, the grace of Reynolds, and the holiness of
+Angelico." What we can admire in his work is his accomplished
+craftsmanship and the intimacy and tender homeliness of his conception.
+Among his chief works are the two paintings, "Going to School" and
+"Coming from School," "The Little Glutton" (his first exhibited picture)
+and "_L'Exercice_" (Mr Astor's collection). A journey to Egypt in 1860
+resulted in a small series of Orientalist subjects, but the majority of
+Frère's paintings deal with the life of the kitchen, the workshop, the
+dwellings of the humble, and mainly with the pleasures and little
+troubles of the young, which the artist brings before us with humour and
+sympathy. He was one of the most popular painters of domestic genre in
+the middle of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+FRÈRE-ORBAN, HUBERT JOSEPH WALTHER (1812-1896), Belgian statesman, was
+born at Liége on the 24th of April 1812. His family name was Frère, to
+which on his marriage he added his wife's name of Orban. After studying
+law in Paris, he practised as a barrister at Liége, took a prominent
+part in the Liberal movement, and in June 1847 was returned to the
+Chamber as member for Liége. In August of the same year he was appointed
+minister of public works in the Rogier cabinet, and from 1848 to 1852
+was minister of finance. He founded the Banque Nationale and the Caisse
+d'Épargne, abolished the newspaper tax, reduced the postage, and
+modified the customs duties as a preliminary to a decided free-trade
+policy. The Liberalism of the cabinet, in which Frère-Orban exercised an
+influence hardly inferior to that of Rogier, was, however, distasteful
+to Napoleon III. Frère-Orban, to facilitate the negotiations for a new
+commercial treaty, conceded to France a law of copyright, which proved
+highly unpopular in Belgium, and he resigned office, soon followed by
+the rest of the cabinet. His work _La Mainmorte et la charité_
+(1854-1857), published under the pseudonym of "Jean van Damme,"
+contributed greatly to restore his party to power in 1857, when he again
+became minister of finance. He now embodied his free-trade principles in
+commercial treaties with England and France, and abolished the _octroi_
+duties and the tolls on the national roads. He resigned in 1861 on the
+gold question, but soon resumed office, and in 1868 succeeded Rogier as
+prime minister. In 1869 he defeated the attempt of France to gain
+control of the Luxemburg railways, but, despite this service to his
+country, fell from power at the elections of 1870. He returned to office
+in 1878 as president of the council and foreign minister. He provoked
+the bitter opposition of the Clerical party by his law of 1879
+establishing secular primary education, and in 1880 went so far as to
+break off diplomatic relations with the Vatican. He next found himself
+at variance with the Radicals, whose leader, Janson, moved the
+introduction of universal suffrage. Frère-Orban, while rejecting the
+proposal, conceded an extension of the franchise (1883); but the
+hostility of the Radicals, and the discontent caused by a financial
+crisis, overthrew the government at the elections of 1884. Frère-Orban
+continued to take an active part in politics as leader of the Liberal
+opposition till 1894, when he failed to secure re-election. He died at
+Brussels on the 2nd of January 1896. Besides the work above mentioned,
+he published _La Question monétaire_ (1874); _La Question monétaire en
+Belgique_ in 1889; _Échange de vues entre MM. Frère-Orban et E. de
+Laveleye_ (1890); and _La Révision constitutionnelle en Belgique et ses
+conséquences_ (1894). He was also the author of numerous pamphlets,
+among which may be mentioned his last work, _La Situation présente_
+(1895).
+
+
+
+
+FRÉRET, NICOLAS (1688-1749), French scholar, was born at Paris on the
+15th of February 1688. His father was _procureur_ to the parlement of
+Paris, and destined him to the profession of the law. His first tutors
+were the historian Charles Rollin and Father Desmolets (1677-1760).
+Amongst his early studies history, chronology and mythology held a
+prominent place. To please his father he studied law and began to
+practise at the bar; but the force of his genius soon carried him into
+his own path. At nineteen he was admitted to a society of learned men
+before whom he read memoirs on the religion of the Greeks, on the
+worship of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Cybele and of Apollo. He was hardly
+twenty-six years of age when he was admitted as pupil to the Academy of
+Inscriptions. One of the first memoirs which he read was a learned and
+critical discourse, _Sur l'origine des Francs_ (1714). He maintained
+that the Franks were a league of South German tribes and not, according
+to the legend then almost universally received, a nation of free men
+deriving from Greece or Troy, who had kept their civilization intact in
+the heart of a barbarous country. These sensible views excited great
+indignation in the Abbé Vertot, who denounced Fréret to the government
+as a libeller of the monarchy. A _lettre de cachet_ was issued, and
+Fréret was sent to the Bastille. During his three months of confinement
+he devoted himself to the study of the works of Xenophon, the fruit of
+which appeared later in his memoir on the _Cyropaedia_. From the time of
+his liberation in March 1715 his life was uneventful. In January 1716 he
+was received associate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in December
+1742 he was made perpetual secretary. He worked without intermission
+for the interests of the Academy, not even claiming any property in his
+own writings, which were printed in the _Recueil de l'académie des
+inscriptions_. The list of his memoirs, many of them posthumous,
+occupies four columns of the _Nouvelle Biographie générale_. They treat
+of history, chronology, geography, mythology and religion. Throughout he
+appears as the keen, learned and original critic; examining into the
+comparative value of documents, distinguishing between the mythical and
+the historical, and separating traditions with an historical element
+from pure fables and legends. He rejected the extreme pretensions of the
+chronology of Egypt and China, and at the same time controverted the
+scheme of Sir Isaac Newton as too limited. He investigated the mythology
+not only of the Greeks, but of the Celts, the Germans, the Chinese and
+the Indians. He was a vigorous opponent of the theory that the stories
+of mythology may be referred to historic originals. He also suggested
+that Greek mythology owed much to the Phoenicians and Egyptians. He was
+one of the first scholars of Europe to undertake the study of the
+Chinese language; and in this he was engaged at the time of his
+committal to the Bastille. He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1749.
+
+  Long after his death several works of an atheistic character were
+  falsely attributed to him, and were long believed to be his. The most
+  famous of these spurious works are the _Examen critique des
+  apologistes de la religion chrétienne_ (1766), and the _Lettre de
+  Thrasybule à Leucippe_, printed in London about 1768. A very defective
+  and inaccurate edition of Fréret's works was published in 1796-1799. A
+  new and complete edition was projected by Champollion-Figeac, but of
+  this only the first volume appeared (1825). It contains a life of
+  Fréret. His manuscripts, after passing through many hands, were
+  deposited in the library of the Institute. The best account of his
+  works is "Examen critique des ouvrages composés par Fréret" in C. A.
+  Walckenaer's _Recueil des notices_, &c. (1841-1850). See also
+  Quérard's _France littéraire_.
+
+
+
+
+FRÉRON, ÉLIE CATHERINE (1719-1776), French critic and controversialist,
+was born at Quimper in 1719. He was educated by the Jesuits, and made
+such rapid progress in his studies that before the age of twenty he was
+appointed professor at the college of Louis-le-Grand. He became a
+contributor to the _Observations sur les écrits modernes_ of the abbé
+Guyot Desfontaines. The very fact of his collaboration with
+Desfontaines, one of Voltaire's bitterest enemies, was sufficient to
+arouse the latter's hostility, and although Fréron had begun his career
+as one of his admirers, his attitude towards Voltaire soon changed.
+Fréron in 1746 founded a similar journal of his own, entitled _Lettres
+de la Comtesse de_.... It was suppressed in 1749, but he immediately
+replaced it by _Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps_, which, with
+the exception of a short suspension in 1752, on account of an attack on
+the character of Voltaire, was continued till 1754, when it was
+succeeded by the more ambitious _Année littéraire_. His death at Paris
+on the 10th of March 1776 is said to have been hastened by the temporary
+suppression of this journal. Fréron is now remembered solely for his
+attacks on Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, and by the retaliations
+they provoked on the part of Voltaire, who, besides attacking him in
+epigrams, and even incidentally in some of his tragedies, directed
+against him a virulent satire, _Le Pauvre diable_, and made him the
+principal personage in a comedy _L'Écossaise_, in which the journal of
+Fréron is designated _L'Âne littéraire_. A further attack on Fréron
+entitled _Anecdotes sur Fréron_ ... (1760), published anonymously, is
+generally attributed to Voltaire.
+
+  Fréron was the author of _Ode sur la bataille de Fontenoy_ (1745);
+  _Histoire de Marie Stuart_ (1742, 2 vols.); and _Histoire de l'empire
+  d'Allemagne_, (1771, 8 vols.). See Ch. Nisard, _Les Ennemis de
+  Voltaire_ (1853); Despois, _Journalistes et journaux du XVIII^e
+  siècle_; Barthélemy, _Les confessions de Fréron_: Ch. Monselet,
+  _Fréron, ou l'illustre critique_ (1864); _Fréron, sa vie, souvenirs_,
+  &c. (1876).
+
+
+
+
+FRÉRON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS (1754-1802), French revolutionist, son of
+the preceding, was born at Paris on the 17th of August 1754. His name
+was, on the death of his father, attached to _L'Année littéraire_, which
+was continued till 1790 and edited successively by the abbés G. M. Royou
+and J. L. Geoffroy. On the outbreak of the revolution Fréron, who was a
+schoolfellow of Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins, established the
+violent journal _L'Orateur du peuple_. Commissioned, along with Barras
+in 1793, to establish the authority of the convention at Marseilles and
+Toulon, he distinguished himself in the atrocity of his reprisals, but
+both afterwards joined the Thermidoriens, and Fréron became the leader
+of the _jeunesse dorée_ and of the Thermidorian reaction. He brought
+about the accusation of Fouquier-Tinville, and of J. B. Carrier, the
+deportation of B. Barère, and the arrest of the last _Montagnards_. He
+made his paper the official journal of the reactionists, and being sent
+by the Directory on a mission of peace to Marseilles he published in
+1796 _Mémoire historique sur la réaction royale et sur les malheurs du
+midi_. He was elected to the council of the Five Hundred, but not
+allowed to take his seat. Failing as suitor for the hand of Pauline
+Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's sisters, he went in 1799 as commissioner to
+Santo Domingo and died there in 1802. General V. M. Leclerc, who had
+married Pauline Bonaparte, also received a command in Santo Domingo in
+1801, and died in the same year as his former rival.
+
+
+
+
+FRESCO (Ital. for _cool_, "fresh"), a term introduced into English, both
+generally (as in such phrases as _al fresco_, "in the fresh air"), and
+more especially as a technical term for a sort of mural painting on
+plaster. In the latter sense the Italians distinguished painting _a
+secco_ (when the plaster had been allowed to dry) from _a fresco_ (when
+it was newly laid and still wet). The nature and history of
+fresco-painting is dealt with in the article PAINTING.
+
+
+
+
+FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO (1583-1644), Italian musical composer, was born in
+1583 at Ferrara. Little is known of his life except that he studied
+music under Alessandro Milleville, and owed his first reputation to his
+beautiful voice. He was organist at St Peter's in Rome from 1608 to
+1628. According to Baini no less than 30,000 people flocked to St
+Peter's on his first appearance there. On the 20th of November 1628 he
+went to live in Florence, becoming organist to the duke. From December
+1633 to March 1643 he was again organist at St Peter's. But in the last
+year of his life he was organist in the parish church of San Lorenzo in
+Monte. He died on the 2nd of March 1644, being buried at Rome in the
+Church of the Twelve Apostles. Frescobaldi also excelled as a teacher,
+Frohberger being the most distinguished of his pupils. Frescobaldi's
+compositions show the consummate art of the early Italian school, and
+his works for the organ more especially are full of the finest devices
+of fugal treatment. He also wrote numerous vocal compositions, such as
+canzone, motets, hymns, &c., a collection of madrigals for five voices
+(Antwerp, 1608) being among the earliest of his published works.
+
+
+
+
+FRESENIUS, KARL REMIGIUS (1818-1897), German chemist, was born at
+Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of December 1818. After spending some time
+in a pharmacy in his native town, he entered Bonn University in 1840,
+and a year later migrated to Giessen, where he acted as assistant in
+Liebig's laboratory, and in 1843 became assistant professor. In 1845 he
+was appointed to the chair of chemistry, physics and technology at the
+Wiesbaden Agricultural Institution, and three years later he became the
+first director of the chemical laboratory which he induced the Nassau
+government to establish at that place. Under his care this laboratory
+continuously increased in size and popularity, a school of pharmacy
+being added in 1862 (though given up in 1877) and an agricultural
+research laboratory in 1868. Apart from his administrative duties
+Fresenius occupied himself almost exclusively with analytical chemistry,
+and the fullness and accuracy of his text-books on that subject (of
+which that on qualitative analysis first appeared in 1841 and that on
+quantitative in 1846) soon rendered them standard works. Many of his
+original papers were published in the _Zeitschrift für analytische
+Chemie_, which he founded in 1862 and continued to edit till his death.
+He died suddenly at Wiesbaden on the 11th of June 1897. In 1881 he
+handed over the directorship of the agricultural research station to his
+son, Remigius Heinrich Fresenius (b. 1847), who was trained under H.
+Kolbe at Leipzig. Another son, Theodor Wilhelm Fresenius (b. 1856), was
+educated at Strassburg and occupied various positions in the Wiesbaden
+laboratory.
+
+
+
+
+FRESHWATER, a watering place in the Isle of Wight, England, 12 m. W. by
+S. of Newport by rail. Pop.(1901) 3306. It is a scattered township lying
+on the peninsula west of the river Var, which forms the western
+extremity of the island. The portion known as Freshwater Gate fronts the
+English Channel from the strip of low-lying coast interposed between the
+cliffs of the peninsula and those of the main part of the island. The
+peninsula rises to 397 ft. in Headon Hill, and the cliffs are
+magnificent. The western promontory is flanked on the north by the
+picturesque Alum Bay, and the lofty detached rocks known as the Needles
+lie off it. Farringford House in the parish was for some time the home
+of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who is commemorated by a tablet in All Saints'
+church and by a great cross on the high downs above the town. There are
+golf links on the downs.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN (1788-1827), French physicist, the son of an
+architect, was born at Broglie (Eure) on the 10th of May 1788. His early
+progress in learning was slow, and when eight years old he was still
+unable to read. At the age of thirteen he entered the École Centrale in
+Caen, and at sixteen and a half the École Polytechnique, where he
+acquitted himself with distinction. Thence he went to the École des
+Ponts et Chaussées. He served as an engineer successively in the
+departments of Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Villaine; but his espousal of
+the cause of the Bourbons in 1814 occasioned, on Napoleon's reaccession
+to power, the loss of his appointment. On the second restoration he
+obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where much of his life from that
+time was spent. His researches in optics, continued until his death,
+appear to have been begun about the year 1814, when he prepared a paper
+on the aberration of light, which, however, was not published. In 1818
+he read a memoir on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he
+received the prize of the Académie des Sciences at Paris. He was in 1823
+unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he became a
+member of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827, at the time of his
+last illness, awarded him the Rumford medal. In 1819 he was nominated a
+commissioner of lighthouses, for which he was the first to construct
+compound lenses as substitutes for mirrors. He died of consumption at
+Ville-d'Avray, near Paris, on the 14th of July 1827.
+
+The undulatory theory of light, first founded upon experimental
+demonstration by Thomas Young, was extended to a large class of optical
+phenomena, and permanently established by his brilliant discoveries and
+mathematical deductions. By the use of two plane mirrors of metal,
+forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, he avoided the
+diffraction caused in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663) on
+interference by the employment of apertures for the transmission of the
+light, and was thus enabled in the most conclusive manner to account for
+the phenomena of interference in accordance with the undulatory theory.
+With D. F. J. Arago he studied the laws of the interference of polarized
+rays. Circularly polarized light he obtained by means of a rhomb of
+glass, known as "Fresnel's rhomb," having obtuse angles of 126°, and
+acute angles of 54°. His labours in the cause of optical science
+received during his lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of
+his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences till many years
+after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in 1824, in him "that
+sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory" had been
+blunted. "All the compliments," he says, "that I have received from
+Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery
+of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by
+experiment."
+
+  See Duleau, "Notice sur Fresnel," _Revue ency._ t. xxxix.; Arago,
+  _OEuvres complètes_, t. i.; and Dr G. Peacock, _Miscellaneous Works of
+  Thomas Young_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNILLO, a town of the state of Zacatecas, Mexico, 37 m. N.W. of the
+city of Zacatecas on a branch of the Santiago river. Pop. (1900) 6309.
+It stands on a fertile plain between the Santa Cruz and Zacatecas
+ranges, about 7700 ft. above sea-level, has a temperate climate, and is
+surrounded by an agricultural district producing Indian corn and wheat.
+It is a clean, well-built town, whose chief distinction is its school
+of mines founded in 1853. Fresnillo has large amalgam works for the
+reduction of silver ores. Its silver mines, located in the neighbouring
+Proaño hill, were discovered in 1569, and were for a time among the most
+productive in Mexico. Since 1833, when their richest deposits were
+reached, the output has greatly decreased. There is a station near on
+the Mexican Central railway.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNO, a city and the county-seat of Fresno county, California, U.S.A.,
+situated in the San Joaquin valley (altitude about 300 ft.) near the
+geographical centre of the state. Pop. (1880) 1112; (1890) 10,818;
+(1900) 12,470, of whom 3299 were foreign-born and 1279 were Asiatics;
+(1910 census) 24,892. The city is served by the Southern Pacific and the
+Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railways. The county is mainly a vast
+expanse of naturally arid plains and mountains. The valley is the scene
+of an extensive irrigation system, water being brought (first in
+1872-1876) from King's river, 20 m. distant; in 1905 500 sq. m. were
+irrigated. Fresno is in a rich farming country, producing grains and
+fruit, and is the only place in America where Smyrna figs have been
+grown with success; it is the centre of the finest raisin country of the
+state, and has extensive vineyards and wine-making establishments. The
+city's principal manufacture is preserved (dried) fruits, particularly
+raisins; the value of the fruits thus preserved in 1905 was $6,942,440,
+being 70.5% of the total value of the factory product in that year
+($9,849,001). In 1900-1905 the factory product increased 257.9%, a ratio
+of increase greater than that of any other city in the state. In the
+mountains, lumbering and mining are important industries; lumber is
+carried from Shaver in the mountains to Clovis on the plains by a
+V-shaped flume 42 m. long, the waste water from which is ditched for
+irrigation. The petroleum field of the county is one of the richest in
+California. Fresno is the business and shipping centre of its county and
+of the surrounding region. The county was organized in 1856. In 1872 the
+railway went through, and Fresno was laid out and incorporated. It
+became the county-seat in 1874 and was chartered as a city in 1885.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU (1611-1665), French painter and writer on
+his art, was born in Paris, son of an apothecary. He was destined for
+the medical profession, and well educated in Latin and Greek; but,
+having a natural propensity for the fine arts, he would not apply to his
+intended vocation, and was allowed to learn the rudiments of design
+under Perrier and Vouet. At the age of twenty-one he went off to Rome,
+with no resources; he drew ruins and architectural subjects. After two
+years thus spent he re-encountered his old fellow-student Pierre
+Mignard, and by his aid obtained some amelioration of his professional
+prospects. He studied Raphael and the antique, went in 1633 to Venice,
+and in 1656 returned to France. During two years he was now employed in
+painting altar-pieces in the château of Raincy, landscapes, &c. His
+death was caused by an attack of apoplexy followed by palsy; he expired
+at Villiers le Bel, near Paris. He never married. His pictorial works
+are few; they are correct in drawing, with something of the Caracci in
+design, and of Titian in colouring, but wanting fire and expression, and
+insufficient to keep his name in any eminent repute. He is remembered
+now almost entirely as a writer rather than painter. His Latin poem, _De
+arte graphica_, was written during his Italian sojourn, and embodied his
+observations on the art of painting; it may be termed a critical
+treatise on the practice of the art, with general advice to students.
+The precepts are sound according to the standard of his time; the
+poetical merits slender enough. The Latin style is formed chiefly on
+Lucretius and Horace. This poem was first published by Mignard, and has
+been translated into several languages. In 1684 it was turned into
+French by Roger de Piles; Dryden translated the work into English prose;
+and a rendering into verse by Mason followed, to which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds added some annotations.
+
+
+
+
+FRET. (1) (From O. Eng. _fretan_, a word common in various forms to
+Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _fressen_, to eat greedily), properly to
+devour, hence to gnaw, so used of the slow corroding action of
+chemicals, water, &c., and hence, figuratively, to chafe or irritate.
+Possibly connected with this word, in sense of rubbing, is the use of
+"fret" for a bar on the fingerboard of a banjo, guitar, or similar
+musical instruments to mark the fingering. (2) (Of doubtful origin;
+possibly from the O. Eng. _frætive_, ornaments, but its use is
+paralleled by the Fr. _frette_, trellis or lattice), network, a term
+used in heraldry for an interlaced figure, but best known as applied to
+the decoration used by the Greeks in their temples and vases: the Greek
+fret consists of a series of narrow bands of different lengths, placed
+at right angles to one another, and of great variety of design. It is an
+ornament which owes its origin to woven fabrics, and is found on the
+ceilings of the Egyptian tombs at Benihasan, Siout and elsewhere. In
+Greek work it was painted on the abacus of the Doric capital and
+probably on the architraves of their temples; when employed by the
+Romans it was generally carved; the Propylaea of the temple at Damascus
+and the temple at Atil being examples of the 2nd century. It was carved
+in large dimensions on some of the Mexican temples, as for instance on
+the palace at Mitla with other decorative bands, all of which would seem
+to have been reproductions of woven patterns, and had therefore an
+independent origin. It is found in China and Japan, and in the latter
+country when painted on lacquer is employed as a fret-diaper, the bands
+not being at right angles to one another but forming acute and obtuse
+angles. In old English writers a wider signification was given to it, as
+it was applied to raised patterns in plaster oh roofs or ceilings, which
+were not confined to the geometrical fret but extended to the modelling
+of flowers, leaves and fruit; in such cases the decoration was known as
+fret-work. In France the fret is better known as the "meander."
+
+
+
+
+FREUDENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the
+right bank of the Murg, 40 m. S.W. from Stuttgart, on the railway to
+Hochdorf. Pop. 7000. It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church,
+some small manufactures of cloth, furniture, knives, nails and glass,
+and is frequented as a climatic health resort. It was founded in 1599 by
+Protestant refugees from Salzburg.
+
+
+
+
+FREUND, WILHELM (1806-1894), German philologist and lexicographer, was
+born at Kempen in the grand duchy of Posen on the 27th of January 1806.
+He studied at Berlin, Breslau and Halle, and was for twenty years
+chiefly engaged in private tuition. From 1855-1870 he was director of
+the Jewish school at Gleiwitz in Silesia, and subsequently retired to
+Breslau, where he died on the 4th of June 1894. Although chiefly known
+for his philological labours, Freund took an important part in the
+movement for the emancipation of his Prussian co-religionists, and the
+_Judengesetz_ of 1847 was in great measure the result of his efforts.
+The work by which he is best known is his _Wörterbuch der lateinischen
+Sprache_ (1834-1845), practically the basis of all Latin-English
+dictionaries. His _Wie studiert man klassische Philologie?_ (6th ed.,
+1903) and _Triennium philologicum_ (2nd ed., 1878-1885) are valuable
+aids to the classical student.
+
+
+
+
+FREWEN, ACCEPTED (1588-1664), archbishop of York, was born at Northiam,
+in Sussex, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, where in 1612 he
+became a fellow. In 1617 and 1621 the college allowed him to act as
+chaplain to Sir John Digby, ambassador in Spain. At Madrid he preached a
+sermon which pleased Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., and the
+latter on his accession appointed Frewen one of his chaplains. In 1625
+he became canon of Canterbury and vice-president of Magdalen College,
+and in the following year he was elected president. He was
+vice-chancellor of the university in 1628 and 1629, and again in 1638
+and 1639. It was mainly by his instrumentality that the university plate
+was sent to the king at York in 1642. Two years later he was consecrated
+bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and resigned his presidentship.
+Parliament declared his estates forfeited for treason in 1652, and
+Cromwell afterwards set a price on his head. The proclamations, however,
+designated him Stephen Frewen, and he was consequently able to escape
+into France. At the Restoration he reappeared in public, and in 1660 he
+was consecrated archbishop of York. In 1661 he acted as chairman of the
+Savoy conference.
+
+
+
+
+FREY (Old Norse, Freyr) son of Njord, one of the chief deities in the
+northern pantheon and the national god of the Swedes. He is the god of
+fruitfulness, the giver of sunshine and rain, and thus the source of all
+prosperity. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, _ad fin._)
+
+
+
+
+FREYBURG [FREYBURG AN DER UNSTRUT], a town of Germany, in Prussian
+Saxony, in an undulating vine-clad country on the Unstrut, 6 m. N. from
+Naumberg-on-the-Saale, on the railway to Artern. Pop. 3200. It has a
+parish church, a mixture of Gothic and Romanesque architecture, with a
+handsome tower. It is, however, as being the "Mecca" of the German
+gymnastic societies that Freyburg is best known. Here Friedrich Ludwig
+Jahn (1778-1852), the father of German gymnastic exercises, lies buried.
+Over his grave is built the Turnhalle, with a statue of the "master,"
+while hard by it the Jahn Museum in Romanesque style, erected in 1903.
+Freyburg produces sparkling wine of good quality and has some other
+small manufactures. On a hill commanding the town is the castle of
+Neuenburg, built originally in 1062 by Louis the Leaper, count in
+Thuringia, but in its present form mainly the work of the dukes of
+Saxe-Weissenfels.
+
+
+
+
+FREYCINET, CHARLES LOUIS DE SAULCES DE (1828-   ), French statesman, was
+born at Foix on the 14th of November 1828. He was educated at the École
+Polytechnique, and entered the government service as a mining engineer.
+In 1858 he was appointed traffic manager to the Compagnie de chemins de
+fer du Midi, a post in which he gave proof of his remarkable talent for
+organization, and in 1862 returned to the engineering service (in which
+he attained in 1886 the rank of inspector-general). He was sent on a
+number of special scientific missions, among which may be mentioned one
+to England, on which he wrote a notable _Mémoire sur le travail des
+femmes et des enfants dans les manufactures de l'Angleterre_ (1867). On
+the establishment of the Third Republic in September 1870, he offered
+his services to Gambetta, was appointed prefect of the department of
+Tarn-et-Garronne, and in October became chief of the military cabinet.
+It was mainly his powers of organization that enabled Gambetta to raise
+army after army to oppose the invading Germans. He showed himself a
+strategist of no mean order; but the policy of dictating operations to
+the generals in the field was not attended with happy results. The
+friction between him and General d'Aurelle de Paladines resulted in the
+loss of the advantage temporarily gained at Orleans, and he was
+responsible for the campaign in the east, which ended in the destruction
+of Bourbaki's army. In 1871 he published a defence of his administration
+under the title of _La Guerre en province pendant le siège de Paris._ He
+entered the Senate in 1876 as a follower of Gambetta, and in December
+1877 became minister of public works in the Dufaure cabinet. He carried
+a great scheme for the gradual acquisition of the railways by the state
+and the construction of new lines at a cost of three milliards, and for
+the development of the canal system at a further cost of one milliard.
+He retained his post in the ministry of Waddington, whom he succeeded in
+December 1879 as president of the council and minister for foreign
+affairs. He passed an amnesty for the Communists, but in attempting to
+steer a middle course on the question of the religious associations,
+lost the support of Gambetta, and resigned in September 1880. In January
+1882 he again became president of the council and minister for foreign
+affairs. His refusal to join England in the bombardment of Alexandria
+was the death-knell of French influence in Egypt. He attempted to
+compromise by occupying the Isthmus of Suez, but the vote of credit was
+rejected in the Chamber by 417 votes to 75, and the ministry resigned.
+He returned to office in April 1885 as foreign minister in the Brisson
+cabinet, and retained that post when, in January 1886, he succeeded to
+the premiership. He came into power with an ambitious programme of
+internal reform; but except that he settled the question of the exiled
+pretenders, his successes were won chiefly in the sphere of colonial
+extension. In spite of his unrivalled skill as a parliamentary
+tactician, he failed to keep his party together, and was defeated on 3rd
+December 1886. In the following year, after two unsuccessful attempts
+to construct new ministries he stood for the presidency of the
+republic; but the radicals, to whom his opportunism was distasteful,
+turned the scale against him by transferring the votes to M. Sadi
+Carnot.
+
+In April 1888 he became minister of war in the Floquet cabinet--the
+first civilian since 1848 to hold that office. His services to France in
+this capacity were the crowning achievement of his life, and he enjoyed
+the conspicuous honour of holding his office without a break for five
+years through as many successive administrations--those of Floquet and
+Tirard, his own fourth ministry (March 1890-February 1892), and the
+Loubet and Ribot ministries. To him were due the introduction of the
+three-years' service and the establishment of a general staff, a supreme
+council of war, and the army commands. His premiership was marked by
+heated debates on the clerical question, and it was a hostile vote on
+his Bill against the religious associations that caused the fall of his
+cabinet. He failed to clear himself entirely of complicity in the Panama
+scandals, and in January 1893 resigned the ministry of war. In November
+1898 he once more became minister of war in the Dupuy cabinet, but
+resigned office on 6th May 1899. He has published, besides the works
+already mentioned, _Traité de mécanique rationnelle_ (1858); _De
+l'analyse infinitésimale_ (1860, revised ed., 1881); _Des pentes
+économiques en chemin de fer_ (1861); _Emploi des eaux d'égout en
+agriculture_ (1869); _Principes de l'assainissement des villes and
+Traité d'assainissement industriel_ (1870); _Essai sur la philosophie
+des sciences_ (1896); _La Question d'Égypte_ (1905); besides some
+remarkable "Pensées" contributed to the _Contemporain_ under the
+pseudonym of "Alceste." In 1882 he was elected a member of the Academy
+of Sciences, and in 1890 to the French Academy in succession to Émile
+Augier.
+
+
+
+
+FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DESAULSES DE (1779-1842), French navigator, was
+born at Montélimart, Drôme, on the 7th of August 1779. In 1793 he
+entered the French navy. After taking part in several engagements
+against the British, he joined in 1800, along with his brother Louis
+Henri Freycinet (1777-1840), who afterwards rose to the rank of admiral,
+the expedition sent out under Captain Baudin in the "Naturaliste" and
+"Géographe" to explore the south and south-west coasts of Australia.
+Much of the ground already gone over by Flinders was revisited, and new
+names imposed by this expedition, which claimed credit for discoveries
+really made by the English navigator. An inlet on the coast of West
+Australia, in 26° S., is called Freycinet Estuary; and a cape near the
+extreme south-west of the same coast also bears the explorer's name. In
+1805 he returned to Paris, and was entrusted by the government with the
+work of preparing the maps and plans of the expedition; he also
+completed the narrative, and the whole work appeared under the title of
+_Voyage de découvertes aux terres australes_ (Paris, 1807-1816). In 1817
+he commanded the "Uranie," in which Arago and others went to Rio de
+Janeiro, to take a series of pendulum measurements. This was only part
+of a larger scheme for obtaining observations, not only in geography and
+ethnology, but in astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and meteorology, and
+for the collection of specimens in natural history. On this expedition
+the hydrographic operations were conducted by Louis Isidore Duperry
+(1786-1865) who in 1822 was appointed to the command of the "Coquille,"
+and during the next three years carried out scientific explorations in
+the southern Pacific and along the coast of South America. For three
+years Freycinet cruised about, visiting Australia, the Marianne,
+Sandwich, and other Pacific islands, South America, and other places,
+and, notwithstanding the loss of the "Uranie" on the Falkland Islands
+during the return voyage, returned to France with fine collections in
+all departments of natural history, and with voluminous notes and
+drawings which form an important contribution to a knowledge of the
+countries visited. The results of this voyage were published under
+Freycinet's supervision, with the title of _Voyage autour du monde sur
+les corvettes "l'Uranie" et "la Physicienne"_ in 1824-1844, in 13 quarto
+volumes and 4 folio volumes of fine plates and maps. Freycinet was
+admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1825, and was one of the
+founders of the Paris Geographical Society. He died at Freycinet, Drôme,
+on the 18th of August 1842.
+
+
+
+
+FREYIA, the sister of Frey, and the most prominent goddess in Northern
+mythology. Her character seems in general to have resembled that of her
+brother. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, _ad fin._)
+
+
+
+
+FREYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1788-1861), German philologist, was
+born at Lüneburg on the 19th of September 1788. After attending school
+he entered the university of Göttingen as a student of philology and
+theology; here from 1811 to 1813 he acted as a theological tutor, but in
+the latter year accepted an appointment as sub-librarian at Königsberg.
+In 1815 he became a chaplain in the Prussian army, and in that capacity
+visited Paris. On the proclamation of peace he resigned his chaplaincy,
+and returned to his researches in Arabic, Persian and Turkish, studying
+at Paris under De Sacy. In 1819 he was appointed to the professorship of
+oriental languages in the new university of Bonn, and this post he
+continued to hold until his death on the 16th of November 1861.
+
+  Besides a compendium of Hebrew grammar (_Kurzgefasste Grammatik der
+  hebräischen Sprache_, 1835), and a treatise on Arabic versification
+  (_Darstellung der arabischen Verskunst_, 1830), he edited two volumes
+  of Arabic songs (_Hamasae carmina_, 1828-1852) and three of Arabic
+  proverbs (_Arabum proverbia_, 1838-1843). But his principal work was
+  the laborious and praiseworthy _Lexicon Arabico-latinum_ (Halle,
+  1830-1837), an abridgment of which was published in 1837.
+
+
+
+
+FREYTAG, GUSTAV (1816-1895), German novelist, was born at Kreuzburg, in
+Silesia, on the 13th of July 1816. After attending the gymnasium at Öls,
+he studied philology at the universities of Breslau and Berlin, and in
+1838 took the degree with a remarkable dissertation, _De initiis poëseos
+scenicae apud Germanos_. In 1839 he settled at Breslau, as
+_Privatdocent_ in German language and literature, but devoted his
+principal attention to writing for the stage, and achieved considerable
+success with the comedy _Die Brautfahrt, oder Kunz von der Rosen_
+(1844). This was followed by a volume of unimportant poems, _In Breslau_
+(1845) and the dramas _Die Valentine_ (1846) and _Graf Waldemar_ (1847).
+He at last attained a prominent position by his comedy, _Die
+Journalisten_ (1853), one of the best German comedies of the 19th
+century. In 1847 he migrated to Berlin, and in the following year took
+over, in conjunction with Julian Schmidt, the editorship of _Die
+Grenzboten_, a weekly journal which, founded in 1841, now became the
+leading organ of German and Austrian liberalism. Freytag helped to
+conduct it until 1861, and again from 1867 till 1870, when for a short
+time he edited a new periodical, _Im neuen Reich_. His literary fame was
+made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel, _Soll und
+Haben_, which was translated into almost all the languages of Europe. It
+was certainly the best German novel of its day, impressive by its sturdy
+but unexaggerated realism, and in many parts highly humorous. Its main
+purpose is the recommendation of the German middle class as the soundest
+element in the nation, but it also has a more directly patriotic
+intention in the contrast which it draws between the homely virtues of
+the Teuton and the shiftlessness of the Pole and the rapacity of the
+Jew. As a Silesian, Freytag had no great love for his Slavonic
+neighbours, and being a native of a province which owed everything to
+Prussia, he was naturally an earnest champion of Prussian hegemony over
+Germany. His powerful advocacy of this idea in his _Grenzboten_ gained
+him the friendship of the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose neighbour he
+had become, on acquiring the estate of Siebleben near Gotha. At the
+duke's request Freytag was attached to the staff of the crown prince of
+Prussia in the campaign of 1870, and was present at the battles of Wörth
+and Sedan. Before this he had published another novel, _Die verlorene
+Handschrift_ (1864), in which he endeavoured to do for German university
+life what in _Soll und Haben_ he had done for commercial life. The hero
+is a young German professor, who is so wrapt up in his search for a
+manuscript by Tacitus that he is oblivious to an impending tragedy in
+his domestic life. The book was, however, less successful than its
+predecessor. Between 1859 and 1867 Freytag published in five volumes
+_Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit_, a most valuable work on
+popular lines, illustrating the history and manners of Germany. In 1872
+he began a work with a similar patriotic purpose, _Die Ahnen_, a series
+of historical romances in which he unfolds the history of a German
+family from the earliest times to the middle of the 19th century. The
+series comprises the following novels, none of which, however, reaches
+the level of Freytag's earlier books. (1) _Ingo und Ingraban_ (1872),
+(2) _Das Nest der Zaunkönige_ (1874), (3) _Die Brüder vom deutschen
+Hause_ (1875), (4) _Marcus König_ (1876), (5) _Die Geschwister_ (1878),
+and (6) in conclusion, _Aus einer kleinen Stadt_ (1880). Among Freytag's
+other works may be noticed _Die Technik des Dramas_ (1863); an excellent
+biography of the Baden statesman _Karl Mathy_ (1869); an autobiography
+(_Erinnerungen aus meinen Leben_, 1887); his _Gesammelte Aufsätze_,
+chiefly reprinted from the _Grenzboten_ (1888); _Der Kronprinz und die
+deutsche Kaiserkrone_; _Erinnerungsblätter_ (1889). He died at Wiesbaden
+on the 30th of April 1895.
+
+  Freytag's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 22 vols. at Leipzig
+  (1886-1888); his _Vermischte Aufsätze_ have been edited by E. Elster,
+  2 vols. (Leipzig, 1901-1903). On Freytag's life see, besides his
+  autobiography mentioned above, the lives by C. Alberti (Leipzig, 1890)
+  and F. Seiler (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FRIAR (from the Lat. _frater_, through the Fr. _frère_), the English
+generic name for members of the mendicant religious orders. Formerly it
+was the title given to individual members of these orders, as Friar
+Laurence (in _Romeo and Juliet_), but this is not now common. In England
+the chief orders of friars were distinguished by the colour of their
+habit: thus the Franciscans or Minors were the Grey Friars; the
+Dominicans or Preachers were the Black Friars (from their black mantle
+over a white habit), and the Carmelites were the White Friars (from
+their white mantle over a brown habit): these, together with the Austin
+Friars or Hermits, formed the four great mendicant orders--Chaucer's
+"alle the ordres foure." Besides the four great orders of friars, the
+Trinitarians (q.v.), though really canons, were in England called
+Trinity Friars or Red Friars; the Crutched or Crossed Friars were often
+identified with them, but were really a distinct order; there were also
+a number of lesser orders of friars, many of which were suppressed by
+the second council of Lyons in 1274. Detailed information on these
+orders and on their position in England is given in separate articles.
+The difference between friars and monks is explained in article
+MONASTICISM. Though the usage is not accurate, friars, and also canons
+regular, are often spoken of as monks and included among the monastic
+orders.
+
+  See Fr. Cuthbert, _The Friars and how they came to England_, pp. 11-32
+  (1903); also F. A. Gasquet, _English Monastic Life_, pp. 234-249
+  (1904), where special information on all the English friars is
+  conveniently brought together.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIBOURG [Ger. _Freiburg_], one of the Swiss Cantons, in the western
+portion of the country, and taking its name from the town around which
+the various districts that compose it gradually gathered. Its area is
+646.3 sq. m., of which 568 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests
+covering 119 sq. m. and vineyards .8 sq. m.); it boasts of no glaciers
+or eternal snow. It is a hilly, not mountainous, region, the highest
+summits (of which the Vanil Noir, 7858 ft., is the loftiest) rising in
+the Gruyère district at its south-eastern extremity, the best known
+being probably the Moléson (6582 ft.) and the Berra (5653 ft.). But it
+is the heart of pastoral Switzerland, is famed for its cheese and
+cattle, and is the original home of the "_Ranz des Vaches_," the melody
+by which the herdsmen call their cattle home at milking time. It is
+watered by the Sarine or Saane river (with its tributaries the Singine
+or Sense and the Glâne) that flows through the canton from north to
+south, and traverses its capital town. The upper course of the Broye
+(like the Sarine, a tributary of the Aar) and that of the Veveyse
+(flowing to the Lake of Geneva) are in the southern portion of the
+canton. A small share of the lakes of Neuchâtel and of Morat belongs to
+the canton, wherein the largest sheet of water is the Lac Noir or
+Schwarzsee. A sulphur spring rises near the last-named lake, and there
+are other such springs in the canton at Montbarry and at Bonn, near the
+capital. There are about 150 m. of railways in the canton, the main line
+from Lausanne to Bern past Fribourg running through it; there are also
+lines from Fribourg to Morat and to Estavayer, while from Romont (on the
+main line) a line runs to Bulle, and in 1904 was extended to Gessenay or
+Saanen near the head of the Sarine or Saane valley. The population of
+the canton amounted in 1900 to 127,951 souls, of whom 108,440 were
+Romanists, 19,305 Protestants, and 167 Jews. The canton is on the
+linguistic frontier in Switzerland, the line of division running nearly
+due north and south through it, and even right through its capital. In
+1900 there were 78,353 French-speaking inhabitants, and 38,738
+German-speaking, the latter being found chiefly in the north-western
+(Morat region) and north-eastern (Singine valley) portions, as well as
+in the upper valley of the Jogne or Jaun in the south-east. Besides the
+capital, Fribourg (q.v.), the only towns of any importance are Bulle
+(3330 inhabitants), Châtel St Denis (2509 inhabitants), Morat (q.v.) or
+Murten (2263 inhabitants), Romont (2110 inhabitants), and Estavayer le
+Lac or Stäffis am See (1636 inhabitants).
+
+The canton is pre-eminently a pastoral and agricultural region, tobacco,
+cheese and timber being its chief products. Its industries are
+comparatively few: straw-plaiting, watch-making (Semsales), paper-making
+(Marly), lime-kilns, and, above all, the huge Cailler chocolate factory
+at Broc. It forms part of the diocese of Lausanne and Geneva, the bishop
+living since 1663 at Fribourg. It is a stronghold of the Romanists, and
+still contains many monasteries and nunneries, such as the Carthusian
+monks at Valsainte, and the Cistercian nuns at La Fille Dieu and at
+Maigrauge. The canton is divided into 7 administrative districts, and
+contains 283 communes. It sends 2 members (named by the cantonal
+legislature) to the Federal _Ständerath_, and 6 members to the Federal
+_Nationalrath_. The cantonal constitution has scarcely been altered
+since 1857, and is remarkable as containing none of the modern devices
+(referendum, initiative, proportional representation) save the right of
+"initiative" enjoyed by 6000 citizens to claim the revision of the
+cantonal constitution. The executive council of 7 members is named for 5
+years by the cantonal legislature, which consists of members (holding
+office for 5 years) elected in the proportion of one to every 1200 (or
+fraction over 800) of the population.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIBOURG [Ger. _Freiburg_], the capital of the Swiss canton of that
+name. It is built almost entirely on the left bank of the Sarine, the
+oldest bit (the Bourg) of the town being just above the river bank,
+flanked by the Neuveville and Auge quarters, these last (with the
+Planche quarter on the right bank of the river) forming the _Ville
+Basse_. On the steeply rising ground to the west of the Bourg is the
+Quartier des Places, beyond which, to the west and south-west, is the
+still newer Pérolles quarter, where are the railway station and the new
+University; all these (with the Bourg) constituting the _Ville Haute_.
+In 1900 the population of the town was 15,794, of whom 13,270 were
+Romanists and 109 Jews, while 9701 were French-speaking, and 5595
+German-speaking, these last being mainly in the Ville Basse. Its
+linguistic history is curious. Founded as a German town, the French
+tongue became the official language during the greater part of the 14th
+and 15th centuries, but when it joined the Swiss Confederation in 1481
+the German influence came to the fore, and German was the official
+language from 1483 to 1798, becoming thus associated with the rule of
+the patricians. From 1798 to 1814, and again from 1830 onwards, French
+prevailed, as at present, though the new University is a centre of
+German influence.
+
+Fribourg is on the main line of railway from Bern (20 m.) to Lausanne
+(41 m.). The principal building in the town is the collegiate church of
+St Nicholas, of which the nave dates from the 13th-14th centuries, while
+the choir was rebuilt in the 17th century. It is a fine building,
+remarkable in itself, as well as for its lofty, late 15th century,
+bell-tower (249 ft. high), with a fine peal of bells; its famous organ
+was built between 1824 and 1834 by Aloys Mooser (a native of the town),
+has 7800 pipes, and is played daily in summer for the edification of
+tourists. The numerous monasteries in and around the town, its
+old-fashioned aspect, its steep and narrow streets, give it a most
+striking appearance. One of the most conspicuous buildings in the town
+is the college of St Michael, while in front of the 16th century town
+hall is an ancient lime tree stated (but this is very doubtful) to have
+been planted on the day of the victory of Morat (June 22, 1476). In the
+Lycée is the Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts, wherein, besides many
+interesting objects, is the collection of paintings and statuary
+bequeathed to the town in 1879 by Duchess Adela Colonna (a member of the
+d'Affry family of Fribourg), by whom many were executed under the name
+of "Marcello." The deep ravine of the Sarine is crossed by a very fine
+suspension bridge, constructed 1832-1834 by M. Chaley, of Lyons, which
+is 167 ft. above the Sarine, has a span of 808 ft., and consists of 6
+huge cables composed of 3294 strands. A loftier suspension bridge is
+thrown over the Gotteron stream just before it joins the Sarine: it is
+590 ft. long and 246 ft. in height, and was built in 1840. About 3 m.
+north of the town is the great railway viaduct or girder bridge of
+Grandfey, constructed in 1862 (1092 ft. in length, 249 ft. high) at a
+cost of 2¾ million francs. Immediately above the town a vast dam (591
+ft. long) was constructed across the Sarine by the engineer Ritter in
+1870-1872, the fall thus obtained yielding a water-power of 2600 to 4000
+horse-power, and forming a sheet of water known as the Lac de Pérolles.
+A motive force of 600 horse-power, secured by turbines in the stream, is
+conveyed to the plateau of Pérolles by "telodynamic" cables of 2510 ft.
+in length, for whose passage a tunnel has been pierced in the rock. On
+the Pérolles plateau is the International Catholic University founded in
+1889.
+
+_History._--In 1178 the foundation of the town (meant to hold in check
+the turbulent nobles of the neighbourhood) was completed by Berchthold
+IV., duke of Zähringen, whose father Conrad had founded Freiburg in
+Breisgau in 1120, and whose son, Berchthold V., was to found Bern in
+1191. The spot was chosen for purposes of military defence, and was
+situated in the _Uechtland_ or waste land between Alamannian and
+Burgundian territory. He granted it many privileges, modelled on the
+charters of Cologne and of Freiburg in Breisgau, though the oldest
+existing charter of the town dates from 1249. On the extinction of the
+male line of the Zähringen dynasty, in 1218, their lands passed to Anna,
+the sister of the last duke and wife of Count Ulrich of Kyburg. That
+house kept Fribourg till it too became extinct, in 1264, in the male
+line. Anna, the heiress, married about 1273 Eberhard, count of
+Habsburg-Laufenburg, who sold Fribourg in 1277 for 3000 marks to his
+cousin Rudolf, the head of the house of Habsburg as well as emperor. The
+town had to fight many a hard battle for its existence against Bern and
+the count of Savoy, especially between 1448 and 1452. Abandoned by the
+Habsburgs, and desirous of escaping from the increasing power of Bern,
+Fribourg in 1452 finally submitted to the count of Savoy, to whom it had
+become indebted for vast sums of money. Yet, despite all its
+difficulties, it was in the first half of the 15th century that Fribourg
+exported much leather and cloth to France, Italy and Venice, as many as
+10,000 to 20,000 bales of cloth being stamped with the seal of the town.
+When Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy, entered into an alliance with
+Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, Fribourg joined Bern, and helped to
+gain the victories of Grandson and of Morat (1476).
+
+In 1477 the town was finally freed from the rule of Savoy, while in 1481
+(with Soleure) it became a member of the Swiss Confederation, largely,
+it is said, through the influence of the holy man, Bruder Klaus (Niklaus
+von der Flüe). In 1475 the town had taken Illens and Arconciel from
+Savoy, and in 1536 won from Vaud much territory, including Romont, Rue,
+Châtel St Denis, Estavayer, St Aubin (by these two conquests its
+dominion reached the Lake of Neuchâtel), as well as Vuissens and
+Surpierre, which still form outlying portions (physically within the
+canton of Vaud) of its territory, while in 1537 it took Bulle from the
+bishop of Lausanne. In 1502-1504 the lordship of Bellegarde or Jaun was
+bought, while in 1555 it acquired (jointly with Bern) the lands of the
+last count of the Gruyère, and thus obtained the rich district of that
+name. From 1475 it ruled (with Bern) the bailiwicks of Morat, Grandson,
+Orbe and Echallens, just taken from Savoy, but in 1798 Morat was
+incorporated with (finally annexed in 1814) the canton of Fribourg, the
+other bailiwicks being then given to the canton of Léman (later of
+Vaud). In the 16th century the original democratic government gradually
+gave place to the oligarchy of the patrician families. Though this
+government caused much discontent it continued till it was overthrown on
+the French occupation of 1798.
+
+From 1803 (Act of Mediation) to 1814, Fribourg was one of the six
+cantons of the Swiss Confederation. But, on the fall of the new régime,
+in 1814, the old patrician rule was partly restored, as 108 of the 144
+seats in the cantonal legislature were assigned to members of the
+patrician families. In 1831 the Radicals gained the power and secured
+the adoption of a more liberal constitution. In 1846 Fribourg (where the
+Conservatives had regained power in 1837) joined the _Sonderbund_ and,
+in 1847, saw the Federal troops before its walls, and had to surrender
+to them. The Radicals now came back to power, and again revised the
+cantonal constitution in a liberal sense. The Catholic and Conservative
+party made several attempts to recover their supremacy, but their chiefs
+were driven into exile. In 1856 the Conservatives regained the upper
+hand at the general cantonal election, secured the adoption in 1857 of a
+new cantonal constitution, and have ever since maintained their rule,
+which some dub "clerical," while others describe it as "anti-radical."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Archives de la Société d'histoire du Canton de F._,
+  from 1850; F. Buomberger, _Bevölkerungs- u. Vermögensstatistik in d.
+  Stadt u. Landschaft F. um die Mitte d. 15ten Jahrhunderts_ (Bern,
+  1900); A. Daguet, _Histoire de la ville et de la seigneurie de F._, to
+  1481 (Fribourg, 1889); A. Dellion, _Dictionnaire historique et
+  statistique des paroisses catholiques du C. de F._ (12 vols.,
+  Fribourg, 1884-1903); _Freiburger Geschichtsblätter_, from 1894;
+  _Fribourg artistique_ (fine plates), from 1890; E. Heyck, _Geschichte
+  der Herzoge von Zähringen_ (Freiburg i. Br., 1891); F. Kuenlin, _Der
+  K. Freiburg_ (St Gall and Bern, 1834); _Mémorial de F._ (6 vols.,
+  1854-1859); _Recueil diplomatique du Cant. de F._ (original documents)
+  (8 vols., Fribourg, 1839-1877); F. E. Welti, _Beiträge zur Geschichte
+  des älteren Stadtrechtes von Freiburg im Uechtland_ (Bern, 1908); J.
+  Zemp, _L'Art de la ville de Fribourg au moyen âge_ (Fribourg, 1905);
+  J. Zimmerli, _Die deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in d. Schweiz_
+  (Basel and Geneva, 1895), vol. ii., pp. 72 seq.; _Les Alpes
+  fribourgeoises_ (Lausanne, 1908).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FRICTION (from Lat. _fricare_, to rub), in physical and mechanical
+science, the term given to the resistance which every material surface
+presents to the sliding of any other such surface upon it. This
+resistance is due to the roughness of the surfaces; the minute
+projections upon each enter more or less into the minute depressions on
+the other, and when motion occurs these roughnesses must either be worn
+off, or continually lifted out of the hollows into which they have
+fallen, or both, the resistance to motion being in either case quite
+perceptible and measurable.
+
+Friction is preferably spoken of as "resistance" rather than "force,"
+for a reason exactly the same as that which induces us to treat stress
+rather as molecular resistance (to change of form) than as force, and
+which may be stated thus: although friction can be utilized as a moving
+force at will, and is continually so used, yet it cannot be a primary
+moving force; it can transmit or modify motion already existing, but
+cannot in the first instance cause it. For this some external force, not
+friction, is required. The analogy with stress appears complete; the
+motion of the "driving link" of a machine is communicated to all the
+other parts, modified or unchanged as the case may be, by the stresses
+in those parts; but the actual setting in motion of the driving link
+itself cannot come about by stress, but must have for its production
+force obtained directly from the expenditure of some form of energy. It
+is important, however, that the use of the term "resistance" should not
+be allowed to mislead. Friction resists the motion of one surface upon
+another, but it may and frequently does confer the motion of the one
+upon the other, and in this way causes, instead of resists, the motion
+of the latter. This may be made more clear, perhaps, by an illustration.
+Suppose we have a leather strap A passing over a fixed cylindrical drum
+B, and let a pulling force or effort be applied to the strap. The force
+applied to A can act on B only at the surfaces of contact between them.
+There it becomes an effort tending either to move A upon B, or to move
+the body B itself, according to the frictional conditions. In the
+absence of friction it would simply cause A to slide on B, so that we
+may call it an effort tending to make A slide on B. The friction is the
+resistance offered by the surface of B to any such motion. But the value
+of this resistance is not in any way a function of the effort
+itself,--it depends chiefly upon the pressure normal to the surfaces and
+the nature of the surfaces. It may therefore be either less or greater
+than the effort. If less, A slides over B, the rate of motion being
+determined by the excess of the effort over the resistance (friction).
+But if the latter be greater no sliding can occur, i.e. A cannot, under
+the action of the supposed force, move upon B. The effort between the
+surfaces exists, however, exactly as before,--and it must now tend to
+cause the motion of B. But the body B is fixed,--or, in other words, we
+suppose its resistance to motion greater than any effort which can tend
+to move it,--hence no motion takes place. It must be specially noticed,
+however, that it is not the friction between A and B that has prevented
+motion, this only prevented A moving on B,--it is the force which keeps
+B stationary, whatever that may be, which has finally prevented any
+motion taking place. This can be easily seen. Suppose B not to be fixed,
+but to be capable of moving against some third body C (which might,
+e.g., contain cylindrical bearings, if B were a drum with its shaft),
+itself fixed,--and further, suppose the frictional resistance between B
+and C to be the only resistance to B's motion. Then if this be less than
+the effort of A upon B, as it of course may be, this effort will cause
+the motion of B. Thus friction causes motion, for had there been no
+frictional resistance between the surfaces of A and of B, the latter
+body would have remained stationary, and A only would have moved. In the
+case supposed, therefore, the friction between A and B is a necessary
+condition of B receiving any motion from the external force applied to
+A.
+
+Without entering here on the mathematical treatment of the subject of
+friction, some general conclusions may be pointed out which have been
+arrived at as the results of experiment. The "laws" first enunciated by
+C. A. Coulomb (1781), and afterwards confirmed by A. J. Morin
+(1830-1834), have been found to hold good within very wide limits. These
+are: (1) that the friction is proportional to the normal pressure
+between the surfaces of contact, and therefore independent of the area
+of those surfaces, and (2) that it is independent of the velocity with
+which the surfaces slide one on the other. For many practical purposes
+these statements are sufficiently accurate, and they do in fact sensibly
+represent the results of experiment for the pressures and at the
+velocities most commonly occurring. Assuming the correctness of these,
+friction is generally measured in terms simply of the total pressure
+between the surfaces, by multiplying it by a "coefficient of friction"
+depending on the material of the surfaces and their state as to
+smoothness and lubrication. But beyond certain limits the "laws" stated
+are certainly incorrect, and are to be regarded as mere practical rules,
+of extensive application certainly, but without any pretension to be
+looked at as really general laws. Both at very high and very low
+pressures the coefficient of friction is affected by the intensity of
+pressure, and, just as with velocity, it can only be regarded as
+independent of the intensity and proportional simply to the total load
+within more or less definite limits.
+
+Coulomb pointed out long ago that the resistance of a body to be set in
+motion was in many cases much greater than the resistance which it
+offered to continued motion; and since his time writers have always
+distinguished the "friction of rest," or static friction, from the
+"friction of motion," or kinetic friction. He showed also that the value
+of the former depended often both upon the intensity of the pressure and
+upon the length of time during which contact had lasted, both of which
+facts quite agree with what we should expect from our knowledge of the
+physical nature, already mentioned, of the causes of friction. It seems
+not unreasonable to expect that the influence of time upon friction
+should show itself in a comparison of very slow with very rapid motion,
+as well as in a comparison of starting (i.e. motion after a long time of
+rest) with continued motion. That the friction at the higher velocities
+occurring in engineering practice is much less than at common velocities
+has been shown by several modern experiments, such as those of Sir
+Douglas Galton (see _Report Brit. Assoc._, 1878, and _Proc. Inst. Mech.
+Eng._, 1878, 1879) on the friction between brake-blocks and wheels, and
+between wheels and rails. But no increase in the coefficient of friction
+had been detected at slow speeds, until the experiments of Prof.
+Fleeming Jenkin (_Phil. Trans._, 1877, pt. 2) showed conclusively that
+at extremely low velocities (the lowest measured was about .0002 ft. per
+second) there is a sensible increase of frictional resistance in many
+cases, most notably in those in which there is the most marked
+difference between the friction of rest and that of motion. These
+experiments distinctly point to the conclusion, although without
+absolutely proving it, that in such cases the coefficient of kinetic
+friction gradually increases as the velocity becomes extremely small,
+and passes without discontinuity into that of static friction.
+     (A. B. W. K.; W. E. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIDAY (A.S. _frige-dæg_, fr. _frige_, gen. of _frigu_, love, or the
+goddess of love--the Norse Frigg,--the _dæg_, day; cf. Icelandic
+_frjádagr_, O.H. Ger. _friatag_, _frigatag_, mod. Ger. _Freitag_), the
+sixth day of the week, corresponding to the Roman _Dies Veneris_, the
+French _Vendredi_ and Italian _Venerdi_. The ill-luck associated with
+the day undoubtedly arose from its connexion with the Crucifixion; for
+the ancient Scandinavian peoples regarded it as the luckiest day of the
+week. By the Western and Eastern Churches the Fridays throughout the
+year, except when Christmas falls on that day, have ever been observed
+as days of fast in memory of the Passion. The special day on which the
+Passion of Christ is annually commemorated is known as Good Friday
+(q.v.). According to Mahommedan tradition, Friday, which is the Moslem
+Sabbath, was the day on which Adam was created, entered Paradise and was
+expelled, and it was the day of his repentance, the day of his death,
+and will be the Day of Resurrection.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDBERG, the name of two towns in Germany.
+
+1. A small town in Upper Bavaria, with an old castle, known mainly as
+the scene of Moreau's victory of the 24th of August 1796 over the
+Austrians.
+
+2. FRIEDBERG IN DER WETTERAU, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on
+an eminence above the Usa, 14 m. N. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway
+to Cassel and at the junction of a line to Hanau. Pop. (1905) 7702. It
+is a picturesque town, still surrounded by old walls and towers, and
+contains many medieval buildings, of which the beautiful Gothic town
+church (Evangelical) and the old castle are especially noteworthy. The
+grand-ducal palace has a beautiful garden. The schools include technical
+and agricultural academies and a teachers' seminary. It has manufactures
+of sugar, gloves and leather, and breweries. Friedberg is of Roman
+origin, but is first mentioned as a town in the 11th century. In 1211 it
+became a free imperial city, but in 1349 was pledged to the counts of
+Schwarzburg, and subsequently often changed hands, eventually in 1802
+passing to Hesse-Darmstadt.
+
+  See Dieffenbach, _Geschichte der Stadt und Burg Friedberg_ (Darms.,
+  1857).
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDEL, CHARLES (1832-1899), French chemist and mineralogist, was born
+at Strassburg on the 12th of March 1832. After graduating at Strassburg
+University he spent a year in the counting-house of his father, a banker
+and merchant, and then in 1851 went to live in Paris with his maternal
+grandfather, Georges Louis Duvernoy (1777-1855), professor of natural
+history and, from 1850, of comparative anatomy, at the Collège de
+France. In 1854 he entered C. A. Wurtz's laboratory, and in 1856, at the
+instance of H. H. de Sénarmont (1808-1862), was appointed conservator of
+the mineralogical collections at the École des Mines. In 1871 he began
+to lecture in place of A. L. O. L. Des Cloizeaux (1817-1897) at the
+École Normale, and in 1876 he became professor of mineralogy at the
+Sorbonne, but on the death of Wurtz in 1884 he exchanged that position
+for the chair of organic chemistry. He died at Montauban on the 20th of
+April 1899. Friedel achieved distinction both in mineralogy and organic
+chemistry. In the former he was one of the leading workers, in
+collaboration from 1879 to 1887 with Émile Edmond Sarasin (1843-1890),
+at the formation of minerals by artificial means, particularly in the
+wet way with the aid of heat and pressure, and he succeeded in
+reproducing a large number of the natural compounds. In 1893, as the
+result of an attempt to make diamond by the action of sulphur on highly
+carburetted cast iron at 450°-500° C. he obtained a black powder too
+small in quantity to be analysed but hard enough to scratch corundum. He
+also devoted much attention to the pyroelectric phenomena of crystals,
+which served as the theme of one of the two memoirs he presented for the
+degree of D.Sc. in 1869, and to the determination of crystallographic
+constants. In organic chemistry, his study of the ketones and aldehydes,
+begun in 1857, provided him with the subject of his other doctoral
+thesis. In 1862 he prepared secondary propyl alcohol, and in 1863, with
+James Mason Crafts (b. 1839), for many years a professor at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, he obtained various
+organometallic compounds of silicon. A few years later further work,
+with Albert Ladenburg, on the same element yielded silicochloroform and
+led to a demonstration of the close analogy existing between the
+behaviour in combination of silicon and carbon. In 1871, with R. D. da
+Silva (b. 1837) he synthesized glycerin, starting from propylene. In
+1877, with Crafts, he made the first publication of the fruitful and
+widely used method for synthesizing benzene homologues now generally
+known as the "Friedel and Crafts reaction." It was based on an
+accidental observation of the action of metallic aluminium on amyl
+chloride, and consists in bringing together a hydrocarbon and an organic
+chloride in presence of aluminium chloride, when the residues of the two
+compounds unite to form a more complex body. Friedel was associated with
+Wurtz in editing the latter's _Dictionnaire de chimie_, and undertook
+the supervision of the supplements issued after 1884. He was the chief
+founder of the _Revue générale de chimie_ in 1899. His publications
+include a _Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Wurtz_ (1885), _Cours de
+chimie organique_ (1887) and _Cours de minéralogie_ (1893). He acted as
+president of the International Congress held at Geneva in 1892 for
+revising the nomenclature of the fatty acid series.
+
+  See a memorial lecture by J. M. Crafts, printed in the _Journal of the
+  London Chemical Society_ for 1900.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDLAND, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 103 m. N.E. of Prague by rail.
+Pop. (1900) 6229. Besides the old town, which is still surrounded by
+walls, it contains three suburbs. The principal industry is the
+manufacture of woollen and linen cloth. Friedland is chiefly remarkable
+for its old castle, which occupies an imposing situation on a small hill
+commanding the town. A round watch-tower is said to have been built on
+its site as early as 1014; and the present castle dates from the 13th
+century. It was several times besieged in the Thirty Years' and Seven
+Years' Wars. In 1622 it was purchased by Wallenstein, who took from it
+his title of duke of Friedland. After his death it was given to Count
+Mathias Gallas by Ferdinand II., and since 1757 it has belonged to the
+Count Clam Gallas. It was magnificently restored in 1868-1869.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDLAND, the name of seven towns in Germany. The most important now is
+that in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on the Mühlenteich, 35
+m. N.E. of Strelitz by the railway to Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. 7000. It
+possesses a fine Gothic church and a gymnasium, and has manufactures of
+woollen and linen cloth, leather and tobacco. Friedland was founded in
+1244 by the margraves John and Otto III. of Brandenburg.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDLAND, a town of Prussia, on the Alle, 27 m. S.E. of Königsberg
+(pop. 3000), famous as the scene of the battle fought between the French
+under Napoleon and the Russians commanded by General Bennigsen, on the
+14th of June 1807 (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The Russians had on the
+13th driven the French cavalry outposts from Friedland to the westward,
+and Bennigsen's main body began to occupy the town in the night. The
+army of Napoleon was set in motion for Friedland, but it was still
+dispersed on its various march routes, and the first stage of the
+engagement was thus, as usual, a pure "encounter-battle." The corps of
+Marshal Lannes as "general advanced guard" was first engaged, in the
+Sortlack Wood and in front of Posthenen (2.30-3 A.M. on the 14th). Both
+sides now used their cavalry freely to cover the formation of lines of
+battle, and a race between the rival squadrons for the possession of
+Heinrichsdorf resulted in favour of the French under Grouchy. Lannes in
+the meantime was fighting hard to hold Bennigsen, for Napoleon feared
+that the Russians meant to evade him again. Actually, by 6 A.M.
+Bennigsen had nearly 50,000 men across the river and forming up west of
+Friedland. His infantry, in two lines, with artillery, extended between
+the Heinrichsdorf-Friedland road and the upper bends of the river.
+Beyond the right of the infantry, cavalry and Cossacks extended the line
+to the wood N.E. of Heinrichsdorf, and small bodies of Cossacks
+penetrated even to Schwonau. The left wing also had some cavalry and,
+beyond the Alle, batteries were brought into action to cover it. A heavy
+and indecisive fire-fight raged in the Sortlack Wood between the Russian
+skirmishers and some of Lannes's troops. The head of Mortier's (French
+and Polish) corps appeared at Heinrichsdorf and the Cossacks were driven
+out of Schwonau. Lannes held his own, and by noon, when Napoleon
+arrived, 40,000 French troops were on the scene of action. His orders
+were brief: Ney's corps was to take the line between Posthenen and the
+Sortlack Wood, Lannes closing on his left, to form the centre, Mortier
+at Heinrichsdorf the left wing. Victor and the Guard were placed in
+reserve behind Posthenen. Cavalry masses were collected at
+Heinrichsdorf. The main attack was to be delivered against the Russian
+left, which Napoleon saw at once to be cramped in the narrow tongue of
+land between the river and the Posthenen mill-stream. Three cavalry
+divisions were added to the general reserve. The course of the previous
+operations had been such that both armies had still large detachments
+out towards Königsberg. The afternoon was spent by the emperor in
+forming up the newly arrived masses, the deployment being covered by an
+artillery bombardment. At 5 o'clock all was ready, and Ney, preceded by
+a heavy artillery fire, rapidly carried the Sortlack Wood. The attack
+was pushed on toward the Alle. One of Ney's divisions (Marchand) drove
+part of the Russian left into the river at Sortlack. A furious charge of
+cavalry against Marchand's left was repulsed by the dragoon division of
+Latour-Maubourg. Soon the Russians were huddled together in the bends of
+the Alle, an easy target for the guns of Ney and of the reserve. Ney's
+attack indeed came eventually to a standstill; Bennigsen's reserve
+cavalry charged with great effect and drove him back in disorder. As at
+Eylau, the approach of night seemed to preclude a decisive success, but
+in June and on firm ground the old mobility of the French reasserted its
+value. The infantry division of Dupont advanced rapidly from Posthenen,
+the cavalry divisions drove back the Russian squadrons into the now
+congested masses of foot on the river bank, and finally the artillery
+general Sénarmont advanced a mass of guns to case-shot range. It was the
+first example of the terrible artillery preparations of modern warfare,
+and the Russian defence collapsed in a few minutes. Ney's exhausted
+infantry were able to pursue the broken regiments of Bennigsen's left
+into the streets of Friedland. Lannes and Mortier had all this time held
+the Russian centre and right on its ground, and their artillery had
+inflicted severe losses. When Friedland itself was seen to be on fire,
+the two marshals launched their infantry attack. Fresh French troops
+approached the battlefield. Dupont distinguished himself for the second
+time by fording the mill-stream and assailing the left flank of the
+Russian centre. This offered a stubborn resistance, but the French
+steadily forced the line backwards, and the battle was soon over. The
+losses incurred by the Russians in retreating over the river at
+Friedland were very heavy, many soldiers being drowned. Farther north
+the still unbroken troops of the right wing drew off by the Allenburg
+road; the French cavalry of the left wing, though ordered to pursue,
+remaining, for some reason, inactive. The losses of the victors were
+reckoned at 12,100 out of 86,000, or 14%, those of the Russians at
+10,000 out of 46,000, or 21% (Berndt, _Zahl im Kriege_).
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDMANN, MEIR (1831-1908), Hungarian Jewish scholar. His editions of
+the Midrash are the standard texts. His chief editions were the _Sifre_
+(1864), the _Mekhilta_ (1870), _Pesiqla Rabbathi_ (1880). At the time of
+his death he was editing the _Sifra_. Friedmann, while inspired with
+regard for tradition, dealt with the Rabbinic texts on modern scientific
+methods, and rendered conspicuous service to the critical investigation
+of the Midrash and to the history of early homilies.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836-   ), German theologian, was born at Poxdorf in
+Upper Franconia on the 5th of May 1836, and was educated at Bamberg and
+at Munich, where in 1865 he was appointed professor extraordinary of
+theology. In 1869 he went to the Vatican Council as secretary to
+Cardinal Hohenlohe, and took an active part in opposing the dogma of
+papal infallibility, notably by supplying the opposition bishops with
+historical and theological material. He left Rome before the council
+closed. "No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won for
+himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held so
+important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading German
+cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly open before him to
+the highest advancement in the Church of Rome, yet he deliberately
+sacrificed all such hopes and placed himself in the van of a hard and
+doubtful struggle" (_The Guardian_, 1872, p. 1004). Sentence of
+excommunication was passed on Friedrich in April 1871, but he refused to
+acknowledge it and was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued
+to perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic
+position, becoming ordinary professor in 1872. In 1882 he was
+transferred to the philosophical faculty as professor of history. By
+this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the advanced position
+which he at first occupied in organizing the Old Catholic Church, for he
+was not in agreement with its abolition of enforced celibacy.
+
+  Friedrich was a prolific writer; among his chief works are: _Johann
+  Wessel_ (1862); _Die Lehre des Johann Hus_ (1862); _Kirchengeschichte
+  Deutschlands_ (1867-1869); _Tagebuch während des Vatikan. Concils
+  geführt_ (1871); _Zur Verteidigung meines Tagebuchs_ (1872); _Beiträge
+  zur Kirchengeschichte des 18ten Jahrh._ (1876); _Geschichte des
+  Vatikan. Konzils_ (1877-1886); _Beiträge zur Gesch. des
+  Jesuitenordens_ (1881); _Das Papsttum_ (1892); _I. v. Döllinger_
+  (1899-1901).
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHRODA, a summer resort in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
+Germany, at the north foot of the Thuringian Forest, 13 m. by rail S.W.
+from Gotha. Pop. 4500. It is surrounded by fir-clad hills and possesses
+numerous handsome villa residences, a _Kurhaus_, sanatorium, &c. In the
+immediate neighbourhood is the beautiful ducal hunting seat of
+Reinhardsbrunn, built out of the ruins of the famous Benedictine
+monastery founded in 1085.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHSDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus range, 3 m. N.E. from
+Homburg. Pop. 1300. It has a French Reformed church, a modern school,
+dyeworks, weaving mills, tanneries and tobacco manufactures.
+Friedrichsdorf was founded in 1687 by Huguenot refugees and the
+inhabitants still speak French. There is a monument to Philipp Reis
+(1834-1874), who in 1860 first constructed the telephone while a science
+master at the school.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, on
+the east shore of the Lake of Constance, at the junction of railways to
+Bretten and Lindau. Pop. 4600. It consists of the former imperial town
+of Buchhorn and the monastery and village of Hofen. The principal
+building is the palace, formerly the residence of the provosts of Hofen,
+and now the summer residence of the royal family. To the palace is
+attached the Evangelical parish church. The town has a hydropathic
+establishment and is a favourite tourist resort. Here are also the
+natural history and antiquarian collections of the Lake Constance
+Association. Buchhorn is mentioned (as Buachihorn or Puchihorn) in
+documents of 837 and was the seat of a powerful countship. The line of
+counts died out in 1089, and the place fell first to the Welfs and in
+1191 to the Hohenstaufen. In 1275 it was made a free imperial city by
+King Rudolph I. In 1802 it lost this status and was assigned to Bavaria,
+and in 1810 to Württemberg. The monastery of Hofen was founded in 1050
+as a convent of Benedictine nuns, but was changed in 1420 into a
+provostship of monks. It was suppressed in 1802 and in 1805 came to
+Württemberg. King Frederick I., who caused the harbour to be made,
+amalgamated Buchhorn and Hofen under the new name of Friedrichshafen.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHSRUH, a village in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein,
+15 m. S.E. of Hamburg, with a station on the main line of railway to
+Berlin. It gives its name to the famous country seat of the Bismarck
+family. The house is a plain unpretentious structure, but the park and
+estate, forming a portion of the famous Sachsenwald, are attractive.
+Close by, on a knoll, the Schneckenberg, stands the mausoleum in which
+the remains of Prince Otto von Bismarck were entombed on the 16th of
+March 1899.
+
+
+
+
+FRIENDLY[1] SOCIETIES. These organizations, according to the
+comprehensive definition of the Friendly Societies Act 1896, which
+regulates such societies in Great Britain and Ireland, are "societies
+for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscriptions of the members
+thereof, with or without the aid of donations, for the relief or
+maintenance of the members, their husbands, wives, children, fathers,
+mothers, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, or wards being orphans,
+during sickness or other infirmity, whether bodily or mental, in old
+age, or in widowhood, or for the relief or maintenance of the orphan
+children of members during minority; for insuring money to be paid on
+the birth of a member's child, or on the death of a member, or for the
+funeral expenses of the husband, wife, or child of a member, or of the
+widow of a deceased member, or, as respects persons of the Jewish
+persuasion, for the payment of a sum of money during the period of
+confined mourning; for the relief or maintenance of the members when on
+travel in search of employment or when in distressed circumstances, or
+in case of shipwreck, or loss or damage of or to boats or nets; for the
+endowment of members or nominees of members at any age; for the
+insurance against fire to any amount not exceeding £15 of the tools or
+implements of the trade or calling of the members"--and are limited in
+their contracts for assurance of annuities to £52 (previous to the
+Friendly Societies Act 1908 the sum was £50), and for insurance of a
+gross sum to £300 (previous to the act of 1908 the sum was £200). They
+may be described in a more popular and condensed form of words as the
+mutual insurance societies of the poorer classes, by which they seek to
+aid each other in the emergencies arising from sickness and death and
+other causes of distress. A phrase in the first act for the
+encouragement and relief of friendly societies, passed in 1793,
+designating them "societies of good fellowship," indicates another
+useful phase of their operations.
+
+The origin of the friendly society is, probably in all countries, the
+burial club. It has been the policy of every religion, if indeed it is
+not a common instinct of humanity, to surround the disposal of a dead
+body with circumstances of pomp and expenditure, often beyond the means
+of the surviving relatives. The appeal for help to friends and
+neighbours which necessarily follows is soon organized into a system of
+mutual aid, that falls in naturally with the religious ceremonies by
+which honour is done to the dead. Thus in China there are burial
+societies, termed "long-life loan companies," in almost all the towns
+and villages. Among the Greeks the [Greek: eranoi] combined the
+religious with the provident element (see CHARITY AND CHARITIES). From
+the Greeks the Romans derived their fraternities of a similar kind. The
+Teutons in like manner had their gilds. Whether the English friendly
+society owes its origin in the higher degree to the Roman or the
+Teutonic influence can hardly be determined. The utility of providing by
+combination for the ritual expenditure upon burial having been
+ascertained, the next step--to render mutual assistance in circumstances
+of distress generally--was an easy one, and we find it taken by the
+Greek [Greek: eranoi] and by the English gilds. Another
+modification--that the societies should consist not so much of
+neighbours as of persons having the same occupation--soon arises; and
+this is the germ of our trade unions and our city companies in their
+original constitution. The interest, however, that these inquiries
+possess is mainly antiquarian. The legal definition of a friendly
+society quoted above points to an organization more complex than those
+of the ancient fraternities and gilds, and proceeding upon different
+principles. It may be that the one has grown out of the other. The
+common element of a provision for a contingent event by a joint
+contribution is in both; but the friendly society alone has attempted to
+define with precision what is the risk against which it intends to
+provide, and what should be the contributions of the members to meet
+that risk.
+
+_United Kingdom._--It would be curious to endeavour to trace how, after
+the suppression of the religious gilds in the 16th century, and the
+substitution of an organized system of relief by the poor law of
+Elizabeth for the more voluntary and casual means of relief that
+previously existed, the modern system of friendly societies grew up. The
+modern friendly society, particularly in rural districts, clings with
+fondness to its annual feast and procession to church, its procession of
+all the brethren on the occasion of the funeral of one of them, and
+other incidents which are almost obviously survivals of the customs of
+medieval gilds. The last recorded gild was in existence in 1628, and
+there are records of friendly societies as early as 1634 and 1639. The
+connecting links, however, cannot be traced. With the exception of a
+society in the port of Borrowstounness on the Firth of Forth, no
+existing friendly society is known to be able to trace back its history
+beyond a date late in the 17th century, and no records remain of any
+that might have existed in the latter half of the 16th century or the
+greater part of the 17th. One founded in 1666 was extant in 1850, but it
+has since ceased to exist. This is not so surprising as it might appear.
+Documents which exist in manuscript only are much less likely to have
+been preserved since the invention of printing than they were before;
+and such would be the simple rules and records of any society that might
+have existed during this interval--if, indeed, many of them kept records
+at all. On the whole, it seems probable therefore that the friendly
+society is a lineal descendant of the ancient gild--the idea never
+having wholly died out, but having been kept up from generation to
+generation in a succession of small and scattered societies.
+
+At the same time, it seems probable that the friendly society of the
+present day owes its revival to a great extent to the Protestant
+refugees of Spitalfields, one of whose societies was founded in 1703,
+and has continued among descendants of the same families, whose names
+proclaim their Norman origin. This society has distinguished itself by
+the intelligence with which it has adapted its machinery to the
+successive modifications of the law, and it completely reconstructed its
+rules under the provisions of the Friendly Societies Acts 1875 and 1876.
+
+Another is the society of Lintot, founded in London in 1708, in which
+the office of secretary was for more than half a century filled by
+persons of the name of Levesque, one of whom published a translation of
+its original rules. No one was to be received into the society who was
+not a member, or the descendant of a member, of the church of Lintot, of
+recognized probity, a good Protestant, and well-intentioned towards the
+queen [Anne] and faithful to the government of the country. No one was
+to be admitted below the age of eighteen, or who had not been received
+at holy communion and become member of a church. A member should not
+have a claim to relief during his first year's membership, but if he
+fell sick within the year a collection should be made for him among the
+members. The foreign names still borne by a large proportion of the
+members show that the connexion with descendants of the refugees is
+maintained.
+
+The example of providence given by these societies was so largely
+followed that Rose's Act in 1793 recognized the existence of numerous
+societies, and provided encouragement for them in various ways, as well
+as relief from taxation to an extent which in those days must have been
+of great pecuniary value, and exemption from removal under the poor law.
+The benefits offered by this statute were readily accepted by the
+societies, and the vast number of societies which speedily became
+enrolled shows that Rose's Act met with a real public want. In the
+county of Middlesex alone nearly a thousand societies were enrolled
+within a very few years after the passing of the act, and the number in
+some other counties was almost as great. The societies then formed were
+nearly all of a like kind--small clubs, in which the feature of good
+fellowship was in the ascendant, and that of provident assurance for
+sickness and death merely accessory. This is indicated by one provision
+which occurs in many of the early enrolled rules, viz. that the number
+of members shall be limited to 61, 81 or 101, as the case may be. The
+odd 1 which occurs in these numbers probably stands for the president or
+secretary, or is a contrivance to ensure a clear majority. Several of
+these old societies are still in existence, and can point to a
+prosperous career based rather upon good luck than upon scientific
+calculation. Founded among small tradesmen or persons in the way to
+thrive, the claims for sickness were only made in cases where the
+sickness was accompanied by distress, and even the funeral allowance was
+not always demanded.
+
+The societies generally not being established upon any scientific
+principle, those which met with this prosperity were the exception to
+the rule; and accordingly the cry that friendly societies were failing
+in all quarters was as great in 1819 as in 1869. A writer of that time
+speaks of the instability of friendly societies as "universal"; and the
+general conviction that this was so resulted in the passing of the act
+of 1819. It recites that "the habitual reliance of poor persons upon
+parochial relief, rather than upon their own industry, tends to the
+moral deterioration of the people and to the accumulation of heavy
+burthens upon parishes; and it is desirable, with a view as well to the
+reduction of the assessment made for the relief of the poor as to the
+improvement of the habits of the people, that encouragement should be
+afforded to persons desirous of making provision for themselves or their
+families out of the fruits of their own industry. By the contributions
+of the savings of many persons to one common fund the most effectual
+provision may be made for the casualties affecting all the contributors;
+and it is therefore desirable to afford further facilities and
+additional security to persons who may be willing to unite in
+appropriating small sums from time to time to a common fund for the
+purposes aforesaid, and it is desirable to protect such persons from the
+effects of fraud or miscalculation." This preamble went on to recite
+that the provisions of preceding acts had been found insufficient for
+these purposes, and great abuses had prevailed in many societies
+established under their authority. By this statute a friendly society
+was defined as "an institution, whereby it is intended to provide, by
+contribution, on the principle of mutual insurance, for the maintenance
+or assistance of the contributors thereto, their wives or children, in
+sickness, infancy, advanced age, widowhood or any other natural state or
+contingency, whereof the occurrence is susceptible of calculation by way
+of average." It will be seen that this act dealt exclusively with the
+scientific aspect of the societies, and had nothing to say to the
+element of good fellowship. Rules and tables were to be submitted by the
+persons intending to form a society to the justices, who, before
+confirming them, were to satisfy themselves that the contingencies which
+the society was to provide against were within the meaning of the act,
+and that the formation of the society would be useful and beneficial,
+regard being had to the existence of other societies in the same
+district. No tables or rules connected with calculation were to be
+confirmed by the justices until they had been approved by two persons at
+least, known to be professional actuaries or persons skilled in
+calculation, as fit and proper, according to the most correct
+calculation of which the nature of the case would admit. The justices in
+quarter sessions were also by this act authorized to publish general
+rules for the formation and government of friendly societies within
+their county. The practical effect of this statute in requiring that the
+societies formed under it should be established on sound principles does
+not appear to have been as great as might have been expected. The
+justices frequently accepted as "persons skilled in calculation" local
+schoolmasters and others who had no real knowledge of the technical
+difficulties of the subject, while the restrictions upon registry served
+only to increase the number of societies established without becoming
+registered.
+
+In 1829 the law relating to friendly societies was entirely
+reconstructed by an act of that year, and a barrister was appointed
+under that act to examine the rules of societies, and ascertain that
+they were in conformity to law and to the provisions of the act. The
+barrister so appointed was John Tidd Pratt (1797-1870); and no account
+of friendly societies would be complete that did not do justice to the
+remarkable public service rendered by this gentleman. For forty years,
+though he had by statute really very slight authority over the
+societies, his name exercised the widest influence, and the numerous
+reports and publications by which he endeavoured to impress upon the
+public mind sound principles of management of friendly societies, and to
+expose those which were managed upon unsound principles, made him a
+terror to evil-doers. On the other hand, he lent with readiness the aid
+of his legal knowledge and great mental activity to assisting
+well-intentioned societies in coming within the provisions of the acts,
+and thus gave many excellent schemes a legal organization.
+
+By the act of 1829, in lieu of the discretion as to whether the
+formation of the proposed society would be useful and beneficial, and
+the requirement of the actuarial certificate to the tables, it was
+enacted that the justices were to satisfy themselves that the tables
+proposed to be used might be adopted with safety to all parties
+concerned. This provision, of course, became a dead letter and was
+repealed in 1834. Thenceforth, societies were free to establish
+themselves upon what conditions and with what rates they chose, provided
+only they satisfied the barrister that the rules were "calculated to
+carry into effect the intention of the parties framing them," and were
+"in conformity to law."
+
+By an act of 1846 the barrister certifying the rules was constituted
+"Registrar of Friendly Societies," and the rules of all societies were
+brought together under his custody. An actuarial certificate was to be
+obtained before any society could be registered "for the purpose of
+securing any benefit dependent on the laws of sickness and mortality."
+In 1850 the acts were again repealed and consolidated with amendments.
+Societies were divided into two classes, "certified" and "registered."
+The certified societies were such as obtained a certificate to their
+tables by an actuary possessing a given qualification, who was required
+to set forth the data of sickness and mortality upon which he proceeded,
+and the rate of interest assumed in the calculations. All other
+societies were to be simply registered. Very few societies were
+constituted of the "certified" class. The distinction of classes was
+repealed and the acts were again consolidated in 1855. Under this act,
+which admitted of all possible latitude to the framers of rules of
+societies, 21,875 societies were registered, a large number of them
+being lodges or courts of affiliated orders, and the act continued in
+force till the end of 1875.
+
+The Friendly Societies Act 1875 and the several acts amending it are
+still, in effect, the law by which these societies are regulated, though
+in form they have been replaced by two consolidating acts, viz. the
+Friendly Societies Act 1896 and the Collecting Societies and Industrial
+Assurance Companies Act 1896. This legislation still bears the
+permissive and elastic character which marked the more successful of the
+previous acts, but it provides ampler means to members of ascertaining
+and remedying defects of management and of restraining fraud. The
+business of registry is under the control of a chief registrar, who has
+an assistant registrar in each of the three countries, with an actuary.
+An appeal to the chief registrar in the case of the refusal of an
+assistant registrar to register a society or an amendment of rules, and
+in the case of suspension or cancelling of registry, is interposed
+before appeal is to be made to the High Court. Registry under a
+particular name may be refused if in the opinion of the registrar the
+name is likely to deceive the members or the public as to the nature of
+the society or as to its identity. It is the duty of the chief
+registrar, among other things, to require from every society a return in
+proper form each year of its receipts and expenditure, funds and
+effects; and also once every five years a valuation of its assets and
+liabilities. Upon the application of a certain proportion of the
+members, varying according to the magnitude of the society, the chief
+registrar may appoint an inspector to examine into its affairs, or may
+call a general meeting of the members to consider and determine any
+matter affecting its interests. These are powers which have been used
+with excellent effect. Cases have occurred in which fraud has been
+detected and punished by this means that could not probably have been
+otherwise brought to light. In others a system of mismanagement has been
+exposed and effectually checked. The power of calling special meetings
+has enabled societies to remedy defects in their rules, to remove
+officers guilty of misconduct, &c., where the procedure prescribed by
+the rules was for some reason or other inapplicable. Upon an application
+of a like proportion of members the chief registrar may, if he finds
+that the funds of a society are insufficient to meet the existing claims
+thereon, or that the rates of contribution are insufficient to cover the
+benefits assured (upon which he consults his actuary), order the society
+to be dissolved, and direct how its funds are to be applied. Authority
+is given to the chief registrar to direct the expense (preliminary,
+incidental, &c.) of an inspection or special meeting to be defrayed by
+the members or officers, or former members or officers, of a society, if
+he does not think they should be defrayed either by the applicants or
+out of the society's funds. He is also empowered, with the approval of
+the treasury, to exempt any friendly society from the provisions of the
+Collecting Societies Act if he considers it to be one to which those
+provisions ought not to apply. Every society registered after 1895, to
+which these provisions do apply, is to use the words "Collecting
+Society" as the last words of its name.
+
+The law as to the membership of infants has been altered three times.
+The act of 1875 allowed existing societies to continue any rule or
+practice of admitting children as members that was in force at its
+passing, and prohibited membership under sixteen years of age in any
+other case, except the case of a juvenile society composed wholly of
+members under that age. The treasury made special regulations for the
+registry of such juvenile societies. In 1887 the maximum age of their
+members was extended to twenty-one. In 1895 it was enacted that no
+society should have any members under one year of age, whether
+authorized by an existing rule or not; and that every society should be
+entitled to make a rule admitting members at any age over one year, but
+by the Friendly Societies Act 1908 membership was permitted to minors
+under the age of one year. The Treasury, upon the enactment of 1895
+coming into operation, rescinded its regulations for the registry of
+juvenile societies; and though it is still the practice to submit for
+registry societies wholly composed of persons under twenty-one, these
+societies in no way differ from other societies, except in the
+circumstances that they are obliged to seek officers and a committee of
+management from outside, as no member of the committee of any society
+can be under twenty-one years of age. In order to promote the
+discontinuance of this anomalous proceeding of creating societies under
+the Friendly Societies Act, which, by the conditions of their existence,
+are unable to be self-governing, the act provides an easy method of
+amalgamating juvenile societies and ordinary societies or branches, or
+of distributing the members and the funds of a juvenile society among a
+number of branches. The liability of schoolboys and young working lads
+to sickness is small, and these societies frequently accumulate funds,
+which, as their membership is temporary, remain unclaimed and are
+sometimes misapplied.
+
+  The legislation of 1875 and 1876 was the result of the labours of a
+  royal commission of high authority, presided over by Sir Stafford
+  Northcote (afterwards Lord Iddesleigh), which sat from 1870 to 1874,
+  and prosecuted an exhaustive inquiry into the organization and
+  condition of the various classes of friendly societies. Their reports
+  occupy more than a dozen large bluebooks. They divided registered
+  friendly societies into 13 classes.
+
+  The first class included the affiliated societies or "orders," such as
+  the Manchester Unity of Oddfellows, the Ancient Order of Foresters,
+  the Rechabites, Druids, &c. These societies have a central body,
+  either situated in some large town, as in the case of the Manchester
+  Unity, or moving from place to place, as in that of the Foresters.
+  Under this central body, the country is (in most cases) parcelled out
+  into districts, and these districts again consist each of a number of
+  independent branches, called "lodges," "courts," "tents," or
+  "divisions," having a separate fund administered by themselves, but
+  contributing also to a fund under the control of the central body.
+  Besides these great orders, there were smaller affiliated bodies, each
+  having more than 1000 members; and the affiliated form of society
+  appears to have great attraction. Indeed, in the colony of Victoria,
+  Australia, all the existing friendly societies are of this class. The
+  orders have their "secrets," but these, it may safely be said, are of
+  a very innocent character, and merely serve the purpose of identifying
+  a member of a distant branch by his knowledge of the "grip," and of
+  the current password, &c. Indeed they are now so far from being
+  "secret societies" that their meetings are attended by reporters and
+  the debates published in the newspapers, and the Order of Foresters
+  has passed a wise resolution expunging from its publications all
+  affectation of mystery.
+
+  Most of the lodges existing before 1875 have converted themselves into
+  registered branches. The requirement that for that purpose a vote of
+  three-fourths should be necessary was altered in 1895 to a bare
+  majority vote. The provisions as to settlement of disputes were
+  extended in 1885 to every description of dispute between branches and
+  the central body, and in 1895 it was provided that the forty days
+  after which a member may apply to the court to settle a dispute where
+  the society fails to do so, shall not begin to run until application
+  has been made in succession to all the tribunals created by the order
+  for the purpose. In 1887 it was enacted that no body which had been a
+  registered branch should be registered as a separate society except
+  upon production of a certificate from the order that it had seceded or
+  been expelled; and in 1895 it was further enacted that no such body
+  should, after secession or expulsion, use any name or number implying
+  that it is still a branch of the order. The orders generally,
+  especially the greater ones, have carefully supervised the valuations
+  of their branches, and have urged and, as far as circumstances have
+  rendered it practicable, have enforced upon the branches measures for
+  diminishing the deficiencies which the valuations have disclosed. They
+  have organized plans by which branches disposed to make an effort to
+  help themselves in this matter may be assisted out of a central fund.
+  The second class was made up of "general societies," principally
+  existing in London, of which the commissioners enumerated 8 with
+  nearly 60,000 members, and funds amounting to a quarter of a million.
+
+  The third class included the "county societies." These societies have
+  been but feebly supported by those for whose benefit they are
+  instituted, having all exacted high rates of contribution, in order to
+  secure financial soundness.
+
+  Class 4, "local town societies," is a very numerous one. Among some of
+  the larger societies may be mentioned the "Chelmsford Provident," the
+  "Brighton and Sussex Mutual," the "Cannon Street, Birmingham," the
+  "Birmingham General Provident." In this group might also be included
+  the interesting societies which are established among the Jewish
+  community. They differ from ordinary friendly societies partly in the
+  nature of the benefits granted upon death, which are intended to
+  compensate for loss of employment during the time of ceremonial
+  seclusion enjoined by the Jewish law, which is called "sitting shiva."
+  They also provide a cab for the mourners and rabbi, and a tombstone
+  for the departed, and the same benefits as an ordinary friendly
+  society during sickness. Some also provide a place of worship. Of
+  these the "Pursuers of Peace" (enrolled in December 1797), the "Bikhur
+  Cholim, or Visitors of the Sick" (April 1798), the "Hozier Holim"
+  (1804), may be mentioned.
+
+  Class 5 was "local village and country societies," including the small
+  public-house clubs which abound in the villages and rural districts, a
+  large proportion of which are unregistered.
+
+  Class 6 was formed of "particular trade societies."
+
+  Class 7 was "dividing societies." These were before 1875 unauthorized
+  by law, though they were very attractive to the members. Their
+  practice is usually to start afresh every January, paying a
+  subscription somewhat in excess of that usually charged by an ordinary
+  friendly society, out of which a sick allowance is granted to any
+  member who may fall sick during the year, and at Christmas the balance
+  not so applied is divided among the members equally, with the
+  exception of a small sum left to begin the new year with. The mischief
+  of the system is that, as there is no accumulation of funds, the
+  society cannot provide for prolonged sickness or old age, and must
+  either break up altogether or exclude its sick and aged members at the
+  very time when they most need its help. This, however, has not
+  impaired the popularity of the societies, and the act of 1875, framed
+  on the sound principle that the protection of the law should not be
+  withheld from any form of association, enables a society to be
+  registered with a rule for dividing its funds, provided only that all
+  existing claims upon the society are to be met before a division takes
+  place.
+
+  Class 8, "deposit friendly societies," combine the characteristics of
+  a savings bank with those of a friendly society. They were devised by
+  the Hon. and Rev. S. Best, on the principle that a certain proportion
+  of the sick allowance is to be raised out of a member's separate
+  deposit account, which, if not so used, is retained for his benefit.
+  Their advantages are in the encouragement they offer to saving, and in
+  meeting the selfish objection sometimes raised to friendly societies,
+  that the man who is not sick gets nothing for his money; their
+  disadvantage is in their failing to meet cases of sickness so
+  prolonged as to exhaust the whole of the member's own deposit.
+
+  Class 9, "collecting societies," are so called because their
+  contributions are received through a machinery of house-to-house
+  collection. These were the subject of much laborious investigation and
+  close attention on the part of the commissioners. They deal with a
+  lower class of the community, both with respect to means and to
+  intelligence, than that from which the members of ordinary friendly
+  societies are drawn. The large emoluments gained by the officers and
+  collectors, the high percentage of expenditure (often exceeding half
+  the contributions), and the excessive frequency of lapsing of
+  insurances point to mischiefs in their management. "The radical evil
+  of the whole system (the commissioners remark) appears to us to lie in
+  the employment of collectors, otherwise than under the direct
+  supervision and control of the members, a supervision and control
+  which we fear to be absolutely unattainable in burial societies that
+  are not purely local." On the other hand, it must be conceded that
+  these societies extend the benefits of life insurance to a class which
+  the other societies cannot reach, namely, the class that will not take
+  the trouble to attend at an office, but must be induced to effect an
+  insurance by a house-to-house canvasser, and be regularly visited by
+  the collector to ensure their paying the contributions. To many such
+  persons these societies, despite all their errors of constitution and
+  management, have been of great benefit. The great source of these
+  errors lies in a tendency on the part of the managers of the societies
+  to forget that they are simply trustees, and to look upon the concern
+  as their own personal property to be managed for their own benefit.
+  These societies are of two kinds, local and general. For the general
+  societies the act of 1875 made certain stringent provisions. Each
+  member was to be furnished with a copy of the rules for one penny, and
+  a signed policy for the same charge. Forfeiture of benefit for
+  non-payment is not to be enforced without fourteen days' written
+  notice. The transfer of a member from one society to another was not
+  to be made without his written consent and notice to the society
+  affected. No collector is to be a manager, or vote or take part at any
+  meeting. At least one general meeting was to be held every year, of
+  which notice must be given either by advertisement or by letter or
+  post card to each member. The balance-sheet is to be open for
+  inspection seven days before the meeting, and to be certified by a
+  public accountant, not an officer of the society. Disputes could be
+  settled by justices, or county courts, notwithstanding anything in the
+  rules of the society to the contrary. Closely associated with the
+  question of the management of these societies is that of the risk
+  incurred by infant life, through the facilities offered by these
+  societies for making insurances on the death of children. That this is
+  a real risk is certain from the records of the assizes, and from many
+  circumstances of suspicion; but the extent of it cannot be measured,
+  and has probably been exaggerated. It has never been lawful to assure
+  more than £6 on the death of a child under five years of age, or more
+  than £10 on the death of one under ten. Previous to the act of 1875,
+  however, there was no machinery for ascertaining that the law was
+  complied with, or for enforcing it. This is supplied by that act,
+  though still somewhat imperfectly. When the bill went up to the House
+  of Lords, an amendment was made, reducing the limit of assurance on a
+  child under three years of age to £3, but this amendment was
+  unfortunately disagreed with by the House of Commons.
+
+  Class 10, annuity societies, prevail in the west of England. These
+  societies are few, and their business is diminishing. Most of them
+  originated at the time when government subsidized friendly societies
+  by allowing them £4: 11: 3% per annum interest. Now annuities may be
+  purchased direct from the National Debt commissioners. These societies
+  are more numerous, however, in Ireland.
+
+  Class 11, female societies, are numerous. Many of them resemble
+  affiliated orders at least in name, calling themselves Female
+  Foresters, Odd Sisters, Loyal Orangewomen, Comforting Sisters and so
+  forth. In their rules may be found such a provision as that a member
+  shall be fined who does not "behave as becometh an Orangewoman." Many
+  are unregistered. In the northern counties of England they are
+  sometimes termed "life boxes," doubtless from the old custom of
+  placing the contributions in a box. The trustees, treasurer, and
+  committee are usually females, but very frequently the secretary is a
+  man, paid a small salary.
+
+  Under Class 12 the commissioners included the societies for various
+  purposes which were authorized by the secretary of state to be
+  registered under the Friendly Societies Act of 1855, comprising
+  working-men's clubs, and certain specially authorized societies, as
+  well as others that are now defined to be friendly societies. Among
+  these purposes are assisting members in search of employment;
+  assisting members during slack seasons of trade; granting temporary
+  relief to members in distressed circumstances; purchase of coals and
+  other necessaries to be supplied to members; relief or maintenance in
+  case of lameness, blindness, insanity, paralysis, or bodily hurt
+  through accidents; also, the assurance against loss by disease or
+  death of cattle employed in trade or agriculture; relief in case of
+  shipwreck or loss or damage to boats or nets; and societies for social
+  intercourse, mutual helpfulness, mental and moral improvement,
+  rational recreation, &c., called working-men's clubs.
+
+  Class 13 was composed of cattle insurance societies.
+
+  These are the thirteen classes into which the commissioners divided
+  registered friendly societies. There were 26,034 societies enrolled or
+  certified under the various acts for friendly societies in force
+  between 1793 and 1855; and, as we have seen, 21,875 societies
+  registered under the act of 1855 before the 1st January 1876, when the
+  act of 1875 came into operation. The total therefore of societies to
+  which a legal constitution had been given was 47,909. Of these 26,087
+  were presumed to be in existence when the registrar called for his
+  annual return, but only 11,282 furnished the return required. These
+  had 3,404,187 members, and £9,336,946 funds. Twenty-two societies
+  returned over 10,000 members each; nine over 30,000. One society (the
+  Royal Liver Friendly Society, Liverpool, the largest of the collecting
+  societies) returned 682,371 members. The next in order was one of the
+  same class, the United Assurance Society, Liverpool, with 159,957
+  members; but in all societies of this class the membership consists
+  very largely of infants. The average of members in the 11,260
+  societies with less than 10,000 members each was only 171.
+
+  Such were the registered societies; but there remained behind a large
+  body of unregistered societies. With increased knowledge of the
+  advantages of registration,[2] and of the true principles upon which
+  friendly societies should be established, the number of unregistered
+  societies, in comparison with those registered, ought to become much
+  less.
+
+  On the actuarial side it is in the highest degree essential to the
+  interests of their members that friendly societies should be
+  financially sound,--in other words, that they should throughout their
+  existence be able to meet the engagements into which they have entered
+  with their members. For this purpose it is necessary that the members'
+  contributions should be so fixed as to prove adequate, with proper
+  management, to provide the benefits promised to the members. These
+  benefits almost entirely depend upon the contingencies of health and
+  life; that is, they take the form of payments to members when sick, of
+  payments to members upon attaining given ages, or of payments upon
+  members' deaths, and frequently a member is assured for all these
+  benefits, viz. a weekly payment if at any time sick before attaining a
+  certain age, a weekly payment for the remainder of life after
+  attaining that age, and a sum to be paid upon his death. Of course the
+  object of the allowance in sickness is to provide a substitute for the
+  weekly wage lost in consequence of being unable to work, and the
+  object of the weekly payment after attaining a certain age, when the
+  member will probably be too infirm to be able to earn a living by the
+  exercise of his calling or occupation, is to provide him with the
+  necessaries of life, and so enable him to be independent of poor
+  relief. There is every reason to believe that, when a large group of
+  persons of the same age and calling are observed, there will be found
+  to prevail among them, taken one with another, an average number of
+  days' sickness, as well as an average rate of mortality, in passing
+  through each year of life, which can be very nearly predicted from the
+  results furnished by statistics based upon observations previously
+  made upon similarly circumstanced groups. Assuming, therefore, the
+  necessary statistics to be attainable, the computation of suitable
+  rates of contribution to be paid by the members of a society in return
+  for certain allowances during sickness, or upon attaining a certain
+  age, or upon death, can be readily made by an actuarial expert.
+  Accordingly, to furnish these statistics, the act of 1875, in
+  continuation of an enactment which first appeared in a statute passed
+  in 1829, required every registered society to make quinquennial
+  returns of the sickness and mortality experienced by its members. By
+  the year 1880 ten periods of five years had been completed, and at the
+  end of each of them a number of returns had been received. Some of
+  these had been tabulated by actuaries, the latest tabulation being of
+  those for the five years ending 1855. There remained untabulated five
+  complete sets of returns for the five subsequent quinquennial periods.
+  It was resolved that these should be tabulated once for all, and it
+  was considered that they would afford sufficient material for the
+  construction of tables of sickness and mortality that might be adopted
+  for the future as standard tables for friendly societies; and that it
+  would be inexpedient to impose any longer on the societies the burden
+  of making such returns. This requirement of the act was accordingly
+  repealed in 1882. The result of the tabulation appeared in 1896, in a
+  bluebook of 1367 folio pages, containing tables based upon the
+  experience of nearly four and a half million years of life. These
+  tables showed generally, as compared with previous observations, an
+  increased liability to sickness. This inference has been confirmed by
+  the observations of Mr Alfred W. Watson, actuary to the Independent
+  Order of Oddfellows, Manchester Unity Friendly Society, on his
+  investigation of the sickness and mortality experience of that society
+  during the five years 1893-1897, which extended over 800,000
+  individuals, more than 3,000,000 years of life and 7,000,000 weeks of
+  sickness.
+
+  The establishment of the National Conference of Friendly Societies by
+  the orders and a few other societies has been of great service in
+  obtaining improvements in the law, and in enabling the societies
+  strongly to represent to the government and the legislature any
+  grievance entertained by them. A complaint that membership of a shop
+  club was made by certain employers a condition of employment, and that
+  the rules of the club required the members to withdraw from other
+  societies, led to the appointment of a departmental committee, who
+  recommended that such a condition of employment should be made
+  illegal, except in certain cases, and that in every case it should be
+  illegal to make the withdrawal from a society a condition of
+  employment. In 1902 an act was passed based upon this recommendation.
+
+  It is an increasing practice among societies of combining together to
+  obtain medical attendance and medicine for their members by the
+  formation of medical associations. In 1895 trade unions were enabled
+  to join in such associations, and it was provided that a contributing
+  society or union should not withdraw from an association except upon
+  three months' notice. The working of these associations has been
+  viewed with dissatisfaction by members of the medical profession, and
+  it has been suggested that a board of conciliation should be formed
+  consisting of representatives of the Conference of Friendly Societies
+  and of an equal number of medical men.
+
+  The following figures are derived from returns of registered societies
+  and branches of registered societies to the beginning of 1905:
+
+    +---------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+    |                                                         | Number of | Number of | Amount of  |
+    |                                                         |  Returns. |  Members. |   Funds.   |
+    +---------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+    | Ordinary Friendly Societies (classes 2 to 8, 10 and 11) |   6,938   | 3,132,065 |£17,042,398 |
+    | Societies having Branches (class 1)                     |  20,819   | 2,606,029 | 23,446,330 |
+    | Collecting Friendly Societies (class 9)                 |      45   | 7,448,549 |  7,862,569 |
+    | Benevolent Societies (class 12)                         |      75   |    26,509 |    317,913 |
+    | Working Men's Clubs (class 12)                          |     913   |   236,298 |    318,945 |
+    | Specially Authorized Societies (class 12)               |     122   |    75,089 |    628,759 |
+    | Specially Authorized Loan Societies (class 12)          |     517   |   115,511 |    771,578 |
+    | Medical Societies (see last paragraph)                  |      95   |   324,145 |     62,049 |
+    | Cattle Insurance Societies (class 13)                   |      57   |     3,736 |      7,746 |
+    | Shop Clubs (under act of 1902)                          |       7   |    10,859 |        773 |
+    |                                                         +-----------+-----------+------------+
+    |                                                         |  29,588   |13,978,790 |£50,459,060 |
+    +---------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+
+_British Empire._--In many of the British colonies legislation on the
+subject similar to that of the mother-country has been adopted. In those
+forming the Commonwealth of Australia and in New Zealand the affiliated
+orders hold the field, there being few, if any, independent friendly
+societies. The state of Victoria has more than 1000 lodges with more
+than 100,000 members and nearly 1½ million pounds funds, averaging
+nearly £14 per member. Besides the registrar there is a government
+actuary for friendly societies, by whom the liabilities and accounts of
+all societies are valued every five years, a method which ensures
+uniformity in the processes of valuation. The friendly societies in the
+other Australasian states are not so numerous nor so wealthy, but are in
+each case under the supervision of vigilant public officials. In New
+Zealand a friendly society was established at New Plymouth in 1841, the
+first year of that settlement. The formation of a society at Nelson was
+resolved upon by the emigrants on shipboard on their passage out, and
+the first meeting was held among the tall fern near the beach a few days
+after they landed. The societies have now a registrar, an actuary, a
+revising barrister and two public valuers. Investigations have been made
+into their sickness experience, with results which compare favourably
+with those of the Manchester Unity and the registry office in the
+mother-country until the higher ages, when greater sickness appears to
+result from lower mortality. The average funds per member are £19, 10s.
+Nearly four-fifths are invested in the purchase or on mortgage of real
+estate.
+
+In Cape Colony no society is allowed to register unless it be shown to
+the satisfaction of the registrar that the contributions which it
+proposes to charge are adequate to provide for the benefits which it
+undertakes to grant. The consequence is that little more than one-third
+of the existing societies are registered.
+
+In the Dominion of Canada, province of Ontario, extensive powers of
+control are given to the registrar, and societies are not admitted to
+registry without strict proof of their compliance with the conditions of
+registry imposed by the law. Very full returns of their transactions are
+required and published, and registry is cancelled when any of the
+conditions of registry cease to be observed. These conditions apply not
+only to societies existing in Ontario, but to foreign societies
+transacting business there.
+
+In several of the West Indian Islands statutes have been passed on the
+model of British legislation and registrars have been appointed.
+
+_European Countries._--In foreign countries the development of friendly
+societies has proceeded upon different lines. Belgium has a _Commission
+royale permanente des sociétés de secours mutuel_. Under laws passed in
+1851 and 1894 societies are divided into two classes, recognized and not
+recognized. The recognized societies were in 1886 only about half as
+many as the unrecognized. There were in 1904 nearly 7000 recognized
+societies with 700,000 members. They enjoy the privileges of
+incorporation, exemption from stamp duty, gratuitous announcement in the
+official Moniteur and may have free postage.
+
+In France under the second empire a scheme was prepared for assisting
+friendly societies by granting them collective insurances under
+government security. The societies have the privilege of investing their
+funds in the Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations, corresponding to the
+English National Debt commission. The dual classification of societies
+in France is into those "authorized" and those "approved." By a law of
+the 1st of April 1898 a friendly society may be established by merely
+depositing a copy of its rules and list of officers with the sousprefet.
+Approved societies are entitled to certain state subventions for
+assisting in the purchase of old-age pensions and otherwise. A higher
+council has been established to advise on their working.
+
+In Germany a law was passed on the 7th of April 1876 (amended on the
+1st of June 1884) which prescribed for registered friendly societies
+many things which in England are left to the discretion of their
+founders; and it provided for an amount of official interference in
+their management that is wholly unknown here. The superintending
+authority had a right to inspect the books of every society, whether
+registered or not, and to give formal notice to a society to call in
+arrears, exclude defaulters, pay benefits or revoke illegal resolutions.
+A higher authority might, in certain cases, order societies to be
+dissolved. These provisions related to voluntary societies; but it was
+competent for communal authorities also to order the formation of a
+friendly society, and to make a regulation compelling all workmen not
+already members of a society to join it. Since then the great series of
+imperial statutes has been passed, commencing in 1883 with that for
+sickness insurance, followed in 1884 by that for workmen's accident
+insurance, extended to sickness insurance in 1885, developed in the laws
+relating to accident and sickness insurance of persons engaged in
+agricultural and forestry pursuits in 1886, of persons engaged in the
+building trade and of seamen and others engaged in seafaring pursuits in
+1887, and crowned by the law relating to infirmity and old-age insurance
+in 1889. Mr H. Unger, a distinguished actuary, remarks that the whole
+German workman's insurance and its executive bodies (sickness funds,
+trade associations, insurance institutions) are constantly endeavouring
+to improve the position of the workmen in a social and sanitary aspect,
+to the benefit of internal peace and the welfare of the German empire.
+
+In Holland it is stated that the number of burial clubs and sickness
+benefit societies appears to be greater in proportion to the population
+than in any other country; but that the burial clubs do not rest upon a
+scientific basis, and have an unfavourable influence upon infant
+mortality. Half the population are insured in some burial club or other.
+The sick benefit societies are, as in England, some in a good and some
+in a bad financial condition; and legislation follows the English system
+of compulsory publicity, combined with freedom of competition.
+
+In Spain friendly societies have grown out of the religious gilds. They
+are regulated by an act of 1887. Their actuarial condition appears to be
+backward, but to show indications of improvement. (E. W. B.)
+
+_United States._--Under the title of fraternal societies are included in
+the United States what are known in England as friendly societies,
+having some basis of mutual help to members, mutual insurance
+associations and benefit associations of all kinds. There are various
+classes and a great variety of forms of fraternal associations. It is
+therefore difficult to give a concrete historical statement of their
+origin and growth; but, dealing with those having benefit features for
+the payment of certain amounts in case of sickness, accident or death,
+it is found that their history in the United States is practically
+within the last half of the 19th century. The more important of the
+older organizations are the Improved Order of Red Men, founded in 1771
+and reorganized in 1834; Ancient Order of Foresters, 1836; Ancient Order
+of Hibernians of America, 1836; United Ancient Order of Druids, 1839;
+Independent Order of Rechabites, 1842; Independent Order of B'nai
+B'rith, founded in 1843; Order of the United American Mechanics, 1845;
+Independent Order of Free Sons of Israel, 1849; Junior Order of United
+American Mechanics, 1853. A very large proportion, probably more than
+one-half, of the societies which have secret organizations pay benefits
+in case of sickness, accident, disability, and funeral expenses in case
+of death. This class of societies grew out of the English friendly
+societies and have masonic characteristics. The Freemasons and other
+secret societies, while not all having benefit features in their
+distinctive organizations, have auxiliary societies with such features.
+There is also a class of secret societies, based largely on masonic
+usages, that have for their principal object the payment of benefits in
+some form. These are the Oddfellows, the Knights of Pythias, the Knights
+of Honour, the Royal Arcanum and some others. Many trade unions have now
+adopted benefit features, especially the Typographical Union, while
+many subordinate unions and great publishing houses have mutual relief
+associations purely of a local character, and some of the more important
+newspapers have such mutual relief or benefit societies. The New York
+trade unions, taken as a whole, have paid out large sums of money in
+benefits where members have been out of work, or are sick, or are on
+strike or have died. The total paid in one year for all these benefits
+was over $500,000.
+
+It is impossible to give the membership of all the fraternal
+associations in the United States; but, including Oddfellows,
+Freemasons, purely benefit associations and all the class of the larger
+fraternal organizations, the membership is over 6,000,000. Among the
+more important, so far as membership is concerned, are the Knights of
+Pythias, the Oddfellows, the Modern Woodmen of America, the Ancient
+Order of United Workmen, Improved Order of Red Men, Royal Arcanum,
+Knights of the Maccabees, Junior Order of United American Mechanics,
+Foresters of America, Independent Order of Foresters, &c. These and
+other organizations pay out a vast amount of money every year in the
+various forms.
+
+
+    Assessment insurance.
+
+  Since about the year 1870 a new form of benefit organization has come
+  into existence. This is a life insurance based on the assessment plan,
+  assessments being levied whenever a member dies; or, as more recently,
+  regular assessments being made in advance of death, as post-mortem
+  assessments have proved a fallacious method of securing the means of
+  paying death benefits. There are about 200 mutual benefit insurance
+  companies or associations in the United States conducted on the "lodge
+  system"; that is to say, they have regular meetings for social
+  purposes and for general improvement, and in their work there is found
+  the mysticism, forms and ceremonies which belong to secret societies
+  generally. These elements have proved a very strong force in keeping
+  this class of associations fairly intact. The "work" of the lodges in
+  the initiation of members and their passing through various degrees is
+  attractive to many people, and in small places, remote from the
+  amusements of the city, these lodges constitute a resort where members
+  can give play to their various talents. In most of them the features
+  of the Masonic ritual are prominent. The amount of insurance which a
+  single member can carry in such associations is small. In the Knights
+  of Honour, one of the first of this class, policies ranging from $500
+  to $2000 are granted. In the Royal Arcanum the maximum is $3000. This
+  form of insurance may be called co-operative, and has many elements
+  which make the organizations practising it stronger than the ordinary
+  assessment insurance companies having no stated meetings of members.
+  These co-operative insurance societies are organized on the federal
+  plan--as the Knights of Honour, for instance--having local assemblies,
+  where the lodge-room element is in force; state organizations, to
+  which the local bodies send delegates, and the national organization,
+  which conducts all the insurance business through its executive
+  officers. The local societies pay a certain given amount towards the
+  support of the state and national offices, and while originally they
+  paid death assessments, as called for, they now pay regular monthly
+  assessments, in order to avoid the weakness of the post-mortem
+  assessment. The difficulty which these organizations have in
+  conducting the insurance business is in keeping the average age of
+  membership at a low point, for with an increase in the average the
+  assessments increase, and many such organizations have had great
+  trouble to convince younger members that their assessments should be
+  increased to make up for the heavy losses among the older members. The
+  experience of these purely insurance associations has not been
+  sufficient yet to demonstrate their absolute soundness or
+  desirability, but they have enabled a large number of persons of
+  limited means to carry insurance at a very low rate. They have not
+  materially interfered with regular level premium insurance
+  enterprises, for they have stimulated the people to understand the
+  benefits of insurance, and have really been an educational force in
+  this direction.
+
+
+    Railway relief departments.
+
+  A modern method of benefit association is found in the railway relief
+  departments of some of the large railway corporations. These
+  departments are organized upon a different plan from the benefit
+  features of labour organizations and secret societies, providing the
+  members not only with payments on account of death, but also with
+  assistance of definite amounts in case of sickness or accident, the
+  railway companies contributing to the funds, partly from philanthropic
+  and partly from financial motives. The principal railway companies in
+  the United States which have established these relief departments are
+  the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading, the Baltimore & Ohio,
+  the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Plant System. The relief
+  department benefits the employés, the railways, and the public,
+  because it is based upon the sound principle that the "interests and
+  welfare of labour, capital and society are common and harmonious, and
+  can be promoted more by co-operation of effort than by antagonism and
+  strife." The railway employés support one-twentieth of the entire
+  population, and most of their associations maintain organizations to
+  provide their members with relief and insurance. The Brotherhood of
+  Locomotive Engineers, the Order of Railway Conductors of America, the
+  Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, the Brotherhood of Railway
+  Trainmen, the Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen, the Switchmen's Union,
+  the Brotherhood of Railway Carmen, and the Order of Railway
+  Telegraphers, all have relief and benefit features. The oldest and
+  largest of these is the International Brotherhood of Locomotive
+  Engineers, founded at Detroit in August 1863. Like other labour
+  organizations of the higher class of workmen, the objects of the
+  brotherhoods of railway employés are partly social and partly
+  educational, but in addition to these great purposes they seek to
+  protect their members through relief and benefit features. Of course
+  the relief departments of the railway companies are competitors of the
+  relief and insurance features of the railway employés orders, but both
+  methods of providing assistance have proved successful and beneficial.
+
+  For a history of the various American organizations, see Albert C.
+  Stevens, _The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities_ (New York, 1899); _Facts
+  for Fraternalists_, published by the _Fraternal Monitor_, Rochester,
+  N.Y.; for annual statements, "The _World_ Almanac," "Railway Relief
+  Departments," "Brotherhood Relief and Insurance of Railway Employés,"
+  "Mutual Relief and Benefit Associations in the Printing Trade,"
+  "Benefit Features of American Trade Unions," _Bulletins_ Nos. 8, 17,
+  19 and 22 of the U.S. Department of Labour.     (C. D. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word "friend" (O.E. _freond_, Ger. _Freund_, Dutch _Vriend_)
+    is derived from an old Teutonic verb meaning to love. While used
+    generally as the opposite to enemy, it is specially the term which
+    connotes any degree, but particularly a high degree, of personal
+    goodwill, affection or regard, from which the element of sexual love
+    is absent.
+
+  [2] These may be briefly summed up thus:--(1) power to hold land and
+    vesting of property in trustees by mere appointment; (2) remedy
+    against misapplication of funds; (3) priority in bankruptcy or on
+    death of officer; (4) transfer of stock by direction of chief
+    registrar; (5) exemption from stamp duties; (6) membership of minors;
+    (7) certificates of birth and death at reduced cost; (8) investment
+    with National Debt Commissioners; (9) reduction of fines on admission
+    to copyholds; (10) discharge of mortgages by mere receipt; (11)
+    obligation on officers to render accounts; (12) settlement of
+    disputes; (13) insurance of funeral expenses for wives and children
+    without insurable interest; (14) nomination at death; (15) payment
+    without administration; (16) services of public auditors and valuers;
+    (17) registry of documents, of which copies may be put in evidence.
+
+
+
+
+FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF, the name adopted by a body of Christians, who, in
+law and general usage, are commonly called Quakers. Though small in
+number, the Society occupies a position of singular interest. To the
+student of ecclesiastical history it is remarkable as exhibiting a form
+of Christianity widely divergent from the prevalent types, being a
+religious fellowship which has no formulated creed demanding definite
+subscription, and no liturgy, priesthood or outward sacrament, and which
+gives to women an equal place with men in church organization. The
+student of English constitutional history will observe the success with
+which Friends have, by the mere force of passive resistance, obtained,
+from the legislature and the courts, indulgence for all their scruples
+and a legal recognition of their customs. In American history they
+occupy an important place because of the very prominent part which they
+played in the colonization of New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
+
+The history of Quakerism in England may be divided into three
+periods:--(1) from the first preaching of George Fox in 1647 to the
+Toleration Act 1689; (2) from 1689 to the evangelical movement in 1835;
+(3) from 1835 to the present time.
+
+
+  George Fox.
+
+1. _Period 1647-1689._--George Fox (1624-1691), the son of a weaver of
+Drayton-in-the-Clay (now called Fenny Drayton) in Leicestershire, was
+the founder of the Society. He began his public ministry in 1647, but
+there is no evidence to show that he set out to form a separate
+religious body. Impressed by the formalism and deadness of contemporary
+Christianity (of which there is much evidence in the confessions of the
+Puritan writers themselves) he emphasized the importance of repentance
+and personal striving after the truth. When, however, his preaching
+attracted followers, a community began to be formed, and traces of
+organization and discipline may be noted in very early times. In 1652 a
+number of people in Westmorland and north Lancashire who had separated
+from the common national worship,[1] came under the influence of Fox,
+and it was this community (if it can be so called) at Preston Patrick
+which formed the nucleus of the Quaker church. For two years the
+movement spread rapidly throughout the north of England, and in 1654
+more than sixty ministers went to Norwich, London, Bristol, the
+Midlands, Wales and other parts. Fox and his fellow-preachers spoke
+whenever opportunity offered,--sometimes in churches (declining, for the
+most part, to occupy the pulpit), sometimes in barns, sometimes at
+market crosses. The insistence on an inward spiritual experience was the
+great contribution made by Friends to the religious life of the time,
+and to thousands it came as a new revelation. There is evidence to show
+that the arrangement for this "publishing of Truth" rested mainly with
+Fox, and that the expenses of it and of the foreign missions were borne
+out of a common fund. Margaret Fell (1614-1702), wife of Thomas Fell
+(1598-1658), vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and afterwards
+of George Fox, opened her house, Swarthmore Hall near Ulverston, to
+these preachers and probably contributed largely to this fund.
+
+Their insistence on the personal aspect of religious experience made it
+impossible for Friends to countenance the setting apart of any man or
+building for the purpose of divine worship to the exclusion of all
+others. The operation of the Spirit was in no way limited to time, or
+individual or place. The great stress which they laid upon this aspect
+of Christian truth caused them to be charged with unbelief in the
+current orthodox views as to the inspiration of the Scriptures, and the
+person and work of Christ, a charge which they always denied. Contrary
+to the Puritan teaching of the time, they insisted on the possibility,
+in this life, of complete victory over sin. Robert Barclay, writing some
+twenty years later, admits of degrees of perfection, and the possibility
+of a fall from it (_Apology_, Prop. viii.). Such teaching necessarily
+brought Fox and his friends into conflict with all the religious bodies
+of England, and they were continually engaged in strife with the
+Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Episcopalians and the wilder
+sectaries, such as the Ranters and the Muggletonians. The strife was
+often conducted on both sides with a zeal and bitterness of language
+which were characteristic of the period. Although there was little or no
+stress laid on either the joys or the terrors of a future life, the
+movement was not infrequently accompanied by most of those physical
+symptoms which usually go with vehement appeals to the conscience and
+emotions of a rude multitude. It was owing to these physical
+manifestations that the name "Quaker" was either first given or was
+regarded as appropriate when given for another reason (see Fox's
+_Journal_ concerning Justice Bennet at Derby in 1650 and Barclay's
+_Apology_, Prop. II, § 8). The early Friends definitely asserted that
+those who did not know quaking and trembling were strangers to the
+experience of Moses, David and other saints.
+
+Some of the earliest adherents indulged in extravagances of no measured
+kind. Some of them imitated the Hebrew prophets in the performance of
+symbolic acts of denunciation, foretelling or warning, going barefoot,
+or in sackcloth or undress, and, in a few cases, for brief periods,
+altogether naked; even women in some cases distinguished themselves by
+extravagance of conduct. The case of James Nayler (1617?-1660), who, in
+spite of Fox's grave warning, allowed Messianic homage to be paid to
+him, is the best known of these instances; they are to be explained
+partly by mental disturbance, resulting from the undue prominence of a
+single idea, and partly by the general religious excitement of the time
+and the rudeness of manners prevailing in the classes of society from
+which many of these individuals came. It must be remembered that at this
+time, and for long after, there was no definite or formal membership or
+system of admission to the society, and it was open to any one by
+attending the meetings to gain the reputation of being a Quaker.
+
+The activity of the early Friends was not confined to England or even to
+the British Isles. Fox and others travelled in America and the West
+India Islands; another reached Jerusalem and preached against the
+superstition of the monks; Mary Fisher (fl. 1652-1697), "a religious
+maiden," visited Smyrna, the Morea and the court of Mahommed IV. at
+Adrianople; Alexander Parker (1628-1689) went to Africa; others made
+their way to Rome; two women were imprisoned by the Inquisition at
+Malta; two men passed into Austria and Hungary; and William Penn, George
+Fox and several others preached in Holland and Germany.
+
+It was only gradually that the Quaker community clothed itself with an
+organization. The beginning of this appears to be due to William
+Dewsbury (1621-1688) and George Fox; it was not until 1666 that a
+complete system of church organization was established. The
+introduction of an ordered system and discipline was, naturally, viewed
+with some suspicion by people taught to believe that the inward light of
+each individual man was the only true guide for his conduct. The project
+met with determined opposition for about twenty years (1675-1695) from
+persons of considerable repute in the body. John Wilkinson and John
+Story of Westmorland, together with William Rogers of Bristol, raised a
+party against Fox concerning the management of the affairs of the
+society, regarding with suspicion any fixed arrangement for meetings for
+conducting church business, and in fact hardly finding a place for such
+meetings at all. They stood for the principle of Independency against
+the Presbyterian form of church government which Fox had recently
+established in the "Monthly Meetings" (see below). They opposed all
+arrangement for the orderly distribution of travelling ministers to
+different localities, and even for the payment of their expenses (see
+above); they also strongly objected to any disciplinary power being
+entrusted to the women's separate meetings for business, which had
+become of considerable importance after the Plague (1665) and the Fire
+of London (1666) in consequence of the need for poor relief. They also
+claimed the right to meet secretly for worship in time of persecution
+(see below). They drew a considerable following away with them and set
+up a rival organization, but before long a number returned to their
+original leader. William Rogers set forth his views in _The Christian
+Quaker_, 1680; the story of the dissension is told, to some extent, in
+_The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth_, by R.
+Barclay (not the "Apologist"); the best account is given in a pamphlet
+entitled _Micah's Mother_ by John S. Rowntree.
+
+Robert Barclay (q.v.), a descendant of an ancient Scottish family, who
+had received a liberal education, principally in Paris, at the Scots
+College, of which his uncle was rector, joined the Quakers about 1666,
+and William Penn (q.v.) came to them about two years later. The Quakers
+had always been active controversialists, and a great body of tracts and
+papers was issued by them; but hitherto these had been of small account
+from a literary point of view. Now, however, a more logical and
+scholarly aspect was given to their literature by the writings of
+Barclay, especially his _Apology for the True Christian Divinity_
+published in Latin (1676) and in English (1678), and by the works of
+Penn, amongst which _No Cross No Crown_ and the _Maxims_ or _Fruits of
+Solitude_ are the best known.
+
+
+  Persecution.
+
+During the whole time between their rise and the passing of the
+Toleration Act 1689, the Quakers were the object of almost continuous
+persecution which they endured with extraordinary constancy and
+patience; they insisted on the duty of meeting openly in time of
+persecution, declining to hold secret assemblies for worship as other
+Nonconformists were doing. The number who died in prison approached 400,
+and at least 100 more perished from violence and ill-usage. A petition
+to the first parliament of Charles II. stated that 3179 had been
+imprisoned; the number rose to 4500 in 1662, the Fifth Monarchy
+outbreak, in which Friends were in no way concerned, being largely
+responsible for this increase. There is no evidence to show that they
+were in any way connected with any of the plots of the Commonwealth or
+Restoration periods. A petition to James II. in 1685 stated that 1460
+were then in prison. Under the Quaker Act of 1662 and the Conventicle
+Act of 1664 a number were transported out of England, and under the
+last-named act and that of 1670 (the second Conventicle Act) hundreds of
+households were despoiled of all their goods. The penal laws under which
+Friends suffered may be divided chronologically into those of the
+Commonwealth and the Restoration periods. Under the former there were a
+few charges of plotting against the government. Several imprisonments,
+including that of George Fox at Derby in 1650-1651, were brought about
+under the Blasphemy Act of 1650, which inflicted penalties on any one
+who asserted himself to be very God or equal with God, a charge to which
+the Friends were peculiarly liable owing to their doctrine of
+perfection. After a royalist insurrection in 1655, a proclamation was
+issued announcing that persons suspected of Roman Catholicism would be
+required to take an oath abjuring the papal authority and
+transubstantiation. The Quakers, accused as they were of being Jesuits,
+and refusing to take the oath, suffered under this proclamation and
+under the more stringent act of 1656. A considerable number were flogged
+under the Vagrancy Acts (39 Eliz. c. 4; 7 Jac. I. c. 4), which were
+strained to cover the case of itinerant Quaker preachers. They also came
+under the provisions of the acts of 1644, 1650 and 1656 directed against
+travelling on the Lord's day. The interruption of preachers when
+celebrating divine service rendered the offender liable to three months'
+imprisonment under a statute of the first year of Mary, but Friends
+generally waited to speak till the service was over.[2] The Lord's Day
+Act 1656 also enacted penalties against any one disturbing the service,
+but apart from statute many Friends were imprisoned for open contempt of
+ministers and magistrates. At the Restoration 700 Friends, imprisoned
+for contempt and some minor offences, were set at liberty. After the
+Restoration there began a persecution of Friends and other
+Nonconformists _as such_, notwithstanding the king's Declaration of
+Breda which had proclaimed liberty for tender consciences as long as no
+disturbance of the peace was caused. Among the most common causes of
+imprisonment was the practice adopted by judges and magistrates of
+tendering to Friends (particularly when no other charge could be proved
+against them) the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance (5 Eliz. c. 1 & 7
+Jac. I. c. 6). The refusal in any circumstance to take an oath led to
+much suffering. The Act 3 Jac. I. c. 4, passed in consequence of the
+Gunpowder Plot, against Roman Catholics for not attending church, was
+put in force against Friends, and under it enormous fines were levied.
+The Quaker Act 1662 and the Conventicle Acts of 1664 and 1670, designed
+to enforce attendance at church, and inflicting severe penalties on
+those attending other religious gatherings, were responsible for the
+most severe persecution of all. The act of 1670 gave to informers a
+pecuniary interest (they were to have one-third of the fine imposed) in
+hunting down Nonconformists who broke the law, and this and other
+statutes were unduly strained to secure convictions. A somewhat similar
+act of 35 Eliz. c. 1., enacting even more severe penalties, had never
+been repealed, and was sometimes put in force against Friends. The
+Militia Act 1663 (14 Car. II. c. 3), enacting fines against those who
+refused to find a man for the militia, was occasionally put in force.
+The refusal to pay tithes and other ecclesiastical demands led to
+continuous and heavy distraints, under the various laws made in that
+behalf. This state of things continued to some extent into the 19th
+century. For further information see "The Penal Laws affecting Early
+Friends in England" (from which the foregoing summary is taken) by Wm.
+Chas. Braithwaite in _The First Publishers of Truth_. On the 15th of
+March 1672 Charles II. issued his declaration suspending the penal laws
+in ecclesiastical matters, and shortly afterwards, by pardon under the
+great seal, he released nearly 500 Quakers from prison, remitted their
+fines and released such of their estates as were forfeited by
+_praemunire_. It is of interest to note that, although John Bunyan was
+bitterly opposed to Quakers, his friends, on hearing of the petition
+contemplated by them, requested them to insert his name on the list, and
+in this way he gained his freedom. The dissatisfaction which this
+exercise of the royal prerogative aroused induced the king, in the
+following year, to withdraw his proclamation, and, notwithstanding
+appeals to him, the persecution continued intermittently throughout his
+reign. On the accession of James II. the Quakers addressed him (see
+above) with some hope on account of his known friendship for William
+Penn, and the king not long afterwards directed a stay of proceedings in
+all matters pending in the exchequer against Quakers on the ground of
+non-attendance at the national worship. In 1687 came his declaration for
+liberty of conscience, and, after the Revolution of 1688, the Toleration
+Act 1689 put an end to the persecution of Quakers (along with other
+Dissenters) for non-attendance at church. For many years after this
+they were liable to imprisonment for non-payment of tithes, and,
+together with other Dissenters, they remained under various civil
+disabilities, the gradual removal of which is part of the general
+history of England. In the years succeeding the Toleration Act at least
+twelve of their number were prosecuted (often more than once in the
+spiritual and other courts) for keeping school without a bishop's
+licence. It is coming to be recognized that the growth of religious
+toleration owed much to the early Quakers who, with the exception of a
+few Baptists at the first, stood almost alone among Dissenters in
+holding their public meetings openly and regularly.
+
+The Toleration Act was not the only law of William and Mary which
+benefited Quakers. The legislature has continually had regard to their
+refusal to take oaths, and not only the said act but also another of the
+same reign, and numerous others, subsequently passed, have respected the
+peculiar scruples of Friends (see Davis's _Digest of Legislative
+Enactments relating to Friends_, Bristol, 1820).
+
+
+  Period of Decline.
+
+2. _Period 1689-1835._--From the beginning of the 18th century the zeal
+of the Quaker body abated. Although many "General" and other meetings
+were held in different parts of the country for the purpose of setting
+forth Quakerism, the notion that the whole Christian church would be
+absorbed in it, and that the Quakers were, in fact, the church, gave
+place to the conception that they were "a peculiar people" to whom, more
+than to others, had been given an understanding of the will of God. The
+Quakerism of this period was largely of a traditional kind; it dwelt
+with increasing emphasis on the peculiarities of its dress and language;
+it rested much upon discipline, which developed and hardened into
+rigorous forms; and the correction or exclusion of its members occupied
+more attention than did the winning of converts.
+
+Excluded from political and municipal life by the laws which required
+either the taking of an oath or joining in the Lord's Supper according
+to the rites of the Established Church, excluding themselves not only
+from the frivolous pursuits of pleasure, but from music and art in
+general, attaining no high average level of literary culture (though
+producing some men of eminence in science and medicine), the Quakers
+occupied themselves mainly with trade, the business of their Society,
+and the calls of philanthropy. From early times George Fox and many
+others had taken a keen interest in education, and in 1779 there was
+founded at Ackworth, near Pontefract, a school for boys and girls; this
+was followed by the reconstitution, in 1808, of a school at Sidcot in
+the Mendips, and in 1811, of one in Islington Road, London; it was
+afterwards removed to Croydon, and, later, to Saffron Walden. Others
+have since been established at York and in other parts of England and
+Ireland. None of them are now reserved exclusively for the children of
+Friends.
+
+During this period Quakerism was sketched from the outside by two very
+different men. Voltaire (_Dictionnaire Philosophique_, "Quaker,"
+"Toleration") described the body, which attracted his curiosity, his
+sympathy and his sneers, with all his brilliance. Thomas Clarkson
+(_Portraiture of Quakerism_) has given an elaborate and sympathetic
+account of the Quakers as he knew them when he travelled amongst them
+from house to house on his crusade against the slave trade.
+
+3. _From 1835._--During the 18th century the doctrine of the Inward
+Light acquired such exclusive prominence as to bring about a tendency to
+disparage, or, at least, to neglect, the written word (the Scriptures)
+as being "outward" and non-essential. In the early part of the 19th
+century an American Friend, Elias Hicks, pressed this doctrine to its
+furthest limits, and, in doing so, he laid stress on "Christ within" in
+such a way as practically to take little account of the person and work
+of the "outward," i.e. the historic Christ. The result was a separation
+of the Society in America into two divisions which persist to the
+present day (see below, "Quakerism in America"). This led to a counter
+movement in England, known as the Beacon Controversy, from the name of a
+warning publication issued by Isaac Crewdson of Manchester in 1835,
+advocating views of a pronounced "evangelical" type. Much controversy
+ensued, and a certain number of Friends (Beaconites as they are
+sometimes called) departed from the parent stock. They left behind them,
+however, many influential members, who may be described as a middle
+party, and who strove to give a more "evangelical" tone to Quaker
+doctrine. Joseph John Gurney of Norwich, a brother of Elizabeth Fry, by
+means of his high social position and his various writings (some
+published before 1835), was the most prominent actor in this movement.
+Those who quitted the Society maintained, for some little time, a
+separate organization of their own, but sooner or later most of them
+joined the Evangelical Church or the Plymouth Brethren.
+
+Other causes have been at work modifying the Quaker society. The repeal
+of the Test Act, the admission of Quakers to Parliament in consequence
+of their being allowed to affirm instead of taking the oath (1832, when
+Joseph Pease was elected for South Durham), the establishment of the
+University of London, and, more recently, the opening of the
+universities of Oxford and Cambridge to Nonconformists, have all had
+their effect upon the body. It has abandoned its peculiarities of dress
+and language, as well as its hostility to music and art, and it has
+cultivated a wider taste in literature. In fact, the number of men,
+either Quakers or of Quaker origin and proclivities, who occupy
+positions of influence in English life is large in proportion to the
+small body with which they are connected. During the 19th century the
+interests of Friends became widened and they are no longer a close
+community.
+
+_Doctrine._--It is not easy to state with certainty the doctrines of a
+body which (in England at least) has never demanded subscription to any
+creed, and whose views have undoubtedly undergone more or less definite
+changes. There is not now the sharp distinction which formerly existed
+between Friends and other non-sacerdotal evangelical bodies; these have,
+in theory at least, largely accepted the spiritual message of Quakerism.
+By their special insistence on the fact of immediate communion between
+God and man, Friends have been led into those views and practices which
+still mark them off from their fellow-Christians.
+
+
+  Public worship.
+
+Nearly all their distinctive views (e.g. their refusal to take oaths,
+their testimony against war, their disuse of a professional ministry,
+and their recognition of women's ministry) were being put forward in
+England, by various individuals or sects, in the strife which raged
+during the intense religious excitement of the middle of the 17th
+century. Nevertheless, before the rise of the Quakers, these views were
+nowhere found in conjunction as held by any one set of people; still
+less were they regarded as the outcome of any one central belief or
+principle. It is rather in their emphasis on this thought of Divine
+communion, in their insistence on its reasonable consequences (as it
+seems to them), that Friends constitute a separate community. The
+appointment of one man to preach, to the exclusion of others, whether he
+feels a divine call so to do or not, is regarded as a limitation of the
+work of the Spirit and an undue concentration of that responsibility
+which ought to be shared by a wider circle. For the same reason they
+refuse to occupy the time of worship with an arranged programme of vocal
+service; they meet in silence, desiring that the service of the meeting
+shall depend on spiritual guidance. Thus it is left to any man or woman
+to offer vocal prayer, to read the Scriptures, or to utter such
+exhortation or teaching as may seem to be called for. Of late years, in
+certain of their meetings on Sunday evening, it has become customary for
+part of the time to be occupied with set addresses for the purpose of
+instructing the members of the congregation, or of conveying the Quaker
+message to others who may be present, all their meetings for worship
+being freely open to the public. In a few meetings hymns are
+occasionally sung, very rarely as part of any arrangement, but almost
+always upon the request of some individual for a particular hymn
+appropriate to the need of the congregation. The periods of silence are
+regarded as times of worship equally with those occupied with vocal
+service, inasmuch as Friends hold that robustness of spiritual life is
+best promoted by earnest striving on the part of each one to know the
+will of God for himself, and to be drawn into Christian fellowship with
+the other worshippers. The points on which special stress is laid
+are:--(1) the share of responsibility resting on each individual,
+whether called to vocal service or not, for the right spiritual
+atmosphere of the Meeting, and for the welfare of the congregation; (2)
+the privilege which may be enjoyed by each worshipper of waiting upon
+the Lord without relying on spoken words, however helpful, or on other
+outward matters; (3) freedom for each individual (whether a Friend or
+not) to speak, for the help of others, such message as he or she may
+feel called to utter; (4) a fresh sense of a divine call to deliver the
+message on that particular occasion, whether previous thought has been
+given to it or not. The idea which ought to underlie a Friends' meeting
+is thus set forth by Robert Barclay: "When I came into the silent
+assemblies of God's people, I felt a secret power among them, which
+touched my heart, and as I gave way unto it, I found the evil weakening
+in me and the good raised up" (_Apology_, xi. 7). In many places Friends
+have felt the need of bringing spiritual help to those who are unable to
+profit by the somewhat severe discipline of their ordinary manner of
+worship. To meet this need they hold (chiefly on Sunday evenings)
+meetings which are not professedly "Friends' meetings for worship," but
+which are services conducted on lines similar to those of other
+religious bodies, with, in some cases, a portion of time set apart for
+silent worship, and freedom for any one of the congregation to utter
+words of exhortation or prayer.
+
+From the beginning Friends have not practised the outward ordinances of
+Baptism and the Lord's Supper, even in a non-sacerdotal spirit. They
+attach, however, supreme value to the realities of which the observances
+are reminders or types--on the Baptism which is more than putting away
+the filth of the flesh, and on the vital union with Christ which is
+behind any outward ceremony. Their testimony is not _primarily_ against
+these outward observances; their disuse of them is due to a sense of the
+danger of substituting the shadow for the reality. They believe that an
+experience of more than 250 years gives ample warrant for the belief
+that Christ did not command them as a perpetual outward ordinance; on
+the contrary, they hold that it was alien to His method to lay down
+minute, outward rules for all time, but that He enunciated principles
+which His Church should, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, apply to
+the varying needs of the day. Their contention that every event of life
+may be turned into a sacrament, a means of grace, is summed up in the
+words of Stephen Grellet: "I very much doubt whether, since the Lord by
+His grace brought me into the faith of His dear Son, I have ever broken
+bread or drunk wine, even in the ordinary course of life, without the
+remembrance of, and some devout feeling regarding, the broken body and
+the blood-shedding of my dear Lord and Saviour."
+
+
+  Ministers.
+
+When the ministry of any man or woman has been found to be helpful to
+the congregation, the Monthly Meeting (see below) may, after solemn
+consideration, record the fact that it believes the individual to have a
+divine call to the ministry, and that it encourages him or her to be
+faithful to the gift. Such ministers are said to be "acknowledged" or
+"recorded"; they are emphatically _not_ appointed to preach, and the
+fact of their acknowledgment is not regarded as conferring any special
+status upon them. The various Monthly Meetings appoint Elders, or some
+body of Friends, to give advice of encouragement or restraint as may be
+needed, and, generally, to take the ministry under their care.
+
+
+  Women.
+
+With regard to the ministry of women, Friends hold that there is no
+evidence that the gifts of prophecy and teaching are confined to one
+sex. On the contrary, they see that a manifest blessing has rested on
+women's preaching, and they regard its almost universal prohibition as a
+relic of the seclusion of women which was customary in the countries
+where Christianity took its rise. The particular prohibition of Paul (1
+Cor. xiv. 34, 35) they regard as due to the special circumstances of
+time and place.
+
+
+  War.
+
+Friends have always held that war is contrary to the precepts and spirit
+of the Gospel, believing that it springs from the lower impulses of
+human nature, and not from the seed of divine life with its infinite
+capacity of response to the Spirit of God. Their testimony is not based
+_primarily_ on any objection to the use of force in itself, or even on
+the fact that war involves suffering and loss of life; their root
+objection is based on the fact that war is both the outcome and the
+cause of ambition, pride, greed, hatred and everything that is opposed
+to the mind of Christ; and that no end to be attained can justify the
+use of such means. While not unaware that with this, as with all moral
+questions, there may be a certain borderland of practical difficulty,
+Friends endeavour to bring all things to the test of the Realities
+which, though not seen, are eternal, and to hold up the ideal, set forth
+by George Fox, of living in the virtue of that life and power which
+takes away the _occasion of war._
+
+
+  Oaths.
+
+Friends have always held that the attempt to enforce truth-speaking by
+means of an oath, in courts of law and elsewhere, tends to create a
+double standard of truth. They find Scripture warrant for this belief in
+Matt. v. 33-37 and James v. 12. Their testimony in this respect is the
+better understood when we bear in mind the large amount of perjury in
+the law courts, and profane swearing in general which prevailed at the
+time when the Society took its rise. "People swear to the end that they
+may speak truth; Christ would have men speak truth to the end they might
+not swear" (W. Penn, _A Treatise of Oaths_).
+
+
+  Theology.
+
+With regard to the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, the belief of
+the Society of Friends does not essentially differ from that of other
+Christian bodies. At the same time their avoidance of exact definition
+embodied in a rigid creed, together with their disuse of the outward
+ordinances of Baptism and the Supper, has laid them open to considerable
+misunderstanding. As will have been seen, they hold an exalted view of
+the divinity and work of Christ as the Word become flesh and the Saviour
+of the world; but they have always shrunk from rigid Trinitarian
+_definitions_. They believe that the same Spirit who gave forth the
+Scriptures still guides men to a right understanding of them. "You
+profess the Holy Scriptures: but what do you witness and experience?
+What interest have you in them? Can you set to your seal that they are
+true by the work of the same spirit in you that gave them forth in the
+holy ancients?" (William Penn, _A Summons or Call to Christendom_). At
+certain periods this doctrine, pushed to an extreme, has led to a
+practical undervaluing of the Scriptures, but of late times it has
+enabled Friends to face fearlessly the conclusions of modern criticism,
+and has contributed to a largely increased interest in Bible study.
+During the past few years a new movement has been started in the shape
+of lecture schools, lasting for longer or shorter periods, for the
+purpose of studying Biblical, ecclesiastical and social subjects. In
+1903 there was established at Woodbrooke, an estate at Selly Oak on the
+outskirts of Birmingham, a permanent settlement for men and women, for
+the study of these questions on modern lines. The outward beginning of
+this movement was the Manchester Conference of 1895, a turning-point in
+Quaker history. Speaking generally, it may be noted that the Society
+includes various shades of opinion, from that known as "evangelical,"
+with a certain hesitation in receiving modern thought, to the more
+"advanced" position which finds greater freedom to consider and adopt
+new suggestions of scientific, religious or other thinkers. The
+differences, however, are seldom pressed, and rarely become acute. Apart
+from points of doctrine which can be more or less definitely stated (not
+always with unanimity) Quakerism is an _atmosphere_, a manner of life, a
+method of approaching questions, a habit and attitude of mind.
+
+_Quakerism in Scotland._--Quakerism was preached in Scotland very soon
+after its rise in England; but in the north and south of Scotland there
+existed, independently of and before this preaching, groups of persons
+who were dissatisfied with the national form of worship and who met
+together in silence for devotion. They naturally fell into this Society.
+In Aberdeen the Quakers took considerable hold, and were there joined by
+some persons of influence and position, especially Alexander Jaffray,
+sometime provost of Aberdeen, and Colonel David Barclay of Ury and his
+son Robert, the author of the _Apology_. Much light has been thrown on
+the history of the Quakers in Aberdeenshire by the discovery in 1826 at
+Ury of a MS. _Diary_ of Jaffray, since published with elucidations (2nd
+ed., London, 1836).
+
+_Ireland._--The father of Quakerism in Ireland was William Edmondson;
+his preaching began in 1653-1654. The _History of the Quakers in
+Ireland_ (from 1653 to 1752), by Wight and Rutty, may be consulted.
+Dublin Yearly Meeting, constituted in 1670, is independent of London
+Yearly Meeting (see below).
+
+_America._--In July 1656 two women Quakers, Mary Fisher and Ann Austin,
+arrived at Boston. Under the general law against heresy their books were
+burnt by the hangman, they were searched for signs of witchcraft, they
+were imprisoned for five weeks and then sent away. During the same year
+eight others were sent back to England.
+
+In 1656, 1657 and 1658 laws were passed to prevent the introduction of
+Quakers into Massachusetts, and it was enacted that on the first
+conviction one ear should be cut off, on the second the remaining ear,
+and that on the third conviction the tongue should be bored with a hot
+iron. Fines were laid upon all who entertained these people or were
+present at their meetings. Thereupon the Quakers, who were perhaps not
+without the obstinacy of which Marcus Aurelius complained in the early
+Christians, rushed to Massachusetts as if invited, and the result was
+that the general court of the colony banished them on pain of death, and
+four of them, three men and one woman, were hanged for refusing to
+depart from the jurisdiction or for obstinately returning within it.
+That the Quakers were, at times, irritating cannot be denied: some of
+them appear to have publicly mocked the institutions and the rulers of
+the colony and to have interrupted public worship; and a few of their
+men and women acted with the fanaticism and disorder which frequently
+characterized the religious controversies of the time. The particulars
+of the proceedings of Governor Endecott and the magistrates of New
+England as given in Besse's _Sufferings of the Quakers_ (see below) are
+startling to read. On the Restoration of Charles II. a memorial was
+presented to him by the Quakers in England stating the persecutions
+which their fellow-members had undergone in New England. Even the
+careless Charles was moved to issue an order to the colony which
+effectually stopped the hanging of the Quakers for their religion,
+though it by no means put an end to the persecution of the body in New
+England.
+
+It is not wonderful that the Quakers, persecuted and oppressed at home
+and in New England, should turn their eyes to the unoccupied parts of
+America, and cherish the hope of founding, amidst their woods, some
+refuge from oppression, and some likeness of a city of God upon earth.
+As early as 1660 George Fox was considering the question of buying land
+from the Indians. In 1671-1673 he had visited the American plantations
+from Carolina to Rhode Island and had preached alike to Indians and to
+settlers; in 1674 a portion of New Jersey (q.v.) was sold by Lord
+Berkeley to John Fenwicke in trust for Edward Byllynge. Both these men
+were Quakers, and in 1675 Fenwicke with a large company of his
+co-religionists crossed the Atlantic, sailed up Delaware Bay, and landed
+at a fertile spot which he called Salem. Byllynge, having become
+embarrassed in his circumstances, placed his interest in the land in the
+hands of Penn and others as trustees for his creditors; they invited
+buyers, and companies of Quakers in Yorkshire and London were amongst
+the largest purchasers. In 1677-1678 five vessels with eight hundred
+emigrants, chiefly Quakers, arrived in the colony (then separated from
+the rest of New Jersey, under the name of West New Jersey), and the town
+of Burlington was established. In 1677 the fundamental laws of West New
+Jersey were published, and recognized in a most absolute form the
+principles of democratic equality and perfect freedom of conscience.
+Notwithstanding certain troubles from claims of the governor of New York
+and of the duke of York, the colony prospered, and in 1681 the first
+legislative assembly of the colony, consisting mainly of Quakers, was
+held. They agreed to raise an annual sum of £200 for the expenses of
+their commonwealth; they assigned their governor a salary of £20; they
+prohibited the sale of ardent spirits to the Indians and imprisonment
+for debt. (See NEW JERSEY.)
+
+
+  William Penn.
+
+But beyond question the most interesting event in connexion with
+Quakerism in America is the foundation by William Penn (q.v.) of the
+colony of Pennsylvania, where he hoped to carry into effect the
+principles of his sect--to found and govern a colony without armies or
+military power, to reduce the Indians by justice and kindness to
+civilization and Christianity, to administer justice without oaths, and
+to extend an equal toleration to all persons who professed a belief in
+God. The history of this is part of the history of America and of
+Pennsylvania (q.v.) in particular. The chief point of interest in the
+history of Friends in America during the 18th century is their effort to
+clear themselves of complicity in slavery and the slave trade. As early
+as 1671 George Fox when in Barbados counselled kind treatment of slaves
+and ultimate liberation of them. William Penn provided for the freedom
+of slaves after fourteen years' service. In 1688 the German Friends of
+Germantown, Philadelphia, raised the first official protest uttered by
+any religious body against slavery. In 1711 a law was passed in
+Pennsylvania prohibiting the importation of slaves, but it was rejected
+by the Council in England. The prominent anti-slavery workers were Ralph
+Sandiford, Benjamin Lay, Anthony Benezet and John Woolman.[3] By the end
+of the 18th century slavery was practically extinct among Friends, and
+the Society as a whole laboured for its abolition, which came about in
+1865, the poet Whittier being one of the chief writers and workers in
+the cause. From early times up to the present day Friends have laboured
+for the welfare of the North American Indians. The history of the 19th
+century is largely one of division. Elias Hicks (q.v.), of Long Island,
+N.Y., propounded doctrines inconsistent with the orthodox views
+concerning Christ and the Scriptures, and a separation resulted in
+1827-1828 (see above). His followers are known as "Hicksites," a name
+not officially used by themselves, and only assented to for purposes of
+description under some protest. They have their own organization, being
+divided into seven yearly meetings numbering about 20,000 members, but
+these meetings form no part of the official organization which links
+London Yearly Meeting with other bodies of Friends on the American
+continent. This separation led to strong insistence on "evangelical"
+views (in the usual sense of the term) concerning Christ, the Atonement,
+imputed righteousness, the Scriptures, &c. This showed itself in the
+Beaconite controversy in England (see above), and in a further division
+in America. John Wilbur, a minister of New England, headed a party of
+protest against the new evangelicalism, laying extreme stress on the
+"Inward Light"; the result was a further separation of "Wilburites" or
+"the smaller body," who, like the "Hicksites," have a separate
+independent organization of their own. In 1907 they were divided into
+seven yearly meetings (together with some smaller independent bodies,
+the result of extreme emphasis laid on individualism), with a membership
+of about 5000. Broadly speaking, the "smaller body" is characterized by
+a rigid adherence to old forms of dress and speech, to a disapproval of
+music and art, and to an insistence on the "Inward Light" which, at
+times, leaves but little room for the Scriptures or the historic Christ,
+although with no definite or intended repudiation of them. In 1908 the
+number of "orthodox" yearly meetings in America, including one in
+Canada, was fifteen, with a total membership of about 100,000. They
+have, for the most part, adopted, to a greater or less degree, the
+"pastoral system," i.e. the appointment of one man or woman in each
+congregation to "conduct" the meeting for worship and to carry on
+pastoral work. In most cases the pastor receives a salary. A few of them
+demand from their ministers definite subscription to a specific body of
+doctrine, mostly of the ordinary "evangelical" type. In the matters of
+organization, disuse of the outward ordinances (this point is subject
+to some slight exception, principally in Ohio), and women's ministry,
+they do not differ from English Friends. The yearly meetings of
+Baltimore and Philadelphia have not adopted the pastoral system; the
+latter contains a very strong conservative element, and, contrary to the
+practice of London and the other "orthodox" yearly meetings, it
+officially regards the meetings of "the smaller body" (see above) as
+meetings of the Society of Friends. In 1902 the "orthodox" yearly
+meetings in the United States established a "Five Years' Meeting," a
+representative body meeting once every five years to consider matters
+affecting the welfare of all, and to further such philanthropic and
+religious work as may be undertaken in common, e.g. matters concerning
+foreign missions, temperance and peace, and the welfare of negroes and
+Indians. Two yearly meetings remain outside the organization, that of
+Ohio on ultra-evangelical grounds, while that of Philadelphia has not
+taken the matter into consideration. Canada joined at the first, and
+having withdrawn, again joined in 1907.
+
+  See James Bowden, _History of the Society of Friends in America_
+  (1850-1854); Allan C. and Richard H. Thomas, _The History of Friends
+  in America_ (4th edition, 1905); Isaac Sharpless, _History of Quaker
+  Government in Pennsylvania_ (1898, 1899); R. P. Hallowell, _The Quaker
+  Invasion of Massachusetts_ (1887), and _The Pioneer Quakers_ (1887).
+
+_Organization and Discipline._--The duty of watching over one another
+for good was insisted on by the early Friends, and has been embodied in
+a system of discipline. Its objects embrace (a) admonition to those who
+fail in the payment of their just debts, or otherwise walk contrary to
+the standard of Quaker ethics, and the exclusion of obstinate or gross
+offenders from the body, and, as incident to this, the hearing of
+appeals from individuals or meetings considering themselves aggrieved;
+(b) the care and maintenance of the poor and provision for the Christian
+education of their children, for which purpose the Society has
+established boarding schools in different parts of the country; (c) the
+amicable settlement of "all differences about outward things," either by
+the parties in controversy or by the submission of the dispute to
+arbitration, and the restraint of all proceedings at law between members
+except by leave; (d) the "recording" of ministers (see above); (e) the
+cognizance of all steps preceding marriage according to Quaker forms;
+(f) the registration of births, deaths and marriages and the admission
+of members; (g) the issuing of certificates or letters of approval
+granted to ministers travelling away from their homes, or to members
+removing from one meeting to another; and (h) the management of the
+property belonging to the Society. The meetings for business further
+concern themselves with arrangements for spreading the Quaker doctrine,
+and for carrying out various religious, philanthropic and social
+activities not necessarily confined to the Society of Friends.
+
+
+    Periodic "meetings."
+
+  The present organization of the Quaker church is essentially
+  democratic; every person born of Quaker parents is a member, and,
+  together with those who have been admitted on their own request, is
+  entitled to take part in the business assemblies of any meeting of
+  which he or she is a member. The Society is organized as a series of
+  subordinated meetings which recall to the mind the Presbyterian model.
+  The "Preparative Meeting" usually consists of a single congregation;
+  next in order comes the "Monthly Meeting," the executive body, usually
+  embracing several Preparative Meetings called together, as its name
+  indicates, monthly (in some cases less often); then the "Quarterly
+  Meeting," embracing several Monthly Meetings; and lastly the "Yearly
+  Meeting," embracing the whole of Great Britain (but not Ireland).
+  After several yearly or "general" meetings had been held in different
+  places at irregular intervals as need arose, the first of an
+  uninterrupted series met in 1668. From that date until 1904 it was
+  held in London. In 1905 it met in Leeds, and in 1908 in Birmingham.
+  Its official title is "London Yearly Meeting." It is the legislative
+  body of Friends in Great Britain. It considers questions of policy,
+  and some of its sittings are conferences for the consideration of
+  reports on religious, philanthropic, educational and social work which
+  is carried on. Its sessions occupy a week in May of each year.
+  Representatives are sent from each inferior to each superior meeting,
+  but they have no precedence over others, and all Friends may attend
+  any meeting and take part in any of which they are members. Formerly
+  the system was double, the men and women meeting separately for their
+  own appointed business. Of late years the meetings have been, for the
+  most part, held jointly, with equal liberty for all men and women to
+  state their opinions, and to serve on all committees and other
+  appointments. The mode of conducting these meetings is noteworthy. A
+  secretary or "clerk," as he is called, acts as chairman or president;
+  there are no formal resolutions; and there is no voting or applause.
+  The clerk ascertains what he considers to be the judgment of the
+  assembly, and records it in a minute. The permanent standing committee
+  of the Society is known as the "Meeting for Sufferings" (established
+  in 1675), which took its rise in the days when the persecution of many
+  Friends demanded the Christian care and material help of those who
+  were able to give it. It is composed of representatives (men and
+  women) sent by the quarterly meetings, and of all recorded Ministers
+  and Elders. Its work is not confined to the interests of Friends; it
+  is sensitive to the call of oppression and distress (e.g. a famine) in
+  all parts of the world, it frequently raises large sums of money to
+  alleviate the same, and intervenes, often successfully, and mostly
+  without publicity, with those in authority who have the power to bring
+  about an amelioration.
+
+  The offices known to the Quaker body are: (1) that of _minister_ (the
+  term "office" is not strictly applicable, see above as to
+  "recording"); (2) of _elder_, whose duty it is "to encourage and help
+  young ministers, and advise others as they, in the wisdom of God, see
+  occasion"; (3) of _overseer_, to whom is especially entrusted that
+  duty of Christian care for and interest in one another which Quakers
+  recognize as obligatory in all the members of a church. In most
+  Monthly Meetings the care of the poor is committed to the overseers.
+  These officers hold, from time to time, meetings separate from the
+  general assemblies of the members, but the special organization for
+  many years known as the Meeting of Ministers and Elders, reconstituted
+  in 1876 as the Meeting on Ministry and Oversight, came to an end in
+  1906-1907.
+
+  This present form both of organization and of discipline has been
+  reached only by a process of development. As early as 1652-1654 there
+  is evidence of some slight organization for dealing with marriages,
+  poor relief, "disorderly walkers," matters of arbitration, &c. The
+  Quarterly or "General" meetings of the different counties seem to have
+  been the first unions of separate congregations. In 1666 Fox
+  established Monthly Meetings; in 1727 elders were first appointed; in
+  1752 overseers were added; and in 1737 the right of children of
+  Quakers to be considered as members was fully recognized. Concerning
+  the 18th century in general, see above.
+
+  Of late years the stringency of the Quaker discipline has been
+  relaxed: the peculiarities of dress and language have been abandoned;
+  marriage with a non-member or between two non-members is now possible
+  at a Quaker meeting-house; and marriage elsewhere has ceased to
+  involve exclusion from the body. Above all, many of its members have
+  come to "the conviction, which is not new, but old, that the virtues
+  which can be rewarded and the vices which can be punished by external
+  discipline are not as a rule the virtues and the vices that make or
+  mar the soul" (Hatch, _Bampton Lectures_, 81).
+
+
+    Philanthropic interests.
+
+  A genuine vein of philanthropy has always existed in the Quaker body.
+  In nothing has this been more conspicuous than in the matter of
+  slavery. George Fox and William Penn laboured to secure the religious
+  teaching of slaves. As early as 1676 the assembly of Barbados passed
+  "An Act to prevent the people called Quakers from bringing negroes to
+  their meetings." On the attitude of Friends in America to slavery, see
+  the section "Quakerism in America" (above). In 1783 the first petition
+  to the House of Commons for the abolition of the slave trade and
+  slavery went up from the Quakers; and in the long agitation which
+  ensued the Society took a prominent part.
+
+  In 1798 Joseph Lancaster, himself a Friend, opened his first school
+  for the education of the poor; and the cause of unsectarian religious
+  education found in the Quakers steady support. They also took an
+  active part in Sir Samuel Romilly's efforts to ameliorate the penal
+  code, in prison reform, with which the name of Elizabeth Fry (a
+  Friend) is especially connected, and in the efforts to ameliorate the
+  condition of lunatics in England (the Friends' Retreat at York,
+  founded in 1792, was the earliest example in England of kindly
+  treatment of the insane). It is noteworthy that Quaker efforts for the
+  education of the poor and philanthropy in general, though they have
+  always been Christian in character, have not been undertaken primarily
+  for the purpose of bringing proselytes within the body, and have not
+  done so to any great extent.
+
+
+    Education.
+
+  By means of the Adult Schools, Friends have been able to exercise a
+  religious influence beyond the borders of their own Society. The
+  movement began in Birmingham in 1845, in an attempt to help the
+  loungers at street corners; reading and writing were the chief
+  inducements offered. The schools are unsectarian in character and
+  mainly democratic in government: the aim is to draw out what is best
+  in men and to induce them to act for the help of their fellows. Whilst
+  the work is essentially religious in character, a well-equipped school
+  also caters for the social, intellectual and physical parts of a man's
+  nature. Bible teaching is the central part of the school session: the
+  lessons are mainly concerned with life's practical problems. The
+  spirit of brotherliness which prevails is largely the secret of the
+  success of the movement. At the end of 1909 there were in connexion
+  with the "National Council of Adult-School Associations" 1818
+  "schools" for men with a membership of about 113,789; and 402 for
+  women with a membership of about 27,000. The movement, which is no
+  longer exclusively under the control of Friends, is rapidly becoming
+  one of the chief means of bringing about a religious fellowship among
+  a class which the organized churches have largely failed to reach. The
+  effect of the work upon the Society itself may be summarized thus:
+  some addition to membership; the creation of a sphere of usefulness
+  for the younger and more active members; a general stirring of
+  interest in social questions.[4]
+
+  A strong interest in Sunday schools for children preceded the Adult
+  School movement. The earliest schools which are still existing were
+  formed at Bristol, for boys in 1810 and for girls in the following
+  year. Several isolated efforts were made earlier than this; it is
+  evident that there was a school at Lothersdale near Skipton in 1800
+  "for the preservation of the youth of both sexes, and for their
+  instruction in useful learning"; and another at Nottingham. Even
+  earlier still were the Sunday and day schools in Rossendale,
+  Lancashire, dating from 1793. At the end of 1909 there were in
+  connexion with the Friends' First-Day School Association 240 schools
+  with 2722 teachers and 25,215 scholars, very few of whom were the
+  children of Friends. Not included in these figures are classes for
+  children of members and "attenders," which are usually held before or
+  during a portion of the time of the morning meeting for worship; in
+  these distinctly denominational teaching is given. Monthly organ,
+  _Teachers and Taught_.
+
+
+    Foreign missions.
+
+  A "provisional committee" of members of the Society of Friends was
+  formed in 1865 to deal with offers of service in foreign lands. In
+  1868 this developed into the Friends' Foreign Mission Association,
+  which now undertakes Missionary work in India (begun 1866), Madagascar
+  (1867), Syria (1869), China (1886), Ceylon (1896). In 1909 the number
+  of missionaries (including wives) was 113; organized churches, 194;
+  members and adherents, 21,085; schools, 135; pupils, 7042; hospitals
+  and dispensaries, 17; patients treated, 6865; subscriptions raised
+  from Friends in Great Britain and Ireland, £26,689, besides £3245
+  received in the fields of work. Quarterly organ, _Our Missions_.
+
+  _Statistics of Quakerism._--At the close of 1909 there were 18,686
+  Quakers (the number includes children) in Great Britain; and
+  "associates" and habitual "attenders" not in membership, 8586; number
+  of congregations regularly meeting, 390. Ireland--members, 2528;
+  habitual attenders not in membership, 402.
+
+  The central offices and reference library of the Society of Friends
+  are situate at Devonshire House, Bishopsgate Without, London.
+
+  _Bibliography._--The writings of the early Friends are very numerous:
+  the most noteworthy are the _Journals_ of George Fox and of Thomas
+  Ellwood, both autobiographies, the _Apology_ and other works of Robert
+  Barclay, and the works of Penn and Penington. Early in the 18th
+  century William Sewel, a Dutch Quaker, wrote a history of the Society
+  and published an English translation; modern (small) histories have
+  been written by T. Edmund Harvey (_The Rise of the Quakers_) and by
+  Mrs Emmott (_The Story of Quakerism_). _The Sufferings of the Quakers_
+  by Joseph Besse (1753) gives a detailed account of the persecution of
+  the early Friends in England and America. An excellent portraiture of
+  early Quakerism is given in William Tanner's _Lectures on Friends in
+  Bristol and Somersetshire_. _The Book of Discipline_ in its successive
+  printed editions from 1783 to 1906 contains the working rules of the
+  organization, and also a compilation of testimonies borne by the
+  Society at different periods, to important points of Christian truth,
+  and often called forth by the special circumstances of the time. _The
+  Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth_ (London,
+  1876) by Robert Barclay, a descendant of the Apologist, contains much
+  curious information about the Quakers. See also "Quaker" in the index
+  to Masson's _Life of Milton_. Joseph Smith's _Descriptive Catalogue of
+  Friends' Books_ (London, 1867) gives the information which its title
+  promises; the same author has also published a catalogue of works
+  hostile to Quakerism. For an exposition of Quakerism on its spiritual
+  side many of the poems by Whittier may be referred to, also _Quaker
+  Strongholds_ and _Light Arising_ by Caroline E. Stephen; _The Society
+  of Friends, its Faith and Practice_, and other works by John
+  Stephenson Rowntree, _A Dynamic Faith_ and other works by Rufus M.
+  Jones; _Authority and the Light Within_ and other works by Edw. Grubb,
+  and the series of "Swarthmore Lectures" as well as the histories above
+  mentioned. Much valuable information will be found in _John Stephenson
+  Rowntree: His Life and Work_ (1908). The history of the modern forward
+  movement may be studied in _Essays and Addresses_ by John Wilhelm
+  Rowntree, and in _Present Day Papers_ edited by him. The social life
+  of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th is portrayed in
+  _Records of a Quaker Family, the Richardsons of Cleveland_, by Mrs
+  Boyce, and _The Diaries of Edward Pease, the Father of English
+  Railways_, edited by Sir A. E. Pease. Other works which may usefully
+  be consulted are the Journals of John Woolman, Stephen Grellet and
+  Elizabeth Fry; also _The First Publishers of Truth_, a reprint of
+  contemporary accounts of the rise of Quakerism in various districts.
+  The periodicals issued (not officially) in connexion with the Quaker
+  body are _The Friend_ (weekly), _The British Friend_ (monthly), _The
+  Friends' Witness_, _The Friendly Messenger_, _The Friends' Fellowship
+  Papers_, _The Friends' Quarterly Examiner_, _Journal of the Friends'
+  Historical Society_. Officially issued: _The Book of Meetings_ and
+  _The Friends' Year Book_. See also works mentioned at the close of
+  sections on Adult Schools and on Quakerism in America, Scotland and
+  Ireland, and elsewhere in this article; also FOX, GEORGE. (A. N. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] At the time referred to, and during the Commonwealth, the pulpits
+    of the cathedrals and churches were occupied by Episcopalians of the
+    Richard Baxter type, Presbyterians, Independents and a few Baptists.
+    It is these, and not the clergy of the Church of England, who are
+    continually referred to by George Fox as "priests."
+
+  [2] On the whole subject of preaching "after the priest had done,"
+    see Barclay's _Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the
+    Commonwealth_, ch. xii.
+
+  [3] Woolman's _Journal_ and _Works_ are remarkable. He had a vision
+    of a political economy based not on selfishness but on love, not on
+    desire but on self-denial.
+
+  [4] See _A History of the Adult School Movement_ by J. W. Rowntree
+    and H. B. Binns. The organ of the movement is One and All, published
+    monthly. See also _The Adult School Year Book_.
+
+
+
+
+FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1794-1878), Swedish botanist, was born at Femsjö,
+Småland, on the 15th of August 1794. From his father, the pastor of the
+church at Femsjö, he early acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering
+plants. In 1811 he entered the university of Lund, where in 1814 he was
+elected docent of botany and in 1824 professor. In 1834 he became
+professor of practical economy at Upsala, and in 1844 and 1848 he
+represented the university of that city in the Rigsdag. On the death of
+Göran Wahlenberg (1780-1851) he was appointed professor of botany at
+Upsala, where he died on the 8th of February 1878. Fries was admitted a
+member of the Swedish Royal Academy in 1847, and a foreign member of the
+Royal Society of London in 1875.
+
+  As an author on the Cryptogamia he was in the first rank. He wrote
+  _Novitiae florae Suecicae_ (1814 and 1823); _Observationes
+  mycologicae_ (1815); _Flora Hollandica_ (1817-1818); _Systema
+  mycologicum_ (1821-1829); _Systema orbis vegetabilis_, not completed
+  (1825); _Elenchus fungorum_ (1828); _Lichenographia Europaea_ (1831);
+  _Epicrisis systematis mycologici_ (1838; 2nd ed., or _Hymenomycetes
+  Europaei_, 1874); _Summa vegetabilium Scandinaviae_ (1846); _Sveriges
+  ätliga och giftiga Svampar_, with coloured plates (1860); _Monographia
+  hymenomycetum Suecicae_ (1863), with the _Icones hymenomycetum_, vol.
+  i. (1867), and pt. i. vol. ii. (1877).
+
+
+
+
+FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH (1773-1843), German philosopher, was born at
+Barby, Saxony, on the 23rd of August 1773. Having studied theology in
+the academy of the Moravian brethren at Niesky, and philosophy at
+Leipzig and Jena, he travelled for some time, and in 1806 became
+professor of philosophy and elementary mathematics at Heidelberg. Though
+the progress of his psychological thought compelled him to abandon the
+positive theology of the Moravians, he always retained an appreciation
+of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philosophical position
+with regard to his contemporaries he had already made clear in the
+critical work _Reinhold, Fichte und Schelling_ (1803; reprinted in 1824
+as _Polemische Schriften_), and in the more systematic treatises _System
+der Philosophie als evidente Wissenschaft_ (1804), _Wissen, Glaube und
+Ahnung_ (1805, new ed. 1905). His most important treatise, the _Neue
+oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft_ (2nd ed., 1828-1831), was an
+attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis to the
+critical theory of Kant. In 1811 appeared his _System der Logik_ (ed.
+1819 and 1837), a very instructive work, and in 1814 _Julius und
+Evagoras_, a philosophical romance. In 1816 he was invited to Jena to
+fill the chair of theoretical philosophy (including mathematics and
+physics, and philosophy proper), and entered upon a crusade against the
+prevailing Romanticism. In politics he was a strong Liberal and
+Unionist, and did much to inspire the organization of the
+_Burschenschaft_. In 1816 he had published his views in a brochure, _Vom
+deutschen Bund und deutscher Staatsverfassung_, dedicated to "the youth
+of Germany," and his influence gave a powerful impetus to the agitation
+which led in 1819 to the issue of the Carlsbad Decrees by the
+representatives of the German governments. Karl Sand, the murderer of
+Kotzebue, was one of his pupils; and a letter of his, found on another
+student, warning the lad against participation in secret societies, was
+twisted by the suspicious authorities into evidence of his guilt. He was
+condemned by the Mainz Commission; the grand-duke of Weimar was
+compelled to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to
+lecture on philosophy. The grand-duke, however, continued to pay him his
+stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena as professor of mathematics
+and physics, receiving permission also to lecture on philosophy in his
+own rooms to a select number of students. Finally, in 1838, the
+unrestricted right of lecturing was restored to him. He died on the 10th
+of August 1843.
+
+  The most important of the many works written during his Jena
+  professorate are the _Handbuch der praktischen Philosophie_
+  (1817-1832), the _Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologie_ (1820-1821,
+  2nd ed. 1837-1839), _Die mathematische Naturphilosophie_ (1822),
+  _System der Metaphysik_ (1824), _Die Geschichte der Philosophie_
+  (1837-1840). Fries's point of view in philosophy may be described as a
+  modified Kantianism, an attempt to reconcile the criticism of Kant and
+  Jacobi's philosophy of belief. With Kant he regarded _Kritik_, or the
+  critical investigation of the faculty of knowledge, as the essential
+  preliminary to philosophy. But he differed from Kant both as regards
+  the foundation for this criticism and as regards the metaphysical
+  results yielded by it. Kant's analysis of knowledge had disclosed the
+  a priori element as the necessary complement of the isolated a
+  posteriori facts of experience. But it did not seem to Fries that Kant
+  had with sufficient accuracy examined the mode in which we arrive at
+  knowledge of this a priori element. According to him we only know
+  these a priori principles through inner or psychical experience; they
+  are not then to be regarded as transcendental factors of all
+  experience, but as the necessary, constant elements discovered by us
+  in our inner experience. Accordingly Fries, like the Scotch school,
+  places psychology or analysis of consciousness at the foundation of
+  philosophy, and called his criticism of knowledge an anthropological
+  critique. A second point in which Fries differed from Kant is the view
+  taken as to the relation between immediate and mediate cognitions.
+  According to Fries, the understanding is purely the faculty of proof;
+  it is in itself void; immediate certitude is the only source of
+  knowledge. Reason contains principles which we cannot demonstrate, but
+  which can be deduced, and are the proper objects of belief. In this
+  view of reason Fries approximates to Jacobi rather than to Kant. His
+  most original idea is the graduation of knowledge into knowing, belief
+  and presentiment. We know phenomena, how the existence of things
+  appears to us in nature; we believe in the true nature, the eternal
+  essence of things (the good, the true, the beautiful); by means of
+  presentiment (_Ahnung_) the intermediary between knowledge and belief,
+  we recognize the supra-sensible in the sensible, the being in the
+  phenomenon.
+
+  See E. L. Henke, _J. F. Fries_ (1867); C. Grapengiesser, _J. F. Fries,
+  ein Gedenkblatt_ and _Kant's "Kritik der Vernunft" und deren
+  Fortbildung durch J. F. Fries_ (1882); H. Strasosky, _J. F. Fries als
+  Kritiker der Kantischen Erkenntnistheorie_ (1891); articles in Ersch
+  and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_ and _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_; J. E. Erdmann, _Hist. of Philos._ (Eng. trans., London,
+  1890), vol. ii. § 305.
+
+
+
+
+FRIES, JOHN (c. 1764-1825), American insurgent leader, was born in
+Pennsylvania of "Dutch" (German) descent about 1764. As an itinerant
+auctioneer he became well acquainted with the Germans in the S.E. part
+of Pennsylvania. In July 1798, during the troubles between the United
+States and France, Congress levied a direct tax (on dwelling-houses,
+lands and slaves) of $2,000,000, of which Pennsylvania was called upon
+to contribute $237,000. There were very few slaves in the state, and the
+tax was accordingly assessed upon dwelling-houses and land, the value of
+the houses being determined by the number and size of the windows. The
+inquisitorial nature of the proceedings aroused strong opposition among
+the Germans, and many of them refused to pay. Fries, assuming
+leadership, organized an armed band of about sixty men, who marched
+about the country intimidating the assessors and encouraging the people
+to resist. At last the governor called out the militia (March 1799) and
+the leaders were arrested. Fries and two others were twice tried for
+treason (the second time before Samuel Chase) and were sentenced to be
+hanged, but they were pardoned by President Adams in April 1800, and a
+general amnesty was issued on 21st May. The affair is variously known as
+the "Fries Rebellion," the "Hot-Water Rebellion"--because hot water was
+used to drive assessors from houses--, and the "Home Tax Rebellion."
+Fries died in Philadelphia in 1825.
+
+  See T. Carpenter, _Two Trials of John Fries ... Taken in Shorthand_
+  (Philadelphia, 1800); the second volume of McMaster's _History of the
+  United States_ (New York, 1883); and W. W. H. Davis, _The Fries
+  Rebellion_ (Doylestown, Pa., 1899).
+
+
+
+
+FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND, a province of Holland, bounded S.W., W. and N.
+by the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, E. by Groningen and Drente, and
+S.E. by Overysel. It also includes the islands of Ameland and
+Schiermonnikoog (see FRISIAN ISLANDS). Area, 1281 sq. m.; pop. (1900)
+340,262. The soil of Friesland falls naturally into three divisions
+consisting of sea-clay in the north and north-west, of low-fen between
+the south-west and north-east, and of a comparatively small area of
+high-fen in the south-east. The clay and low-fen furnish a luxuriant
+meadow-land for the principal industries of the province--cattle-rearing
+and cheese- and butter-making. Horse-breeding has also been practised
+for centuries, and the breed of black Frisian horse is well known. On
+the clay lands agriculture is also extensively practised. In the
+high-fen district peat-digging is the chief occupation. The effect of
+this industry, however, is to lay bare a subsoil of diluvial sand which
+offers little inducement for subsequent cultivation. Despite the general
+productiveness of the soil, however, the social condition of Friesland
+has remained in a backward state and poverty is rife in many districts.
+The ownership of property being largely in the hands of absentee
+landlords, the peasantry have little interest in the land, the profits
+from which go to enrich other provinces. Moreover, the nature of the
+fertility of the meadow-lands is such as to require little manual
+labour, and other industrial means of subsistence have hardly yet come
+into existence. This state of affairs has given rise to a
+social-democratic outcry on account of which Friesland is sometimes
+regarded as the "Ireland of Holland." The water system of the province
+comprises a few small rivers (now largely canalized) in the high lands
+in the east, and the vast network of canals, waterways and lakes of the
+whole north and west. The principal lakes are Tjeuke Meer, Sloter Meer,
+De Fluessen and Sneeker Meer. The tides being lowest on the north coast
+of the province, the scheme of the Waterstaat, the government department
+(dating from 1879), provides for the largest removal of superfluous
+surface water into the Lauwerszee. But owing to the long distance which
+the water must travel from certain parts of the province, and the
+continual recession of the Lauwerszee, the drainage problem is a
+peculiarly difficult one, and floods are sometimes inevitable.
+
+The population of the province is evenly distributed in small villages.
+The principal market centres are Leeuwarden, the chief towns, Sneek,
+Bolsward, Franeker (qq.v.), Dokkum (4053) and Heerenveen (5011). With
+the exception of Franeker and Heerenveen all these towns originally
+arose on the inlet of the Middle Sea. The seaport towns are more or less
+decayed; they include Stavoren (820), Hindeloopen (1030), Workum (3428),
+Harlingen (q.v.) and Makkum (2456).
+
+  For history see FRISIANS.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEZE. 1. (Through the Fr. _frise_, and Ital. _fregio_, from the Lat.
+_Phrygium, sc. opus_, Phrygian or embroidered work), a term given in
+architecture to the central division of the entablature of an order (see
+ORDER), but also applied to any oblong horizontal feature, introduced
+for decorative purposes and enriched with carving. The Doric frieze had
+a structural origin as the triglyphs suggest vertical support. The Ionic
+frieze was purely decorative and probably did not exist in the earliest
+examples, if we may judge by the copies found in the Lycian tombs carved
+in the rock. There is no frieze in the Caryatide portico of the
+Erechtheum, but in the Ionic temples its introduction may have been
+necessitated in consequence of more height being required in the
+entablature to carry the beams supporting the lacunaria over the
+peristyle. In the frieze of the Erechtheum the figures (about 2 ft.
+high) were carved in white marble and affixed by clamps to a background
+of black Eleusinian marble. The frieze of the Choragic monument of
+Lysicrates (10 in. high) was carved with figures representing the story
+of Dionysus and the pirates. The most remarkable frieze ever sculptured
+was that on the outside of the wall of the cella of the Parthenon
+representing the procession of the celebrants of the Panathenaic
+Festival. It was 40 in. in height and 525 ft. long, being carried round
+the whole building under the peristyle. Nearly the whole of the western
+frieze exists _in situ_; of the remainder, about half is in the British
+Museum, and as much as remains is either in Athens or in other museums.
+In some of the Roman temples, as in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina
+and the temple of the Sun, the frieze is elaborately carved and in later
+work is made convex, to which the term "pulvinated" is given.
+
+2. (Probably connected with "frizz," to curl; there is no historical
+reason to connect the word with Friesland), a thick, rough woollen
+cloth, of very lasting quality, and with a heavy nap, forming small
+tufts or curls. It is largely manufactured in Ireland.
+
+
+
+
+FRIGATE (Fr. _frégate_, Span. and Port. _fragata_; the etymology of the
+word is obscure; it has been derived from the Late Lat. _fabricata_,
+and the use of the Fr. _bâtiment_, for a vessel as well as a building is
+compared; another suggestion derives the word from the Gr. [Greek:
+aphraktos], unfenced or unguarded), originally a small swift, undecked
+vessel, propelled by oars or sails, in use on the Mediterranean. The
+word is thus used of the large open boats, without guns, used for war
+purposes by the Portuguese in the East Indies during the 16th and 17th
+centuries. The French first applied the term to a particular type of
+ships of war during the second quarter of the 18th century. The Seven
+Years' War (1756-1763) marked the definite adoption of the "frigate" as
+a standard class of vessel, coming next to ships of the line, and used
+for cruising and scouting purposes. They were three-masted, fully
+rigged, fast vessels, with the main armament carried on a single deck,
+and additional guns on the poop and forecastle. The number of guns
+varied from 24 to 50, but between 30 and 40 guns was the usual amount
+carried. "Frigate" continued to be used as the name for this type of
+ship, even after the introduction of steam and of ironclad vessels, but
+the class is now represented by that known as "cruiser."
+
+
+
+
+FRIGATE-BIRD, the name commonly given by English sailors, on account of
+the swiftness of its flight, its habit of cruising about near other
+species and of daringly pursuing them, to a large sea-bird[1]--the
+_Fregata aquila_ of most ornithologists--the _Fregatte_ of French and
+the _Rabihorcado_ of Spanish mariners. It was placed by Linnaeus in the
+genus _Pelecanus_, and its assignment to the family _Pelecanidae_ had
+hardly ever been doubted till Professor St George Mivart declared
+(_Trans. Zool. Soc._ x. p. 364) that, as regards the postcranial part of
+its axial skeleton, he could not detect sufficiently good characters to
+unite it with that family in the group named by Professor J. F. Brandt
+_Steganopodes_. There seems to be no ground for disputing this decision
+so far as separating the genus _Fregata_ from the _Pelecanidae_ goes,
+but systematists will probably pause before they proceed to abolish the
+_Steganopodes_, and the result will most likely be that the
+frigate-birds will be considered to form a distinct family
+(_Fregatidae_) in that group. In one very remarkable way the osteology
+of _Fregata_ differs from that of all other birds known. The furcula
+coalesces firmly at its symphysis with the carina of the sternum, and
+also with the coracoids at the upper extremity of each of its rami, the
+anterior end of each coracoid coalescing also with the proximal end of
+the scapula. Thus the only articulations in the whole sternal apparatus
+are where the coracoids meet the sternum, and the consequence is a bony
+framework which would be perfectly rigid did not the flexibility of the
+rami of the furcula permit a limited amount of motion. That this
+mechanism is closely related to the faculty which the bird possesses of
+soaring for a considerable time in the air with scarcely a perceptible
+movement of the wings can hardly be doubted.
+
+Two species of _Fregata_ are considered to exist, though they differ in
+little but size and geographical distribution. The larger, _F. aquila_,
+has a wide range all round the world within the tropics and at times
+passes their limits. The smaller, _F. minor_, appears to be confined to
+the eastern seas, from Madagascar to the Moluccas, and southward to
+Australia, being particularly abundant in Torres Strait,--the other
+species, however, being found there as well. Having a spread of wing
+equal to a swan's and a very small body, the buoyancy of these birds is
+very great. It is a beautiful sight to watch one or more of them
+floating overhead against the deep blue sky, the long forked tail
+alternately opening and shutting like a pair of scissors, and the head,
+which is of course kept to windward, inclined from side to side, while
+the wings are to all appearance fixedly extended, though the breeze may
+be constantly varying in strength and direction. Equally fine is the
+contrast afforded by these birds when engaged in fishing, or, as seems
+more often to happen, in robbing other birds, especially boobies, as
+they are fishing. Then the speed of their flight is indeed seen to
+advantage, as well as the marvellous suddenness with which they can
+change their rapid course as their victim tries to escape from their
+attack. Before gales frigate-birds are said often to fly low, and their
+appearance near or over land, except at their breeding-time, is supposed
+to portend a hurricane.[2] Generally seen singly or in pairs, except
+when the prospect of prey induces them to congregate, they breed in
+large companies, and O. Salvin has graphically described (_Ibis_, 1864,
+p. 375) one of their settlements off the coast of British Honduras,
+which he visited in May 1862. Here they chose the highest
+mangrove-trees[3] on which to build their frail nests, and seemed to
+prefer the leeward side. The single egg laid in each nest has a white
+and chalky shell very like that of a cormorant's. The nestlings are
+clothed in pure white down, and so thickly as to resemble puff-balls.
+When fledged, the beak, head, neck and belly are white, the legs and
+feet bluish-white, but the body is dark above. The adult females retain
+the white beneath, but the adult males lose it, and in both sexes at
+maturity the upper plumage is of a very dark chocolate brown, nearly
+black, with a bright metallic gloss, while the feet in the females are
+pink, and black in the males--the last also acquiring a bright scarlet
+pouch, capable of inflation, and being perceptible when on the wing. The
+habits of _F. minor_ seem wholly to resemble those of _F. aquila_.
+According to J. M. Bechstein, an example of this last species was
+obtained at the mouth of the Weser in January 1792.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "Man-of-war-bird" is also sometimes applied to it, and is perhaps
+    the older name; but it is less distinctive, some of the larger
+    Albatrosses being so called, and, in books at least, has generally
+    passed out of use.
+
+  [2] Hence another of the names--"hurricane-bird"--by which this
+    species is occasionally known.
+
+  [3] Captain Taylor, however, found their nests as well on low bushes
+    of the same tree in the Bay of Fonseca (_Ibis_, 1859, pp. 150-152).
+
+
+
+
+FRIGG, the wife of the god Odin (Woden) in northern mythology. She was
+known also to other Teutonic peoples both on the continent (O. H. Ger.
+_Friia_, Langobardic _Frea_) and in England, where her name still
+survives in Friday (O. E. _Frigedæg_). She is often wrongly identified
+with Freyia. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, _ad fin_.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIGIDARIUM, the Latin term (from _frigidus_, cold) applied to the open
+area of the Roman thermae, in which there was generally a cold swimming
+bath, and sometimes to the bath (see BATHS). From the description given
+by Aelius Spartianus (A.D. 297) it would seem that portions of the
+frigidarium were covered over by a ceiling formed of interlaced bars of
+gilt bronze, and this statement has been to a certain extent
+substantiated by the discovery of many tons of T-shaped iron found in
+the excavations under the paving of the frigidarium of the thermae of
+Caracalla. Dr J. H. Middleton in _The Remains of Ancient Rome_ (1892)
+points out that in the part of the enclosure walls are deep sinkings to
+receive the ends of the great girders. He suggests that the panels of
+the lattice-work ceiling were filled in with concrete made of light
+pumice stone.
+
+
+
+
+FRIIS, JOHAN (1494-1570), Danish statesman, was born in 1494, and was
+educated at Odense and at Copenhagen, completing his studies abroad. Few
+among the ancient Danish nobility occupy so prominent a place in Danish
+history as Johan Friis, who exercised a decisive influence in the
+government of the realm during the reign of three kings. He was one of
+the first of the magnates to adhere to the Reformation and its promoter
+King Frederick I. (1523-1533), his apostasy being so richly rewarded out
+of the spoils of the plundered Church that his heirs had to restore
+property of the value of 1,000,000 kroner. Friis succeeded Claus
+Gjoodsen as imperial chancellor in 1532, and held that dignity till his
+death. During the ensuing interregnum he powerfully contributed, at the
+head of the nobles of Funen and Jutland, to the election of Christian
+III. (1533-1559), but in the course of the "Count's War" he was taken
+prisoner by Count Christopher, the Catholic candidate for the throne,
+and forced to do him homage. Subsequently by judicious bribery he
+contrived to escape to Germany, and from thence rejoined Christian III.
+He was one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded peace with Lübeck at
+the congress of Hamburg, and subsequently took an active part in the
+great work of national reconstruction necessitated by the Reformation,
+acting as mediator between the Danish and the German parties who were
+contesting for supremacy during the earlier years of Christian III.
+This he was able to do, as a moderate Lutheran, whose calmness and
+common sense contrasted advantageously with the unbridled violence of
+his contemporaries. As the first chancellor of the reconstructed
+university of Copenhagen, Friis took the keenest interest in spiritual
+and scientific matters, and was the first donor of a legacy to the
+institution. He also enjoyed the society of learned men, especially of
+"those who could talk with him concerning ancient monuments and their
+history." He encouraged Hans Svaning to complete Saxo's history of
+Denmark, and Anders Vedel to translate Saxo into Danish. His generosity
+to poor students was well known; but he could afford to be liberal, as
+his share of spoliated Church property had made him one of the
+wealthiest men in Denmark. Under King Frederick II. (1559-1588), who
+understood but little of state affairs, Friis was well-nigh omnipotent.
+He was largely responsible for the Scandinavian Seven Years' War
+(1562-70), which did so much to exacerbate the relations between Denmark
+and Sweden. Friis died on the 5th of December 1570, a few days before
+the peace of Stettin, which put an end to the exhausting and unnecessary
+struggle.
+
+
+
+
+FRIMLEY, an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary division of
+Surrey, England, 33 m. W.S.W. from London by the London & South-Western
+railway, and 1 m. N. of Farnborough in Hampshire. Pop. (1901) 8409. Its
+healthy climate, its position in the sandy heath-district of the west of
+Surrey, and its proximity to Aldershot Camp have contributed to its
+growth as a residential township. To the east the moorland rises in the
+picturesque elevation of Chobham Ridges; and 3 m. N.E. is Bagshot,
+another village growing into a residential town, on the heath of the
+same name extending into Berkshire. Bisley Camp, to which in 1890 the
+meetings of the National Rifle Association were removed from Wimbledon,
+is 4 m. E. Coniferous trees and rhododendrons are characteristic
+products of the soil, and large nurseries are devoted to their
+cultivation.
+
+
+
+
+FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP, COUNT OF PALOTA, PRINCE OF ANTRODOCCO
+(1759-1831), Austrian general, entered the Austrian cavalry as a trooper
+in 1776, won his commission in the War of the Bavarian Succession, and
+took part in the Turkish wars and in the early campaigns against the
+French Revolutionary armies, in which he frequently earned distinction.
+At Frankenthal in 1796 he won the cross of Maria Theresa. In the
+campaign of 1800 he distinguished himself greatly as a cavalry leader at
+Marengo (14th of June), and in the next year became major-general. In
+the war of 1805 he was again employed in Italy and won further renown by
+his gallantry at the battle of Caldiero. In 1809 he again saw active
+service in Italy in the rank of lieutenant field marshal, and in 1812
+led the cavalry of Schwarzenberg's corps in the Russian campaign. He
+served in the campaigns of 1813-14 in high command, and rendered
+conspicuous service at Brienne-La Rothière and at Arcis-sur-Aube. In
+1815 he was commander-in-chief of the Austrians in Italy, and his army
+penetrated France as far as Lyons, which was entered on the 11th of
+July. With the army of occupation he remained in France for some years,
+and in 1819 he commanded at Venice. In 1821 he led the Austrian army
+which was employed against the Neapolitan rebels, and by the 24th of
+March he had victoriously entered Naples. His reward from King Ferdinand
+of Naples was the title of prince of Antrodocco and a handsome sum of
+money, and from his own master the rank of general of cavalry. After
+this he commanded in North Italy, and was called upon to deal with many
+outbreaks of the Italian patriots. He became president of the Aulic
+council in 1831, but died a few months later.
+
+
+
+
+FRISCHES HAFF, a lagoon on the Baltic coast of Germany, within the
+provinces East and West Prussia, between Danzig and Königsberg. It is 52
+m. in length, from 4 to 12 m. broad, 332 sq. m. in area, and is
+separated from the Baltic by a narrow spit or bank of land. This barrier
+was torn open by a storm in 1510, and the channel thus formed, now
+dredged out to a depth of 22 ft., affords a navigable passage for
+vessels. Into the Haff flow the Nogat, the Elbing, the Passarge, the
+Pregel and the Frisching, from the last of which the name Frisches Haff
+probably arose.
+
+
+
+
+FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS (1547-1590), German philologist and poet,
+was born on the 22nd of September 1547 at Balingen in Württemberg, where
+his father was parish minister. He was educated at the university of
+Tübingen, where in 1568 he was promoted to the chair of poetry and
+history. In 1575 for his comedy of _Rebecca_, which he read at
+Regensburg before the emperor Maximilian II., he was rewarded with the
+laureateship, and in 1577 he was made a count palatine (_comes
+palatinus_) or _Pfalzgraf_. In 1582 his unguarded language and reckless
+life made it necessary that he should leave Tübingen, and he accepted a
+mastership at Laibach in Carniola, which he held for about two years.
+Shortly after his return to the university in 1584, he was threatened
+with a criminal prosecution on a charge of immoral conduct, and the
+threat led to his withdrawal to Frankfort-on-Main in 1587. For eighteen
+months he taught in the Brunswick gymnasium, and he appears also to have
+resided occasionally at Strassburg, Marburg and Mainz. From the
+last-named city he wrote certain libellous letters, which led to his
+being arrested in March 1590. He was imprisoned in the fortress of
+Hohenurach, near Reutlingen, where, on the night of the 29th of November
+1590, he was killed by a fall in attempting to let himself down from the
+window of his cell.
+
+  Frischlin's prolific and versatile genius produced a great variety of
+  works, which entitle him to some rank both among poets and among
+  scholars. In his Latin verse he often successfully imitated the
+  classical models; his comedies are not without freshness and vivacity;
+  and some of his versions and commentaries, particularly those on the
+  _Georgics_ and _Bucolics_ of Virgil, though now well-nigh forgotten,
+  were important contributions to the scholarship of his time. There is
+  no collected edition of his works, but his _Opera poëtica_ were
+  published twelve times between 1535 and 1636. Among those most widely
+  known may be mentioned the _Hebraeis_ (1590), a Latin epic based on
+  the Scripture history of the Jews; the _Elegiaca_ (1601), his
+  collected lyric poetry, in twenty-two books; the _Opera scenica_
+  (1604) consisting of six comedies and two tragedies (among the former,
+  _Julius Caesar redivivus_, completed 1584); the _Grammatica Latina_
+  (1585); the versions of Callimachus and Aristophanes; and the
+  commentaries on Persius and Virgil. See the monograph of D. F. Strauss
+  (_Leben und Schriften des Dichters und Philologen Frischlin_, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+FRISI, PAOLO (1728-1784), Italian mathematician and astronomer, was born
+at Milan on the 13th of April 1728. He was educated at the Barnabite
+monastery and afterwards at Padua. When twenty-one years of age he
+composed a treatise on the figure of the earth, and the reputation which
+he soon acquired led to his appointment by the king of Sardinia to the
+professorship of philosophy in the college of Casale. His friendship
+with Radicati, a man of liberal opinions, occasioned Frisi's removal by
+his clerical superiors to Novara, where he was compelled to do duty as a
+preacher. In 1753 he was elected a corresponding member of the Paris
+Academy of Sciences, and shortly afterwards he became professor of
+philosophy in the Barnabite College of St Alexander at Milan. An
+acrimonious attack by a young Jesuit, about this time, upon his
+dissertation on the figure of the earth laid the foundation of his
+animosity against the Jesuits, with whose enemies, including J.
+d'Alembert, J. A. N. Condorcet and other Encyclopedists, he later
+closely associated himself. In 1756 he was appointed by Leopold,
+grand-duke of Tuscany, to the professorship of mathematics in the
+university of Pisa, a post which he held for eight years. In 1757 he
+became an associate of the Imperial Academy of St Petersburg, and a
+foreign member of the Royal Society of London, and in 1758 a member of
+the Academy of Berlin, in 1766 of that of Stockholm, and in 1770 of the
+Academies of Copenhagen and of Bern. From several European crowned heads
+he received, at various times, marks of special distinction, and the
+empress Maria Theresa granted him a yearly pension of 100 sequins (£50).
+In 1764 he was created professor of mathematics in the palatine schools
+at Milan, and obtained from Pope Pius VI. release from ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction, and authority to become a secular priest. In 1766 he
+visited France and England, and in 1768 Vienna. In 1777 he became
+director of a school of architecture at Milan. His knowledge of
+hydraulics caused him to be frequently consulted with respect to the
+management of canals and other watercourses in various parts of Europe.
+It was through his means that lightning-conductors were first introduced
+into Italy for the protection of buildings. He died on the 22nd of
+November 1784.
+
+  His publications include:--_Disquisitio mathematica in causam physicam
+  figurae et magnitudinis terrae_ (Milan, 1751); _Saggio della morale
+  filosofia_ (Lugano, 1753); _Nova electricitatis theoria_ (Milan,
+  1755); _Dissertatio de motu diurno terrae_ (Pisa, 1758);
+  _Dissertationes variae_ (2 vols. 4to, Lucca, 1759, 1761); _Del modo di
+  regolare i fiumi e i torrenti_ (Lucca, 1762); _Cosmographia physica et
+  mathematica_ (Milan, 1774, 1775, 2 vols. 4to, his chief work); _Dell'
+  architettura, statica e idraulica_ (Milan, 1777); and other treatises.
+
+  See Verri, _Memorie ... del signor dom Paolo Frisi_ (Milan, 1787),
+  4to; Fabbroni, "Elogi d' illustri Italiani," _Atti di Milano_, vol.
+  ii.; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biograph. litterar. Handwörterbuch_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+FRISIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands, lying from 3 to 20 m. from the
+mainland, and stretching from the Zuider Zee E. and N. as far as
+Jutland, along the coasts of Holland and Germany. They are divided into
+three groups:--(1) The West Frisian, (2) the East Frisian, and (3) the
+North Frisian.
+
+The chain of the Frisian Islands marks the outer fringe of the former
+continental coast-line, and is separated from the mainland by shallows,
+known as Wadden or Watten, answering to the _maria vadosa_ of the
+Romans. Notwithstanding the protection afforded by sand-dunes and
+earthen embankments backed by stones and timber, the Frisian Islands are
+slowly but surely crumbling away under the persistent attacks of storm
+and flood, and the old Frisian proverb "_de nich will diken mut wiken_"
+("who will not build dikes must go away") still holds good. Many of the
+Frisian legends and folk-songs deal with the submerged villages and
+hamlets, which lie buried beneath the treacherous waters of the Wadden.
+Heinrich Heine made use of these legends in his _Nordseebilder_,
+composed during a visit to Norderney in 1825. The Prussian and Dutch
+governments annually expend large sums for the protection of the
+islands, and in some cases the erosion on the seaward side is
+counterbalanced by the accretion of land on the inner side, fine sandy
+beaches being formed well suited for sea-bathing, which attract many
+visitors in summer. The inhabitants of these islands support themselves
+by seafaring, pilotage, grazing of cattle and sheep, fishing and a
+little agriculture, chiefly potato-growing.
+
+The islands, though well lighted, are dangerous to navigation, and a
+glance at a wreck chart will show the entire chain to be densely dotted.
+One of the most remarkable disasters was the loss of H.M.S. "La Lutine,"
+32 guns, which was wrecked off Vlieland in October 1799, only one hand
+being saved, who died before reaching England. "La Lutine," which had
+been captured from the French by Admiral Duncan, was carrying a large
+quantity of bullion and specie, which was underwritten at Lloyd's. The
+Dutch government claimed the wreck and granted one-third of the salvage
+to bullion-fishers. Occasional recoveries were made of small quantities
+which led to repeated disputes and discussions, until eventually the
+king of the Netherlands ceded to Great Britain, for Lloyd's, half the
+remainder of the wreck. A Dutch salvage company, which began operations
+in August 1857, recovered £99,893 in the course of two years, but it was
+estimated that some £1,175,000 are still unaccounted for. The ship's
+rudder, which was recovered in 1859, has been fashioned into a chair and
+a table, now in the possession of Lloyd's.
+
+
+  West Frisian.
+
+The West Frisian Islands belong to the kingdom of the Netherlands, and
+embrace Texel or Tessel (71 sq. m.), Vlieland (19 sq. m.), Terschelling
+(41 sq. m.), Ameland (23 sq. m.), Schiermonnikoog (19 sq. m.), as well
+as the much smaller islands of Boschplaat and Rottum, which are
+practically uninhabited. The northern end of Texel is called Eierland,
+or "island of eggs," in reference to the large number of sea-birds' eggs
+which are found there. It was joined to Texel by a sand-dike in
+1629-1630, and is now undistinguishable from the main island. Texel was
+already separated from the mainland in the 8th century, but remained a
+Frisian province and countship, which once extended as far as Alkmaar in
+North Holland, until it came into the possession of the counts of
+Holland. The island was occupied by British troops from August to
+December 1799. The village of Oude Schild has a harbour. The island of
+Terschelling once formed a separate lordship, but was sold to the states
+of Holland. The principal village of West-Terschelling has a harbour. As
+early as the beginning of the 9th century Ameland was a lordship of the
+influential family of Cammingha who held immediately of the emperor, and
+in recognition of their independence the Amelanders were in 1369
+declared to be neutral in the fighting between Holland and Friesland,
+while Cromwell made the same declaration in 1654 with respect to the war
+between England and the United Netherlands. The castle of the Camminghas
+in the village of Ballum remained standing till 1810, and finally
+disappeared in 1829 after four centuries. This island is joined to the
+mainland of Friesland by a stone dike constructed in 1873 for the
+purpose of promoting the deposit of mud. The island of Schiermonnikoog
+has a village and a lighthouse. Rottum was once the property of the
+ancient abbey at Rottum, 8 m. N. of Groningen, of which there are slight
+remains.
+
+
+  East Frisian.
+
+With the exception of Wangeroog, which belongs to the grand duchy of
+Oldenburg, the East Frisian Islands belong to Prussia. They comprise
+Borkum (12½ sq. m.), with two lighthouses and connected by steamer with
+Emden and Leer; Memmert; Juist (2¼ sq. m.), with two lifeboat stations,
+and connected by steamer with Norddeich and Greetsiel; Norderney (5½ sq.
+m.); Baltrum, with a lifeboat station; Langeoog (8 sq. m.), connected by
+steamer with the adjacent islands, and with Bensersiel on the mainland;
+Spiekeroog (4 sq. m.), with a tramway for conveyance to the bathing
+beach, and connected by steamer with Carolinenziel; and Wangeroog (2 sq.
+m.), with a lighthouse and lifeboat station. All these islands are
+visited for sea-bathing. In the beginning of the 18th century Wangeroog
+comprised eight times its present area. Borkum and Juist are two
+surviving fragments of the original island of Borkum (computed at 380
+sq. m.), known to Drusus as _Fabaria_, and to Pliny as _Burchana_, which
+was rent asunder by the sea in 1170. Neuwerk and Scharhörn, situated off
+the mouth of the Elbe, are islands belonging to the state of Hamburg.
+Neuwerk, containing some marshland protected by dikes, has two
+lighthouses and a lifeboat station. At low water it can be reached from
+Duhnen by carriage.
+
+
+  North Frisian.
+
+About the year 1250 the area of the North Frisian Islands was estimated
+at 1065 sq. m.; by 1850 this had diminished to only 105 sq. m. This
+group embraces the islands of Nordstrand (17¼ sq. m.), which up to 1634
+formed one larger island with the adjoining Pohnshallig and
+Nordstrandisch-Moor; Pellworm (16¼ sq. m.), protected by a circle of
+dikes and connected by steamer with Husum on the mainland; Amrum (10½
+sq. m.); Föhr (32 sq. m.); Sylt (38 sq. m.); Röm (16 sq. m.), with
+several villages, the principal of which is Kirkeby; Fanö (21 sq. m.);
+and Heligoland (¼ sq. m.). With the exception of Fanö, which is Danish,
+all these islands belong to Prussia. In the North Frisian group there
+are also several smaller islands called Halligen. These rise generally
+only a few feet above the level of the sea, and are crowned by a single
+house standing on an artificial mound and protected by a surrounding
+dike or embankment.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Staring, _De Bodem van Nederland_ (1856); Blink,
+  _Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (1892); P. H. Witkamp, _Aardrijkskundig
+  Woordenboek van Nederland_ (1895); P. W. J. Teding van Berkhout, _De
+  Landaanwinning op de Friesche Wadden_ (1869); J. de Vries and T.
+  Focken, _Ostfriesland_ (1881); Dr D. F. Buitenrust Hettema, _Fryske
+  Bybleteek_ (Utrecht, 1895); Dr Eugen Traeger, _Die Halligen der
+  Nordsee_ (Stuttgart, 1892); also _Globus_, vol. lxxviii. (1900), No.
+  15; P. Axelsen, in _Deut. Rundschau für Geog. u. Statistik_ (1898);
+  Christian Jensen, _Vom Dünenstrand der Nordsee und vom Wattenmeer_
+  (Schleswig, 1901), which contains a bibliography; _Osterloh, Wangeroog
+  und sein Seebad_ (Emden, 1884); Zwickert, _Führer durch das Nordseebad
+  Wangeroog_ (Oldenburg, 1894); Nellner, _Die Nordseeinsel Spickeroog_
+  (Emden, 1884); Tongers, _Die Nordseeinsel Langeoog_ (2nd ed., Norden,
+  1892); Meier, _Die Nordseeinsel Borkum_ (10th ed., Emden, 1894);
+  Herquet, _Die Insel Borkum_, &c. (Emden, 1886); Scherz, _Die
+  Nordseeinsel Juist_ (2nd ed., Norden, 1893); von Bertouch, _Vor 40
+  Jahren: Natur und Kultur auf der Insel Nordstrand_ (Weimar, 1891); W.
+  G. Black, _Heligoland and the Islands of the North Sea_ (Glasgow,
+  1888).
+
+
+
+
+FRISIANS (Lat. _Frisii_; in Med. Lat. _Frisones_, _Frisiones_,
+_Fresones_; in their own tongue _Frêsa_, _Frêsen_), a people of Teutonic
+(Low-German) stock, who in the first century of our era were found by
+the Romans in occupation of the coast lands stretching from the mouth of
+the Scheldt to that of the Ems. They were nearly related both by speech
+and blood to the Saxons and Angles, and other Low German tribes, who
+lived to the east of the Ems and in Holstein and Schleswig. The first
+historical notices of the Frisians are found in the _Annals_ of Tacitus.
+They were rendered (or a portion of them) tributary by Drusus, and
+became _socii_ of the Roman people. In A.D. 28 the exactions of a Roman
+official drove them to revolt, and their subjection was henceforth
+nominal. They submitted again to Cn. Domitius Corbulo in the year 47,
+but shortly afterwards the emperor Claudius ordered the withdrawal of
+all Roman troops to the left bank of the Rhine. In 58 they attempted
+unsuccessfully to appropriate certain districts between the Rhine and
+the Yssel, and in 70 they took part in the campaign of Claudius Civilis.
+From this time onwards their name practically disappears. As regards
+their geographical position Ptolemy states that they inhabited the coast
+above the Bructeri as far as the Ems, while Tacitus speaks of them as
+adjacent to the Rhine. But there is some reason for believing that the
+part of Holland which lies to the west of the Zuider Zee was at first
+inhabited by a different people, the Canninefates, a sister tribe to the
+Batavi. A trace of this people is perhaps preserved in the name
+Kennemerland or Kinnehem, formerly applied to the same district.
+Possibly, therefore, Tacitus's statement holds good only for the period
+subsequent to the revolt of Civilis, when we hear of the Canninefates
+for the last time.
+
+In connexion with the movements of the migration period the Frisians are
+hardly ever mentioned, though some of them are said to have surrendered
+to the Roman prince Constantius about the year 293. On the other hand we
+hear very frequently of Saxons in the coast regions of the Netherlands.
+Since the Saxons (Old Saxons) of later times were an inland people, one
+can hardly help suspecting either that the two nations have been
+confused or, what is more probable, that a considerable mixture of
+population, whether by conquest or otherwise, had taken place. Procopius
+(_Goth._ iv. 20) speaks of the Frisians as one of the nations which
+inhabited Britain in his day, but we have no evidence from other sources
+to bear out his statement. In Anglo-Saxon poetry mention is frequently
+made of a Frisian king named Finn, the son of Folcwalda, who came into
+conflict with a certain Hnaef, a vassal of the Danish king Healfdene,
+about the middle of the 5th century. Hnaef was killed, but his followers
+subsequently slew Finn in revenge. The incident is obscure in many
+respects, but it is perhaps worth noting that Hnaef's chief follower,
+Hengest, may quite possibly be identical with the founder of the Kentish
+dynasty. About the year 520 the Frisians are said to have joined the
+Frankish prince Theodberht in destroying a piratical expedition which
+had sailed up the Rhine under Chocilaicus (Hygelac), king of the Götar.
+Towards the close of the century they begin to figure much more
+prominently in Frankish writings. There is no doubt that by this time
+their territories had been greatly extended in both directions. Probably
+some Frisians took part with the Angles and Saxons in their sea-roving
+expeditions, and assisted their neighbours in their invasions and
+subsequent conquest of England and the Scottish lowlands.
+
+The rise of the power of the Franks and the advance of their dominion
+northwards brought on a collision with the Frisians, who in the 7th
+century were still in possession of the whole of the seacoast, and
+apparently ruled over the greater part of modern Flanders. Under the
+protection of the Frankish king Dagobert (622-638), the Christian
+missionaries Amandus (St Amand) and Eligius (St Eloi) attempted the
+conversion of these Flemish Frisians, and their efforts were attended
+with a certain measure of success; but farther north the building of a
+church by Dagobert at Trajectum (Utrecht) at once aroused the fierce
+hostility of the heathen tribesmen of the Zuider Zee. The "free"
+Frisians could not endure this Frankish outpost on their borders.
+Utrecht was attacked and captured, and the church destroyed. The first
+missionary to meet with any success among the Frisians was the
+Englishman Wilfrid of York, who, being driven by a storm upon the coast,
+was hospitably received by the king, Adgild or Adgisl, and was allowed
+to preach Christianity in the land. Adgild appears to have admitted the
+overlordship of the Frankish king, Dagobert II. (675). Under his
+successor, however, Radbod (Frisian Rêdbâd), an attempt was made to
+extirpate Christianity and to free the Frisians from the Frankish
+subjection. He was, however, beaten by Pippin of Heristal in the battle
+of Dorstadt (689), and was compelled to cede West Frisia (_Frisia
+citerior_) from the Scheldt to the Zuider Zee to the conqueror. On
+Pippin's death Radbod again attacked the Franks and advanced as far as
+Cologne, where he defeated Charles Martel, Pippin's natural son.
+Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and compelled the Frisians to
+submit. Radbod died in 719, but for some years his successors struggled
+against the Frankish power. A final defeat was, however, inflicted upon
+them by Charles Martel in 734, which secured the supremacy of the Franks
+in the north, though it was not until the days of Charles the Great
+(785) that the subjection of the Frisians was completed. Meanwhile
+Christianity had been making its conquests in the land, mainly through
+the lifelong labours and preaching of the Englishman Willibrord, who
+came to Frisia in 692 and made Utrecht his headquarters. He was
+consecrated (695) at Rome archbishop of the Frisians, and on his return
+founded a number of bishoprics in the northern Netherlands, and
+continued his labours unremittingly until his death in 739. It is an
+interesting fact that both Wilfrid and Willibrord appear to have found
+no difficulty from the first in preaching to the Frisians in their
+native dialect, which was so nearly allied to their own Anglo-Saxon
+tongue. The see of Utrecht founded by Willibrord has remained the chief
+see of the Northern Netherlands from his day to our own. Friesland was
+likewise the scene of a portion of the missionary labours of a greater
+than Willibrord, the famous Boniface, the Apostle of the Germans, also
+an Englishman. It was at Dokkum in Friesland that he met a martyr's
+death (754).
+
+Charles the Great granted the Frisians important privileges under a code
+known as the _Lex Frisionum_, based upon the ancient laws of the
+country. They received the title of freemen and were allowed to choose
+their own _podestat_ or imperial governor. In the _Lex Frisionum_ three
+districts are clearly distinguished: West Frisia from the Zwin to the
+Flie; Middle Frisia from the Flie to the Lauwers; East Frisia from the
+Lauwers to the Weser. At the partition treaty of Verdun (843) Frisia
+became part of Lotharingia or Lorraine; at the treaty of Mersen (870) it
+was divided between the kingdoms of the East Franks (Austrasia) and the
+West Franks (Westrasia); in 880 the whole country was united to
+Austrasia; in 911 it fell under the dominion of Charles the Simple, king
+of the West Franks, but the districts of East Frisia asserted their
+independence and for a long time governed themselves after a very simple
+democratic fashion. The history of West Frisia gradually loses itself in
+that of the countship of Holland and the see of Utrecht (see HOLLAND and
+UTRECHT).
+
+The influence of the Frisians during the interval between the invasion
+of Britain and the loss of their independence must have been greater
+than is generally recognized. They were a seafaring people and engaged
+largely in trade, especially perhaps the slave trade, their chief
+emporium being Wyk te Duurstede. During the period in question there is
+considerable archaeological evidence for intercourse between the west
+coast of Norway and the regions south of the North Sea, and it is worth
+noting that this seems to have come to an end early in the 9th century.
+Probably it is no mere accident that the first appearance, or rather
+reappearance, of Scandinavian pirates in the west took place shortly
+after the overthrow of the Frisians. Since Radbod's dominions extended
+from Duerstede to Heligoland his power must have been by no means
+inconsiderable.
+
+Besides the Frisians discussed above there is a people called North
+Frisians, who inhabit the west coast of Schleswig. At present a Frisian
+dialect is spoken only between Tondern and Husum, but formerly it
+extended farther both to the north and south. In historical times these
+North Frisians were subjects of the Danish kingdom and not connected in
+any way with the Frisians of the empire. They are first mentioned by
+Saxo Grammaticus in connexion with the exile of Knud V. Saxo recognized
+that they were of Frisian origin, but did not know when they had first
+settled in this region. Various opinions are still held with regard to
+the question; but it seems not unlikely that the original settlers were
+Frisians who had been expelled by the Franks in the 8th century. Whether
+the North Frisian language is entirely of Frisian origin is somewhat
+doubtful owing to the close relationship which Frisian bears to English.
+The inhabitants of the neighbouring islands, Sylt, Amrum and Föhr, who
+speak a kindred dialect, have apparently never regarded themselves as
+Frisians, and it is the view of many scholars that they are the direct
+descendants of the ancient Saxons.
+
+In 1248 William of Holland, having become emperor, restored to the
+Frisians in his countship their ancient liberties in reward for the
+assistance they had rendered him in the siege of Aachen; but in 1254
+they revolted, and William lost his life in the contest which ensued.
+After many struggles West Friesland became completely subdued, and was
+henceforth virtually absorbed in the county of Holland. But the
+Frieslanders east of the Zuider Zee obstinately resisted repeated
+attempts to bring them into subjection. In the course of the 14th
+century the country was in a state of anarchy; petty lordships sprang
+into existence, the interests of the common weal were forgotten or
+disregarded, and the people began to be split up into factions, and
+these were continually carrying on petty warfare with one another. Thus
+the Fetkoopers (Fatmongers) of Oostergoo had endless feuds with the
+Schieringers (Eelfishers) of Westergoo.
+
+This state of affairs favoured the attempts of the counts of Holland to
+push their conquests eastward, but the main body of the Frisians was
+still independent when the countship of Holland passed into the hands of
+Philip the Good of Burgundy. Philip laid claim to the whole country, but
+the people appealed to the protection of the empire, and Frederick III.,
+in August 1457, recognized their direct dependence on the empire and
+called on Philip to bring forward formal proof of his rights. Philip's
+successor, Charles the Bold, summoned an assembly of notables at
+Enkhuizen in 1469, in order to secure their homage; but the conference
+was without result, and the duke's attention was soon absorbed by other
+and more important affairs. The marriage of Maximilian of Austria with
+the heiress of Burgundy was to be productive of a change in the fortunes
+of that part of Frisia which lies between the Vlie and the Lauwers. In
+1498 Maximilian reversed the policy of his father Frederick III., and
+detached this territory, known afterwards as the province of Friesland,
+from the empire. He gave it as a fief to Albert of Saxony, who
+thoroughly crushed out all resistance. In 1523 it fell with all the rest
+of the provinces of the Netherlands under the strong rule of the emperor
+Charles, the grandson of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy.
+
+That part of Frisia which lies to the east of the Lauwers had a divided
+history. The portion which lies between the Lauwers and the Ems after
+some struggles for independence had, like the rest of the country, to
+submit itself to Charles. It became ultimately the province of the town
+and district of Groningen (Stadt en Landen) (see GRONINGEN). The
+easternmost part between the Ems and the Weser, which had since 1454
+been a county, was ruled by the descendants of Edzard Cirksena, and was
+attached to the empire. The last of the Cirksenas, Count Charles Edward,
+died in 1744 and in default of heirs male the king of Prussia took
+possession of the county.
+
+The province of Friesland was one of the seven provinces which by the
+treaty known as the Union of Utrecht bound themselves together to resist
+the tyranny of Spain. From 1579 to 1795 Friesland remained one of the
+constituent parts of the republic of the United Provinces, but it always
+jealously insisted on its sovereign rights, especially against the
+encroachments of the predominant province of Holland. It maintained
+throughout the whole of the republican period a certain distinctiveness
+of nationality, which was marked by the preservation of a different
+dialect and of a separate stadtholder. Count William Lewis of
+Nassau-Siegen, nephew and son-in-law of William the Silent, was chosen
+stadtholder, and through all the vicissitudes of the 17th and 18th
+centuries the stadtholdership was held by one of his descendants.
+Frederick Henry of Orange was stadtholder of six provinces, but not of
+Friesland, and even during the stadtholderless periods which followed
+the deaths of William II. and William III. of Orange the Frisians
+remained stanch to the family of Nassau-Siegen. Finally, by the
+revolution of 1748, William of Nassau-Siegen, stadtholder of Friesland
+(who, by default of heirs male of the elder line, had become William
+IV., prince of Orange), was made hereditary stadtholder of all the
+provinces. His grandson in 1815 took the title of William I., king of
+the Netherlands. The male line of the "Frisian" Nassaus came to an end
+with the death of King William III. in 1890.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY--See Tacitus, _Ann._ iv. 72 f., xi. 19 f., xiii. 54;
+  _Hist._ iv. 15 f.; _Germ._ 34; Ptolemy, _Geogr._ ii. 11, § 11; Dio
+  Cassius liv. 32; Eumenius, _Paneg._ iv. 9; the Anglo-Saxon poems,
+  Finn, Beowulf and Widsith; _Fredegarii Chronici continuatio_ and
+  various German Annals; _Gesta regum Francorum_; Eddius, _Vita
+  Wilfridi_, cap. 25 f.; Bede, _Hist. Eccles_, iv. 22, v. 9 f.; Alcuin,
+  _Vita Willebrordi_; I. Undset, _Aarbger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_
+  (1880), p. 89 ff. (cf. E. Mogk in Paul's _Grundriss d. germ.
+  Philologie_ ii. p. 623 ff.); Ubbo Emmius, _Rerum Frisicarum historia_
+  (Leiden, 1616); Pirius Winsemius, _Chronique van Vriesland_ (Franoker,
+  1822); C. Scotanus, _Beschryvinge end Chronyck van des Heerlickheydt
+  van Frieslandt_ (1655); _Groot Placaat en Charter-boek van Friesland_
+  (ed. Baron C. F. zu Schwarzenberg) (5 vols., Leeuwarden, 1768-1793);
+  T. D. Wiarda, _Ost-frieschische Gesch._ (vols. i.-ix., Aurich, 1791)
+  (vol. x., Bremen, 1817); J. Dirks, _Geschiedkundig onderzoek van den
+  Koophandel der Friezen_ (Utrecht, 1846); O. Klopp, _Gesch.
+  Ostfrieslands_ (3 vols., Hanover, 1854-1858); Hooft van Iddekinge,
+  _Friesland en de Friezen in de Middeleeuwen_ (Leiden, 1881); A.
+  Telting, _Het Oudfriesche Stadrecht_ (The Hague, 1882); P. J. Blok,
+  _Friesland im Mittelalter_ (Leer, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+FRITH (or FRYTH), JOHN (c. 1503-1533), English Reformer and Protestant
+martyr, was born at Westerham, Kent. He was educated at Eton and King's
+College, Cambridge, where Gardiner, afterwards bishop of Winchester, was
+his tutor. At the invitation of Cardinal Wolsey, after taking his degree
+he migrated (December 1525) to the newly founded college of St
+Frideswide or Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford. The
+sympathetic interest which he showed in the Reformation movement in
+Germany caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and led to his
+imprisonment for some months. Subsequently he appears to have resided
+chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university of Marburg, where he
+became acquainted with several scholars and reformers of note,
+especially Patrick Hamilton (q.v.). Frith's first publication was a
+translation of Hamilton's _Places_, made shortly after the martyrdom of
+its author; and soon afterwards the _Revelation of Antichrist_, a
+translation from the German, appeared, along with _A Pistle to the
+Christen Reader_, by "Richard Brightwell" (supposed to be Frith), and
+_An Antithesis wherein are compared togeder Christes Actes and our Holye
+Father the Popes_, dated "at Malborow in the lande of Hesse," 12th July
+1529. His _Disputacyon of Purgatorye_, a treatise in three books,
+against Rastell, Sir T. More and Fisher (bishop of Rochester)
+respectively, was published at the same place in 1531. While at Marburg,
+Frith also assisted Tyndale, whose acquaintance he had made at Oxford
+(or perhaps in London) in his literary labours. In 1532 he ventured back
+to England, apparently on some business in connexion with the prior of
+Reading. Warrants for his arrest were almost immediately issued at the
+instance of Sir T. More, then lord chancellor. Frith ultimately fell
+into the hands of the authorities at Milton Shore in Essex, as he was on
+the point of making his escape to Flanders. The rigour of his
+imprisonment in the Tower was somewhat abated when Sir T. Audley
+succeeded to the chancellorship, and it was understood that both
+Cromwell and Cranmer were disposed to show great leniency. But the
+treacherous circulation of a manuscript "lytle treatise" on the
+sacraments, which Frith had written for the information of a friend, and
+without any view to publication, served further to excite the hostility
+of his enemies. In consequence of a sermon preached before him against
+the "sacramentaries," the king ordered that Frith should be examined; he
+was afterwards tried and found guilty of having denied, with regard to
+the doctrines of purgatory and of transubstantiation, that they were
+necessary articles of faith. On the 23rd of June 1533 he was handed over
+to the secular arm, and at Smithfield on the 4th of July following he
+was burnt at the stake. During his captivity he wrote, besides several
+letters of interest, a reply to More's letter against Frith's "lytle
+treatise"; also two tracts entitled _A Mirror or Glass to know thyself_,
+and _A Mirror or Looking-glass wherein you may behold the Sacrament of
+Baptism_.
+
+Frith is an interesting and so far important figure in English
+ecclesiastical history as having been the first to maintain and defend
+that doctrine regarding the sacrament of Christ's body and blood, which
+ultimately came to be incorporated in the English communion office.
+Twenty-three years after Frith's death as a martyr to the doctrine of
+that office, that "Christ's natural body and blood are in Heaven, not
+here," Cranmer, who had been one of his judges, went to the stake for
+the same belief. Within three years more, it had become the publicly
+professed faith of the entire English nation.
+
+  See A. à Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (ed. P. Bliss, 1813), i. p. 74;
+  John Foxe, _Acts and Monuments_ (ed. G. Townshend, 1843-1849), v. pp.
+  1-16 (also Index); G. Burnet, _Hist. of the Reformation of the Church
+  of England_ (ed. N. Pocock, 1865), i. p. 273; L. Richmond, _The
+  Fathers of the English Church_, i. (1807); _Life and Martyrdom of John
+  Frith_ (London, 1824), published by the Church of England Tract
+  Society; Deborah Alcock, _Six Heroic Men_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (1819-1909), English painter, was born at
+Aldfield, in Yorkshire, on the 9th of January 1819. His parents moved in
+1826 to Harrogate, where his father became landlord of the Dragon Inn,
+and it was then that the boy began his general education at a school at
+Knaresborough. Later he went for about two years to a school at St
+Margaret's, near Dover, where he was placed specially under the
+direction of the drawing-master, as a step towards his preparation for
+the profession which his father had decided on as the one that he wished
+him to adopt. In 1835 he was entered as a student in the well-known art
+school kept by Henry Sass in Bloomsbury, from which he passed after two
+years to the Royal Academy schools. His first independent experience was
+gained in 1839, when he went about for some months in Lincolnshire
+executing several commissions for portraits; but he soon began to
+attempt compositions, and in 1840 his first picture, "Malvolio,
+cross-gartered before the Countess Olivia," appeared at the Royal
+Academy. During the next few years he produced several notable
+paintings, among them "Squire Thornhill relating his town adventures to
+the Vicar's family," and "The Village Pastor," which established his
+reputation as one of the most promising of the younger men of that time.
+This last work was exhibited in 1845, and in the autumn of that year he
+was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. His promotion to the rank
+of Academician followed in 1853, when he was chosen to fill the vacancy
+caused by Turner's death. The chief pictures painted by him during his
+tenure of Associateship were: "An English Merry-making in the Olden
+Time," "Old Woman accused of Witchcraft," "The Coming of Age," "Sancho
+and Don Quixote," "Hogarth before the Governor of Calais," and the
+"Scene from Goldsmith's 'Good-natured Man,'" which was commissioned in
+1850 by Mr Sheepshanks, and bequeathed by him to the South Kensington
+Museum. Then came a succession of large compositions which gained for
+the artist an extraordinary popularity. "Life at the Seaside," better
+known as "Ramsgate Sands," was exhibited in 1854, and was bought by
+Queen Victoria; "The Derby Day," in 1858; "Claude Duval," in 1860; "The
+Railway Station," in 1862; "The Marriage of the Prince of Wales,"
+painted for Queen Victoria, in 1865; "The Last Sunday of Charles II.,"
+in 1867; "The Salon d'Or," in 1871; "The Road to Ruin," a series, in
+1878; a similar series, "The Race for Wealth," shown at a gallery in
+King Street, St James's, in 1880; "The Private View," in 1883; and "John
+Knox at Holyrood," in 1886. Frith also painted a considerable number of
+portraits of well-known people. In 1889 he became an honorary retired
+academician. His "Derby Day" is in the National Gallery of British Art.
+In his youth, in common with the men by whom he was surrounded, he had
+leanings towards romance, and he scored many successes as a painter of
+imaginative subjects. In these he proved himself to be possessed of
+exceptional qualities as a colourist and manipulator, qualities that
+promised to earn for him a secure place among the best executants of the
+British School. But in his middle period he chose a fresh direction.
+Fascinated by the welcome which the public gave to his first attempts to
+illustrate the life of his own times, he undertook a considerable series
+of large canvases, in which he commented on the manners and morals of
+society as he found it. He became a pictorial preacher, a painter who
+moralized about the everyday incidents of modern existence; and he
+sacrificed some of his technical variety. There remained, however, a
+remarkable sense of characterization, and an acute appreciation of
+dramatic effect. Frith died on the 2nd of November 1909.
+
+  Frith published his _Autobiography and Reminiscences_ in 1887, and
+  _Further Reminiscences_ in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+FRITILLARY (_Fritillaria_: from Lat. _fritillus_, a chess-board, so
+called from the chequered markings on the petals), a genus of hardy
+bulbous plants of the natural order Liliaceae, containing about 50
+species widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. The genus is
+represented in Britain by the fritillary or snake's head, which occurs
+in moist meadows in the southern half of England, especially in
+Oxfordshire. A much larger plant is the crown imperial (_F.
+imperialis_), a native of western Asia and well known in gardens. This
+grows to a height of about 3 ft., the lower part of the stoutish stem
+being furnished with leaves, while near the top is developed a crown of
+large pendant flowers surmounted by a tuft of bright green leaves like
+those of the lower part of the stem, only smaller. The flowers are
+bell-shaped, yellow or red, and in some of the forms double. The plant
+grows freely in good garden soil, preferring a deep well-drained loam,
+and is all the better for a top-dressing of manure as it approaches the
+flowering stage. Strong clumps of five or six roots of one kind have a
+very fine effect. It is a very suitable subject for the back row in
+mixed flower borders, or for recesses in the front part of shrubbery
+borders. It flowers in April or early in May. There are a few named
+varieties, but the most generally grown are the single and double
+yellow, and the single and double red, the single red having also two
+variegated varieties, with the leaves striped respectively with white
+and yellow.
+
+"Fritillary" is also the name of a kind of butterfly.
+
+
+
+
+FRITZLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Cassel,
+on the left bank of the Eder, 16 m. S.W. from Cassel, on the railway
+Wabern-Wildungen. Pop. (1905) 3448. It is a prettily situated
+old-fashioned place, with an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic
+churches, one of the latter, that of St Peter, a striking medieval
+edifice. As early as 732 Boniface, the apostle of Germany, established
+the church of St Peter and a small Benedictine monastery at Frideslar,
+"the quiet home" or "abode of peace." Before long the school connected
+with the monastery became famous, and among its earlier scholars it
+numbered Sturm, abbot of Fulda, and Megingod, second bishop of Würzburg.
+When Boniface found himself unable to continue the supervision of the
+society himself, he entrusted the office to Wigbert of Glastonbury, who
+thus became the first abbot of Fritzlar. In 774 the little settlement
+was taken and burnt by the Saxons; but it evidently soon recovered from
+the blow. For a short time after 786 it was the seat of the bishopric of
+Buraburg, which had been founded by Boniface in 741. At the diet of
+Fritzlar in 919 Henry I. was elected German king. In the beginning of
+the 13th century the village received municipal rights; in 1232 it was
+captured and burned by the landgrave Conrad of Thuringia and his allies;
+in 1631 it was taken by William of Hesse; in 1760 it was successfully
+defended by General Luckner against the French; and in 1761 it was
+occupied by the French and unsuccessfully bombarded by the Allies. As a
+principality Fritzlar continued subject to the archbishopric of Mainz
+till 1802, when it was incorporated with Hesse. From 1807 to 1814 it
+belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia; and in 1866 passed with Hesse
+Cassel to Prussia.
+
+
+
+
+FRIULI (in the local dialect, _Furlanei_), a district at the head of the
+Adriatic Sea, at present divided between Italy and Austria, the Italian
+portion being included in the province of Udine and the district of
+Portogruaro, and the Austrian comprising the province of Görz and
+Gradiska, and the so-called Idrian district. In the north and east
+Friuli includes portions of the Julian and Carnic Alps, while the south
+is an alluvial plain richly watered by the Isonzo, the Tagliamento, and
+many lesser streams which, although of small volume during the dry
+season, come down in enormous floods after rain or thaw. The
+inhabitants, known as Furlanians, are mainly Italians, but they speak a
+dialect of their own which contains Celtic elements. The area of the
+country is about 3300 sq. m.; it contains about 700,000 inhabitants.
+
+Friuli derives its name from the Roman town of _Forum Julii_, or
+_Forojulium_, the modern Cividale, which is said by Paulus Diaconus to
+have been founded by Julius Caesar. In the 2nd century B.C. the district
+was subjugated by the Romans, and became part of Gallia Transpadana.
+During the Roman period, besides Forum Julii, its principal towns were
+Concordia, Aquileia and Vedinium. On the conquest of the country by the
+Lombards during the 6th century it was made one of their thirty-six
+duchies, the capital being Forum Julii or, as they called it, Civitas
+Austriae. It is needless to repeat the list of dukes of the Lombard
+line, from Gisulf (d. 611) to Hrothgaud, who fell a victim to his
+opposition to Charlemagne about 776; their names and exploits may be
+read in the _Historia Langobardorum_ of Paulus Diaconus, and they were
+mainly occupied in struggles with the Avars and other barbarian peoples,
+and in resisting the pretensions of the Lombard kings. The discovery,
+however, of Gisulf's grave at Cividale, in 1874, is an interesting proof
+of the historian's authenticity. Charlemagne filled Hrothgaud's place
+with one of his own followers, and the frontier position of Friuli gave
+the new line of counts, dukes or margraves (for they are variously
+designated) the opportunity of acquiring importance by exploits against
+the Bulgarians, Slovenians and other hostile peoples to the east. After
+the death of Charlemagne Friuli shared in general in the fortunes of
+northern Italy. In the 11th century the ducal rights over the greater
+part of Friuli were bestowed by the emperor Henry IV. on the patriarch
+of Aquileia; but towards the close of the 14th century the nobles called
+in the assistance of Venice, which, after defeating the archbishop,
+afforded a new illustration of Aesop's well-known fable, by securing
+possession of the country for itself. The eastern part of Friuli was
+held by the counts of Görz till 1500, when on the failure of their line
+it was appropriated by the German king, Maximilian I., and remained in
+the possession of the house of Austria until the Napoleonic wars. By the
+peace of Campo Formio in 1797 the Venetian district also came to
+Austria, and on the formation of the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy in 1805
+the department of Passariano was made to include the whole of Venetian
+and part of Austrian Friuli, and in 1809 the rest was added to the
+Illyrian provinces. The title of duke of Friuli was borne by Marshal
+Duroc. In 1815 the whole country was recovered by the emperor of
+Austria, who himself assumed the ducal title and coat of arms; and it
+was not till 1866 that the Venetian portion was again ceded to Italy by
+the peace of Prague. The capital of the country is Udine, and its arms
+are a crowned eagle on a field azure.
+
+  See Manzano, _Annali del Friuli_ (Udine, 1858-1879); and _Compendio di
+  storia friulana_ (Udine, 1876); Antonini, _Il Friuli orientale_
+  (Milan, 1865); von Zahn, _Friaulische Studien_ (Vienna, 1878); Pirona,
+  _Vocabolario friulino_ (Venice, 1869); and L. Fracassetti, _La
+  Statistica etnografica del Friuli_ (Udine, 1903).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FROBEN [FROBENIUS], JOANNES (c. 1460-1527), German printer and scholar,
+was born at Hammelburg in Bavaria about the year 1460. After completing
+his university career at Basel, where he made the acquaintance of the
+famous printer Johannes Auerbach (1443-1513), he established a printing
+house in that city about 1491, and this soon attained a European
+reputation for accuracy and for taste. In 1500 he married the daughter
+of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into partnership with
+him. He was on terms of friendship with Erasmus (q.v.), who not only had
+his own works printed by him, but superintended Frobenius's editions of
+St Jerome, St Cyprian, Tertullian, Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose.
+His _Neues Testament_ in Greek (1516) was used by Luther for his
+translation. Frobenius employed Hans Holbein to illuminate his texts. It
+was part of his plan to print editions of the Greek Fathers. He did not,
+however, live to carry out this project, but it was very creditably
+executed by his son Jerome and his son-in-law Nikolaus Episcopius.
+Frobenius died in October 1527. His work in Basel made that city in the
+16th century the leading centre of the German book trade. An extant
+letter of Erasmus, written in the year of Frobenius's death, gives an
+epitome of his life and an estimate of his character; and in it Erasmus
+mentions that his grief for the death of his friend was far more
+poignant than that which he had felt for the loss of his own brother,
+adding that "all the apostles of science ought to wear mourning." The
+epistle concludes with an epitaph in Greek and Latin.
+
+
+
+
+FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN (c. 1535-1594), English navigator and explorer,
+fourth child of Bernard Frobisher of Altofts in the parish of Normanton,
+Yorkshire, was born some time between 1530 and 1540. The family came
+originally from North Wales. At an early age he was sent to a school in
+London and placed under the care of a kinsman, Sir John York, who in
+1544 placed him on board a ship belonging to a small fleet of
+merchantmen sailing to Guinea. By 1565 he is referred to as Captain
+Martin Frobisher, and in 1571-1572 as being in the public service at sea
+off the coast of Ireland. He married in 1559. As early as 1560 or 1561
+Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a voyage in search of a
+North-West Passage to Cathay and India. The discovery of such a route
+was the motive of most of the Arctic voyages undertaken at that period
+and for long after, but Frobisher's special merit was in being the first
+to give to this enterprise a national character. For fifteen years he
+solicited in vain the necessary means to carry his project into
+execution, but in 1576, mainly by help of the earl of Warwick, he was
+put in command of an expedition consisting of two tiny barks, the
+"Gabriel" and "Michael," of about 20 to 25 tons each, and a pinnace of
+10 tons, with an aggregate crew of 35.
+
+He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received a good word
+from Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich, set sail on the 7th of June, by way
+of the Shetland Islands. Stormy weather was encountered in which the
+pinnace was lost, and some time afterwards the "Michael" deserted; but
+stoutly continuing the voyage alone, on the 28th of July the "Gabriel"
+sighted the coast of Labrador in lat. 62° 2' N. Some days later the
+mouth of Frobisher Bay was reached, and a farther advance northwards
+being prevented by ice and contrary winds, Frobisher determined to sail
+westward up this passage (which he conceived to be a strait) to see
+"whether he mighte carrie himself through the same into some open sea on
+the backe syde." Butcher's Island was reached on the 18th of August, and
+some natives being met with here, intercourse was carried on with them
+for some days, the result being that five of Frobisher's men were
+decoyed and captured, and never more seen. After vainly trying to get
+back his men, Frobisher turned homewards, and reached London on the 9th
+of October.
+
+Among the things which had been hastily brought away by the men was some
+"black earth," and just as it seemed as if nothing more was to come of
+this expedition, it was noised abroad that the apparently valueless
+"black earth" was really a lump of gold ore. It is difficult to say how
+this rumour arose, and whether there was any truth in it, or whether
+Frobisher was a party to a deception, in order to obtain means to carry
+out the great idea of his life. The story, at any rate, was so far
+successful; the greatest enthusiasm was manifested by the court and the
+commercial and speculating world of the time; and next year a much more
+important expedition than the former was fitted out, the queen lending
+the "Aid" from the royal navy and subscribing £1000 towards the expenses
+of the expedition. A Company of Cathay was established, with a charter
+from the crown, giving the company the sole right of sailing in every
+direction but the east; Frobisher was appointed high admiral of all
+lands and waters that might be discovered by him. On the 26th of May
+1577 the expedition, consisting, besides the "Aid," of the ships
+"Gabriel" and "Michael," with boats, pinnaces and an aggregate
+complement of 120 men, including miners, refiners, &c., left Blackwall,
+and sailing by the north of Scotland reached Hall's Island at the mouth
+of Frobisher Bay on the 17th of July. A few days later the country and
+the south side of the bay was solemnly taken possession of in the
+queen's name. Several weeks were now spent in collecting ore, but very
+little was done in the way of discovery, Frobisher being specially
+directed by his commission to "defer the further discovery of the
+passage until another time." There was much parleying and some
+skirmishing with the natives, and earnest but futile attempts made to
+recover the men captured the previous year. The return was begun on the
+23rd of August, and the "Aid" reached Milford Haven on the 23rd of
+September; the "Gabriel" and "Michael," having separated, arrived later
+at Bristol and Yarmouth.
+
+Frobisher was received and thanked by the queen at Windsor. Great
+preparations were made and considerable expense incurred for the
+assaying of the great quantity of "ore" (about 200 tons) brought home.
+This took up much time, and led to considerable dispute among the
+various parties interested. Meantime the faith of the queen and others
+remained strong in the productiveness of the newly discovered territory,
+which she herself named _Meta Incognita_, and it was resolved to send
+out a larger expedition than ever, with all necessaries for the
+establishment of a colony of 100 men. Frobisher was again received by
+the queen at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold
+around his neck. On the 31st of May 1578 the expedition, consisting in
+all of fifteen vessels, left Harwich, and sailing by the English Channel
+on the 20th of June reached the south of Greenland, where Frobisher and
+some of his men managed to land. On the 2nd of July the foreland of
+Frobisher Bay was sighted, but stormy weather and dangerous ice
+prevented the rendezvous from being gained, and, besides causing the
+wreck of the barque "Dennis" of 100 tons, drove the fleet unwittingly up
+a new (Hudson) strait. After proceeding about 60 m. up this "mistaken
+strait," Frobisher with apparent reluctance turned back, and after many
+bufferings and separations the fleet at last came to anchor in Frobisher
+Bay. Some attempt was made at founding a settlement, and a large
+quantity of ore was shipped; but, as might be expected, there was much
+dissension and not a little discontent among so heterogeneous a company,
+and on the last day of August the fleet set out on its return to
+England, which was reached in the beginning of October. Thus ended what
+was little better than a fiasco, though Frobisher himself cannot be held
+to blame for the result; the scheme was altogether chimerical, and the
+"ore" seems to have been not worth smelting.
+
+In 1580 Frobisher was employed as captain of one of the queen's ships in
+preventing the designs of Spain to assist the Irish insurgents, and in
+the same year obtained a grant of the reversionary title of clerk of the
+royal navy. In 1585 he commanded the "Primrose," as vice-admiral to Sir
+F. Drake in his expedition to the West Indies, and when soon afterwards
+the country was threatened with invasion by the Spanish Armada,
+Frobisher's name was one of four mentioned by the lord high admiral in a
+letter to the queen of "men of the greatest experience that this realm
+hath," and for his signal services in the "Triumph," in the dispersion
+of the Armada, he was knighted. He continued to cruise about in the
+Channel until 1590, when he was sent in command of a small fleet to the
+coast of Spain. In 1591 he visited his native Altofts, and there married
+his second wife, a daughter of Lord Wentworth, becoming at the same time
+a landed proprietor in Yorkshire and Notts. He found, however, little
+leisure for a country life, and the following year took charge of the
+fleet fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh to the Spanish coast, returning
+with a rich prize. In November 1594 he was engaged with a squadron in
+the siege and relief of Brest, when he received a wound at Fort Crozon
+from which he died at Plymouth on the 22nd of November. His body was
+taken to London and buried at St Giles', Cripplegate. Though he appears
+to have been somewhat rough in his bearing, and too strict a
+disciplinarian to be much loved, Frobisher was undoubtedly one of the
+most able seamen of his time and justly takes rank among England's great
+naval heroes.
+
+  See Hakluyt's _Voyages_; the Hakluyt Society's _Three Voyages of
+  Frobisher_; Rev. F. Jones's _Life of Frobisher_ (1878); Julian
+  Corbett, _Drake and the Tudor Navy_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FROCK, originally a long, loose gown with broad sleeves, more especially
+that worn by members of the religious orders. The word is derived from
+the O. Fr. _froc_, of somewhat obscure origin; in medieval Lat.
+_froccus_ appears also as _floccus_, which, if it is the original, as Du
+Cange suggests (_literula mutata_), would connect the word with "flock"
+(q.v.), properly a tuft of wool. Another suggestion refers the word to
+the German _Rock_, a coat (cf. "rochet"), which in some rare instances
+is found as _hrock_. The formal stripping off of the frock became part
+of the ceremony of degradation or deprivation in the case of a condemned
+monk; hence the expression "to unfrock" (med. Lat. _defrocare_, Fr.
+_défroquer_) used of the degradation of monks and of priests from holy
+orders. In the middle ages "frock" was also used of a long loose coat
+worn by men and of a coat of mail, the "frock of mail." In something of
+this sense the word survived into the 19th century for a coat with long
+skirts, now called the "frock coat." The word in now chiefly used in
+English for a child's or young girl's dress, of body and skirt, but is
+frequently used of a woman's dress. Du Cange (_Glossarium_, s.v.
+_flocus_) quotes an early use of the word for a woman's garment
+(_Miracula S. Udalrici_, ap. Mabillon, _Acta Sanctorum Benedict_, saec.
+v. p. 466). Here a woman, possessed of a devil, is cured, and sends her
+garments to the tomb of the saint, and a dalmatic is ordered to be made
+out of the flocus or _frocus_. "Frock" also appears in the "smock
+frock," once the typical outer garment of the English peasant. It
+consists of a loose shirt of linen or other material, worn over the
+other clothes and hanging to about the knee; its characteristic feature
+is the "smocking," a puckered honeycomb stitching round the neck and
+shoulders.
+
+
+
+
+FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1782-1852), German philosopher,
+philanthropist and educational reformer, was born at Oberweissbach, a
+village of the Thuringian forest, on the 21st of April 1782. Like
+Comenius, with whom he had much in common, he was neglected in his
+youth, and the remembrance of his own early sufferings made him in after
+life the more eager in promoting the happiness of children. His mother
+he lost in his infancy, and his father, the pastor of Oberweissbach and
+the surrounding district, attended to his parish but not to his family.
+Friedrich soon had a stepmother, and neglect was succeeded by
+stepmotherly attention; but a maternal uncle took pity on him, and gave
+him a home for some years at Stadt-Ilm. Here he went to the village
+school, but like many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce. Throughout
+life he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying unity
+in all things. Nothing of the kind was to be perceived in the piecemeal
+studies of the school, and Froebel's mind, busy as it was for itself,
+would not work for the masters. His half-brother was therefore thought
+more worthy of a university education, and Friedrich was apprenticed for
+two years to a forester (1797-1799).
+
+Left to himself in the Thuringian forest, Froebel began to study nature,
+and without scientific instruction he obtained a profound insight into
+the uniformity and essential unity of nature's laws. Years afterwards
+the celebrated Jahn (the "Father Jahn" of the German gymnasts) told a
+Berlin student of a queer fellow he had met, who made out all sorts of
+wonderful things from stones and cobwebs. This queer fellow was Froebel;
+and the habit of making out general truths from the observation of
+nature, especially from plants and trees, dated from the solitary
+rambles in the forest. No training could have been better suited to
+strengthen his inborn tendency to mysticism; and when he left the
+forest at the early age of seventeen, he seems to have been possessed by
+the main ideas which influenced him all his life. The conception which
+in him dominated all others was the unity of nature; and he longed to
+study natural sciences that he might find in them various applications
+of nature's universal laws. With great difficulty he got leave to join
+his elder brother at the university of Jena, and there for a year he
+went from lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that connexion of
+the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any particular
+science in itself. But Froebel's allowance of money was very small, and
+his skill in the management of money was never great, so his university
+career ended in an imprisonment of nine weeks for a debt of thirty
+shillings. He then returned home with very poor prospects, but much more
+intent on what he calls the course of "self-completion"
+(_Vervollkommnung meines selbst_) than on "getting on" in a worldly
+point of view. He was sent to learn farming, but was recalled in
+consequence of the failing health of his father. In 1802 the father
+died, and Froebel, now twenty years old, had to shift for himself. It
+was some time before he found his true vocation, and for the next three
+and a half years we find him at work now in one part of Germany now in
+another--sometimes land-surveying, sometimes acting as accountant,
+sometimes as private secretary; but in all this his "outer life was far
+removed from his inner life," and in spite of his outward circumstances
+he became more and more conscious that a great task lay before him for
+the good of humanity. The nature of the task, however, was not clear to
+him, and it seemed determined by accident. While studying architecture
+in Frankfort-on-Main, he became acquainted with the director of a model
+school, who had caught some of the enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. This friend
+saw that Froebel's true field was education, and he persuaded him to
+give up architecture and take a post in the model school. In this school
+Froebel worked for two years with remarkable success, but he then
+retired and undertook the education of three lads of one family. In this
+he could not satisfy himself, and he obtained the parents' consent to
+his taking the boys to Yverdon, near Neuchâtel, and there forming with
+them a part of the celebrated institution of Pestalozzi. Thus from 1807
+till 1809 Froebel was drinking in Pestalozzianism at the fountain-head,
+and qualifying himself to carry on the work which Pestalozzi had begun.
+For the science of education had to deduce from Pestalozzi's experience
+principles which Pestalozzi himself could not deduce. And "Froebel, the
+pupil of Pestalozzi, and a genius like his master, completed the
+reformer's system; taking the results at which Pestalozzi had arrived
+through the necessities of his position, Froebel developed the ideas
+involved in them, not by further experience but by deduction from the
+nature of man, and thus he attained to the conception of true human
+development and to the requirements of true education" (Schmidt's
+_Geschichte der Pädagogik_).
+
+Holding that man and nature, inasmuch as they proceed from the same
+source, must be governed by the same laws, Froebel longed for more
+knowledge of natural science. Even Pestalozzi seemed to him not to
+"honour science in her divinity." He therefore determined to continue
+the university course which had been so rudely interrupted eleven years
+before, and in 1811 he began studying at Göttingen, whence he proceeded
+to Berlin. But again his studies were interrupted, this time by the king
+of Prussia's celebrated call "to my people." Though not a Prussian,
+Froebel was heart and soul a German. He therefore responded to the call,
+enlisted in Lützow's corps, and went through the campaign of 1813. But
+his military ardour did not take his mind off education. "Everywhere,"
+he writes, "as far as the fatigues I underwent allowed, I carried in my
+thoughts my future calling as educator; yes, even in the few engagements
+in which I had to take part. Even in these I could gather experience for
+the task I proposed to myself." Froebel's soldiering showed him the
+value of discipline and united action, how the individual belongs not to
+himself but to the whole body, and how the whole body supports the
+individual.
+
+Froebel was rewarded for his patriotism by the friendship of two men
+whose names will always be associated with his, Langethal and
+Middendorff. These young men, ten years younger than Froebel, became
+attached to him in the field, and were ever afterwards his devoted
+followers, sacrificing all their prospects in life for the sake of
+carrying out his ideas.
+
+At the peace of Fontainebleau (signed in May 1814) Froebel returned to
+Berlin, and became curator of the museum of mineralogy under Professor
+Weiss. In accepting this appointment from the government he seemed to
+turn aside from his work as educator; but if not teaching he was
+learning. More and more the thought possessed him that the one thing
+needful for man was unity of development, perfect evolution in
+accordance with the laws of his being, such evolution as science
+discovers in the other organisms of nature. He at first intended to
+become a teacher of natural science, but before long wider views dawned
+upon him. Langethal and Middendorff were in Berlin, engaged in tuition.
+Froebel gave them regular instruction in his theory, and at length,
+counting on their support, he resolved to set about realizing his own
+idea of "the new education." This was in 1816. Three years before one of
+his brothers, a clergyman, had died of fever caught from the French
+prisoners. His widow was still living in the parsonage at Griesheim, a
+village on the Ilm. Froebel gave up his post, and set out for Griesheim
+on foot, spending his very last groschen on the way for bread. Here he
+undertook the education of his orphan niece and nephews, and also of two
+more nephews sent him by another brother. With these he opened a school
+and wrote to Middendorff and Langethal to come and help in the
+experiment. Middendorff came at once, Langethal a year or two later,
+when the school had been moved to Keilhau, another of the Thuringian
+villages, which became the Mecca of the new faith. In Keilhau Froebel,
+Langethal, Middendorff and Barop, a relation of Middendorff's, all
+married and formed an educational community. Such zeal could not be
+fruitless, and the school gradually increased, though for many years its
+teachers, with Froebel at their head, were in the greatest straits for
+money and at times even for food. After fourteen years' experience he
+determined to start other institutions to work in connexion with the
+parent institution at Keilhau, and being offered by a private friend the
+use of a castle on the Wartensee, in the canton of Lucerne, he left
+Keilhau under the direction of Barop, and with Langethal he opened the
+Swiss institution. The ground, however, was very ill chosen. The
+Catholic clergy resisted what they considered as a Protestant invasion,
+and the experiment on the Wartensee and at Willisau in the same canton,
+to which the institution was moved in 1833, never had a fair chance. It
+was in vain that Middendorff at Froebel's call left his wife and family
+at Keilhau, and laboured for four years in Switzerland without once
+seeing them. The Swiss institution never flourished. But the Swiss
+government wished to turn to account the presence of the great educator;
+so young teachers were sent to Froebel for instruction, and finally
+Froebel moved to Burgdorf (a Bernese town of some importance, and famous
+from Pestalozzi's labours there thirty years earlier) to undertake the
+establishment of a public orphanage and also to superintend a course of
+teaching for schoolmasters. The elementary teachers of the canton were
+to spend three months every alternate year at Burgdorf, and there
+compare experiences, and learn of distinguished men such as Froebel and
+Bitzius. In his conferences with these teachers Froebel found that the
+schools suffered from the state of the raw material brought into them.
+Till the school age was reached the children were entirely neglected.
+Froebel's conception of harmonious development naturally led him to
+attach much importance to the earliest years, and his great work on _The
+Education of Man_, published as early as 1826, deals chiefly with the
+child up to the age of seven. At Burgdorf his thoughts were much
+occupied with the proper treatment of young children, and in scheming
+for them a graduated course of exercises, modelled on the games in which
+he observed them to be most interested. In his eagerness to carry out
+his new plans he grew impatient of official restraints; so he returned
+to Keilhau, and soon afterwards opened the first _Kindergarten_ or
+"Garden of Children," in the neighbouring village of Blankenburg (1837).
+Firmly convinced of the importance of the Kindergarten for the whole
+human race, Froebel described his system in a weekly paper (his
+_Sonntagsblatt_) which appeared from the middle of 1837 till 1840. He
+also lectured in great towns; and he gave a regular course of
+instruction to young teachers at Blankenburg. But although the
+principles of the Kindergarten were gradually making their way, the
+first Kindergarten was failing for want of funds. It had to be given up,
+and Froebel, now a widower (he had lost his wife in 1839), carried on
+his course for teachers first at Keilhau, and from 1848, for the last
+four years of his life, at or near Liebenstein, in the Thuringian
+forest, and in the duchy of Meiningen. It is in these last years that
+the man Froebel will be best known to posterity, for in 1849 he
+attracted within the circle of his influence a woman of great
+intellectual power, the baroness von Marenholtz-Bülow, who has given us
+in her _Recollections of Friedrich Froebel_ the only lifelike portrait
+we possess.
+
+These seemed likely to be Froebel's most peaceful days. He married again
+in 1851, and having now devoted himself to the training of women as
+educators, he spent his time in instructing his class of young female
+teachers. But trouble came upon him from a quarter whence he least
+expected it. In the great year of revolutions (1848) Froebel had hoped
+to turn to account the general eagerness for improvement, and
+Middendorff had presented an address on Kindergartens to the German
+parliament. Besides this, a nephew of Froebel's, Professor Karl Froebel
+of Zürich, published books which were supposed to teach socialism. True,
+the uncle and nephew differed so widely that the "new Froebelians" were
+the enemies of "the old," but the distinction was overlooked, and
+Friedrich and Karl Froebel were regarded as the united advocates of some
+new thing. In the reaction which soon set in, Froebel found himself
+suspected of socialism and irreligion, and in 1851 the "cultus-minister"
+Von Raumer issued an edict forbidding the establishment of schools
+"after Friedrich and Karl Froebel's principles" in Prussia. This was a
+heavy blow to the old man, who looked to the government of the
+"_Cultus-staat_" Prussia for support, and was met with denunciation.
+Whether from the worry of this new controversy, or from whatever cause,
+Froebel did not long survive the decree. His seventieth birthday was
+celebrated with great rejoicings in May 1852, but he died on the 21st of
+June, and was buried at Schweina, a village near his last abode,
+Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein.
+
+"All education not founded on religion is unproductive." This conviction
+followed naturally from Froebel's conception of the unity of all things,
+a unity due to the original Unity from whom all proceed and in whom all
+"live, move and have their being." As man and nature have one origin
+they must be subject to the same laws. Hence Froebel, like Comenius two
+centuries before him, looked to the course of nature for the principles
+of human education. This he declares to be his fundamental belief: "In
+the creation, in nature and the order of the material world, and in the
+progress of mankind, God has given us the true type (_Urbild_) of
+education." As the cultivator creates nothing in the trees and plants,
+so the educator creates nothing in the children,--he merely superintends
+the development of inborn faculties. So far Froebel agrees with
+Pestalozzi; but in one respect he went beyond him. Pestalozzi said that
+the faculties were developed by exercise. Froebel added that the
+function of education was to develop the faculties by arousing
+_voluntary activity_. Action proceeding from inner impulse
+(_Selbsttätigkeit_) was the one thing needful.
+
+The prominence which Froebel gave to action, his doctrine that man is
+primarily a doer and even a creator, and that he learns only through
+"self-activity," has its importance all through education. But it was to
+the first stage of life that Froebel paid the greatest attention. He
+held with Rousseau that each age has a completeness of its own, and that
+the perfection of the later stage can be attained only through the
+perfection of the earlier. If the infant is what he should be as an
+infant, and the child as a child, he will become what he should be as a
+boy, just as naturally as new shoots spring from the healthy plant.
+Every stage, then, must be cared for and tended in such a way that it
+may attain its own perfection. Impressed with the immense importance of
+the first stage, Froebel like Pestalozzi devoted himself to the
+instruction of mothers. But he would not, like Pestalozzi, leave the
+children entirely in the mother's hands. Pestalozzi held that the child
+belonged to the family; Fichte, on the other hand, claimed it for
+society and the state. Froebel, whose mind delighted in harmonizing
+apparent contradictions, and who taught that "all progress lay through
+opposites to their reconciliation," maintained that the child belonged
+both to the family and to society, and he would therefore have children
+spend some hours of the day in a common life and in well-organized
+common employments. These assemblies of children he would not call
+schools, for the children in them ought not to be old enough for
+schooling. So he invented the name _Kindergarten_, garden of children,
+and called the superintendents "children's gardeners." He laid great
+stress on every child cultivating its own plot of ground, but this was
+not his reason for the choice of the name. It was rather that he thought
+of these institutions as enclosures in which young human plants are
+nurtured. In the Kindergarten the children's employment should be
+_play_. But any occupation in which children delight is play to them;
+and Froebel invented a series of employments, which, while they are in
+this sense play to the children, have nevertheless, as seen from the
+adult point of view, a distinct educational object. This object, as
+Froebel himself describes it, is "to give the children employment in
+agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies, to
+exercise their senses, to engage their awakening mind, and through their
+senses to bring them acquainted with nature and their fellow creatures;
+it is especially to guide aright the heart and the affections, and to
+lead them to the original ground of all life, to unity with themselves."
+
+  Froebel's own works are: _Menschenerziehung_ ("Education of Man"),
+  (1826), which has been translated into French and English; _Pädagogik
+  d. Kindergartens_; _Kleinere Schriften_ and _Mutter- und Koselieder_;
+  collected editions have been edited by Wichard Lange (1862) and
+  Friedrich Seidel (1883).
+
+  A. B. Hauschmann's _Friedrich Fröbel_ is a lengthy and unsatisfactory
+  biography. An unpretentious but useful little book is _F. Froebel, a
+  Biographical Sketch_, by Matilda H. Kriege, New York (Steiger). A very
+  good account of Froebel's life and thoughts is given in Karl Schmidt's
+  _Geschichte d. Pädagogik_, vol. iv.; also in Adalbert Weber's
+  _Geschichte d. Volksschulpäd. u. d. Kleinkindererziehung_ (Weber
+  carefully gives authorities). For a less favourable account see K.
+  Strack's _Geschichte d. deutsch. Volksschulwesens_. Frau von
+  Marenholtz-Bülow published her _Erinnerungen an F. Fröbel_ (translated
+  by Mrs. Horace Mann, 1877). This lady, the chief interpreter of
+  Froebel, has expounded his principles in _Das Kind u. sein Wesen_ and
+  _Die Arbeit u. die neue Erziehung_. H. Courthope Bowen has written a
+  memoir (1897) in the "Great Educators" series. In England Miss Emily
+  A. E. Shirreff has published _Principles of Froebel's System_, and a
+  short sketch of Froebel's life. See also Dr Henry Barnard's _Papers on
+  Froebel's Kindergarten_ (1881); R. H. Quick, _Educational Reformers_
+  (1890).     (R. H. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+FROG,[1] a name in zoology, of somewhat wide application, strictly for
+an animal belonging to the family _Ranidae_, but also used of some other
+families of the order _Ecaudata_ or the sub-class Batrachia (q.v.).
+
+Frogs proper are typified by the common British species, _Rana
+temporaria_, and its allies, such as the edible frog, _R. esculenta_,
+and the American bull-frog _R. catesbiana_. The genus _Rana_ may be
+defined as firmisternal Ecaudata with cylindrical transverse processes
+to the sacral vertebra, teeth in the upper jaw and on the vomer, a
+protrusible tongue which is free and forked behind, a horizontal pupil
+and more or less webbed toes. It includes about 200 species, distributed
+over the whole world with the exception of the greater part of South
+America and Australia. Some of the species are thoroughly aquatic and
+have fully webbed toes, others are terrestrial, except during the
+breeding season, others are adapted for burrowing, by means of the
+much-enlarged and sharp-edged tubercle at the base of the inner toe,
+whilst not a few have the tips of the digits dilated into disks by which
+they are able to climb on trees. In most of the older classifications
+great importance was attached to these physiological characters, and a
+number of genera were established which, owing to the numerous annectent
+forms which have since been discovered, must be abandoned. The arboreal
+species were thus associated with the true tree-frogs, regardless of
+their internal structure. We now know that such adaptations are of
+comparatively small importance, and cannot be utilized for establishing
+groups higher than genera in a natural or phylogenetic classification.
+The tree-frogs, _Hylidae_, with which the arboreal _Ranidae_ were
+formerly grouped, show in their anatomical structure a close resemblance
+to the toads, _Bufonidae_, and are therefore placed far away from the
+true frogs, however great the superficial resemblance between them.
+
+Some frogs grow to a large size. The bull-frog of the eastern United
+States and Canada, reaching a length of nearly 8 in. from snout to vent,
+long regarded as the giant of the genus, has been surpassed by the
+discovery of _Rana guppyi_ (8½ in.) in the Solomon Islands, and of _Rana
+goliath_ (10 in.) in South Cameroon.
+
+The family _Ranidae_ embraces a large number of genera, some of which
+are very remarkable. Among these may be mentioned the hairy frog of West
+Africa, _Trichobatrachus robustus_, some specimens of which have the
+sides of the body and of the hind limbs covered with long villosities,
+the function of which is unknown, and its ally _Gampsosteonyx batesi_,
+in which the last phalanx of the fingers and toes is sharp, claw-like
+and perforates the skin. To this family also belong the _Rhacophorus_ of
+eastern Asia, arboreal frogs, some of which are remarkable for the
+extremely developed webs between the fingers and toes, which are
+believed to act as a parachute when the frog leaps from the branches of
+trees (flying-frog of A. R. Wallace), whilst others have been observed
+to make aerial nests between leaves overhanging water, a habit which is
+shared by their near allies the _Chiromantis_ of tropical Africa.
+_Dimorphognathus_, from West Africa, is the unique example of a sexual
+dimorphism in the dentition, the males being provided with a series of
+large sharp teeth in the lower jaw, which in the female, as in most
+other members of the family, is edentulous. The curious horned frog of
+the Solomon Islands, _Ceratobatrachus guentheri_, which can hardly be
+separated from the _Ranidae_, has teeth in the lower jaw in both sexes,
+whilst a few forms, such as _Dendrobates_ and _Cardioglossa_, which on
+this account have been placed in a distinct family, have no teeth at
+all, as in toads. These facts militate strongly against the importance
+which was once attached to the dentition in the classification of the
+tailless batrachians.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "frog" is in O.E. _frocga_ or _frox_, cf. Dutch
+    _vorsch_, Ger. _Frosch_; Skeat suggests a possible original source in
+    the root meaning "to jump," "to spring," cf. Ger. _froh_, glad,
+    joyful and "frolic." The term is also applied to the following
+    objects: the horny part in the center of a horse's hoof; an
+    attachment to a belt for suspending a sword, bayonet, &c.; a
+    fastening for the front of a coat, still used in military uniforms,
+    consisting of two buttons on opposite sides joined by ornamental
+    looped braids; and, in railway construction, the point where two
+    rails cross. These may be various transferred applications of the
+    name of the animal, but the "frog" of a horse was also called
+    "frush," probably a corruption of the French name _fourchette_, lit.
+    little fork. The ornamental braiding is also more probably due to
+    "frock," Lat. _floccus_.
+
+
+
+
+FROG-BIT, in botany, the English name for a small floating herb known
+botanically as _Hydrocharis Morsus-Ranae_, a member of the order
+Hydrocharideae, a family of Monocotyledons. The plant has rosettes of
+roundish floating leaves, and multiplies like the strawberry plant by
+means of runners, at the end of which new leaf-rosettes develop.
+Staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on different plants; they
+have three small green sepals and three broadly ovate white membranous
+petals. The fruit, which is fleshy, is not found in Britain. The plant
+occurs in ponds and ditches in England and is rare in Ireland.
+
+
+
+
+FROGMORE, a mansion within the royal demesne of Windsor, England, in the
+Home Park, 1 m. S.E. of Windsor Castle. It was occupied by George III.'s
+queen, Charlotte, and later by the duchess of Kent, mother of Queen
+Victoria, who died here in 1861. The mansion, a plain building facing a
+small lake, has in its grounds the mausoleum of the duchess of Kent and
+the royal mausoleum. The first is a circular building surrounded with
+Ionic columns and rising in a dome, a lower chamber within containing
+the tomb, while in the upper chamber is a statue of the duchess. There
+is also a bust of Princess Hohenlohe-Langenberg, half-sister of Queen
+Victoria; and before the entrance is a memorial erected by the queen to
+Lady Augusta Stanley (d. 1876), wife of Dean Stanley. The royal
+mausoleum, a cruciform building with a central octagonal lantern, richly
+adorned within with marbles and mosaics, was erected (1862-1870) by
+Queen Victoria over the tomb of Albert, prince consort, by whose side
+the queen herself was buried in 1901. There are also memorials to
+Princess Alice and Prince Leopold in the mausoleum. To the south of the
+mansion are the royal gardens and dairy.
+
+
+
+
+FRÖHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL (1796-1865), Swiss poet, was born on the 1st
+of February 1796 at Brugg in the canton of Aargau, where his father was
+a teacher. After studying theology at Zürich he became a pastor in 1817
+and returned as teacher to his native town, where he lived for ten
+years. He was then appointed professor of the German language and
+literature in the cantonal school at Aarau, which post he lost, however,
+in the political quarrels of 1830. He afterwards obtained the post of
+teacher and rector of the cantonal college, and was also appointed
+assistant minister at the parish church. He died at Baden in Aargau on
+the 1st of December 1865. His works are--_170 Fabeln_ (1825);
+_Schweizerlieder_ (1827); _Das Evangelium St Johannis, in Liedern_
+(1830); _Elegien an Wieg' und Sarg_ (1835); _Die Epopöen; Ulrich
+Zwingli_ (1840); _Ulrich von Hutten_ (1845); _Auserlesene Psalmen und
+geistliche Lieder für die Evangelisch-reformirte Kirche des Cantons
+Aargau_ (1844); _Über den Kirchengesang der Protestanten_ (1846);
+_Trostlieder_ (1852); _Der Junge Deutsch-Michel_ (1846); _Reimsprüche
+aus Staat, Schule, und Kirche_ (1820). An edition of his collected
+works, in 5 vols., was published at Frauenfeld in 1853. Fröhlich is best
+known for his two heroic poems, _Ulrich Zwingli_ and _Ulrich von
+Hutten_, and especially for his fables, which have been ranked with
+those of Hagedorn, Lessing and Gellert.
+
+  See the _Life_ by R. Fäsi (Zürich, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB (1821-1893), German theologian and philosopher, was
+born at Illkofen, near Regensburg, on the 6th of January 1821. Destined
+by his parents for the Roman Catholic priesthood, he studied theology at
+Munich, but felt an ever-growing attraction to philosophy. Nevertheless,
+after much hesitation, he took what he himself calls the most mistaken
+step of his life, and in 1847 entered the priesthood. His keenly logical
+intellect, and his impatience of authority where it clashed with his own
+convictions, quite unfitted him for that unquestioning obedience which
+the Church demanded. It was only after open defiance of the bishop of
+Regensburg that he obtained permission to continue his studies at
+Munich. He at first devoted himself more especially to the study of the
+history of dogma, and in 1850 published his _Beiträge zur
+Kirchengeschichte_, which was placed on the Index Expurgatorius. But he
+felt that his real vocation was philosophy, and after holding for a
+short time an extraordinary professorship of theology, he became
+professor of philosophy in 1855. This appointment he owed chiefly to his
+work, _Über den Ursprung der menschlichen Seelen_ (1854), in which he
+maintained that the human soul was not implanted by a special creative
+act in each case, but was the result of a secondary creative act on the
+part of the parents: that soul as well as body, therefore, was subject
+to the laws of heredity. This was supplemented in 1855 by the
+controversial _Menschenseele und Physiologie_. Undeterred by the offence
+which these works gave to his ecclesiastical superiors, he published in
+1858 the _Einleitung in die Philosophie und Grundriss der Metaphysik_,
+in which he assailed the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, that philosophy was
+the handmaid of theology. In 1861 appeared _Über die Aufgabe der
+Naturphilosophie und ihr Verhältnis zur Naturwissenschaft_, which was,
+he declared, directed against the purely mechanical conception of the
+universe, and affirmed the necessity of a creative Power. In the same
+year he published _Über die Freiheit der Wissenschaft_, in which he
+maintained the independence of science, whose goal was truth, against
+authority, and reproached the excessive respect for the latter in the
+Roman Church with the insignificant part played by the German Catholics
+in literature and philosophy. He was denounced by the pope himself in an
+apostolic brief of the 11th of December 1862, and students of theology
+were forbidden to attend his lectures. Public opinion was now keenly
+excited; he received an ovation from the Munich students, and the king,
+to whom he owed his appointment, supported him warmly. A conference of
+Catholic _savants_, held in 1863 under the presidency of Döllinger,
+decided that authority must be supreme in the Church. When, however,
+Döllinger and his school in their turn started the Old Catholic
+movement, Frohschammer refused to associate himself with their cause,
+holding that they did not go far enough, and that their declaration of
+1863 had cut the ground from under their feet. Meanwhile he had, in
+1862, founded the _Athenäum_ as the organ of Liberal Catholicism. For
+this he wrote the first adequate account in German of the Darwinian
+theory of natural selection, which drew a warm letter of appreciation
+from Darwin himself. Excommunicated in 1871, he replied with three
+articles, which were reproduced in thousands as pamphlets in the chief
+European languages: _Der Fels Petri in Rom_ (1873), _Der Primat Petri
+und des Papstes_ (1875), and _Das Christenthum Christi und das
+Christenthum des Papstes_ (1876). In _Das neue Wissen und der neue
+Glaube_ (1873) he showed himself as vigorous an opponent of the
+materialism of Strauss as of the doctrine of papal infallibility. His
+later years were occupied with a series of philosophical works, of which
+the most important were: _Die Phantasie als Grundprincip des
+Weltprocesses_ (1877), _Über die Genesis der Menschheit und deren
+geistige Entwicklung in Religion, Sittlichkeit und Sprache_ (1883), and
+_Über die Organisation und Cultur der menschlichen Gesellschaft_ (1885).
+His system is based on the unifying principle of imagination
+(_Phantasie_), which he extends to the objective creative force of
+Nature, as well as to the subjective mental phenomena to which the term
+is usually confined. He died at Bad Kreuth in the Bavarian Highlands on
+the 14th of June 1893.
+
+  In addition to other treatises on theological subjects, Frohschammer
+  was also the author of _Monaden und Weltphantasie_ and _Über die
+  Bedeutung der Einbildungskraft in der Philosophie Kants und Spinozas_
+  (1879); _Über die Principien der Aristotelischen Philosophie und die
+  Bedeutung der Phantasie in derselben_ (1881); _Die Philosophie als
+  Idealwissenschaft und System_ (1884); _Die Philosophie des Thomas von
+  Aquino kritisch gewürdigt_ (1889); _Über das Mysterium Magnum des
+  Daseins_ (1891); _System der Philosophie im Umriss_, pt. i. (1892).
+  His autobiography was published in A. Hinrichsen's _Deutsche Denker_
+  (1888). See also F. Kirchner, _Über das Grundprincip des
+  Weltprocesses_ (1882), with special reference to F.; E. Reich,
+  _Weltanschauung und Menschenleben; Betrachtungen über die Philosophie
+  J. Frohschammers_ (1894); B. Münz, _J. Frohschammer, der Philosoph der
+  Weltphantasie_ (1894) and _Briefe von und über J. Frohschammer_
+  (1897); J. Friedrich, _Jakob Frohschammer_ (1896) and _Systematische
+  und kritische Darstellung der Psychologie J. Frohschammers_ (1899); A.
+  Attensperger, _J. Frohschammers philosophisches System im Grundriss_
+  (1899).
+
+
+
+
+FROISSART, JEAN (1338-1410?), French chronicler and raconteur, historian
+of his own times. The personal history of Froissart, the circumstances
+of his birth and education, the incidents of his life, must all be
+sought in his own verses and chronicles. He possessed in his own
+lifetime no such fame as that which attended the steps of Petrarch; when
+he died it did not occur to his successors that a chapter might well be
+added to his _Chronicle_ setting forth what manner of man he was who
+wrote it. The village of Lestines, where he was curé, has long forgotten
+that a great writer ever lived there. They cannot point to any house in
+Valenciennes as the lodging in which he put together his notes and made
+history out of personal reminiscences. It is not certain when or where
+he died, or where he was buried. One church, it is true, doubtfully
+claims the honour of holding his bones. It is that of St Monegunda of
+Chimay.
+
+  "Gallorum sublimis honos et fama tuorum,
+   Hic Froissarde, jaces, _si modo forte jaces_."
+
+It is fortunate, therefore, that the scattered statements in his
+writings may be so pieced together as to afford a tolerably connected
+history of his life year after year. The personality of the man,
+independently of his adventures, may be arrived at by the same process.
+It will be found that Froissart, without meaning it, has portrayed
+himself in clear and well-defined outline. His forefathers were _jurés_
+(aldermen) of the little town of Beaumont, lying near the river Sambre,
+to the west of the forest of Ardennes. Early in the 14th century the
+castle and seigneurie of Beaumont fell into the hands of Jean, younger
+son of the count of Hainaut. With this Jean, sire de Beaumont, lived a
+certain canon of Liège called Jean le Bel, who fortunately was not
+content simply to enjoy life. Instigated by his seigneur he set himself
+to write contemporary history, to tell "la pure veriteit de tout li fait
+entièrement al manire de chroniques." With this view, he compiled two
+books of chronicles. And the chronicles of Jean le Bel were not the only
+literary monuments belonging to the castle of Beaumont. A hundred years
+before him Baldwin d'Avernes, the then seigneur, had caused to be
+written a book of chronicles or rather genealogies. It must therefore be
+remembered that when Froissart undertook his own chronicles he was not
+conceiving a new idea, but only following along familiar lines.
+
+Some 20 m. from Beaumont stood the prosperous city of Valenciennes,
+possessed in the 14th century of important privileges and a flourishing
+trade, second only to places like Bruges or Ghent in influence,
+population and wealth. Beaumont, once her rival, now regarded
+Valenciennes as a place where the ambitious might seek for wealth or
+advancement, and among those who migrated thither was the father of
+Foissart. He appears from a single passage in his son's verses to have
+been a painter of armorial bearings. There was, it may be noted, already
+what may be called a school of painters at Valenciennes. Among them were
+Jean and Colin de Valenciennes and Andrè Beau-Neveu, of whom Froissart
+says that he had not his equal in any country.
+
+The date generally adopted for his birth is 1338. In after years
+Froissart pleased himself by recalling in verse the scenes and pursuits
+of his childhood. These are presented in vague generalities. There is
+nothing to show that he was unlike any other boys, and, unfortunately,
+it did not occur to him that a photograph of a schoolboy's life amid
+bourgeois surroundings would be to posterity quite as interesting as
+that faithful portraiture of courts and knights which he has drawn up in
+his _Chronicle_. As it is, we learn that he loved games of dexterity and
+skill rather than the sedentary amusements of chess and draughts, that
+he was beaten when he did not know his lessons, that with his companions
+he played at tournaments, and that he was always conscious--a statement
+which must be accepted with suspicion--that he was born
+
+  "Loer Dieu et servir le monde."
+
+In any case he was born in a place, as well as at a time, singularly
+adapted to fill the brain of an imaginative boy. Valenciennes was then a
+city extremely rich in romantic associations. Not far from its walls was
+the western fringe of the great forest of Ardennes, sacred to the memory
+of Pepin, Charlemagne, Roland and Ogier. Along the banks of the Scheldt
+stood, one after the other, not then in ruins, but bright with banners,
+the gleam of armour, and the liveries of the men at arms, castles whose
+seigneurs, now forgotten, were famous in their day for many a gallant
+feat of arms. The castle of Valenciennes itself was illustrious in the
+romance of _Perceforest_. There was born that most glorious and most
+luckless hero, Baldwin, first emperor of Constantinople. All the
+splendour of medieval life was to be seen in Froissart's native city: on
+the walls of the Salle le Comte glittered--perhaps painted by his
+father--the arms and scutcheons beneath the banners and helmets of
+Luxembourg, Hainaut and Avesnes; the streets were crowded with knights
+and soldiers, priests, artisans and merchants; the churches were rich
+with stained glass, delicate tracery and precious carving; there were
+libraries full of richly illuminated manuscripts on which the boy could
+gaze with delight; every year there was the _fête_ of the _puy d'Amour
+de Valenciennes_, at which he would hear the verses of the competing
+poets; there were festivals, masques, mummeries and moralities. And,
+whatever there might be elsewhere, in this happy city there was only the
+pomp, and not the misery, of war; the fields without were tilled, and
+the harvests reaped, in security; the workman within plied his craft
+unmolested for good wage. But the eyes of the boy were turned upon the
+castle and not upon the town; it was the splendour of the knights which
+dazzled him, insomuch that he regarded and continued ever afterwards to
+regard a prince gallant in the field, glittering of apparel, lavish of
+largesse, as almost a god.
+
+The moon, he says, rules the first four years of life; Mercury the next
+ten; Venus follows. He was fourteen when the last goddess appeared to him
+in person, as he tells us, after the manner of his time, and informed him
+that he was to love a lady, "belle, jone, et gente." Awaiting this happy
+event, he began to consider how best to earn his livelihood. They first
+placed him in some commercial position--impossible now to say of what
+kind--which he simply calls "la marchandise." This undoubtedly means some
+kind of buying and selling, not a handicraft at all. He very soon
+abandoned merchandise--"car vaut mieux science qu'argens"--and resolved
+on becoming a learned clerk. He then naturally began to make verses, like
+every other learned clerk. Quite as naturally, and still in the character
+of a learned clerk, he fulfilled the prophecy of Venus and fell in love.
+He found one day a demoiselle reading a book of romances. He did not know
+who she was, but stealing gently towards her, he asked her what book she
+was reading. It was the romance of _Cleomades_. He remarks the singular
+beauty of her blue eyes and fair hair, while she reads a page or two, and
+then--one would almost suspect a reminiscence of Dante--
+
+  "Adont laissames nous le lire."
+
+He was thus provided with that essential for soldier, knight or poet, a
+mistress--one for whom he could write verses. She was rich and he was
+poor; she was nobly born and he obscure; it was long before she would
+accept the devotion, even of the conventional kind which Froissart
+offered her, and which would in no way interfere with the practical
+business of her life. And in this hopeless way, the passion of the young
+poet remaining the same, and the coldness of the lady being unaltered,
+the course of this passion ran on for some time. Nor was it until the
+day of Froissart's departure from his native town that she gave him an
+interview and spoke kindly to him, even promising, with tears in her
+eyes, that "Doulce Pensée" would assure him that she would have no
+joyous day until she should see him again.
+
+He was eighteen years of age; he had learned all that he wanted to
+learn; he possessed the mechanical art of verse; he had read the slender
+stock of classical literature accessible; he longed to see the world. He
+must already have acquired some distinction, because, on setting out for
+the court of England, he was able to take with him letters of
+recommendation from the king of Bohemia and the count of Hainaut to
+Queen Philippa, niece of the latter. He was well received by the queen,
+always ready to welcome her own countrymen; he wrote ballades and
+virelays for her and her ladies. But after a year he began to pine for
+another sight of "la très douce, simple, et quoie," whom he loved
+loyally. Good Queen Philippa, perceiving his altered looks and guessing
+the cause, made him confess that he was in love and longed to see his
+mistress. She gave him his _congé_ on the condition that he was to
+return. It is clear that the young clerk had already learned to
+ingratiate himself with princes.
+
+The conclusion of his single love adventure is simply and unaffectedly
+told in his _Trettie de l'espinette amoureuse_. It was a passion
+conducted on the well-known lines of conventional love; the pair
+exchanged violets and roses, the lady accepted ballads; Froissart became
+either openly or in secret her recognized lover, a mere title of honour,
+which conferred distinction on her who bestowed it, as well as upon him
+who received it. But the progress of the amour was rudely interrupted by
+the arts of "Malebouche," or Calumny. The story, whatever it was, that
+Malebouche whispered in the ear of the lady led to a complete rupture.
+The _damoiselle_ not only scornfully refused to speak to her lover or
+acknowledge him, but even seized him by the hair and pulled out a
+handful. Nor would she ever be reconciled to him again. Years
+afterwards, when Froissart writes the story of his one love passage, he
+shows that he still takes delight in the remembrance of her, loves to
+draw her portrait, and lingers with fondness over the thought of what
+she once was to him.
+
+Perhaps to get healed of his sorrow, Froissart began those wanderings
+in which the best part of his life was to be consumed. He first visited
+Avignon, perhaps to ask for a benefice, perhaps as the bearer of a
+message from the bishop of Cambray to pope or cardinal. It was in the
+year 1360, and in the pontificate of Innocent VI. From the papal city he
+seems to have gone to Paris, perhaps charged with a diplomatic mission.
+In 1361 he returned to England after an absence of five years. He
+certainly interpreted his leave of absence in a liberal spirit, and it
+may have been with a view of averting the displeasure of his
+kind-hearted protector that he brought with him as a present a book of
+rhymed chronicles written by himself. He says that notwithstanding his
+youth, he took upon himself the task "à rimer et à dicter"--which can
+only mean to "turn into verse"--an account of the wars of his own time,
+which he carried over to England in a book "tout compilé,"--complete to
+date,--and presented to his noble mistress Philippa of Hainaut, who
+joyfully and gently received it of him. Such a rhymed chronicle was no
+new thing. One Colin had already turned the battle of Crécy into verse.
+The queen made young Froissart one of her secretaries, and he began to
+serve her with "beaux dittiés et traités amoureux."
+
+Froissart would probably have been content to go on living at ease in
+this congenial atmosphere of flattery, praise and caresses, pouring out
+his virelays and chansons according to demand with facile monotony, but
+for the instigation of Queen Philippa, who seems to have suggested to
+him the propriety of travelling in order to get information for more
+rhymed chronicles. It was at her charges that Froissart made his first
+serious journey. He seems to have travelled a great part of the way
+alone, or accompanied only by his servants, for he was fain to beguile
+the journey by composing an imaginary conversation in verse between his
+horse and his hound. This may be found among his published poems, but it
+does not repay perusal. In Scotland he met with a favourable reception,
+not only from King David but from William of Douglas, and from the earls
+of Fife, Mar, March and others. The souvenirs of this journey are found
+scattered about in the chronicles. He was evidently much impressed with
+the Scots; he speaks of the valour of the Douglas, the Campbell, the
+Ramsay and the Graham; he describes the hospitality and rude life of the
+Highlanders; he admires the great castles of Stirling and Roxburgh and
+the famous abbey of Melrose. His travels in Scotland lasted for six
+months. Returning southwards he rode along the whole course of the Roman
+wall, a thing alone sufficient to show that he possessed the true spirit
+of an archaeologist; he thought that Carlisle was Carlyon, and
+congratulated himself on having found King Arthur's capital; he calls
+Westmorland, where the common people still spoke the ancient British
+tongue, North Wales; he rode down the banks of the Severn, and returned
+to London by way of Oxford--"l'escole d'Asque-Suffort."
+
+In London Froissart entered into the service of King John of France as
+secretary, and grew daily more courtly, more in favour with princes and
+great ladies. He probably acquired at this period that art, in which he
+has probably never been surpassed, of making people tell him all they
+knew. No newspaper correspondent, no American interviewer, has ever
+equalled this medieval collector of intelligence. From Queen Philippa,
+who confided to him the tender story of her youthful and lasting love
+for her great husband, down to the simplest knight--Froissart conversed
+with none beneath the rank of gentlemen--all united in telling this man
+what he wanted to know. He wanted to know everything: he liked the story
+of a battle from both sides and from many points of view; he wanted the
+details of every little cavalry skirmish, every capture of a castle,
+every gallant action and brave deed. And what was more remarkable, he
+forgot nothing. "I had," he says, "thanks to God, sense, memory, good
+remembrance of everything, and an intellect clear and keen to seize upon
+the acts which I could learn." But as yet he had not begun to write in
+prose.
+
+At the age of twenty-nine, in 1366, Froissart once more left England.
+This time he repaired first to Brussels, whither were gathered together
+a great concourse of minstrels from all parts, from the courts of the
+kings of Denmark, Navarre and Aragon, from those of the dukes of
+Lancaster, Bavaria and Brunswick. Hither came all who could "rimer et
+dicter." What distinction Froissart gained is not stated; but he
+received a gift of money, as appears from the accounts: "uni Fritsardo,
+dictori, qui est cum regina Angliae, dicto die, VI. mottones."
+
+After this congress of versifiers, he made his way to Brittany, where he
+heard from eye-witnesses and knights who had actually fought there
+details of the battles of Cocherel and Auray, the Great Day of the
+Thirty and the heroism of Jeanne de Montfort. Windsor Herald told him
+something about Auray, and a French knight, one Antoine de Beaujeu, gave
+him the details of Cocherel. From Brittany he went southwards to Nantes,
+La Rochelle and Bordeaux, where he arrived a few days before the visit
+of Richard, afterwards second of that name. He accompanied the Black
+Prince to Dax, and hoped to go on with him into Spain, but was
+despatched to England on a mission. He next formed part of the
+expedition which escorted Lionel duke of Clarence to Milan, to marry the
+daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. Chaucer was also one of the prince's
+suite. At the wedding banquet Petrarch was a guest sitting among the
+princes.
+
+From Milan Froissart, accepting gratefully a _cotte hardie_ with 20
+florins of gold, set out upon his travels in Italy. At Bologna, then in
+decadence, he met Peter king of Cyprus, from whose follower and
+minister, Eustache de Conflans, he learned many interesting particulars
+of the king's exploits. He accompanied Peter as far as Venice, where he
+left him after receiving a gift of 40 ducats. With them and his _cotte
+hardie_, still lined we may hope with the 20 florins, Froissart betook
+himself to Rome. The city was then at its lowest point: the churches
+were roofless; there was no pope; there were no pilgrims; there was no
+splendour; and yet, says Froissart sadly,
+
+      "Ce furent jadis en Rome
+  Li plus preu et li plus sage homme,
+  Car par sens tons les arts passèrent."
+
+It was at Rome that he learned of the death of his friend King Peter of
+Cyprus, and, worse still, an irreparable loss to him, that of the good
+Queen Philippa, of whom he writes, in grateful remembrance--
+
+  "Propices li soit Diex à l'âme!
+   J'en suis bien tenus de pryer
+   Et ses larghesces escuyer,
+   Car elle me fist et créa."
+
+Philippa dead, Froissart looked around for a new patron. Then he
+hastened back to his own country and presented himself, with a new book
+in French, to the duchess of Brabant, from whom he received the sum of
+16 francs, given in the accounts as paid _uni Frissardo dictatori_. The
+use of the word _uni_ does not imply any meanness of position, but is
+simply an equivalent to the modern French _sieur_. Froissart may also
+have found a patron in Yolande de Bar, grandmother of King René of
+Anjou. In any case he received a substantial gift from some one in the
+shape of the benefice of Lestines, a village some three or four miles
+from the town of Binche. Also, in addition to his cure, he got placed
+upon the duke of Brabant's pension list, and was entitled to a yearly
+grant of grain and wine, with some small sum in money.
+
+It is clear, from Froissart's own account of himself, that he was by no
+means a man who would at the age of four or five and thirty be contented
+to sit down at ease to discharge the duties of parish priest, to say
+mass, to bury the dead, to marry the villagers and to baptize the young.
+In those days, and in that country, it does not seem that other duties
+were expected. Preaching was not required, godliness of life, piety,
+good works, and the graces of a modern ecclesiastic were not looked for.
+Therefore, when Froissart complains to himself that the taverns of
+Lestines got 500 francs of his money, we need not at once set him down
+as either a bad priest or exceptionally given to drink. The people of
+the place were greatly addicted to wine; the _taverniers de Lestines_
+proverbially sold good wine; the Flemings were proverbially of a joyous
+disposition--
+
+  "Ceux de Hainaut chantent à pleines gorges."
+
+Froissart, the parish priest of courtly manners, no doubt drank with
+the rest, and listened if they sang his own, not the coarse country
+songs. Mostly he preferred the society of Gerard d'Obies, provost of
+Binche, and the little circle of knights within that town. Or--for it
+was not incumbent on him to be always in residence--he repaired to the
+court of Coudenberg, and became "moult frère et accointé" with the duke
+of Brabant. And then came Gui de Blois, one of King John's hostages in
+London in the old days. He had been fighting in Prussia with the
+Teutonic knights, and now, a little tired of war, proposed to settle
+down for a time in his castle of Beaumont. This prince was a member of
+the great house of Chatillon. He was count of Blois, of Soissons and of
+Chimay. He had now, about the year 1374, an excellent reputation as a
+good captain. In him Froissart, who hastened to resume acquaintance,
+found a new patron. More than that, it was this sire de Beaumont, in
+emulation of his grandfather, the patron of Jean le Bel, who advised
+Froissart seriously to take in hand the history of his own time.
+Froissart was then in his thirty-sixth year. For twenty years he had
+been rhyming, for eighteen he had been making verses for queens and
+ladies. Yet during all this time he had been accumulating in his
+retentive brain the materials for his future work.
+
+He began by editing, so to speak, that is, by rewriting with additions,
+the work of Jean le Bel; Gui de Blois, among others, supplied him with
+additional information. His own notes, taken from information obtained
+in his travels, gave him more details, and when in 1374 Gui married
+Marie de Namur, Froissart found in the bride's father, Robert de Namur,
+one who had himself largely shared in the events which he had to relate.
+He, for instance, is the authority for the story of the siege of Calais
+and the six burgesses. Provided with these materials, Froissart remained
+at Lestines, or at Beaumont, arranging and writing his chronicles.
+During this period, too, he composed his _Espinette amoureuse_, and the
+_Joli Buisson de jonesce_, and his romance of _Méliador_. He also became
+chaplain to the count of Blois, and obtained a canonry of Chimay. After
+this appointment we hear nothing more of Lestines, which he probably
+resigned.
+
+In these quiet pursuits he passed twelve years, years of which we hear
+nothing, probably because there was nothing to tell. In 1386 his travels
+began again, when he accompanied Gui to his castle at Blois, in order to
+celebrate the marriage of his son Louis de Dunois with Marie de Berry.
+He wrote a _pastourelle_ in honour of the event. Then he attached
+himself for a few days to the duke of Berry, from whom he learned
+certain particulars of current events, and then, becoming aware of what
+promised to be the most mighty feat of arms of his time, he hastened to
+Sluys in order to be on the spot. At this port the French were
+collecting an enormous fleet, and making preparations of the greatest
+magnitude in order to repeat the invasion of William the Conqueror. They
+were tired of being invaded by the English and wished to turn the
+tables. The talk was all of conquering the country and dividing it among
+the knights, as had been done by the Normans. It is not clear whether
+Froissart intended to go over with the invaders; but as his sympathies
+are ever with the side where he happens to be, he exhausts himself in
+admiration of this grand gathering of ships and men. "Any one," he says,
+"who had a fever would have been cured of his malady merely by going to
+look at the fleet." But the delays of the duke of Berry, and the arrival
+of bad weather, spoiled everything. There was no invasion of England. In
+Flanders Froissart met many knights who had fought at Rosebeque, and
+could tell him of the troubles which in a few years desolated that
+country, once so prosperous. He set himself to ascertain the history
+with as much accuracy as the comparison of various accounts by
+eye-witnesses and actors would allow. He stayed at Ghent, among those
+ruined merchants and mechanics, for whom, as one of the same class, he
+felt a sympathy never extended to English or French, perhaps quite as
+unfortunate, and he devotes no fewer than 300 chapters to the Flemish
+troubles, an amount out of all proportion to the comparative importance
+of the events. This portion of the chronicle was written at
+Valenciennes. During this residence in his birthplace his verses were
+crowned at the "puys d'amour" of Valenciennes and Tournay.
+
+This part of his work finished, he considered what to do next. There was
+small chance of anything important happening in Picardy or Hainault, and
+he determined on making a journey to the south of France in order to
+learn something new. He was then fifty-one years of age, and being
+still, as he tells us, in his prime, "of an age, strength, and limbs
+able to bear fatigue," he set out as eager to see new places as when, 33
+years before, he rode through Scotland and marvelled at the bravery of
+the Douglas. What he had, in addition to strength, good memory and good
+spirits, was a manner singularly pleasing and great personal force of
+character. This he does not tell us, but it comes out abundantly in his
+writings; and, which he does tell us, he took a singular delight in his
+book. "The more I work at it," he says, "the better am I pleased with
+it."
+
+On this occasion he rode first to Blois; on the way he fell in with two
+knights who told him of the disasters of the English army in Spain; one
+of them also informed him of the splendid hospitalities and generosity
+of Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix, on hearing of which Froissart resolved
+to seek him out. He avoided the English provinces of Poitou and Guienne,
+and rode southwards through Berry, Auvergne and Languedoc. Arrived at
+Foix he discovered that the count was at Orthez, whither he proceeded in
+company with a knight named Espaing de Lyon, who, Froissart found, had
+not only fought, but could describe.
+
+The account of those few days' ride with Espaing de Lyon is the most
+charming, the most graphic, and the most vivid chapter in the whole of
+Froissart. Every turn of the road brings with it the sight of a ruined
+castle, about which this knight of many memories has a tale or a
+reminiscence. The whole country teems with fighting stories. Froissart
+never tires of listening nor the good knight of telling. "Sainte Marie!"
+cries Froissart in mere rapture. "How pleasant are your tales, and how
+much do they profit me while you relate them! And you shall not lose
+your trouble, for they shall all be set down in memory and remembrance
+in the history which I am writing." Arrived at length at Orthez,
+Froissart lost no time in presenting his credentials to the count of
+Foix. Gaston Phoebus was at this time fifty-nine years of age. His wife,
+from whom he was separated, was that princess, sister of Charles of
+Navarre, with whom Guillaume de Machault carried on his innocent and
+poetical amour. The story of the miserable death of his son is well
+known, and may be read in Froissart. But that was already a tale of the
+past, and the state which the count kept up was that of a monarch. To
+such a prince such a visitor as Froissart would be in every way welcome.
+Mindful no doubt of those paid clerks who were always writing verses,
+Froissart introduced himself as a chronicler. He could, of course,
+rhyme, and in proof he brought with him his romance of _Méliador_; but
+he did not present himself as a wandering poet. The count received him
+graciously, speedily discovered the good qualities of his guest, and
+often invited him to read his _Méliador_ aloud in the evening, during
+which time, says Froissart, "nobody dared to say a word, because he
+wished me to be heard, such great delight did he take in listening."
+Very soon Froissart, from reader of a romance, became raconteur of the
+things he had seen and heard; the next step was that the count himself
+began to talk of affairs, so that the notebook was again in requisition.
+There was a good deal, too, to be learned of people about the court. One
+knight recently returned from the East told about the Genoese occupation
+of Famagosta; two more had been in the fray of Otterbourne; others had
+been in the Spanish wars.
+
+Leaving Gaston at length, Froissart assisted at the wedding of the old
+duke of Berry with the youthful Jeanne de Bourbon, and was present at
+the grand reception given to Isabeau of Bavaria by the Parisians. He
+then returned to Valenciennes, and sat down to write his fourth book. A
+journey undertaken at this time is characteristic of the thorough and
+conscientious spirit in which he composed his work; it illustrates also
+his restless and curious spirit. While engaged in the events of the year
+1385 he became aware that his notes taken at Orthez and elsewhere on the
+affairs of Castile and Portugal were wanting in completeness. He left
+Valenciennes and hastened to Bruges, where, he felt certain, he should
+find some one who would help him. There was, in fact, at this great
+commercial centre, a colony of Portuguese. From them he learned that a
+certain Portuguese knight, Dom Juan Fernand Pacheco, was at the moment
+in Middelburg on the point of starting for Prussia. He instantly
+embarked at Sluys, reached Middelburg in time to catch this knight,
+introduced himself, and conversed with him uninterruptedly for the space
+of six days, getting his information on the promise of due
+acknowledgment. During the next two years we learn little of his
+movements. He seems, however, to have had trouble with his seigneur Gui
+de Blois, and even to have resigned his chaplaincy. Froissart is tender
+with Gui's reputation, mindful of past favours and remembering how great
+a lord he is. Yet the truth is clear that in his declining years the
+once gallant Gui de Blois became a glutton and a drunkard, and allowed
+his affairs to fall into the greatest disorder. So much was he crippled
+with debt that he was obliged to sell his castle and county of Blois to
+the king of France. Froissart lays all the blame on evil counsellors.
+"He was my lord and master," he says simply, "an honourable lord and of
+great reputation; but he trusted too easily in those who looked for
+neither his welfare nor his honour." Although canon of Chimay and
+perhaps curé of Lestines as well, it would seem as if Froissart was not
+able to live without a patron. He next calls Robert de Namur his
+seigneur, and dedicates to him, in a general introduction, the whole of
+his chronicles. We then find him at Abbeville, trying to learn all about
+the negotiations pending between Charles VI. and the English. He was
+unsuccessful, either because he could not get at those who knew what was
+going on, or because the secret was too well kept. He next made his last
+visit to England, where, after forty years' absence, he naturally found
+no one who remembered him. Here he gave King Richard a copy of his
+"traités amoureux," and got favour at court. He stayed in England some
+months, seeking information on all points from his friends Henry
+Chrystead and Richard Stury, from the dukes of York and Gloucester, and
+from Robert the Hermit.
+
+On his return to France, he found preparations going on for that unlucky
+crusade, the end of which he describes in his _Chronicle_. It was headed
+by the count of Nevers. After him floated many a banner of knights,
+descendants of the crusaders, who bore the proud titles of duke of
+Athens, duke of Thebes, sire de Sidon, sire de Jericho. They were going
+to invade the sultan's empire by way of Hungary; they were going to
+march south; they would reconquer the holy places. And presently we read
+how it all came to nothing, and how the slaughtered knights lay dead
+outside the city of Nikopoli. In almost the concluding words of the
+_Chronicle_ the murder of Richard II. of England is described. His death
+ends the long and crowded _Chronicle_, though the pen of the writer
+struggles through a few more unfinished sentences.
+
+The rest is vague tradition. He is said to have died at Chimay; it is
+further said that he died in poverty so great that his relations could
+not even afford to carve his name upon the headstone of his tomb; not
+one of his friends, not even Eustache Deschamps, writes a line of regret
+in remembrance; the greatest historian of his age had a reputation so
+limited that his death was no more regarded than that of any common monk
+or obscure priest. We would willingly place the date of his death, where
+his _Chronicle_ stops, in the year 1400; but tradition assigns the date
+of 1410. What date more fitting than the close of the century for one
+who has made that century illustrious for ever?
+
+Among his friends were Guillaume de Machault, Eustache Deschamps, the
+most vigorous poet of this age of decadence, and Cuvelier, a follower of
+Bertrand du Guesclin. These alliances are certain. It is probable that
+he knew Chaucer, with whom Deschamps maintained a poetical
+correspondence; there is nothing to show that he ever made the
+acquaintance of Christine de Pisan. Froissart was more proud of his
+poetry than his prose. Posterity has reversed this opinion, and though a
+selection of his verse has been published, it would be difficult to find
+an admirer, or even a reader, of his poems. The selection published by
+Buchon in 1829 consists of the _Dit dou florin_, half of which is a
+description of the power of money; the _Débat dou cheval et dou
+lévrier_, written during his journey in Scotland; the _Dittie de la
+flour de la Margherite_; a _Dittie d'amour_ called _L'Orlose amoureus_,
+in which he compares himself, the imaginary lover, with a clock; the
+_Espinette amoureuse_, which contains a sketch of his early life, freely
+and pleasantly drawn, accompanied by rondeaux and virelays; the _Buisson
+de jonesce_, in which he returns to the recollections of his own youth;
+and various smaller pieces. The verses are monotonous; the thoughts are
+not without poetical grace, but they are expressed at tedious length. It
+would be, however, absurd to expect in Froissart the vigour and verve
+possessed by none of his predecessors. The time was gone when Marie de
+France, Ruteboeuf and Thibaut de Champagne made the 13th-century
+language a medium for verse of which any literature might be proud.
+Briefly, Froissart's poetry, unless the unpublished portion be better
+than that before us, is monotonous and mechanical. The chief merit it
+possesses is in simplicity of diction. This not infrequently produces a
+pleasing effect.
+
+As for the character of his _Chronicle_, little need be said. There has
+never been any difference of opinion on the distinctive merits of this
+great work. It presents a vivid and faithful drawing of the things done
+in the 14th century. No more graphic account exists of any age. No
+historian has drawn so many and such faithful portraits. They are, it is
+true, portraits of men as they seemed to the writer, not of men as they
+were. Froissart was uncritical; he accepted princes by their appearance.
+Who, for instance, would recognize in his portrait of Gaston Phoebus de
+Foix the cruel voluptuary, stained with the blood of his own son, which
+we know him to have been? Froissart, again, had no sense of historical
+responsibility; he was no judge to inquire into motives and condemn
+actions; he was simply a chronicler. He has been accused by French
+authors of lacking patriotism. Yet it must be remembered that he was
+neither a Frenchman nor an Englishman, but a Fleming. He has been
+accused of insensibility to suffering. Indignation against oppression
+was not, however, common in the 14th century; why demand of Froissart a
+quality which is rare enough even in our own time? Yet there are moments
+when, as in describing the massacre of Limoges, he speaks with tears in
+his voice.
+
+Let him be judged by his own aims. "Before I commence this book," he
+says, "I pray the Saviour of all the world, who created every thing out
+of nothing, that He will also create and put in me sense and
+understanding of so much worth, that this book, which I have begun, I
+may continue and persevere in, so that all those who shall read, see,
+and hear it may find in it delight and pleasance." To give delight and
+pleasure, then, was his sole design.
+
+As regards his personal character, Froissart depicts it himself for us.
+Such as he was in youth, he tells us, so he remained in more advanced
+life; rejoicing mightily in dances and carols, in hearing minstrels and
+poems; inclined to love all those who love dogs and hawks; pricking up
+his ears at the uncorking of bottles,--"Car au voire prens grand
+plaisir"; pleased with good cheer, gorgeous apparel and joyous society,
+but no commonplace reveller or greedy voluptuary,--everything in
+Froissart was ruled by the good manners which he set before all else;
+and always eager to listen to tales of war and battle. As we have said
+above, he shows, not only by his success at courts, but also by the
+whole tone of his writings, that he possessed a singularly winning
+manner and strong personal character. He lived wholly in the present,
+and had no thought of the coming changes. Born when chivalrous ideas
+were most widely spread, but the spirit of chivalry itself, as
+inculcated by the best writers, in its decadence, he is penetrated with
+the sense of knightly honour, and ascribes to all his heroes alike those
+qualities which only the ideal knight possessed.
+
+  The first edition of Froissart's Chronicles was published in Paris. It
+  bears no date; the next editions are those of the years 1505, 1514,
+  1518 and 1520. The edition of Buchon, 1824, was a continuation of one
+  commenced by Dacier. The best modern editions are those of Kervyn de
+  Lettenhove (Brussels, 1863-1877) and Siméon Luce (Paris, 1869-1888);
+  for bibliography see Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. medii aevi_, i.
+  (Berlin, 1896). An abridgment was made in Latin by Belleforest, and
+  published in 1672. An English translation was made by Bouchier, Lord
+  Berners, and published in London, 1525. See the "Tudor Translations"
+  edition of Berners (Nutt, 1901), with introduction by W. P. Ker; and
+  the "Globe" edition, with introduction by G. C. Macaulay. The
+  translation by Thomas Johnes was originally published in 1802-1805.
+  For Froissart's poems see Scheler's text in K. de Lettenhove's
+  complete edition; _Méliador_ has been edited by Longnon for the
+  Société des Anciens Textes (1895-1899). See also Madame Darmesteter
+  (Duclaux), _Froissart_ (1894).     (W. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+FROME, a market town in the Frome parliamentary division of
+Somersetshire, England, 107 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,057. It is unevenly built on
+high ground above the river Frome, which is here crossed by a stone
+bridge of five arches. It was formerly called Frome or Froome Selwood,
+after the neighbouring forest of Selwood; and the country round is still
+richly wooded and picturesque. The parish church of St John the Baptist,
+with its fine tower and spire, was built about the close of the 14th
+century, and, though largely restored, has a beautiful chancel, Lady
+chapel and baptistery. Fragments of Norman work are left; the interior
+is elaborately adorned with sculptures and stained glass. The
+market-hall, museum, school of art, and a free grammar school, founded
+under Edward VI., may be noted among buildings and institutions. The
+chief industries are brewing and art metal-working, also printing,
+metal-founding, and the manufacture of cloth, silk, tools and cards for
+wool-dressing. Dairy farming is largely practised in the neighbourhood.
+Selwood forest was long a favourite haunt of brigands, and even in the
+18th century gave shelter to a gang of coiners and highwaymen.
+
+The Saxon occupation of Frome (From) is the earliest of which there is
+evidence, the settlement being due to the foundation of a monastery by
+Aldhelm in 705. A witenagemot was held there in 934, so that Frome must
+already have been a place of some size. At the time of the Domesday
+Survey the manor was owned by King William. Local tradition asserts that
+Frome was a medieval borough, and the reeve of Frome is occasionally
+mentioned in documents after the reign of Edward I., but there is no
+direct evidence that Frome was a borough and no trace of any charter
+granted to it. It was not represented in parliament until given one
+member by the Reform Act of 1832. Separate representation ceased in
+1885. Frome was never incorporated. A charter of Henry VII. to Edmund
+Leversedge, then lord of the manor, granted the right to have fairs on
+the 22nd of July and the 21st of September. In the 18th century two
+other fairs on the 24th of February and the 25th of November were held.
+Cattle fairs are now held on the last Wednesday in February and
+November, and a cheese fair on the last Wednesday in September. The
+Wednesday market is held under the charter of Henry VII. There is also a
+Saturday cattle market. The manufacture of woollen cloth has been
+established since the 15th century, Frome being the only Somerset town
+in which this staple industry has flourished continuously.
+
+
+
+
+FROMENTIN, EUGÈNE (1820-1876), French painter, was born at La Rochelle
+in December 1820. After leaving school he studied for some years under
+Louis Cabat, the landscape painter. Fromentin was one of the earliest
+pictorial interpreters of Algeria, having been able, while quite young,
+to visit the land and people that suggested the subjects of most of his
+works, and to store his memory as well as his portfolio with the
+picturesque and characteristic details of North African life. In 1849 he
+obtained a medal of the second class. In 1852 he paid a second visit to
+Algeria, accompanying an archaeological mission, and then completed that
+minute study of the scenery of the country and of the habits of its
+people which enabled him to give to his after-work the realistic
+accuracy that comes from intimate knowledge. In a certain sense his
+works are not more artistic results than contributions to ethnological
+science. His first great success was produced at the Salon of 1847, by
+the "Gorges de la Chiffa." Among his more important works are--"La Place
+de la brèche à Constantine" (1849); "Enterrement Maure" (1853);
+"Bateleurs nègres" and "Audience chez un chalife" (1859); "Berger
+kabyle" and "Courriers arabes" (1861); "Bivouac arabe," "Chasse au
+faucon," "Fauconnier arabe" (now at Luxembourg) (1863); "Chasse au
+héron" (1865); "Voleurs de nuit" (1867); "Centaurs et arabes attaqués
+par une lionne" (1868); "Halte de muletiers" (1869); "Le Nil" and "Un
+Souvenir d'Esneh" (1875). Fromentin was much influenced in style by
+Eugène Delacroix. His works are distinguished by striking composition,
+great dexterity of handling and brilliancy of colour. In them is given
+with great truth and refinement the unconscious grandeur of barbarian
+and animal attitudes and gestures. His later works, however, show signs
+of an exhausted vein and of an exhausted spirit, accompanied or caused
+by physical enfeeblement. But it must be observed that Fromentin's
+paintings show only one side of a genius that was perhaps even more
+felicitously expressed in literature, though of course with less
+profusion. "Dominique," first published in the _Revue des deux mondes_
+in 1862, and dedicated to George Sand, is remarkable among the fiction
+of the century for delicate and imaginative observation and for
+emotional earnestness. Fromentin's other literary works are--_Visites
+artistiques_ (1852); _Simples Pèlerinages_ (1856); _Un Été dans le
+Sahara_ (1857); _Une Année dans le Sahel_ (1858); and _Les Maîtres
+d'autrefois_ (1876). In 1876 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the
+Academy. He died suddenly at La Rochelle on the 27th of August 1876.
+
+
+
+
+FROMMEL, GASTON (1862-1906), Swiss theologian, professor of theology in
+the university of Geneva from 1894 to 1906. An Alsatian by birth, he
+belonged mainly to French Switzerland, where he spent most of his life.
+He may best be described as continuing the spirit of Vinet (q.v.) amid
+the mental conditions marking the end of the 19th century. Like Vinet,
+he derived his philosophy of religion from a peculiarly deep experience
+of the Gospel of Christ as meeting the demands of the moral
+consciousness; but he developed even further than Vinet the
+psychological analysis of conscience and the method of verifying every
+doctrine by direct reference to spiritual experience. Both made much of
+moral individuality or personality as the crown and criterion of
+reality, believing that its correlation with Christianity, both
+historically and philosophically, was most intimate. But while Vinet
+laid most stress on the liberty from human authority essential to the
+moral consciousness, the changed needs of the age caused Frommel to
+develop rather the aspect of man's dependence as a moral being upon
+God's spiritual initiative, "the conditional nature of his liberty."
+"Liberty is not the primary, but the secondary characteristic" of
+conscience; "before being free, it is the subject of obligation." On
+this depends its objectivity as a real revelation of the Divine Will.
+Thus he claimed that a deeper analysis carried one beyond the human
+subjectivity of even Kant's categorical imperative, since consciousness
+of obligation was "une expérience imposée sous le mode de l'absolu." By
+his use of _imposée_ Frommel emphasized the priority of man's sense of
+obligation to his consciousness either of self or of God. Here he
+appealed to the current psychology of the subconscious for confirmation
+of his analysis, by which he claimed to transcend mere intellectualism.
+In his language on this fundamental point he was perhaps too jealous of
+admitting an ideal element as implicit in the feeling of obligation.
+Still he did well in insisting on priority to self-conscious thought as
+a mark of metaphysical objectivity in the case of moral, no less than of
+physical experience. Further, he found in the Christian revelation the
+same characteristics as belonged to the universal revelation involved in
+conscience, viz. God's sovereign initiative and his living action in
+history. From this standpoint he argued against a purely psychological
+type of religion (_agnosticisme religieux_, as he termed it)--a tendency
+to which he saw even in A. Sabatier and the _symbolo-fidéisme_ of the
+Paris School--as giving up a real and unifying faith. His influence on
+men, especially the student class, was greatly enhanced by the religious
+force and charm of his personality. Finally, like Vinet, he was a man of
+letters and a penetrating critic of men and systems.
+
+  LITERATURE.--G. Godet, _Gaston Frommel_ (Neuchâtel, 1906), a compact
+  sketch, with full citation of sources; cf. H. Bois, in _Sainte-Croix_
+  for 1906, for "L'Étudiant et le professeur." A complete edition of his
+  writings was begun in 1907.     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FRONDE, THE, the name given to a civil war in France which lasted from
+1648 to 1652, and to its sequel, the war with Spain in 1653-59. The word
+means a sling, and was applied to this contest from the circumstance
+that the windows of Cardinal Mazarin's adherents were pelted with stones
+by the Paris mob. Its original object was the redress of grievances, but
+the movement soon degenerated into a factional contest among the nobles,
+who sought to reverse the results of Richelieu's work and to overthrow
+his successor Mazarin. In May 1648 a tax levied on judicial officers of
+the parlement of Paris was met by that body, not merely with a refusal
+to pay, but with a condemnation of earlier financial edicts, and even
+with a demand for the acceptance of a scheme of constitutional reforms
+framed by a committee of the parlement. This charter was somewhat
+influenced by contemporary events in England. But there is no real
+likeness between the two revolutions, the French parlement being no more
+representative of the people than the Inns of Court were in England. The
+political history of the time is dealt with in the article FRANCE:
+_History_, the present article being concerned chiefly with the military
+operations of what was perhaps the most costly and least necessary civil
+war in history.
+
+The military record of the first or "parliamentary" Fronde is almost
+blank. In August 1648, strengthened by the news of Condé's victory at
+Lens, Mazarin suddenly arrested the leaders of the parlement, whereupon
+Paris broke into insurrection and barricaded the streets. The court,
+having no army at its immediate disposal, had to release the prisoners
+and to promise reforms, and fled from Paris on the night of the 22nd of
+October. But the signing of the peace of Westphalia set free Condé's
+army, and by January 1649 it was besieging Paris. The peace of Rueil was
+signed in March, after little blood had been shed. The Parisians, though
+still and always anti-cardinalist, refused to ask for Spanish aid, as
+proposed by their princely and noble adherents, and having no prospect
+of military success without such aid, submitted and received
+concessions. Thenceforward the Fronde becomes a story of sordid
+intrigues and half-hearted warfare, losing all trace of its first
+constitutional phase. The leaders were discontented princes and
+nobles--Monsieur (Gaston of Orléans, the king's uncle), the great Condé
+and his brother Conti, the duc de Bouillon and his brother Turenne. To
+these must be added Gaston's daughter, Mademoiselle de Montpensier (La
+grande Mademoiselle), Condé's sister, Madame de Longueville, Madame de
+Chevreuse, and the astute intriguer Paul de Gondi, later Cardinal de
+Retz. The military operations fell into the hands of war-experienced
+mercenaries, led by two great, and many second-rate, generals, and of
+nobles to whom war was a polite pastime. The feelings of the people at
+large were enlisted on neither side.
+
+This peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649. The princes, received
+at court once more, renewed their intrigues against Mazarin, who, having
+come to an understanding with Monsieur, Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse,
+suddenly arrested Condé, Conti and Longueville (January 14, 1650). The
+war which followed this _coup_ is called the "Princes' Fronde." This
+time it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier of his
+day, who headed the armed rebellion. Listening to the promptings of his
+Egeria, Madame de Longueville, he resolved to rescue her brother, his
+old comrade of Freiburg and Nördlingen. It was with Spanish assistance
+that he hoped to do so; and a powerful army of that nation assembled in
+Artois under the archduke Leopold, governor-general of the Spanish
+Netherlands. But the peasants of the country-side rose against the
+invaders, the royal army in Champagne was in the capable hands of César
+de Choiseul, comte du Plessis-Praslin, who counted fifty-two years of
+age and thirty-six of war experience, and the little fortress of Guise
+successfully resisted the archduke's attack. Thereupon, however, Mazarin
+drew upon Plessis-Praslin's army for reinforcements to be sent to
+subdue the rebellion in the south, and the royal general had to retire.
+Then, happily for France, the archduke decided that he had spent
+sufficient of the king of Spain's money and men in the French quarrel.
+The magnificent regular army withdrew into winter quarters, and left
+Turenne to deliver the princes with a motley host of Frondeurs and
+Lorrainers. Plessis-Praslin by force and bribery secured the surrender
+of Rethel on the 13th of December 1650, and Turenne, who had advanced to
+relieve the place, fell back hurriedly. But he was a terrible opponent,
+and Plessis-Praslin and Mazarin himself, who accompanied the army, had
+many misgivings as to the result of a lost battle. The marshal chose
+nevertheless to force Turenne to a decision, and the battle of
+Blanc-Champ (near Somme-Py) or Rethel was the consequence. Both sides
+were at a standstill in strong positions, Plessis-Praslin doubtful of
+the trustworthiness of his cavalry, Turenne too weak to attack, when a
+dispute for precedence arose between the _Gardes françaises_ and the
+_Picardie_ regiment. The royal infantry had to be rearranged in order of
+regimental seniority, and Turenne, seeing and desiring to profit by the
+attendant disorder, came out of his stronghold and attacked with the
+greatest vigour. The battle (December 15, 1650) was severe and for a
+time doubtful, but Turenne's Frondeurs gave way in the end, and his
+army, as an army, ceased to exist. Turenne himself, undeceived as to the
+part he was playing in the drama, asked and received the young king's
+pardon, and meantime the court, with the _maison du roi_ and other loyal
+troops, had subdued the minor risings without difficulty (March-April
+1651). Condé, Conti and Longueville were released, and by April 1651 the
+rebellion had everywhere collapsed. Then followed a few months of hollow
+peace and the court returned to Paris. Mazarin, an object of hatred to
+all the princes, had already retired into exile. "Le temps est un galant
+homme," he remarked, "laissons le faire!" and so it proved. His absence
+left the field free for mutual jealousies, and for the remainder of the
+year anarchy reigned in France. In December 1651 Mazarin returned with a
+small army. The war began again, and this time Turenne and Condé were
+pitted against one another. After the first campaign, as we shall see,
+the civil war ceased, but for several other campaigns the two great
+soldiers were opposed to one another, Turenne as the defender of France,
+Condé as a Spanish invader. Their personalities alone give threads of
+continuity to these seven years of wearisome manoeuvres, sieges and
+combats, though for a right understanding of the causes which were to
+produce the standing armies of the age of Louis XIV. and Frederick the
+Great the military student should search deeply into the material and
+moral factors that here decided the issue.
+
+The début of the new Frondeurs took place in Guyenne (February-March
+1652), while their Spanish ally, the archduke Leopold William, captured
+various northern fortresses. On the Loire, whither the centre of gravity
+was soon transferred, the Frondeurs were commanded by intriguers and
+quarrelsome lords, until Condé's arrival from Guyenne. His bold
+trenchant leadership made itself felt in the action of Bléneau (7th
+April 1652), in which a portion of the royal army was destroyed, but
+fresh troops came up to oppose him, and from the skilful dispositions
+made by his opponents Condé felt the presence of Turenne and broke off
+the action. The royal army did likewise. Condé invited the commander of
+Turenne's rearguard to supper, chaffed him unmercifully for allowing the
+prince's men to surprise him in the morning, and by way of farewell
+remarked to his guest, "Quel dommage que des braves gens comme nous se
+coupent la gorge pour un faquin"--an incident and a remark that
+thoroughly justify the iron-handed absolutism of Louis XIV. There was no
+hope for France while tournaments on a large scale and at the public's
+expense were fashionable amongst the _grands seigneurs_. After Bléneau
+both armies marched to Paris to negotiate with the parlement, de Retz
+and Mlle de Montpensier, while the archduke took more fortresses in
+Flanders, and Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, with an army of plundering
+mercenaries, marched through Champagne to join Condé. As to the latter,
+Turenne manoeuvred past Condé and planted himself in front of the
+mercenaries, and their leader, not wishing to expend his men against the
+old French regiments, consented to depart with a money payment and the
+promise of two tiny Lorraine fortresses. A few more manoeuvres, and the
+royal army was able to hem in the Frondeurs in the Faubourg St Antoine
+(2nd July 1652) with their backs to the closed gates of Paris. The
+royalists attacked all along the line and won a signal victory in spite
+of the knightly prowess of the prince and his great lords, but at the
+critical moment Gaston's daughter persuaded the Parisians to open the
+gates and to admit Condé's army. She herself turned the guns of the
+Bastille on the pursuers. An insurrectional government was organized in
+the capital and proclaimed Monsieur lieutenant-general of the realm.
+Mazarin, feeling that public opinion was solidly against him, left
+France again, and the bourgeois of Paris, quarrelling with the princes,
+permitted the king to enter the city on the 21st of October 1652.
+Mazarin returned unopposed in February 1653.
+
+The Fronde as a civil war was now over. The whole country, wearied of
+anarchy and disgusted with the princes, came to look to the king's party
+as the party of order and settled government, and thus the Fronde
+prepared the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV. The general war
+continued in Flanders, Catalonia and Italy wherever a Spanish and a
+French garrison were face to face, and Condé with the wreck of his army
+openly and definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. The
+"Spanish Fronde" was almost purely a military affair and, except for a
+few outstanding incidents, a dull affair to boot. In 1653 France was so
+exhausted that neither invaders nor defenders were able to gather
+supplies to enable them to take the field till July. At one moment, near
+Péronne, Condé had Turenne at a serious disadvantage, but he could not
+galvanize the Spanish general Count Fuensaldana, who was more solicitous
+to preserve his master's soldiers than to establish Condé as mayor of
+the palace to the king of France, and the armies drew apart again
+without fighting. In 1654 the principal incident was the siege and
+relief of Arras. On the night of the 24th-25th August the lines of
+circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were brilliantly
+stormed by Turenne's army, and Condé won equal credit for his safe
+withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover of a series of bold
+cavalry charges led by himself as usual, sword in hand. In 1655 Turenne
+captured the fortresses of Landrecies, Condé and St Ghislain. In 1656
+the prince of Condé revenged himself for the defeat of Arras by storming
+Turenne's circumvallation around Valenciennes (16th July), but Turenne
+drew off his forces in good order. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful,
+and is only to be remembered because a body of 6000 British infantry,
+sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance with Mazarin,
+took part in it. The presence of the English contingent and its very
+definite purpose of making Dunkirk a new Calais, to be held by England
+for ever, gave the next campaign a character of certainty and decision
+which is entirely wanting in the rest of the war. Dunkirk was besieged
+promptly and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Condé
+appeared with the relieving army from Furnes, Turenne advanced boldly to
+meet him. The battle of the Dunes, fought on the 14th of June 1658, was
+the first real trial of strength since the battle of the Faubourg St
+Antoine. Successes on one wing were compromised by failure on the other,
+but in the end Condé drew off with heavy losses, the success of his own
+cavalry charges having entirely failed to make good the defeat of the
+Spanish right wing amongst the Dunes. Here the "red-coats" made their
+first appearance on a continental battlefield, under the leadership of
+Sir W. Lockhart, Cromwell's ambassador at Paris, and astonished both
+armies by the stubborn fierceness of their assaults, for they were the
+products of a war where passions ran higher and the determination to win
+rested on deeper foundations than in the _dégringolade_ of the feudal
+spirit in which they now figured. Dunkirk fell, as a result of the
+victory, and flew the St George's cross till Charles II. sold it to the
+king of France. A last desultory campaign followed in 1659--the
+twenty-fifth year of the Franco-Spanish War--and the peace of the
+Pyrenees was signed on the 5th of November. On the 27th of January 1660
+the prince asked and obtained at Aix the forgiveness of Louis XIV. The
+later careers of Turenne and Condé as the great generals--and obedient
+subjects--of their sovereign are described in the article DUTCH WARS.
+
+  For the many memoirs and letters of the time see the list in G.
+  Monod's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1888). The
+  _Lettres du cardinal Mazarin_ have been collected in nine volumes
+  (Paris, 1878-1906). See P. Adolphe Chéruel, _Histoire de France
+  pendant la minorité de Louis XIV_ (4 vols., 1879-1880), and his
+  _Histoire de France sous le ministère de Mazarin_ (3 vols., 1883); L.
+  C. de Beaupoil de Sainte-Aulaire, _Histoire de la Fronde_ (2nd ed., 2
+  vols., 1860); "Arvède Barine" (Mme Charles Vincens), _La Jeunesse de
+  la grande mademoiselle_ (Paris, 1902); Duc d'Aumale, _Histoire des
+  princes de Condé_ (Paris, 1889-1896, 7 vols.). The most interesting
+  account of the military operations is in General Hardy de Périni's
+  _Turenne et Condé_ (_Batailles françaises_, vol. iv.).
+
+
+
+
+FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, LOUIS DE BUADE, COMTE DE (1620-1698),
+French-Canadian statesman, governor and lieutenant-general for the
+French king in _La Nouvelle France_ (Canada), son of Henri de Buade,
+colonel in the regiment of Navarre, was born in the year 1620. The
+details of his early life are meagre, as no trace of the Frontenac
+papers has been discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of
+distinction in the principality of Béarn. Antoine de Buade, seigneur de
+Frontenac, grandfather of the future governor of Canada, attained
+eminence as a councillor of state under Henri IV.; and his children were
+brought up with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. Louis de Buade
+entered the army at an early age. In the year 1635 he served under the
+prince of Orange in Holland, and fought with credit and received many
+wounds during engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was
+promoted to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in 1643, and
+three years later, after distinguishing himself at the siege of
+Orbitello, where he had an arm broken, he was made _maréchal de camp_.
+His service seems to have been continuous until the conclusion of the
+peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he returned to his father's house in
+Paris and married, without the consent of her parents, Anne de la
+Grange-Trianon, a girl of great beauty, who later became the friend and
+confidante of Madame de Montpensier. The marriage was not a happy one,
+and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper led to a
+separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indre, where by an
+extravagant course of living he became hopelessly involved in debt.
+Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years beyond the fact
+that he held a high position at court; but in the year 1669, when France
+sent a contingent to assist the Venetians in the defence of Crete
+against the Turks, Frontenac was placed in command of the troops on the
+recommendation of Turenne. In this expedition he won military glory; but
+his fortune was not improved thereby.
+
+At this period the affairs of New France claimed the attention of the
+French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been successfully
+administered by three remarkable men--Daniel de Rémy de Courcelle, the
+governor, Jèan Talon, the intendant, and the marquis de Tracy, who had
+been appointed lieutenant-general for the French king in America; but a
+difference of opinion had arisen between the governor and the intendant,
+and each had demanded the other's recall in the public interest. At this
+crisis in the administration of New France, Frontenac was appointed to
+succeed de Courcelle. The new governor arrived in Quebec on the 12th of
+September 1672. From the commencement it was evident that he was
+prepared to give effect to a policy of colonial expansion, and to
+exercise an independence of action that did not coincide with the views
+of the monarch or of his minister Colbert. One of the first acts of the
+governor, by which he sought to establish in Canada the three
+estates--nobles, clergy and people--met with the disapproval of the
+French court, and measures were adopted to curb his ambition by
+increasing the power of the sovereign council and by reviving the office
+of intendant. Frontenac, however, was a man of dominant spirit, jealous
+of authority, prepared to exact obedience from all and to yield to none.
+In the course of events he soon became involved in quarrels with the
+intendant touching questions of precedence, and with the ecclesiastics,
+one or two of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in
+Canada had been administered for many years by the religious orders; for
+the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet been erected. But
+three years after the arrival of Frontenac a former vicar apostolic,
+François Xavier de Laval de Montmorenci, returned to Quebec as bishop,
+with a jurisdiction over the whole of Canada. In this redoubtable
+churchman the governor found a vigorous opponent who was determined to
+render the state subordinate to the church. Frontenac, following in this
+respect in the footsteps of his predecessors, had issued trading
+licences which permitted the sale of intoxicants. The bishop, supported
+by the intendant, endeavoured to suppress this trade and sent an
+ambassador to France to obtain remedial action. The views of the bishop
+were upheld and henceforth authority was divided. Troubles ensued
+between the governor and the sovereign council, most of the members of
+which sided with the one permanent power in the colony--the bishop;
+while the suspicions and intrigues of the intendant, Duchesneau, were a
+constant source of vexation and strife. As the king and his minister had
+to listen to and adjudicate upon the appeals from the contending parties
+their patience was at last worn out, and both governor and intendant
+were recalled to France in the year 1682. During Frontenac's first
+administration many improvements had been made in the country. The
+defences had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui (now
+Kingston), Ontario, bearing the governor's name, and conditions of peace
+had been fairly maintained between the Iroquois on the one hand and the
+French and their allies, the Ottawas and the Hurons, on the other. The
+progress of events during the next few years proved that the recall of
+the governor had been ill-timed. The Iroquois were assuming a
+threatening attitude towards the inhabitants, and Frontenac's successor,
+La Barre, was quite incapable of leading an army against such cunning
+foes. At the end of a year La Barre was replaced by the marquis de
+Denonville, a man of ability and courage, who, though he showed some
+vigour in marching against the western Iroquois tribes, angered rather
+than intimidated them, and the massacre of Lachine (5th of August 1689)
+must be regarded as one of the unhappy results of his administration.
+
+The affairs of the colony were now in a critical condition; a man of
+experience and decision was needed to cope with the difficulties, and
+Louis XIV., who was not wanting in sagacity, wisely made choice of the
+choleric count to represent and uphold the power of France. When,
+therefore, on the 15th of October 1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as
+governor for the second time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and
+confidence was at once restored in the public mind. Quebec was not long
+to enjoy the blessing of peace. On the 16th of October 1690 several New
+England ships under the command of Sir William Phipps appeared off the
+Island of Orleans, and an officer was sent ashore to demand the
+surrender of the fort. Frontenac, bold and fearless, sent a defiant
+answer to the hostile admiral, and handled so vigorously the forces he
+had collected as completely to repulse the enemy, who in their hasty
+retreat left behind a few pieces of artillery on the Beauport shore. The
+prestige of the governor was greatly increased by this event, and he was
+prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on Boston from the sea,
+but his resources were inadequate for the undertaking. New France now
+rejoiced in a brief respite from her enemies, and during the interval
+Frontenac encouraged the revival of the drama at the Château St-Louis
+and paid some attention to the social life of the colony. The Indians,
+however, were not yet subdued, and for two years a petty warfare was
+maintained. In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against the
+Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy-six years of age. On the
+6th of July he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force for the
+village of the Onondagas, where he arrived a month later. In the
+meantime the Iroquois had abandoned their villages, and as pursuit was
+impracticable the army commenced its return march on the 10th of August.
+The old warrior endured the fatigue of the march as well as the youngest
+soldier, and for his courage and prowess he received the cross of St
+Louis. Frontenac died on the 28th of November 1698 at the Château
+St-Louis after a brief illness, deeply mourned by the Canadian people.
+The faults of the governor were those of temperament, which had been
+fostered by early environment. His nature was turbulent, and from his
+youth he had been used to command; but underlying a rough exterior there
+was evidence of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and
+decisive, and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties
+and dangers of a most critical position.
+
+  See _Count Frontenac_, by W. D. Le Sueur (Toronto, 1906); _Count
+  Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV_, by Francis Parkman (Boston,
+  1878); _Le Comte de Frontenac_, by Henri Lorin (Paris, 1895);
+  _Frontenac et ses amis_, by Ernest Myrand (Quebec, 1902).
+       (A. G. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS (c. A.D. 40-103), Roman soldier and author. In
+70 he was city praetor, and five years later was sent into Britain to
+succeed Petilius Cerealis as governor of that island. He subdued the
+Silures, and held the other native tribes in check till he was
+superseded by Agricola (78). In 97 he was appointed superintendant of
+the aqueducts (_curator aquarum_) at Rome, an office only conferred upon
+persons of very high standing. He was also a member of the college of
+augurs. His chief work is _De aquis urbis Romae_, in two books,
+containing a history and description of the water-supply of Rome,
+including the laws relating to its use and maintenance, and other
+matters of importance in the history of architecture. Frontinus also
+wrote a theoretical treatise on military science (_De re militari_)
+which is lost. His _Strategematicon libri iii._ is a collection of
+examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the
+use of officers; a fourth book, the plan and style of which is different
+from the rest (more stress is laid on the moral aspects of war, e.g.
+discipline), is the work of another writer (best edition by G.
+Gundermann, 1888). Extracts from a treatise on land-surveying ascribed
+to Frontinus are preserved in Lachmann's _Gromatici veteres_ (1848).
+
+  A valuable edition of the _De aquis_ (text and translation) has been
+  published by C. Herschel (Boston, Mass., 1899). It contains numerous
+  illustrations; maps of the routes of the ancient aqueducts and the
+  city of Rome in the time of Frontinus; a photographic reproduction of
+  the only MS. (the Monte Cassino); several explanatory chapters, and a
+  concise bibliography, in which special reference is made to P. d
+  Tissot, _Étude sur la condition des agrimensores_ (1879). There is a
+  complete edition of the works by A. Dederich (1855), and an English
+  translation of the _Strategematica_ by R. Scott (1816).
+
+
+
+
+FRONTISPIECE (through the French, from Med. Lat. _frontispicium_, a
+front view, _frons_, _frontis_, forehead or front, and _specere_, to
+look at; the English spelling is a mistaken adaptation to "piece"), an
+architectural term for the principal front of a building, but more
+generally applied to a richly decorated entrance doorway, if projecting
+slightly only in front of the main wall, otherwise portal or porch would
+be a more correct term. The word, however, is more used for a decorative
+design or the representation of some subject connected with the
+substance of a book and placed as the first illustrated page. A design
+at the end of the chapter of a book is called a tail-piece.
+
+
+
+
+FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS (c. A.D. 100-170), Roman grammarian,
+rhetorician and advocate, was born of an Italian family at Cirta in
+Numidia. He came to Rome in the reign of Hadrian, and soon gained such
+renown as an advocate and orator as to be reckoned inferior only to
+Cicero. He amassed a large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and
+purchased the famous gardens of Maecenas. Antoninus Pius, hearing of his
+fame, appointed him tutor to his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius
+Verus. In 143 he was consul for two months, but declined the
+proconsulship of Asia on the ground of ill-health. His latter years were
+embittered by the loss of all his children except one daughter. His
+talents as an orator and rhetorician were greatly admired by his
+contemporaries, a number of whom formed themselves into a school called
+after him Frontoniani, whose avowed object it was to restore the ancient
+purity and simplicity of the Latin language in place of the
+exaggerations of the Greek sophistical school. However praiseworthy the
+intention may have been, the list of authors specially recommended does
+not speak well for Fronto's literary taste. The authors of the Augustan
+age are unduly depreciated, while Ennius, Plautus, Laberius, Sallust are
+held up as models of imitation. Till 1815 the only extant works ascribed
+(erroneously) to Fronto were two grammatical treatises, _De nominum
+verborumque differentíis_ and _Exempla elocutionum_ (the last being
+really by Arusianus Messius). In that year, however, Angelo Mai
+discovered in the Ambrosian library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript
+(and, later, some additional sheets of it in the Vatican), on which had
+been originally written some of Fronto's letters to his royal pupils and
+their replies. These palimpsests had originally belonged to the famous
+convent of St Columba at Bobbio, and had been written over by the monks
+with the acts of the first council of Chalcedon. The letters, together
+with the other fragments in the palimpsest, were published at Rome in
+1823. Their contents falls far short of the writer's great reputation.
+The letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius, Marcus
+Aurelius and Lucius Verus, in which the character of Fronto's pupils
+appears in a very favourable light, especially in the affection they
+both seem to have retained for their old master; and letters to friends,
+chiefly letters of recommendation. The collection also contains
+treatises on eloquence, some historical fragments, and literary trifles
+on such subjects as the praise of smoke and dust, of negligence, and a
+dissertation on Arion. "His style is a laborious mixture of archaisms, a
+motley cento, with the aid of which he conceals the poverty of his
+knowledge and ideas." His chief merit consists in having preserved
+extracts from ancient writers which would otherwise have been lost.
+
+  The best edition of his works is by S. A. Naber (1867), with an
+  account of the palimpsest; see also G. Boissier, "Marc-Aurèle et les
+  lettres de F.," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (April 1868); R. Ellis, in
+  _Journal of Philology_ (1868) and _Correspondence of Fronto and M.
+  Aurelius_ (1904); and the full bibliography in the article by Brzoska
+  in the new edition of Pauly's _Realencyclopädie der classischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. pt. i. (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FROSINONE (anc. _Frusino_), a town of Italy in the province of Rome,
+from which it is 53 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 9530; commune,
+11,029. The place is picturesquely situated on a hill of 955 ft. above
+sea-level, but contains no buildings of interest. Of the ancient city
+walls a small fragment alone is preserved, and no other traces of
+antiquity are visible, not even of the amphitheatre which it once
+possessed, for which a ticket (_tessera_) has been found (Th. Mommsen in
+_Ber. d. Sächsischen Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften_, 1849, 286). It was
+a Volscian, not a Hernican, town; a part of its territory was taken from
+it about 306-303 B.C. by the Romans and sold. The town then became a
+_praefectura_, probably with the _civitas sine suffragio_, and later a
+colony, but we hear nothing important of it. It was situated just above
+the Via Latina.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTE (1807-1875), French general, was born on the
+26th of April 1807, and entered the army from the École Polytechnique in
+1827, being posted to the engineers. He took part in the siege of Rome
+in 1849 and in that of Sebastopol in 1855, after which he was promoted
+general of brigade. Four years later as general of division, and chief
+of engineers in the Italian campaign, he attracted the particular notice
+of the emperor Napoleon III., who made him in 1867 chief of his military
+household and governor to the prince imperial. He was one of the
+superior military authorities who in this period 1866-1870 foresaw and
+endeavoured to prepare for the inevitable war with Germany, and at the
+outbreak of war he was given by Napoleon the choice between a corps
+command and the post of chief engineer at headquarters. He chose the
+command of the II. corps. On the 6th of August 1870 he held the position
+of Spicheren against the Germans until the arrival of reinforcements for
+the latter, and the non-appearance of the other French corps compelled
+him to retire. After this he took part in the battles around Metz, and
+was involved with his corps in the surrender of Bazaine's army. General
+Frossard published in 1872 a _Rapport sur les opérations du 2^e corps_.
+He died at Château-Villain (Haute-Marne) on the 25th of August 1875.
+
+
+
+
+FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810-1877), English painter, was born at
+Wandsworth, near London, in September 1810. About 1825, through William
+Etty, R.A., he was sent to a drawing school in Bloomsbury, and after
+several years' study there, and in the sculpture rooms at the British
+Museum, Frost was in 1829 admitted as a student in the schools of the
+Royal Academy. He won medals in all the schools, except the antique, in
+which he was beaten by Maclise. During those years he maintained himself
+by portrait-painting. He is said to have painted about this time over
+300 portraits. In 1839 he obtained the gold medal of the Royal Academy
+for his picture of "Prometheus bound by Force and Strength." At the
+cartoon exhibition at Westminster Hall in 1843 he was awarded a
+third-class prize of £100 for his cartoon of "Una alarmed by Fauns and
+Satyrs." He exhibited at the Academy "Christ crowned with Thorns"
+(1843), "Nymphs dancing" (1844), "Sabrina" (1845), "Diana and Actaeon"
+(1846). In 1846 he was elected Associate of the Royal Academy. His
+"Nymph disarming Cupid" was exhibited in 1847; "Una and the Wood-Nymphs"
+of the same year was bought by the queen. This was the time of Frost's
+highest popularity, which considerably declined after 1850. His later
+pictures are simply repetitions of earlier motives. Among them may be
+named "Euphrosyne" (1848), "Wood-Nymphs" (1851), "Chastity" (1854), "Il
+Penseroso" (1855), "The Graces" (1856), "Narcissus" (1857), "Zephyr with
+Aurora playing" (1858), "The Graces and Loves" (1863), "Hylas and the
+Nymphs" (1867). Frost was elected to full membership of the Royal
+Academy in December 1871. This dignity, however, he soon resigned. Frost
+had no high power of design, though some of his smaller and apparently
+less important works are not without grace and charm. Technically, his
+paintings are, in a sense, very highly finished, but they are entirely
+without mastery. He died on the 4th of June 1877.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 11, Slice 2, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 2
+       "French Literature" to "Frost, William"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 12, 2011 [EBook #37736]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XI SLICE II<br /><br />
+French Literature to Frost, William</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FRENCH LITERATURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FRIEDRICHSHAFEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FRENCH POLISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FRIEDRICHSRUH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FRIENDLY SOCIETIES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FRENCH WEST AFRICA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FRENTANI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FREPPEL, CHARLES ÉMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FRIES, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FRIESLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FRIEZE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FRÈRE, PIERRE ÉDOUARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FRIGATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FRÈRE-ORBAN, HUBERT JOSEPH WALTHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FRIGATE-BIRD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FRÉRET, NICOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FRIGG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FRÉRON, ÉLIE CATHERINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FRIGIDARIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FRÉRON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FRIIS, JOHAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FRESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FRIMLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FRESENIUS, KARL REMIGIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FRISCHES HAFF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FRESHWATER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FRISI, PAOLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FRESNILLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FRISIAN ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FRESNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FRISIANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FRITH, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FRET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FREUDENSTADT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FRITILLARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FREUND, WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FRITZLAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FREWEN, ACCEPTED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FRIULI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FROBEN, JOANNES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FREYBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FREYCINET, CHARLES LOUIS DE SAULCES DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FROCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DESAULSES DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FREYIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FROG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FREYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FROG-BIT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FREYTAG, GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FROGMORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FRIAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FRÖHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FRIBOURG</a> (Swiss Canton)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FRIBOURG</a> (Swiss town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FROISSART, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FRICTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FROME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FRIDAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FROMENTIN, EUGÈNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FRIEDBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FROMMEL, GASTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FRIEDEL, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FRONDE, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FRIEDLAND</a> (town of Austria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, LOUIS DE BUADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FRIEDLAND</a> (towns in Germany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FRIEDLAND</a> (town of Prussia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FRONTISPIECE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FRIEDMANN, MEIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FRIEDRICH, JOHANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FROSINONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FRIEDRICHRODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FRIEDRICHSDORF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">FRENCH LITERATURE.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> <i>Origins.</i>&mdash;The history of French
+literature in the proper sense of the term can hardly be said to
+extend farther back than the 11th century. The actual manuscripts
+which we possess are seldom of older date than the century
+subsequent to this. But there is no doubt that by the end at
+least of the 11th century the French language, as a completely
+organized medium of literary expression, was in full, varied and
+constant use. For many centuries previous to this, literature
+had been composed in France, or by natives of that country,
+using the term France in its full modern acceptation; but until
+the 9th century, if not later, the written language of France, so
+far as we know, was Latin; and despite the practice of not a few
+literary historians, it does not seem reasonable to notice Latin
+writings in a history of French literature. Such a history
+properly busies itself only with the monuments of French itself
+from the time when the so-called Lingua Romana Rustica
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span>
+assumed a sufficiently independent form to deserve to be called
+a new language. This time it is indeed impossible exactly to
+determine, and the period at which literary compositions, as
+distinguished from mere conversation, began to employ the new
+tongue is entirely unknown. As early as the 7th century the
+Lingua Romana, as distinguished from Latin and from Teutonic
+dialects, is mentioned, and this Lingua Romana would be of
+necessity used for purposes of clerical admonition, especially in
+the country districts, though we need not suppose that such
+addresses had a very literary character. On the other hand,
+the mention, at early dates, of certain <i>cantilenae</i> or songs composed
+in the vulgar language has served for basis to a superstructure
+of much ingenious argument with regard to the highly
+interesting problem of the origin of the <i>Chansons de Geste</i>, the
+earliest and one of the greatest literary developments of northern
+French. It is sufficient in this article, where speculation would
+be out of place, to mention that only two such <i>cantilenae</i> actually
+exist, and that neither is French. One of the 9th century, the
+&ldquo;Lay of Saucourt,&rdquo; is in a Teutonic dialect; the other, the &ldquo;Song
+of St Faron,&rdquo; is of the 7th century, but exists only in Latin
+prose, the construction and style of which present traces of translation
+<span class="sidenote">Early monuments.</span>
+from a poetical and vernacular original. As far
+as facts go, the most ancient monuments of the written
+French language consist of a few documents of very
+various character, ranging in date from the 9th to the
+11th century. The oldest gives us the oaths interchanged at
+Strassburg in 842 between Charles the Bald and Louis the German.
+The next probably in date and the first in literary merit is a short
+song celebrating the martyrdom of St Eulalia, which may be
+as old as the end of the 9th century, and is certainly not younger
+than the beginning of the 10th. Another, the <i>Life of St Leger</i>, in
+240 octosyllabic lines, is dated by conjecture about 975. The
+discussion indeed of these short and fragmentary pieces is of
+more philological than literary interest, and belongs rather to
+the head of French language. They are, however, evidence of
+the progress which, continuing for at least four centuries, built up
+a literary instrument out of the decomposed and reconstructed
+Latin of the Roman conquerors, blended with a certain limited
+amount of contributions from the Celtic and Iberian dialects of
+the original inhabitants, the Teutonic speech of the Franks, and
+the Oriental tongue of the Moors who pressed upwards from Spain.
+But all these foreign elements bear a very small proportion to the
+element of Latin; and as Latin furnished the greater part of the
+vocabulary and the grammar, so did it also furnish the principal
+models and helps to literary composition. The earliest French
+versification is evidently inherited from that of the Latin hymns
+of the church, and for a certain time Latin originals were followed
+in the choice of literary forms. But by the 11th century it is
+tolerably certain that dramatic attempts were already being
+made in the vernacular, that lyric poetry was largely cultivated,
+that laws, charters, and such-like documents were written, and
+that commentators and translators busied themselves with religious
+subjects and texts. The most important of the extant
+documents, outside of the epics presently to be noticed, has of
+<span class="sidenote">Epic poetry.</span>
+late been held to be the <i>Life of Saint Alexis</i>, a poem
+of 625 decasyllabic lines, arranged in five-line stanzas,
+each of one assonance or vowel-rhyme, which may be
+as early as 1050. But the most important development of the
+11th century, and the one of which we are most certain, is that
+of which we have evidence remaining in the famous <i>Chanson de
+Roland</i>, discovered in a manuscript at Oxford and first published
+in 1837. This poem represents the first and greatest development
+of French literature, the chansons de geste (this form is now
+preferred to that with the plural <i>gestes</i>). The origin of these
+poems has been hotly debated, and it is only recently that the
+importance which they really possess has been accorded to them,&mdash;a
+fact the less remarkable in that, until about 1820, the epics
+of ancient France were unknown, or known only through late
+and disfigured prose versions. Whether they originated in the
+north or the south is a question on which there have been more
+than one or two revolutions of opinion, and will probably be
+others still, but which need not be dealt with here. We possess
+in round numbers a hundred of these chansons. Three only of
+them are in Provençal. Two of these, <i>Ferabras</i> and <i>Betonnet
+d&rsquo;Hanstonne</i>, are obviously adaptations of French originals.
+The third, <i>Girartz de Rossilho</i> (Gerard de Roussillon), is undoubtedly
+Provençal, and is a work of great merit and originality,
+but its dialect is strongly tinged with the characteristics of the
+Langue d&rsquo;Oïl, and its author seems to have been a native of the
+debatable land between the two districts. To suppose under
+these circumstances that the Provençal originals of the hundred
+others have perished seems gratuitous. It is sufficient to say
+that the chanson de geste, as it is now extant, is the almost
+exclusive property of northern France. Nor is there much
+authority for a supposition that the early French poets merely
+versified with amplifications the stories of chroniclers. On the
+contrary, chroniclers draw largely from the chansons, and the
+question of priority between <i>Roland</i> and the pseudo-Turpin,
+though a hard one to determine, seems to resolve itself in favour
+of the former. At most we may suppose, with much probability,
+that personal and family tradition gave a nucleus for at least
+the earliest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chansons de Geste.</i>&mdash;Early French narrative poetry was
+divided by one of its own writers, Jean Bodel, under three heads&mdash;poems
+relating to French history, poems relating to
+ancient history, and poems of the Arthurian cycle
+<span class="sidenote">Chansons de Geste.</span>
+(<i>Matières de France, de Bretagne, et de Rome</i>). To the
+first only is the term chansons de geste in strictness applicable.
+The definition of it goes partly by form and partly by matter.
+A chanson de geste must be written in verses either of ten or
+twelve syllables, the former being the earlier. These verses have
+a regular caesura, which, like the end of a line, carries with it
+the licence of a mute <i>e</i>. The lines are arranged, not in couplets
+or in stanzas of equal length, but in <i>laisses</i> or <i>tirades</i>, consisting
+of any number of lines from half a dozen to some hundreds.
+These are, in the earlier examples assonanced,&mdash;that is to say,
+the vowel sound of the last syllables is identical, but the consonants
+need not agree. Thus, for instance, the final words of a
+tirade of <i>Amis et Amiles</i> (Il. 199-206) are <i>erbe</i>, <i>nouvelle</i>, <i>selles</i>,
+<i>nouvelles</i>, <i>traversent</i>, <i>arrestent</i>, <i>guerre</i>, <i>cortége</i>. Sometimes the
+tirade is completed by a shorter line, and the later chansons are
+regularly rhymed. As to the subject, a chanson de geste must be
+concerned with some event which is, or is supposed to be,
+historical and French. The tendency of the trouvères was constantly
+to affiliate their heroes on a particular <i>geste</i> or family.
+The three chief <i>gestes</i> are those of Charlemagne himself, of Doon
+de Mayence, and of Garin de Monglane; but there are not a
+few chansons, notably those concerning the Lorrainers, and the
+remarkable series sometimes called the <i>Chevalier au Cygne</i>, and
+dealing with the crusades, which lie outside these groups. By
+this joint definition of form and subject the chansons de geste
+are separated from the romances of antiquity, from the romances
+of the Round Table, which are written in octosyllabic couplets,
+and from the <i>romans d&rsquo;aventures</i> or later fictitious tales, some of
+which, such as <i>Brun de la Montaigne</i>, are written in pure chanson
+form.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least remarkable point about the chansons de geste
+is their vast extent. Their number, according to the strictest
+definition, exceeds 100, and the length of each chanson
+varies from 1000 lines, or thereabouts, to 20,000 or
+<span class="sidenote">Volume and changes of early epics.</span>
+even 30,000. The entire mass, including, it may be
+supposed, the various versions and extensions of each
+chanson, is said to amount to between two and three million
+lines; and when, under the second empire, the publication of the
+whole Carolingian cycle was projected, it was estimated, taking
+the earliest versions alone, at over 300,000. The successive
+developments of the chansons de geste may be illustrated by the
+fortunes of <i>Huon de Bordeaux</i>, one of the most lively, varied
+and romantic of the older epics, and one which is interesting
+from the use made of it by Shakespeare, Wieland and Weber.
+In the oldest form now extant, though even this is probably not
+the original, <i>Huon</i> consists of over 10,000 lines. A subsequent
+version contains 4000 more; and lastly, in the 14th century,
+a later poet has amplified the legend to the extent of 30,000 lines.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span>
+When this point had been reached, <i>Huon</i> began to be turned into
+prose, was with many of his fellows published and republished
+during the 15th and subsequent centuries, and retains, in the
+form of a roughly printed chap-book, the favour of the country
+districts of France to the present day. It is not, however, in the
+later versions that the special characteristics of the chansons
+de geste are to be looked for. Of those which we possess, one and
+one only, the <i>Chanson de Roland</i>, belongs in its present form
+to the 11th century. Their date of production extends, speaking
+roughly, from the 11th to the 14th century, their palmy days were
+the 11th and the 12th. After this latter period the Arthurian
+romances, with more complex attractions, became their rivals,
+and induced their authors to make great changes in their style
+and subject. But for a time they reigned supreme, and no better
+instance of their popularity can be given than the fact that
+manuscripts of them exist, not merely in every French dialect,
+but in many cases in a strange macaronic jargon of mingled
+French and Italian. Two classes of persons were concerned in
+them. There was the <i>trouvère</i> who composed them, and the
+<i>jongleur</i> who carried them about in manuscript or in his memory
+from castle to castle and sang them, intermixing frequent appeals
+to his auditory for silence, declarations of the novelty and the
+strict copyright character of the chanson, revilings of rival
+minstrels, and frequently requests for money in plain words.
+Not a few of the manuscripts which we now possess appear to
+have been actually used by the jongleur. But the names of the
+authors, the trouvères who actually composed them, are in very
+few cases known, those of copyists, continuators, and mere
+possessors of manuscripts having been often mistaken for them.</p>
+
+<p>The moral and poetical peculiarities of the older and more
+authentic of these chansons are strongly marked, though perhaps
+not quite so strongly as some of their encomiasts have contended,
+and as may appear to a reader of the most famous of them, the
+<i>Chanson de Roland</i>, alone. In that poem, indeed, war and
+religion are the sole motives employed, and its motto might
+be two lines from another of the finest chansons (<i>Aliscans</i>,
+161-162):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Dist à Bertran: &lsquo;N&rsquo;avons mais nul losir,</p>
+<p class="i05">Tant ke vivons alons paiens ferir.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In Roland there is no love-making whatever, and the hero&rsquo;s
+betrothed &ldquo;la belle Aude&rdquo; appears only in a casual gibe of her
+brother Oliver, and in the incident of her sudden death at the
+news of Roland&rsquo;s fall. M. Léon Gautier and others have drawn
+the conclusion that this stern and masculine character was a
+feature of all the older chansons, and that imitation of the
+Arthurian romance is the cause of its disappearance. This
+seems rather a hasty inference. In <i>Amis et Amiles</i>, admittedly
+a poem of old date, the parts of Bellicent and Lubias are
+prominent, and the former is demonstrative enough. In <i>Aliscans</i>
+the part of the Countess Guibourc is both prominent and heroic,
+and is seconded by that of Queen Blancheflor and her daughter
+Aelis. We might also mention Oriabel in <i>Jourdans de Blaivies</i>
+and others. But it may be admitted that the sex which fights and
+counsels plays the principal part, that love adventures are not
+introduced at any great length, and that the lady usually spares
+her knight the trouble and possible indignities of a long wooing.
+The characters of a chanson of the older style are somewhat
+uniform. There is the hero who is unjustly suspected of guilt or
+sore beset by Saracens, the heroine who falls in love with him,
+the traitor who accuses him or delays help, who is almost always
+of the lineage of Ganelon, and whose ways form a very curious
+study. There are friendly paladins and subordinate traitors;
+there is Charlemagne (who bears throughout the marks of the
+epic king common to Arthur and Agamemnon, but is not in the
+earlier chanson the incapable and venal dotard which he becomes
+in the later), and with Charlemagne generally the duke Naimes
+of Bavaria, the one figure who is invariably wise, brave, loyal
+and generous. In a few chansons there is to be added to these a
+very interesting class of personages who, though of low birth or
+condition, yet rescue the high-born knights from their enemies.
+Such are Rainoart in <i>Aliscans</i>, Gautier in <i>Gaydon</i>, Robastre in
+<i>Gaufrey</i>, Varocher in <i>Macaire</i>. These subjects, uniform rather
+than monotonous, are handled with great uniformity if not
+monotony of style. There are constant repetitions, and it sometimes
+seems, and may sometimes be the case, that the text is a
+mere cento of different and repeated versions. But the verse is
+generally harmonious and often stately. The recurrent assonances
+of the endless tirade soon impress the ear with a grateful
+music, and occasionally, and far more frequently than might be
+thought, passages of high poetry, such as the magnificent <i>Granz
+doel por la mort de Rollant</i>, appear to diversify the course of the
+story. The most remarkable of the chansons are <i>Roland</i>,
+<i>Aliscans</i>, <i>Gerard de Roussillon</i>, <i>Amis et Amiles</i>, <i>Raoul de Cambrai</i>,
+<i>Garin le Loherain</i> and its sequel <i>Les quatre Fils Aymon</i>, <i>Les Saisnes</i>
+(recounting the war of Charlemagne with Witekind), and lastly,
+<i>Le Chevalier au Cygne</i>, which is not a single poem but a series,
+dealing with the earlier crusades. The most remarkable <i>group</i> is
+that centring round William of Orange, the historical or half-historical
+defender of the south of France against Mahommedan
+invasion. Almost all the chansons of this group, from the long-known
+<i>Aliscans</i> to the recently printed <i>Chançon de Willame</i>,
+are distinguished by an unwonted <i>personality</i> of interest, as well
+as by an intensified dose of the rugged and martial poetry which
+pervades the whole class. It is noteworthy that one chanson
+and one only, <i>Floovant</i>, deals with Merovingian times. But the
+chronology, geography, and historic facts of nearly all are, it is
+hardly necessary to say, mainly arbitrary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arthurian Romances.</i>&mdash;The second class of early French epics
+consists of the Arthurian cycle, the <i>Matière de Bretagne</i>, the
+earliest known compositions of which are at least a century
+junior to the earliest chanson de geste, but which soon succeeded
+the chansons in popular favour, and obtained a vogue both wider
+and far more enduring. It is not easy to conceive a greater
+contrast in form, style, subject and sentiment than is presented
+by the two classes. In both the religious sentiment is prominent,
+but the religion of the chansons is of the simplest, not to say of the
+most savage character. To pray to God and to kill his enemies
+constitutes the whole duty of man. In the romances the mystical
+element becomes on the contrary prominent, and furnishes, in
+the Holy Grail, one of the most important features. In the Carlovingian
+knight the courtesy and clemency which we have learnt
+to associate with chivalry are almost entirely absent. The
+<i>gentix ber</i> contradicts, jeers at, and execrates his sovereign and
+his fellows with the utmost freedom. He thinks nothing of striking
+his <i>cortoise moullier</i> so that the blood runs down her <i>cler vis</i>.
+If a servant or even an equal offends him, he will throw the
+offender into the fire, knock his brains out, or set his whiskers
+ablaze. The Arthurian knight is far more of the modern model
+in these respects. But his chief difference from his predecessor
+is undoubtedly in his amorous devotion to his beloved, who,
+if not morally superior to Bellicent, Floripas, Esclairmonde, and
+the other Carlovingian heroines, is somewhat less forward. Even
+in minute details the difference is strongly marked. The romances
+are in octosyllabic couplets or in prose, and their language is
+different from that of the chansons, and contains much fewer of
+the usual epic repetitions and stock phrases. A voluminous controversy
+has been held respecting the origin of these differences,
+and of the story or stories which were destined to receive such
+remarkable attention. Reference must be made to the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthurian Legend</a></span> for the history of this controversy and for
+an account of its present state. This state, however, and all
+subsequent states, are likely to be rather dependent upon opinion
+than upon actual knowledge. From the point of view of the
+general historian of literature it may not be improper here to give
+a caution against the frequent use of the word &ldquo;proven&rdquo; in such
+matters. Very little in regard to early literature, except the
+literary value of the texts, is ever susceptible of <i>proof</i>; although
+things may be made more or less <i>probable</i>. What we are at present
+concerned with, however, is a body of verse and prose composed
+in the latter part of the 12th century and later. The earliest
+romances, the <i>Saint Graal</i>, the <i>Quête du Saint Graal</i>, <i>Joseph
+d&rsquo;Arimathie</i> and <i>Merlin</i> bear the names of Walter Map and
+Robert de Borron. <i>Artus</i> and part at least of <i>Lancelot du Lac</i>
+(the whole of which has been by turns attributed and denied to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span>
+Walter Map) appear to be due to unknown authors. <i>Tristan</i>
+came later, and has a stronger mixture of Celtic tradition. At
+the same time as Walter Map, or a little later, Chrétien (or
+Chrestien) de Troyes threw the legends of the Round Table
+into octosyllabic verse of a singularly spirited and picturesque
+character. The chief poems attributed to him are the <i>Chevalier
+au Lyon</i> (Sir Ewain of Wales), the <i>Chevalier à la Charette</i> (one
+of the episodes of <i>Lancelot</i>), <i>Eric et Enide</i>, <i>Tristan</i> and <i>Percivale</i>.
+These poems, independently of their merit, which is great, had
+an extensive literary influence. They were translated by the
+German minnesingers, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Gottfried of
+Strassburg, and others. With the romances already referred
+to, which are mostly in prose, and which by recent authorities
+have been put later than the verse tales which used to be postponed
+to them, Chrétien&rsquo;s poems complete the early forms of
+the Arthurian story, and supply the matter of it as it is best
+known to English readers in Malory&rsquo;s book. Nor does that book,
+though far later than the original forms, convey a very false
+impression of the characteristics of the older romances. Indeed,
+the Arthurian knight, his character and adventures, are so much
+better known than the heroes of the Carlovingian chanson that
+there is less need to dwell upon them. They had, however, as has
+been already pointed out, great influence upon their rivals, and
+their comparative fertility of invention, the much larger number
+of their <i>dramatis personae</i>, and the greater variety of interests to
+which they appealed, sufficiently explain their increased popularity.
+The ordinary attractions of poetry are also more largely
+present in them than in the chansons; there is more description,
+more life, and less of the mere chronicle. They have been accused
+of relaxing morality, and there is perhaps some truth in the
+charge. But the change is after all one rather of manners than
+of morals, and what is lost in simplicity is gained in refinement.
+<i>Doon de Mayence</i> is a late chanson, and <i>Lancelot du Lac</i> is an early
+romance. But the two beautiful scenes, in the former between
+Doon and Nicolette, in the latter between Lancelot, Galahault,
+Guinevere, and the Lady of Malehaut, may be compared as
+instances of the attitude of the two classes of poets towards the
+same subject.</p>
+
+<p><i>Romances of Antiquity.</i>&mdash;There is yet a third class of early
+narrative poems, differing from the two former in subject, but
+agreeing, sometimes with one sometimes with the other in form.
+These are the classical romances&mdash;the <i>Matière de Rome</i>&mdash;which
+are not much later than those of Charlemagne and Arthur.
+The chief subjects with which their authors busied themselves
+were the conquests of Alexander and the siege of Troy, though
+other classical stories come in. The most remarkable of all is the
+romance of <i>Alixandre</i> by Lambert the Short and Alexander of
+Bernay. It has been said that the excellence of the twelve-syllabled
+verse used in this romance was the origin of the term
+alexandrine. The Trojan romances, on the other hand, are
+chiefly in octosyllabic verse, and the principal poem which
+treats of them is the <i>Roman de Troie</i> of Benoit de Sainte More.
+Both this poem and <i>Alixandre</i> are attributed to the last quarter
+of the 12th century. The authorities consulted for these poems
+were, as may be supposed, none of the best. Dares Phrygius,
+Dictys Cretensis, the pseudo-Callisthenes supplied most of them.
+But the inexhaustible invention of the trouvères themselves was
+the chief authority consulted. The adventures of Medea, the
+wanderings of Alexander, the Trojan horse, the story of Thebes,
+were quite sufficient to spur on to exertion the minds which had
+been accustomed to spin a chanson of some 10,000 lines out of a
+casual allusion in some preceding poem. It is needless to say
+that anachronisms did not disturb them. From first to last the
+writers of the chansons had not in the least troubled themselves
+with attention to any such matters. Charlemagne himself had
+his life and exploits accommodated to the need of every poet
+who treats of him, and the same is the case with the heroes of
+antiquity. Indeed, Alexander is made in many respects a prototype
+of Charlemagne. He is regularly knighted, he has twelve
+peers, he holds tournaments, he has relations with Arthur, and
+comes in contact with fairies, he takes flights in the air, dives in
+the sea and so forth. There is perhaps more avowed imagination
+in these classical stories than in either of the other divisions of
+French epic poetry. Some of their authors even confess to the
+practice of fiction, while the trouvères of the chansons invariably
+assert the historical character of their facts and personages, and
+the authors of the Arthurian romances at least start from facts
+vouched for, partly by national tradition, partly by the
+authority of religion and the church. The classical romances,
+however, are important in two different ways. In the first place,
+they connect the early literature of France, however loosely, and
+with links of however dubious authenticity, with the great history
+and literature of the past. They show a certain amount of scholarship
+in their authors, and in their hearers they show a capacity
+of taking an interest in subjects which are not merely those
+directly connected with the village or the tribe. The chansons
+de geste had shown the creative power and independent character
+of French literature. There is, at least about the earlier ones,
+nothing borrowed, traditional or scholarly. They smack of the
+soil, and they rank France among the very few countries which, in
+this matter of indigenous growth, have yielded more than folk-songs
+and fireside tales. The Arthurian romances, less independent
+in origin, exhibit a wider range of view, a greater
+knowledge of human nature, and a more extensive command
+of the sources of poetical and romantic interest. The classical
+epics superadd the only ingredient necessary to an accomplished
+literature&mdash;that is to say, the knowledge of what has been done
+by other peoples and other literatures already, and the readiness
+to take advantage of the materials thus supplied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Romans d&rsquo;Aventures.</i>&mdash;These are the three earliest developments
+of French literature on the great scale. They led, however,
+to a fourth, which, though later in date than all except their
+latest forms and far more loosely associated as a group, is so
+closely connected with them by literary and social considerations
+that it had best be mentioned here. This is the <i>roman
+d&rsquo;aventures</i>, a title given to those almost avowedly fictitious
+poems which connect themselves, mainly and centrally, neither
+with French history, with the Round Table, nor with the heroes
+of antiquity. These began to be written in the 13th century, and
+continued until the prose form of fiction became generally preferred.
+The later forms of the chansons de geste and the Arthurian
+poems might indeed be well called romans d&rsquo;aventures themselves.
+<i>Hugues Capet</i>, for instance, a chanson in form and class of
+subject, is certainly one of this latter kind in treatment; and
+there is a larger class of semi-Arthurian romance, which so to
+speak branches off from the main trunk. But for convenience
+sake the definition we have given is preferable. The style and
+subject of these romans d&rsquo;aventures are naturally extremely
+various. <i>Guillaume de Palerme</i> deals with the adventures of a
+Sicilian prince who is befriended by a were-wolf; <i>Le Roman de
+l&rsquo;escoufle</i>, with a heroine whose ring is carried off by a sparrow-hawk
+(<i>escoufle</i>), like Prince Camaralzaman&rsquo;s talisman; <i>Guy of
+Warwick</i>, with one of the most famous of imaginary heroes;
+<i>Meraugis de Portléguez</i> is a sort of branch or offshoot of the
+romances of the Round Table; <i>Cléomadès</i>, the work of the
+trouvère Adenès le Roi, who also rehandled the old chanson
+subjects of <i>Ogier</i> and <i>Berte aux grans piés</i>, connects itself once
+more with the <i>Arabian Nights</i> as well as with Chaucer forwards
+in the introduction of a flying mechanical horse. There is, in
+short, no possibility of classifying their subjects. The habit of
+writing in gestes, or of necessarily connecting the new work with
+an older one, had ceased to be binding, and the instinct of fiction
+writing was free; yet those romans d&rsquo;aventures do not rank quite
+as high in literary importance as the classes which preceded them.
+This under-valuation arises rather from a lack of originality and
+distinctness of savour than from any shortcomings in treatment.
+Their versification, usually octosyllabic, is pleasant enough; but
+there is not much distinctness of character about them, and their
+incidents often strike the reader with something of the sameness,
+but seldom with much of the naïveté, of those of the older poems.
+Nevertheless some of them attained to a very high popularity,
+such, for instance, as the <i>Partenopex de Blois</i> of Denis Pyramus,
+which has a motive drawn from the story of <i>Cupid and Psyche</i>
+and the charming <i>Floire et Blanchefleur</i>, giving the woes of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span>
+Christian prince and a Saracen slave-girl. With them may be
+connected a certain number of early romances and fictions of
+various dates in prose, none of which can vie in charm with
+<i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i> (13th century), an exquisite literary presentment
+of medieval sentiment in its most delightful form.</p>
+
+<p>In these classes maybe said to be summed up the literature of
+feudal chivalry in France. They were all, except perhaps the last,
+composed by one class of persons, the trouvères, and
+performed by another, the jongleurs. The latter,
+<span class="sidenote">General characteristics of early narrative.</span>
+indeed, sometimes presumed to compose for himself,
+and was denounced as a <i>troveor batard</i> by the indignant
+members of the superior caste. They were all originally
+intended to be performed in the <i>palais marberin</i> of the baron to
+an audience of knights and ladies, and, when reading became
+more common, to be read by such persons. They dealt therefore
+chiefly, if not exclusively, with the class to whom they were
+addressed. The bourgeois and the villain, personages of political
+nonentity at the time of their early composition, come in for
+far slighter notice, although occasionally in the few curious
+instances we have mentioned, and others, persons of a class
+inferior to the seigneur play an important part. The habit of
+private wars and of insurrection against the sovereign supply
+the motives of the chanson de geste, the love of gallantry,
+adventure and foreign travel those of the romances Arthurian
+and miscellaneous. None of these motives much affected the
+lower classes, who were, with the early developed temper of the
+middle- and lower-class Frenchman, already apt to think and
+speak cynically enough of tournaments, courts, crusades and
+the other occupations of the nobility. The communal system
+was springing up, the towns were receiving royal encouragement
+as a counterpoise to the authority of the nobles. The corruptions
+and maladministration of the church attracted the satire rather
+of the citizens and peasantry who suffered by them, than of the
+<span class="sidenote">Spread of literary taste.</span>
+nobles who had less to fear and even something to gain.
+On the other hand, the gradual spread of learning,
+inaccurate and ill-digested perhaps, but still learning,
+not only opened up new classes of subjects, but opened
+them to new classes of persons. The thousands of students who
+flocked to the schools of Paris were not all princes or nobles.
+Hence there arose two new classes of literature, the first consisting
+of the embodiment of learning of one kind or other in the vulgar
+tongue. The other, one of the most remarkable developments of
+sportive literature which the world has seen, produced the second
+indigenous literary growth of which France can boast, namely,
+the fabliaux, and the almost more remarkable work which is an
+immense conglomerate of fabliaux, the great beast-epic of the
+Roman de Renart.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fabliaux.</i>&mdash;There are few literary products which have more
+originality and at the same time more diversity than the fabliau.
+The epic and the drama, even when they are independently
+produced, are similar in their main characteristics all the world
+over. But there is nothing in previous literature which exactly
+corresponds to the fabliau. It comes nearest to the Aesopic fable
+and its eastern origins or parallels. But differs from these
+in being less allegorical, less obviously moral (though a moral
+of some sort is usually if not always enforced), and in having
+a much more direct personal interest. It is in many degrees
+further removed from the parable, and many degrees nearer to
+the novel. The story is the first thing, the moral the second,
+and the latter is never suffered to interfere with the former.
+These observations apply only to the fabliaux, properly so called,
+but the term has been used with considerable looseness. The
+collectors of those interesting pieces, Barbazan, Méon, Le Grand
+d&rsquo;Aussy, have included in their collections large numbers of
+miscellaneous pieces such as <i>dits</i> (rhymed descriptions of various
+objects, the most famous known author of which was Baudouin
+de Condé, 13th century), and <i>débats</i> (discussions between two
+persons or contrasts of the attributes of two things), sometimes
+even short romances, farces and mystery plays. Not that the
+fable proper&mdash;the prose classical beast-story of &ldquo;Aesop&rdquo;&mdash;was
+neglected. Marie de France&mdash;the poetess to be mentioned
+again for her more strictly poetical work&mdash;is the most literary
+of not a few writers who composed what were often, after the
+mysterious original poet, named <i>Ysopets</i>. Aesop, Phaedrus,
+Babrius were translated and imitated in Latin and in the vernacular
+by this class of writer, and some of the best known of
+&ldquo;fablers&rdquo; date from this time. The fabliau, on the other
+hand, according to the best definition of it yet achieved, is
+&ldquo;the recital, generally comic, of a real or possible incident
+occurring in ordinary human life.&rdquo; The comedy, it may be added,
+is usually of a satiric kind, and occupies itself with every class
+and rank of men, from the king to the villain. There is no limit
+to the variety of these lively verse-tales, which are invariably
+written in eight-syllabled couplets. Now the subject is the misadventure
+of two Englishmen, whose ignorance of the French
+language makes them confuse donkey and lamb; now it is the
+fortunes of an exceedingly foolish knight, who has an amiable
+and ingenious mother-in-law; now the deserved sufferings of
+an avaricious or ill-behaved priest; now the bringing of an
+ungrateful son to a better mind by the wisdom of babes and
+sucklings. Not a few of the <i>Canterbury Tales</i> are taken directly
+from fabliaux; indeed, Chaucer, with the possible exception of
+Prior, is our nearest approach to a fabliau-writer. At the other
+end of Europe the prose novels of Boccaccio and other Italian
+tale-tellers are largely based upon fabliaux. But their influence
+in their own country was the greatest. They were the first
+expression of the spirit which has since animated the most
+national and popular developments of French literature. Simple
+and unpretending as they are in form, the fabliaux announce
+not merely the <i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i> and the <i>Heptameron</i>,
+<i>L&rsquo;Avocat Patelin</i>, and <i>Pantagruel</i>, but also <i>L&rsquo;Avare</i> and the
+<i>Roman comique</i>, <i>Gil Blas</i> and <i>Candide</i>. They indeed do more
+than merely prophesy the spirit of these great performances&mdash;they
+directly lead to them. The prose-tale and the farce are
+the direct outcomes of the fabliau, and the prose-tale and the
+farce once given, the novel and the comedy inevitably follow.</p>
+
+<p>The special period of fabliau composition appears to have been
+the 12th and 13th centuries. It signifies on the one side the
+growth of a lighter and more sportive spirit than had
+yet prevailed, on another the rise in importance of
+<span class="sidenote">Social importance of fabliaux.</span>
+other and lower orders of men than the priest and the
+noble, on yet another the consciousness on the part
+of these lower orders of the defects of the two privileged classes,
+and of the shortcomings of the system of polity under which
+these privileged classes enjoyed their privileges. There is, however,
+in the fabliau proper not so very much of direct satire, this
+being indeed excluded by the definition given above, and by the
+thoroughly artistic spirit in which that definition is observed.
+The fabliaux are so numerous and so various that it is difficult
+to select any as specially representative. We may, however,
+mention, both as good examples and as interesting from their
+subsequent history, <i>Le Vair Palfroi</i>, treated in English by Leigh
+Hunt and by Peacock; <i>Le Vilain Mire</i>, the original consciously
+or unconsciously followed in <i>Le Médecin malgré lui</i>; <i>Le Roi
+d&rsquo;Angleterre et le jongleur d&rsquo;Éli</i>; <i>La houce partie</i>; <i>Le Sot Chevalier</i>,
+an indecorous but extremely amusing story; <i>Les deux bordeors
+ribaus</i>, a dialogue between two jongleurs of great literary interest,
+containing allusions to the chansons de geste and romances most
+in vogue; and <i>Le vilain qui conquist paradis par plait</i>, one of the
+numerous instances of what has unnecessarily puzzled moderns,
+the association in medieval times of sincere and unfeigned faith
+with extremely free handling of its objects. This lightheartedness
+in other subjects sometimes bubbled over into the <i>fatrasie</i>,
+an almost pure nonsense-piece, parent of the later <i>amphigouri</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Roman de Renart.</i>&mdash;If the fabliaux are not remarkable for
+direct satire, that element is supplied in more than compensating
+quantity by an extraordinary composition which is closely
+related to them. <i>Le Roman de Renart</i>, or <i>History of Reynard the
+Fox</i>, is a poem, or rather series of poems, which, from the end of
+the 12th to the middle of the 14th century, served the citizen
+poets of northern France, not merely as an outlet for literary
+expression, but also as a vehicle of satirical comment,&mdash;now on
+the general vices and weaknesses of humanity, now on the usual
+corruptions in church and state, now on the various historical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span>
+events which occupied public attention from time to time. The
+enormous popularity of the subject is shown by the long vogue
+which it had, and by the empire which it exercised over generations
+of writers who differed from each other widely in style and
+temper. Nothing can be farther from the allegorical erudition,
+the political diatribes and the sermonizing moralities of the
+authors of <i>Renart le Contre-fait</i> than the sly naïveté of the writers
+of the earlier branches. Yet these and a long and unknown
+series of intermediate bards the fox-king pressed into his service,
+and it is scarcely too much to say that, during the two centuries
+of his reign, there was hardly a thought in the popular mind
+which, as it rose to the surface, did not find expression in an
+addition to the huge cycle of <i>Renart</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We shall not deal with the controversies which have been
+raised as to the origin of the poem and its central idea. The
+latter may have been a travestie of real persons and actual
+events, or it may (and much more probably) have been an
+expression of thoughts and experiences which recur in every
+generation. France, the Netherlands and Germany have
+contended for the honour of producing Renart; French, Flemish,
+German and Latin for the honour of first describing him. It is
+sufficient to say that the spirit of the work seems to be more
+that of the borderland between France and Flanders than of any
+other district, and that, wherever the idea may have originally
+arisen, it was incomparably more fruitful in France than in
+any other country. The French poems which we possess on the
+subject amount in all to nearly 100,000 lines, independently
+of mere variations, but including the different versions of <i>Renart
+le Contre-fait</i>. This vast total is divided into four different
+poems. The most ancient and remarkable is that edited by
+Méon under the title of <i>Roman du Renart</i>, and containing, with
+some additions made by M. Chabaille, 37 branches and about
+32,000 lines. It must not, however, be supposed that this total
+forms a continuous poem like the <i>Aeneid</i> or <i>Paradise Lost</i>. Part
+was pretty certainly written by Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but he
+was not the author of the whole. On the contrary, the separate
+branches are the work of different authors, hardly any of whom
+are known, and, but for their community of subject and to some
+extent of treatment, might be regarded as separate poems.
+The history of Renart, his victories over Isengrim, the wolf,
+Bruin, the bear, and his other unfortunate rivals, his family
+affection, his outwittings of King Noble the Lion and all the
+rest, are too well known to need fresh description here. It is
+perhaps in the subsequent poems, though they are far less known
+and much less amusing, that the hold which the idea of Renart
+had obtained on the mind of northern France, and the ingenious
+uses to which it was put, are best shown. The first of these
+is <i>Le Couronnement Renart</i>, a poem of between 3000 and 4000
+lines, attributed, on no grounds whatever, to the poetess Marie
+de France, and describing how the hero by his ingenuity got
+himself crowned king. This poem already shows signs of direct
+moral application and generalizing. These are still more apparent
+in <i>Renart le Nouvel</i>, a composition of some 8000 lines, finished
+in the year 1288 by the Fleming Jacquemart Giélée. Here the
+personification, of which, in noticing the <i>Roman de la rose</i>, we
+shall soon have to give extended mention, becomes evident.
+Instead of or at least beside the lively personal Renart who
+used to steal sausages, set Isengrim fishing with his tail, or make
+use of Chanticleer&rsquo;s comb for a purpose for which it was certainly
+never intended, we have <i>Renardie</i>, an abstraction of guile and
+hypocrisy, triumphantly prevailing over other and better
+qualities. Lastly, as the <i>Roman de la rose</i> of William of Lorris
+is paralleled by <i>Renart le Nouvel</i>, so its continuation by Jean de
+Meung is paralleled by the great miscellany of <i>Renart le Contre-fait</i>,
+which, even in its existing versions, extends to fully 50,000
+lines. Here we have, besides floods of miscellaneous erudition
+and discourse, political argument of the most direct and important
+kind. The wrongs of the lower orders are bitterly urged.
+They are almost openly incited to revolt; and it is scarcely too
+much to say, as M. Lenient has said, that the closely following
+Jacquerie is but a practical carrying out of the doctrines of the
+anonymous satirists of <i>Renart le Contre-fait</i>, one of whom (if
+indeed there was more than one) appears to have been a clerk
+of Troyes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Lyric Poetry.</i>&mdash;Side by side with these two forms of
+literature, the epics and romances of the higher classes, and the
+fabliau, which, at least in its original, represented rather the
+feelings of the lower, there grew up a third kind, consisting of
+purely lyrical poetry. The song literature of medieval France
+is extremely abundant and beautiful. From the 12th to the
+15th century it received constant accessions, some signed, some
+anonymous, some purely popular in their character, some the
+work of more learned writers, others again produced by members
+of the aristocracy. Of the latter class it may fairly be said that
+the catalogue of royal and noble authors boasts few if any names
+superior to those of Thibaut de Champagne, king of Navarre
+at the beginning of the 13th century, and Charles d&rsquo;Orléans, the
+father of Louis XII., at the beginning of the 15th. Although
+much of this lyric poetry is anonymous, the more popular part
+of it almost entirely so, yet M. Paulin Paris was able to enumerate
+some hundreds of French chansonniers between the 11th and the
+13th century. The earliest song literature, chiefly known in the
+delightful collection of Bartsch (<i>Altfranzösische Romanzen und
+Pastourellen</i>), is mainly sentimental in character. The collector
+divides it under the two heads of romances and pastourelles,
+the former being usually the celebration of the loves of a noble
+knight and maiden, and recounting how Belle Doette or Eglantine
+or Oriour sat at her windows or in the tourney gallery, or embroidering
+silk and samite in her chamber, with her thoughts
+on Gerard or Guy or Henry,&mdash;the latter somewhat monotonous
+but naïve and often picturesque recitals, very often in the first
+person, of the meeting of an errant knight or minstrel with a
+shepherdess, and his cavalier but not always successful wooing.
+With these, some of which date from the 12th century, may be
+contrasted, at the other end of the medieval period, the more
+varied and popular collection dating in their present form from
+the 15th century, and published in 1875 by M. Gaston Paris.
+In both alike, making allowance for the difference of their age
+and the state of the language, may be noticed a charming lyrical
+faculty and great skill in the elaboration of light and suitable
+metres. Especially remarkable is the abundance of refrains of
+an admirably melodious kind. It is said that more than 500 of
+these exist. Among the lyric writers of these four centuries
+whose names are known may be mentioned Audefroi le Bastard
+<span class="sidenote">Audefroit le Bastard.<br /><br />
+Thibaut de Champagne.</span>
+(12th century), the author of the charming song of <i>Belle
+Idoine</i>, and others no way inferior, Quesnes de Bethune,
+the ancestor of Sully, whose song-writing inclines
+to a satirical cast in many instances, the Vidame de Chartres,
+Charles d&rsquo;Anjou, King John of Brienne, the châtelain de Coucy,
+Gace Bruslé, Colin Muset, while not a few writers mentioned
+elsewhere&mdash;Guyot de Provins, Adam de la Halle, Jean Bodel
+and others&mdash;were also lyrists. But none of them, except perhaps
+Audefroi, can compare with Thibaut IV. (1201-1253),
+who united by his possessions and ancestry a connexion
+with the north and the south, and who employed the
+methods of both districts but used the language of the
+north only. Thibaut was supposed to be the lover of Blanche
+of Castile, the mother of St Louis, and a great deal of his verse
+is concerned with his love for her. But while knights and nobles
+were thus employing lyric poetry in courtly and sentimental
+verse, lyric forms were being freely employed by others, both of
+high and low birth, for more general purposes. Blanche and
+Thibaut themselves came in for contemporary lampoons, and both
+at this time and in the times immediately following, a cloud of
+writers composed light verse, sometimes of a lyric sometimes of a
+narrative kind, and sometimes in a mixture of both. By far the
+<span class="sidenote">Ruteb&oelig;f.</span>
+most remarkable of these is Ruteb&oelig;uf (a name which
+is perhaps a nickname), the first of a long series of
+French poets to whom in recent days the title Bohemian has
+been applied, who passed their lives between gaiety and misery,
+and celebrated their lot in both conditions with copious verse.
+Ruteb&oelig;uf is among the earliest French writers who tell us their
+personal history and make personal appeals. But he does not
+confine himself to these. He discusses the history of his times,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span>
+upbraids the nobles for their desertion of the Latin empire of
+Constantinople, considers the expediency of crusading, inveighs
+against the religious orders, and takes part in the disputes
+between the pope and the king. He composes pious poetry too,
+and in at least one poem takes care to distinguish between the
+church which he venerates and the corrupt churchmen whom
+he lampoons. Besides Ruteb&oelig;uf the most characteristic figure
+of his class and time (about the middle of the 13th century) is
+<span class="sidenote">Adam de la Halle.<br /><br />
+Lais.</span>
+Adam de la Halle, commonly called the Hunchback
+of Arras. The earlier poems of Adam are of a sentimental
+character, the later ones satirical and somewhat
+ill-tempered. Such, for instance, is his invective against his
+native city. But his chief importance consists in his <i>jeux</i>, the
+<i>Jeu de la feuillie</i>, the <i>Jeu de Robin et Marion</i>, dramatic compositions
+which led the way to the regular dramatic form. Indeed
+the general tendency of the 13th century is to satire, fable and
+farce, even more than to serious or sentimental poetry. We
+should perhaps except the <i>lais</i>, the chief of which
+are known under the name of Marie de France. These
+lays are exclusively Breton in origin, though not in application,
+and the term seems originally to have had reference rather to
+the music to which they were sung than to the manner or matter
+of the pieces. Some resemblance to these lays may perhaps be
+traced in the genuine Breton songs published by M. Luzel. The
+subjects of the lais are indifferently taken from the Arthurian
+cycle, from ancient story, and from popular tradition, and, at
+any rate in Marie&rsquo;s hands, they give occasion for some passionate,
+and in the modern sense really romantic, poetry. The most
+famous of all is the <i>Lay of the Honeysuckle</i>, traditionally assigned
+to Sir Tristram.</p>
+
+<p><i>Satiric</i> and <i>Didactic Works.</i>&mdash;Among the direct satirists of
+the middle ages, one of the earliest and foremost is Guyot de
+Provins, a monk of Clairvaux and Cluny, whose <i>Bible</i>, as he calls
+it, contains an elaborate satire on the time (the beginning of the
+13th century), and who was imitated by others, especially
+Hugues de Brégy. The same spirit soon betrayed itself in curious
+travesties of the romances of chivalry, and sometimes invades
+the later specimens of these romances themselves. One of the
+earliest examples of this travesty is the remarkable composition
+entitled <i>Audigier</i>. This poem, half fabliau and half romance, is
+not so much an instance of the heroi-comic poems which afterwards
+found so much favour in Italy and elsewhere, as a direct
+and ferocious parody of the Carlovingian epic. The hero Audigier
+is a model of cowardice and disloyalty; his father and mother,
+Turgibus and Rainberge, are deformed and repulsive. The
+exploits of the hero himself are coarse and hideous failures, and
+the whole poem can only be taken as a counterblast to the spirit
+of chivalry. Elsewhere a trouvère, prophetic of Rabelais,
+describes a vast battle between all the nations of the world,
+the quarrel being suddenly atoned by the arrival of a holy man
+bearing a huge flagon of wine. Again, we have the history of a
+solemn crusade undertaken by the citizens of a country town
+against the neighbouring castle. As erudition and the fancy for
+allegory gained ground, satire naturally availed itself of the
+opportunity thus afforded it; the disputes of Philippe le Bel
+with the pope and the Templars had an immense literary
+influence, partly in the concluding portions of the <i>Renart</i>, partly
+in the <i>Roman de la rose</i>, still to be mentioned, and partly in other
+satiric allegories of which the chief is the romance of <i>Fauvel</i>,
+attributed to François de Rues. The hero of this is an allegorical
+personage, half man and half horse, signifying the union of bestial
+degradation with human ingenuity and cunning. Fauvel (the
+name, it may be worth while to recall, occurs in Langland) is
+a divinity in his way. All the personages of state, from kings and
+popes to mendicant friars, pay their court to him.</p>
+
+<p>But this serious and discontented spirit betrays itself also
+in compositions which are not parodies or travesties in form.
+One of the latest, if not absolutely the latest (for
+Cuvelier&rsquo;s still later <i>Chronique de Du Guesclin</i> is only a
+<span class="sidenote">Baudouin de Sebourc.</span>
+most interesting <i>imitation</i> of the <i>chanson</i> form adapted
+to recent events), of the chansons de geste is <i>Baudouin
+de Sebourc</i>, one of the members of the great romance or cycle of
+romances dealing with the crusades, and entitled Le Chevalier au
+Cygne. <i>Baudouin de Sebourc</i> dates from the early years of the
+14th century. It is strictly a chanson de geste in form, and also
+in the general run of its incidents. The hero is dispossessed of
+his inheritance by the agency of traitors, fights his battle with
+the world and its injustice, and at last prevails over his enemy
+Gaufrois, who has succeeded in obtaining the kingdom of Friesland
+and almost that of France. Gaufrois has as his assistants
+two personages who were very popular in the poetry of the
+time,&mdash;viz., the Devil, and Money. These two sinister figures
+pervade the fabliaux, tales and fantastic literature generally
+of the time. M. Lenient, the historian of French satire, has well
+remarked that a romance as long as the <i>Renart</i> might be spun out
+of the separate short poems of this period which have the Devil
+for hero, and many of which form a very interesting transition
+between the fabliau and the mystery. But the Devil is in one
+respect a far inferior hero to Renart. He has an adversary in the
+Virgin, who constantly upsets his best-laid schemes, and who
+does not always treat him quite fairly. The abuse of usury at
+the time, and the exactions of the Jews and Lombards, were
+severely felt, and Money itself, as personified, figures largely in
+the popular literature of the time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Roman de la Rose.</i>&mdash;A work of very different importance from
+all of these, though with seeming touches of the same spirit,
+a work which deserves to take rank among the most
+important of the middle ages, is the <i>Roman de la rose</i>,&mdash;one
+<span class="sidenote">William of Lorris.</span>
+of the few really remarkable books which is
+the work of two authors, and that not in collaboration but in
+continuation one of the other. The author of the earlier part was
+Guillaume de Lorris, who lived in the first half of the 13th century;
+the author of the later part was Jean de Meung, who was born
+about the middle of that century, and whose part in the <i>Roman</i>
+dates at least from its extreme end. This great poem exhibits in
+its two parts very different characteristics, which yet go to make
+up a not inharmonious whole. It is a love poem, and yet it is
+satire. But both gallantry and raillery are treated in an entirely
+allegorical spirit; and this allegory, while it makes the poem
+tedious to hasty appetites of to-day, was exactly what gave it
+its charm in the eyes of the middle ages. It might be described
+as an <i>Ars amoris</i> crossed with a <i>Quodlibeta</i>. This mixture
+exactly hit the taste of the time, and continued to hit it for two
+centuries and a half. When its obvious and gallant meaning was
+attacked by moralists and theologians, it was easy to quote the
+example of the Canticles, and to furnish esoteric explanations of
+the allegory. The writers of the 16th century were never tired
+of quoting and explaining it. Antoine de Baïf, indeed, gave the
+simple and obvious meaning, and declared that &ldquo;La rose c&rsquo;est
+d&rsquo;amours le guerdon gracieux&rdquo;; but Marot, on the other hand,
+gives us the choice of four mystical interpretations,&mdash;the rose
+being either the state of wisdom, the state of grace, the state of
+eternal happiness or the Virgin herself. We cannot here analyse
+this celebrated poem. It is sufficient to say that the lover meets
+all sorts of obstacles in his pursuit of the rose, though he has for
+a guide the metaphorical personage Bel-Accueil. The early part,
+which belongs to William of Lorris, is remarkable for its gracious
+<span class="sidenote">Jean de Meung.</span>
+and fanciful descriptions. Forty years after Lorris&rsquo;s
+death, Jean de Meung completed it in an entirely
+different spirit. He keeps the allegorical form, and
+indeed introduces two new personages of importance, Nature and
+Faux-semblant. In the mouths of these personages and of
+another, Raison, he puts the most extraordinary mixture of
+erudition and satire. At one time we have the history of classical
+heroes, at another theories against the hoarding of money, about
+astronomy, about the duty of mankind to increase and multiply.
+Accounts of the origin of loyalty, which would have cost the poet
+his head at some periods of history, and even communistic ideas,
+are also to be found here. In Faux-semblant we have a real
+creation of the theatrical hypocrite. All this miscellaneous
+and apparently incongruous material in fact explains the success
+of the poem. It has the one characteristic which has at all times
+secured the popularity of great works of literature. It holds
+the mirror up firmly and fully to its age. As we find in Rabelais
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span>
+the characteristics of the Renaissance, in Montaigne those of
+the sceptical reaction from Renaissance and reform alike, in
+Molière those of the society of France after Richelieu had tamed
+and levelled it, in Voltaire and Rousseau respectively the two
+aspects of the great revolt,&mdash;so there are to be found in the <i>Roman
+de la rose</i> the characteristics of the later middle age, its gallantry,
+its mysticism, its economical and social troubles and problems,
+its scholastic methods of thought, its naïve acceptance as science
+of everything that is written, and at the same time its shrewd
+and indiscriminate criticism of much that the age of criticism
+has accepted without doubt or question. The <i>Roman de la rose</i>,
+as might be supposed, set the example of an immense literature of
+allegorical poetry, which flourished more and more until the
+Renaissance. Some of these poems we have already mentioned,
+some will have to be considered under the head of the 15th
+century. But, as usually happens in such cases and was certain
+to happen in this case, the allegory which has seemed tedious to
+many, even in the original, became almost intolerable in the
+majority of the imitations.</p>
+
+<p>We have observed that, at least in the later section of the
+<i>Roman de la rose</i>, there is observable a tendency to import into
+the poem indiscriminate erudition. This tendency is
+now remote from our poetical habits; but in its own
+<span class="sidenote">Early didactic verse.</span>
+day it was only the natural result of the use of poetry
+for all literary purposes. It was many centuries
+before prose became recognized as the proper vehicle for instruction,
+and at a very early date verse was used as well for educational
+and moral as for recreative and artistic purposes. French
+verse was the first born of all literary mediums in modern European
+speech, and the resources of ancient learning were certainly
+not less accessible in France than in any other country. Dante,
+in his <i>De vulgari eloquio</i>, acknowledges the excellence of the
+didactic writers of the Langue d&rsquo;Oïl. We have already alluded
+to the <i>Bestiary</i> of Philippe de Thaun, a Norman trouvère who
+lived and wrote in England during the reign of Henry Beauclerc.
+Besides the <i>Bestiary</i>, which from its dedication to Queen Adela
+has been conjectured to belong to the third decade of the 12th
+century, Philippe wrote also in French a <i>Liber de creaturis</i>, both
+works being translated from the Latin. These works of mystical
+and apocryphal physics and zoology became extremely popular
+in the succeeding centuries, and were frequently imitated.
+A moralizing turn was also given to them, which was much
+helped by the importation of several miscellanies of Oriental
+origin, partly tales, partly didactic in character, the most celebrated
+of which is the <i>Roman des sept sages</i>, which, under that
+title and the variant of <i>Dolopathos</i>, received repeated treatment
+from French writers both in prose and verse. The odd notion
+of an <i>Ovide moralisé</i> used to be ascribed to Philippe de Vitry,
+bishop of Meaux (1291?-1391?), a person complimented by
+Petrarch, but is now assigned to a certain Chrétien Legonais.
+Art, too, soon demanded exposition in verse, as well as science.
+The favourite pastime of the chase was repeatedly dealt with,
+notably in the <i>Roi Modus</i> (1325), mixed prose and verse; the
+<i>Deduits de la chasse</i> (1387), of Gaston de Foix, prose; and the
+<i>Tresor de Venerie</i> of Hardouin (1394), verse. Very soon didactic
+verse extended itself to all the arts and sciences. Vegetius and
+his military precepts had found a home in French octosyllables
+as early as the 12th century; the end of the same age saw the
+ceremonies of knighthood solemnly versified, and <i>napes</i> (maps)
+<i>du monde</i> also soon appeared. At last, in 1245, Gautier of Metz
+translated from various Latin works into French verse a sort
+of encyclopaedia, while another, incongruous but known as
+<i>L&rsquo;Image du monde</i>, exists from the same century. Profane
+knowledge was not the only subject which exercised didactic
+poets at this time. Religious handbooks and commentaries on
+the scriptures were common in the 13th and following centuries,
+and, under the title of <i>Castoiements, Enseignements</i> and <i>Doctrinaux</i>,
+moral treatises became common. The most famous of
+these, the <i>Castoiement d&rsquo;un père à son fils</i>, falls under the class,
+already mentioned, of works due to oriental influence, being
+derived from the Indian <i>Panchatantra</i>. In the 14th century the
+influence of the <i>Roman de la rose</i> helped to render moral verse
+frequent and popular. The same century, moreover, which
+witnessed these developments of well-intentioned if not always
+<span class="sidenote">Artificial forms of verse.</span>
+judicious erudition witnessed also a considerable change
+in lyrical poetry. Hitherto such poetry had chiefly
+been composed in the melodious but unconstrained
+forms of the romance and the pastourelle. In the
+14th century the writers of northern France subjected themselves
+to severer rules. In this age arose the forms which for so long
+a time were to occupy French singers,&mdash;the ballade, the rondeau,
+the rondel, the triolet, the chant royal and others. These
+received considerable alterations as time went on. We possess
+not a few <i>Artes poëticae</i>, such as that of Eustache Deschamps
+at the end of the 14th century, that formerly ascribed to Henri
+de Croy and now to Molinet at the end of the 15th, and that
+of Thomas Sibilet in the 16th, giving particulars of them, and
+these particulars show considerable changes. Thus the term
+rondeau, which since Villon has been chiefly limited to a poem of
+15 lines, where the 9th and 15th repeat the first words of the first,
+was originally applied both to the rondel, a poem of 13 or 14
+lines, where the first two are twice repeated integrally, and to the
+triolet, one of 8 only, where the first line occurs three times
+and the second twice. The last is an especially popular metre,
+and is found where we should least expect it, in the dialogue
+of the early farces, the speakers making up triolets between them.
+As these three forms are closely connected, so are the ballade
+and the chant royal, the latter being an extended and more
+stately and difficult version of the former, and the characteristic
+of both being the identity of rhyme and refrain in the several
+stanzas. It is quite uncertain at what time these fashions were
+first cultivated, but the earliest poets who appear to have practised
+them extensively were born at the close of the 13th and the
+beginning of the 14th centuries. Of these Guillaume de Machault
+(<i>c.</i> 1300-1380) is the oldest. He has left us 80,000 verses,
+never yet completely printed. Eustache Deschamps (<i>c.</i> 1340-<i>c.</i> 1410)
+was nearly as prolific, but more fortunate as more
+meritorious, the Société des anciens Textes having at last provided
+a complete edition of him. Froissart the historian (1333-1410)
+was also an agreeable and prolific poet. Deschamps, the most
+famous as a poet of the three, has left us nearly 1200 ballades
+and nearly 200 rondeaux, besides much other verse all manifesting
+very considerable poetical powers. Less known but not less
+noteworthy, and perhaps the earliest of all, is Jehannot de Lescurel,
+whose personality is obscure, and most of whose works are lost,
+but whose remains are full of grace. Froissart appears to have
+had many countrymen in Hainault and Brabant who devoted
+themselves to the art of versification; and the <i>Livre des cent
+ballades</i> of the Marshal Boucicault (1366-1421) and his friends&mdash;<i>c.</i>
+1390&mdash;shows that the French gentleman of the 14th century
+was as apt at the ballade as his Elizabethan peer in England
+was at the sonnet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Drama.</i>&mdash;Before passing to the prose writers of the
+middle ages, we have to take some notice of the dramatic
+productions of those times&mdash;productions of an extremely
+interesting character, but, like the immense
+<span class="sidenote">Mysteries and miracles.</span>
+majority of medieval literature, poetic in form. The
+origin or the revival of dramatic composition in France
+has been hotly debated, and it has been sometimes contended
+that the tradition of Latin comedy was never entirely lost, but
+was handed on chiefly in the convents by adaptations of the
+Terentian plays, such as those of the nun Hroswitha. There
+is no doubt that the mysteries (subjects taken from the sacred
+writings) and miracle plays (subjects taken from the legends of
+the saints and the Virgin) are of very early date. The mystery
+of the <i>Foolish Virgins</i> (partly French, partly Latin), that of
+<i>Adam</i> and perhaps that of <i>Daniel</i>, are of the 12th century,
+though due to unknown authors. Jean Bodel and Ruteboeuf,
+already mentioned, gave, the one that of <i>Saint Nicolas</i> at the
+confines of the 12th and 13th, the other that of <i>Théophile</i> later
+in the 13th itself. But the later moralities, soties, and farces
+seem to be also in part a very probable development of the
+simpler and earlier forms of the fabliau and of the tenson or jeu-parti,
+a poem in simple dialogue much used by both troubadours
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span>
+and trouvères. The fabliau has been sufficiently dealt with
+already. It chiefly supplied the subject; and some miracle-plays
+and farces are little more than fabliaux thrown into
+dialogue. Of the jeux-partis there are many examples, varying
+from very simple questions and answers to something like regular
+dramatic dialogue; even short romances, such as <i>Aucassin et
+Nicolette</i>, were easily susceptible of dramatization. But the
+<i>Jeu de la feuillie</i> (or <i>feuillée</i>) of Adam de la Halle seems to be
+the earliest piece, profane in subject, containing something more
+than mere dialogue. The poet has not indeed gone far for his
+subject, for he brings in his own wife, father and friends, the
+interest being complicated by the introduction of stock characters
+(the doctor, the monk, the fool), and of certain fairies&mdash;personages
+already popular from the later romances of chivalry. Another
+piece of Adam&rsquo;s, <i>Le Jeu de Robin et Marion</i>, also already alluded
+to, is little more than a simple throwing into action of an ordinary
+pastourelle with a considerable number of songs to music. Nevertheless
+later criticism has seen, and not unreasonably, in these
+two pieces the origin in the one case of farce, and thus indirectly
+of comedy proper, in the other of comic opera.</p>
+
+<p>For a long time, however, the mystery and miracle-plays
+remained the staple of theatrical performance, and until the
+13th century actors as well as performers were more or less taken
+from the clergy. It has, indeed, been well pointed out that the
+offices of the church were themselves dramatic performances,
+and required little more than development at the hands of the
+mystery writers. The occasional festive outbursts, such as the
+Feast of Fools, that of the Boy Bishop and the rest, helped on
+the development. The variety of mysteries and miracles was
+very great. A single manuscript contains forty miracles of the
+Virgin, averaging from 1200 to 1500 lines each, written in octosyllabic
+couplets, and at least as old as the 14th century, most
+of them perhaps much earlier. The mysteries proper, or plays
+taken from the scriptures, are older still. Many of these are
+exceedingly long. There is a <i>Mystère de l&rsquo;Ancien Testament</i>,
+which extends to many volumes, and must have taken weeks
+to act in its entirety. The <i>Mystère de la Passion</i>, though not
+quite so long, took several days, and recounts the whole history
+of the gospels. The best apparently of the authors of these
+pieces, which are mostly anonymous, were two brothers, Arnoul
+and Simon Gréban (authors of the <i>Actes des apôtres</i>, and in the
+first case of the <i>Passion</i>), <i>c.</i> 1450, while a certain Jean Michel
+(d. 1493) is credited with having continued the <i>Passion</i> from
+30,000 lines to 50,000. But these performances, though they
+held their ground until the middle of the 16th century and
+extended their range of subject from sacred to profane history&mdash;legendary
+as in the <i>Destruction de Troie</i>, contemporary as in the
+<span class="sidenote">Profane drama.</span>
+<i>Siège d&rsquo;Orléans</i>&mdash;were soon rivalled by the more profane
+performances of the moralities, the farces and the
+soties. The palmy time of all these three kinds is
+the 15th century, while the Confrérie de la Passion itself, the
+special performers of the sacred drama, only obtained the licence
+constituting it by an ordinance of Charles VI. in 1402. In order,
+however, to take in the whole of the medieval theatre at a glance,
+we may anticipate a little. The Confraternity was not itself
+the author or performer of the profaner kind of dramatic performance.
+This latter was due to two other bodies, the clerks of the
+Bazoche and the Enfans sans Souci. As the Confraternity was
+chiefly composed of tradesmen and persons very similar to Peter
+Quince and his associates, so the clerks of the Bazoche were
+members of the legal profession of Paris, and the Enfans sans
+Souci were mostly young men of family. The morality was the
+special property of the first, the sotie of the second. But as the
+moralities were sometimes decidedly tedious plays, though by
+no means brief, they were varied by the introduction of farces,
+of which the jeux already mentioned were the early germ, and of
+which <i>L&rsquo;Avocat Patelin</i>, dated by some about 1465 and certainly
+about 200 years subsequent to Adam de la Halle, is the most
+famous example.</p>
+
+<p>The morality was the natural result on the stage of the immense
+literary popularity of allegory in the <i>Roman de la rose</i> and its
+imitations. There is hardly an abstraction, a virtue, a vice, a
+disease, or anything else of the kind, which does not figure in
+<span class="sidenote">Moralities.</span>
+these compositions. There is Bien Advisé and Mal Advisé, the
+good boy and the bad boy of nursery stories, who fall
+in respectively with Faith, Reason and Humility, and
+with Rashness, Luxury and Folly. There is the hero Mange-Tout,
+who is invited to dinner by Banquet, and meets after
+dinner very unpleasant company in Colique, Goutte and Hydropisie.
+Honte-de-dire-ses-Péchés might seem an anticipation of
+Puritan nomenclature to an English reader who did not remember
+the contemporary or even earlier <i>personae</i> of Langland&rsquo;s
+poem. Some of these moralities possess distinct dramatic merit;
+among these is mentioned <i>Les Blasphémateurs</i>, an early and remarkable
+presentation of the Don Juan story. But their general
+character appears to be gravity, not to say dullness. The Enfans
+sans Souci, on the other hand, were definitely satirical, and
+nothing if not amusing. The chief of the society was entitled
+<span class="sidenote">Soties.</span>
+Prince des Sots, and his crown was a hood decorated
+with asses&rsquo; ears. The sotie was directly satirical, and
+only assumed the guise of folly as a stalking-horse for shooting
+wit. It was more Aristophanic than any other modern form of
+comedy, and like its predecessor, it perished as a result of its
+political application. Encouraged for a moment as a political
+engine at the beginning of the 16th century, it was soon absolutely
+forbidden and put down, and had to give place in one direction
+to the lampoon and the prose pamphlet, in another to forms of
+comic satire more general and vague in their scope. The farce,
+on the other hand, having neither moral purpose nor political
+intention, was a purer work of art, enjoyed a wider range of subject,
+and was in no danger of any permanent extinction. Farcical
+interludes were interpolated in the mysteries themselves; short
+farces introduced and rendered palatable the moralities, while
+the sotie was itself but a variety of farce, and all the kinds were
+sometimes combined in a sort of tetralogy. It was a short
+composition, 500 verses being considered sufficient, while the
+morality might run to at least 1000 verses, the miracle-play to
+nearly double that number, and the mystery to some 40,000 or
+50,000, or indeed to any length that the author could find in his
+heart to bestow upon the audience, or the audience in their
+patience to suffer from the author. The number of persons and
+societies who acted these performances grew to be very large,
+being estimated at more than 5000 towards the end of the 15th
+century. Many fantastic personages came to join the Prince des
+Sots, such as the Empereur de Galilée, the Princes de l&rsquo;Étrille,
+and des Nouveaux Mariés, the Roi de l&rsquo;Épinette, the Recteur
+des Fous. Of the pieces which these societies represented one
+only, that of <i>Maître Patelin</i>, is now much known; but many
+are almost equally amusing. <i>Patelin</i> itself has an immense
+number of versions and editions. Other farces are too numerous
+to attempt to classify; they bear, however, in their subjects,
+as in their manner, a remarkable resemblance to the fabliaux,
+their source. Conjugal disagreements, the unpleasantness of
+mothers-in-law, the shifty or, in the earlier stages, clumsy valet
+and chambermaid, the mishaps of too loosely given ecclesiastics,
+the abuses of relics and pardons, the extortion, violence, and
+sometimes cowardice of the seigneur and the soldiery, the corruption
+of justice, its delays and its pompous apparatus, supply
+the subjects. The treatment is rather narrative than dramatic
+in most cases, as might be expected, but makes up by the liveliness
+of the dialogue for the deficiency of elaborately planned
+action and interest. All these forms, it will be observed, are
+directly or indirectly comic. Tragedy in the middle ages is
+represented only by the religious drama, except for a brief period
+towards the decline of that form, when the &ldquo;profane&rdquo; mysteries
+referred to above came to be represented. These were, however,
+rather &ldquo;histories,&rdquo; in the Elizabethan sense, than tragedies
+proper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prose History.</i>&mdash;In France, as in all other countries of whose
+literary developments we have any record, literature in prose
+is considerably later than literature in verse. We have
+certain glosses or vocabularies possibly dating as far
+<span class="sidenote">Early chronicles.</span>
+back as the 8th or even the 7th century; we have the
+Strassburg oaths, already described, of the 9th, and a commentary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span>
+on the prophet Jonas which is probably as early. In the 10th
+century there are some charters and muniments in the vernacular;
+of the 11th the laws of William the Conqueror are the
+most important document; while the <i>Assises de Jérusalem</i> of
+Godfrey of Bouillon date, though not in the form in which we now
+possess them, from the same age. The 12th century gives us
+certain translations of the Scriptures, and the remarkable
+Arthurian romances already alluded to; and thenceforward
+French prose, though long less favoured than verse, begins to
+grow in importance. History, as is natural, was the first subject
+which gave it a really satisfactory opportunity of developing its
+powers. For a time the French chroniclers contented themselves
+with Latin prose or with French verse, after the fashion of Wace
+and the Belgian, Philippe Mouskés (1215-1283). These, after a
+fashion universal in medieval times, began from fabulous or
+merely literary origins, and just as Wyntoun later carries back
+the history of Scotland to the terrestrial paradise, so does
+Mouskés start that of France from the rape of Helen. But soon
+prose chronicles, first translated, then original, became common;
+the earliest of all is said to have been that of the pseudo-Turpin,
+which thus recovered in prose the language which had originally
+clothed it in verse, and which, to gain a false appearance of
+authenticity, it had exchanged still earlier for Latin. Then came
+French selections and versions from the great series of historical
+compositions undertaken by the monks of St Denys, the so-called
+<i>Grandes Chroniques de France</i> from the date of 1274, when they
+first took form in the hands of a monk styled Primat, to the reign
+of Charles V., when they assumed the title just given. But the
+first really remarkable author who used French prose as a vehicle
+of historical expression is Geoffroi de Villehardouin, marshal of
+Champagne, who was born rather after the middle of the 12th
+<span class="sidenote">Villehardouin.</span>
+century, and died in Greece in 1212. Under the title of <i>Conquête
+de Constantinoble</i> Villehardouin has left us a history
+of the fourth crusade, which has been accepted by all
+competent judges as the best picture extant of feudal
+chivalry in its prime. The <i>Conquête de Constantinoble</i> has been
+well called a chanson de geste in prose, and indeed in the surprising
+nature of the feats it celebrates, in the abundance of detail,
+and in the vivid and picturesque poetry of the narration, it
+equals the very best of the chansons. Even the repetition of
+the same phrases which is characteristic of epic poetry repeats
+itself in this epic prose; and as in the chansons so in Villehardouin,
+few motives appear but religious fervour and the love of fighting,
+though neither of these excludes a lively appetite for booty and
+a constant tendency to disunion and disorder. Villehardouin
+was continued by Henri de Valenciennes, whose work is less
+remarkable, and has more the appearance of a rhymed chronicle
+thrown into prose, a process which is known to have been
+actually applied in some cases. Nor is the transition from
+Villehardouin to Jean de Joinville (considerable in point of time,
+for Joinville was not born till ten years after Villehardouin&rsquo;s
+death) in point of literary history immediate. The rhymed
+chronicles of Philippe Mouskés and Guillaume Guiart belong to
+this interval; and in prose the most remarkable works are the
+<i>Chronique de Reims</i>, a well-written history, having the interesting
+characteristics of taking the lay and popular side, and the great
+compilation edited (in the modern sense) by Baudouin d&rsquo;Avesnes
+<span class="sidenote">Joinville.</span>
+(1213-1289). Joinville (? 1224-1317), whose special
+subject is the Life of St Louis, is far more modern than
+even the half-century which separates him from Villehardouin
+would lead us to suppose. There is nothing of the knight-errant
+about him personally, notwithstanding his devotion to his
+hero. Our Lady of the Broken Lances is far from being his
+favourite saint. He is an admirable writer, but far less simple
+than Villehardouin; the good King Louis tries in vain to make
+him share his own rather high-flown devotion. Joinville is shrewd,
+practical, there is even a touch of the Voltairean about him;
+but he, unlike his predecessor, has political ideas and antiquarian
+curiosity, and his descriptions are often very creditable pieces of
+deliberate literature.</p>
+
+<p>It is very remarkable that each of the three last centuries
+of feudalism should have had one specially and extraordinarily
+gifted chronicler to describe it. What Villehardouin is to the
+12th and Joinville to the 13th century, that Jean Froissart
+<span class="sidenote">Froissart.</span>
+(1337-1410) is to the 14th. His picture is the most
+famous as it is the most varied of the three, but it has
+special drawbacks as well as special merits. French critics have
+indeed been scarcely fair to Froissart, because of his early
+partiality to our own nation in the great quarrel of the time,
+forgetting that there was really no reason why he as a Hainaulter
+should take the French side. But there is no doubt that if the
+duty of an historian is to take in all the political problems of
+his time, Froissart certainly comes short of it. Although the
+feudal state in which knights and churchmen were alone of
+estimation was at the point of death, and though new orders of
+society were becoming important, though the distress and
+confusion of a transition state were evident to all, Froissart
+takes no notice of them. Society is still to him all knights and
+ladies, tournaments, skirmishes and feasts. He depicts these,
+not like Joinville, still less like Villehardouin, as a sharer in them,
+but with the facile and picturesque pen of a sympathizing literary
+onlooker. As the comparison of the <i>Conquête de Constantinoble</i>
+with a chanson de geste is inevitable, so is that of Froissart&rsquo;s
+<i>Chronique</i> with a roman d&rsquo;aventures.</p>
+
+<p>For Provençal Literature see the separate article under that
+heading.</p>
+
+<p><i>15th Century.</i>&mdash;The 15th century holds a peculiar and somewhat
+disputed position in the history of French literature, as,
+indeed, it does in the history of the literature of all Europe,
+except Italy. It has sometimes been regarded as the final stage
+of the medieval period, sometimes as the earliest of the modern,
+the influence of the Renaissance in Italy already filtering through.
+Others again have taken the easy step of marking it as an age
+of transition. There is as usual truth in all these views.
+Feudality died with Froissart and Eustache Deschamps. The
+modern spirit can hardly be said to arise before Rabelais and
+Ronsard. Yet the 15th century, from the point of view of
+French literature, is much more remarkable than its historians
+have been wont to confess. It has not the strongly marked and
+compact originality of some periods, and it furnishes only one
+name of the highest order of literary interest; but it abounds
+in names of the second rank, and the very difference which
+exists between their styles and characters testifies to the existence
+of a large number of separate forces working in their different
+manners on different persons. Its theatre we have already
+treated by anticipation, and to it we shall afterwards recur. It
+was the palmy time of the early French stage, and all the dramatic
+styles which we have enumerated then came to perfection. Of
+no other kind of literature can the same be said. The century
+which witnessed the invention of printing naturally devoted
+itself at first more to the spreading of old literature than to the
+production of new. Yet as it perfected the early drama, so it
+produced the prose tale. Nor, as regards individual and single
+names, can the century of Charles d&rsquo;Orléans, of Alain Chartier, of
+Christine de Pisan, of Coquillart, of Comines, and, above all, of
+Villon, be said to lack illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>First among the poets of the period falls to be mentioned the
+shadowy personality of Olivier Basselin. Modern criticism
+has attacked the identity of the jovial miller, who
+was once supposed to have written and perhaps
+<span class="sidenote">Christine de Pisan.</span>
+invented the songs called <i>vaux de vire</i>, and to have
+also carried on a patriotic warfare against the English. But
+though Jean le Houx may have written the poems published
+under Basselin&rsquo;s name two centuries later, it is taken as certain
+that an actual Olivier wrote actual vaux de vire at the beginning
+of the 15th century. About Christine de Pisan (1363-1430) and
+Alain Chartier (1392-<i>c.</i> 1430) there is no such doubt. Christine
+was the daughter of an Italian astrologer who was patronized by
+Charles V. She was born in Italy but brought up in France, and
+she enriched the literature of her adopted country
+<span class="sidenote">Alain Chartier.</span>
+with much learning, good sense and patriotism. She
+wrote history, devotional works and poetry; and
+though her literary merit is not of the highest, it is very far from
+despicable. Alain Chartier, best known to modern readers by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span>
+the story of <i>Margaret of Scotland&rsquo;s Kiss</i>, was a writer of a somewhat
+similar character. In both Christine and Chartier there is
+a great deal of rather heavy moralizing, and a great deal of rather
+pedantic erudition. But it is only fair to remember that the
+intolerable political and social evils of the day called for a good
+deal of moralizing, and that it was the function of the writers
+of this time to fill up as well as they could the scantily filled
+vessels of medieval science and learning. A very different
+<span class="sidenote">Charles d&rsquo;Orléans.</span>
+person is Charles d&rsquo;Orléans (1391-1465), one of the
+greatest of <i>grands seigneurs</i>, for he was the father
+of a king of France, and heir to the duchies of Orléans
+and Milan. Charles, indeed, if not a Roland or a Bayard, was an
+admirable poet. He is the best-known and perhaps the best
+writer of the graceful poems in which an artificial versification
+is strictly observed, and helps by its recurrent lines and modulated
+rhymes to give to poetry something of a musical accompaniment
+even without the addition of music properly so called. His ballades
+are certainly inferior to those of Villon, but his rondels are unequalled.
+For fully a century and a half these forms engrossed
+the attention of French lyrical poets. Exercises in them were
+produced in enormous numbers, and of an excellence which has
+only recently obtained full recognition even in France. Charles
+d&rsquo;Orléans is himself sufficient proof of what can be done in them
+in the way of elegance, sweetness, and grace which some have
+unjustly called effeminacy. But that this effeminacy was no
+natural or inevitable fault of the ballades and the rondeaux
+was fully proved by the most remarkable literary figure of the
+15th century in France. To François Villon (1431-1463?),
+<span class="sidenote">Villon.</span>
+as to other great single writers, no attempt can be
+made to do justice in this place. His remarkable
+life and character especially lie outside our subject. But he is
+universally recognized as the most important single figure of
+French literature before the Renaissance. His work is very
+strange in form, the undoubtedly genuine part of it consisting
+merely of two compositions, known as the great and little
+Testament, written in stanzas of eight lines of eight syllables
+each, with lyrical compositions in ballade and rondeau form
+interspersed. Nothing in old French literature can compare
+with the best of these, such as the &ldquo;Ballade des dames du
+temps jadis,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Ballade pour sa mère,&rdquo; &ldquo;La Grosse Margot,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Les Regrets de la belle Heaulmière,&rdquo; and others; while the
+whole composition is full of poetical traits of the most extraordinary
+vigour, picturesqueness and pathos. Towards the end
+of the century the poetical production of the time became very
+large. The artificial measures already alluded to, and others
+far more artificial and infinitely less beautiful, were largely
+practised. The typical poet of the end of the 15th century is
+Guillaume Crétin (d. 1525), who distinguished himself by writing
+verses with punning rhymes, verses ending with double or treble
+repetitions of the same sound, and many other tasteless absurdities,
+in which, as Pasquier remarks, &ldquo;il perdit toute la grâce et la
+<span class="sidenote">Crétin.</span>
+liberté de la composition.&rdquo; The other favourite
+direction of the poetry of the time was a vein of
+allegorical moralizing drawn from the <i>Roman de la rose</i> through
+the medium of Chartier and Christine, which produced &ldquo;Castles
+of Love,&rdquo; &ldquo;Temples of Honour,&rdquo; and such like. The combination
+of these drifts in verse-writing produced a school known in
+literary history, from a happy phrase of the satirist Coquillart
+(<i>v. inf.</i>), as the &ldquo;Grands Rhétoriqueurs.&rdquo; The chief of these besides
+Crétin were Jean Molinet (d. 1507); Jean Meschinot (<i>c.</i> 1420-1491),
+author of the <i>Lunettes des princes</i>; Florimond Robertet
+(d. 1522); Georges Chastellain (1404-1475), to be mentioned
+again; and Octavien de Saint-Gelais (1466-1502), father of a
+better poet than himself. Yet some of the minor poets of the
+time are not to be despised. Such are Henri Baude (1430-1490), a
+less pedantic writer than most, Martial d&rsquo;Auvergne (1440-1508),
+whose principal work is <i>L&rsquo;Amant rendu cordelier au service de
+l&rsquo;amour</i>, and others, many of whom formed part of the poetical
+court which Charles d&rsquo;Orléans kept up at Blois after his release.</p>
+
+<p>While the serious poetry of the age took this turn, there was
+no lack of lighter and satirical verse. Villon, indeed, were it
+not for the depth and pathos of his poetical sentiment, might
+be claimed as a poet of the lighter order, and the patriotic
+diatribes against the English to which we have alluded easily
+passed into satire. The political quarrels of the latter part of
+the century also provoked much satirical composition. The
+disputes of the Bien Public and those between Louis XI. and
+Charles of Burgundy employed many pens. The most remarkable
+piece of the light literature of the first is &ldquo;Les Ânes Volants,&rdquo;
+a ballad on some of the early favourites of Louis. The battles
+of France and Burgundy were waged on paper between Gilles
+des Ormes and the above-named Georges Chastelain, typical
+representatives of the two styles of 15th-century poetry already
+alluded to&mdash;Des Ormes being the lighter and more graceful
+writer, Chastelain a pompous and learned allegorist. The most
+remarkable representative of purely light poetry outside the
+<span class="sidenote">Coquillart.</span>
+theatre is Guillaume Coquillart (1421-1510), a lawyer
+of Champagne, who resided for the greater part of his
+life in Reims. This city, like others, suffered from the
+pitiless tyranny of Louis XI. The beginnings of the standing
+army which Charles VII. had started were extremely unpopular,
+and the use to which his son put them by no means removed
+this unpopularity. Coquillart described the military man of the
+period in his <i>Monologue du gendarme cassé</i>. Again, when the
+king entertained the idea of unifying the taxes and laws of the
+different provinces, Coquillart, who was named commissioner for
+this purpose, wrote on the occasion a satire called <i>Les Droits
+nouveaux</i>. A certain kind of satire, much less good-tempered
+than the earlier forms, became indeed common at this epoch.
+M. Lenient has well pointed out that a new satirical personification
+dominates this literature. It is no longer Renart with his
+cynical gaiety, or the curiously travestied and almost amiable
+Devil of the Middle Ages. Now it is Death as an incident ever
+present to the imagination, celebrated in the thousand repetitions
+of the <i>Danse Macabre</i>, sculptured all over the buildings of the
+time, even frequently performed on holidays and in public. With
+the usual tendency to follow pattern, the idea of the &ldquo;dance&rdquo;
+seems to have been extended, and we have a <i>Danse aux aveugles</i>
+(1464) from Pierre Michaut, where the teachers are fortune,
+love and death, all blind. All through the century, too, anonymous
+verse of the lighter kind was written, some of it of great
+merit. The folk-songs already alluded to, published by Gaston
+Paris, show one side of this composition, and many of the pieces
+contained in M. de Montaiglon&rsquo;s extensive <i>Recueil des anciennes
+poésies françaises</i> exhibit others.</p>
+
+<p>The 15th century was perhaps more remarkable for its achievements
+in prose than in poetry. It produced, indeed, no prose
+writer of great distinction, except Comines; but it witnessed
+serious, if not extremely successful, efforts at prose composition.
+The invention of printing finally substituted the reader for the
+listener, and when this substitution has been effected, the main
+inducement to treat unsuitable subjects in verse is gone. The
+study of the classics at first hand contributed to the same end.
+As early as 1458 the university of Paris had a Greek professor.
+But long before this time translations in prose had been made.
+Pierre Bercheure (Bersuire) (1290-1352) had already translated
+Livy. Nicholas Oresme (<i>c.</i> 1334-1382), the tutor of Charles V.,
+gave a version of certain Aristotelian works, which enriched
+the language with a large number of terms, then strange enough,
+now familiar. Raoul de Presles (1316-1383) turned into French
+the <i>De civitate Dei</i> of St Augustine. These writers or others
+composed <i>Le Songe du vergier</i>, an elaborate discussion of the
+power of the pope. The famous chancellor, Jean Charlier or
+Gerson (1363-1429), to whom the <i>Imitation</i> has among so many
+others been attributed, spoke constantly and wrote often in the
+vulgar tongue, though he attacked the most famous and popular
+work in that tongue, the <i>Roman de la rose</i>. Christine de Pisan
+and Alain Chartier were at least as much prose writers as poets;
+and the latter, while he, like Gerson, dealt much with the reform
+of the church, used in his <i>Quadriloge invectif</i> really forcible
+language for the purpose of spurring on the nobles of France
+to put an end to her sufferings and evils. These moral and
+didactic treatises were but continuations of others, which for
+convenience sake we have hitherto left unnoticed. Though
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span>
+verse was in the centuries prior to the 15th the favourite medium
+for literary composition, it was by no means the only one; and
+moral and educational treatises&mdash;some referred to above&mdash;already
+existed in pedestrian phrase. Certain household books (<i>Livres de
+raison</i>) have been preserved, some of which date as far back
+as the 13th century. These contain not merely accounts, but
+family chronicles, receipts and the like. Accounts of travel,
+especially to the Holy Land, culminated in the famous <i>Voyage</i>
+of Mandeville which, though it has never been of so much importance
+in French as in English, perhaps first took vernacular
+form in the French tongue. Of the 14th century, we have a
+<i>Menagier de Paris</i>, intended for the instruction of a young wife,
+and a large number of miscellaneous treatises of art, science
+and morality, while private letters, mostly as yet unpublished,
+exist in considerable numbers, and are generally of the moralizing
+character; books of devotion, too, are naturally frequent.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important divisions of medieval energy in prose
+composition are the spoken exercises of the pulpit and the bar.
+The beginnings of French sermons have been much
+discussed, especially the question whether St Bernard,
+<span class="sidenote">Early sermon-writers.</span>
+whose discourses we possess in ancient, but doubtfully
+contemporary French, pronounced them in that
+language or in Latin. Towards the end of the 12th century,
+however, the sermons of Maurice de Sully (1160-1196) present
+the first undoubted examples of homiletics in the vernacular,
+and they are followed by many others&mdash;so many indeed that the
+13th century alone counts 261 sermon-writers, besides a large
+body of anonymous work. These sermons were, as might indeed
+be expected, chiefly cast in a somewhat scholastic form&mdash;theme,
+exordium, development, example and peroration following
+in regular order. The 14th-century sermons, on the other hand,
+have as yet been little investigated. It must, however, be
+remembered that this age was the most famous of all for its
+scholastic illustrations, and for the early vigour of the Dominican
+and Franciscan orders. With the end of the century and the
+beginning of the 15th, the importance of the pulpit begins to
+revive. The early years of the new age have Gerson for their
+representative, while the end of the century sees the still more
+famous names of Michel Menot (1450-1518), Olivier Maillard
+(<i>c.</i> 1430-1502), and Jean Rauhn (1443-1514), all remarkable
+for the practice of a vigorous and homely style of oratory, recoiling
+before no aid of what we should nowadays style buffoonery,
+and manifesting a creditable indifference to the indignation of
+principalities and powers. Louis XI. is said to have threatened
+to throw Maillard into the Seine, and many instances of the boldness
+of these preachers and the rough vigour of their oratory
+have been preserved. Froissart had been followed as a chronicler
+by Enguerrand de Monstrelet (<i>c.</i> 1390-1453) and by the historiographers
+of the Burgundian court, Chastelain, already mentioned,
+<span class="correction" title="amended from whole">whose</span> interesting <i>Chronique de Jacques de Lalaing</i> is much the
+most attractive part of his work, and Olivier de la Marche. The
+memoir and chronicle writers, who were to be of so much importance
+in French literature, also begin to be numerous at this
+period. Juvenal des Ursins (1388-1473), an anonymous bourgeois
+de Paris (two such indeed), and the author of the <i>Chronique
+scandaleuse</i>, may be mentioned as presenting the character of
+minute observation and record which has distinguished the
+class ever since. Jean le maire de (not <i>des</i>) Belges (1473-<i>c.</i> 1525)
+was historiographer to Louis XII. and wrote <i>Illustrations des
+Gaules</i>. But Comines (1445-1509) is no imitator of Froissart
+<span class="sidenote">Comines.</span>
+or of any one else. The last of the quartette of great
+French medieval historians, he does not yield to any
+of his three predecessors in originality or merit, but he is very
+different from them. He fully represents the mania of the time
+for statecraft, and his book has long ranked with that of Machiavelli
+as a manual of the art, though he has not the absolutely
+non-moral character of the Italian. His memoirs, considered
+merely as literature, show a style well suited to their purport,&mdash;not,
+indeed, brilliant or picturesque, but clear, terse and
+thoroughly well suited to the expression of the acuteness, observation
+and common sense of their author.</p>
+
+<p>But prose was not content with the domain of serious literature.
+It had already long possessed a respectable position as a vehicle
+of romance, and the end of the 14th and the beginning of the
+15th centuries were pre-eminently the time when
+<span class="sidenote">The Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles.</span>
+the epics of chivalry were re-edited and extended in
+prose. Few, however, of these extensions offer much
+literary interest. On the other hand, the best prose of
+the century, and almost the earliest which deserves the title of
+a satisfactory literary medium, was employed for the telling
+of romances in miniature. The <i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i> is
+undoubtedly the first work of prose belles-lettres in French,
+and the first, moreover, of a long and most remarkable class
+of literary work in which French writers may challenge all
+comers with the certainty of victory&mdash;the short prose tale
+of a comic character. This remarkable work has usually been
+attributed, like the somewhat similar but later <i>Heptaméron</i>,
+to a knot of literary courtiers gathered round a royal personage,
+in this case the dauphin Louis, afterwards Louis XI. Some
+evidence has recently been produced which seems to show that
+this tradition, which attributed some of the tales to Louis
+himself, is erroneous, but the question is still undecided. The
+subjects of the <i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i> are by no means new.
+They are simply the old themes of the fabliaux treated in the
+old way. The novelty is in the application of prose to such a
+purpose, and in the crispness, the fluency and the elegance of
+the prose used. The fortunate author or editor to whom these
+admirable tales have of late been attributed is Antoine de la
+<span class="sidenote">Antoine de la Salle.</span>
+Salle (1398-1461), who, if this attribution and certain
+others be correct, must be allowed to be one of the
+most original and fertile authors of early French literature.
+La Salle&rsquo;s one acknowledged work is the story
+of <i>Petit Jehan de Saintré</i>, a short romance exhibiting great command
+of character and abundance of delicate draughtsmanship.
+To this not only the authorship, part-authorship or editorship
+of the <i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i> has been added; but the still
+more famous and important work of <i>L&rsquo;Avocat Patelin</i> has been
+assigned by respectable, though of course conjecturing, authority
+to the same paternity. The generosity of critics towards La
+Salle has not even stopped here. A fourth masterpiece of the
+period, <i>Les Quinze Joies de mariage</i>, has also been assigned
+to him. This last work, like the other three, is satirical in subject,
+and shows for the time a wonderful mastery of the language.
+Of the fifteen joys of marriage, or, in other words, the fifteen
+miseries of husbands, each has a chapter assigned to it, and each
+is treated with the peculiar mixture of gravity and ridicule which
+it requires. All who have read the book confess its infinite wit
+and the grace of its style. It is true that it has been reproached
+with cruelty and with a lack of the moral sentiment. But
+humanity and morality were not the strong point of the 15th
+century. There is, it must be admitted, about most of its
+productions a lack of poetry and a lack of imagination, produced,
+it may be, partly by political and other conditions outside literature,
+but very observable in it. The old forms of literature
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of the Renaissance.</span>
+itself had lost their interest, and new ones possessing
+strength to last and power to develop themselves
+had not yet appeared. It was impossible, even if the
+taste for it had survived, to spin out the old themes
+any longer. But the new forces required some time to set to
+work, and to avail themselves of the tremendous weapon which
+the press had put into their hands. When these things had
+adjusted themselves, literature of a varied and vigorous kind
+became once more possible and indeed necessary, nor did it
+take long to make its appearance.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th Century.</i>&mdash;In no country was the literary result of the
+Renaissance more striking and more manifold than in France.
+The double effect of the study of antiquity and the religious
+movement produced an outburst of literary developments of the
+most diverse kinds, which even the fierce and sanguinary civil
+dissensions of the Reformation did not succeed in checking.
+While the Renaissance in Italy had mainly exhausted its effects
+by the middle of the 16th century, while in Germany those effects
+only paved the way for a national literature, and did not themselves
+greatly contribute thereto, while in England it was not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span>
+till the extreme end of the period that a great literature was
+forthcoming&mdash;in France almost the whole century was marked
+by the production of capital works in every branch of literary
+effort. Not even the 17th century, and certainly not the 18th,
+can show such a group of prose writers and poets as is formed
+by Calvin, St Francis de Sales, Montaigne, du Vair, Bodin,
+d&rsquo;Aubigné, the authors of the <i>Satire Ménippée</i>, Monluc,
+Brantôme, Pasquier, Rabelais, des Periers, Herberay des Essarts,
+Amyot, Garnier, Marot, Ronsard and the rest of the &ldquo;Pléiade,&rdquo;
+and finally Regnier. These great writers are not merely remarkable
+for the vigour and originality of their thoughts, the freshness,
+variety and grace of their fancy, the abundance of their learning
+and the solidity of their arguments in the cases where argument
+is required. Their great merit is the creation of a language and
+a style able to give expression to these good gifts. The foregoing
+account of the medieval literature of France will have shown
+sufficiently that it is not lawful to despise the literary capacities
+and achievements of the older French. But the old language,
+with all its merits, was ill-suited to be a vehicle for any but
+the simpler forms of literary composition. Pleasant or affecting
+tales could be told in it with interest and pathos. Songs of charming
+<i>naïveté</i> and grace could be sung; the requirements of the
+epic and the chronicle were suitably furnished. But it was barren
+of the terms of art and science; it did not readily lend itself to
+sustained eloquence, to impassioned poetry or to logical discussion.
+It had been too long accustomed to leave these things to
+Latin as their natural and legitimate exponent, and it bore
+marks of its original character as a <i>lingua rustica</i>, a tongue suited
+for homely conversation, for folk-lore and for ballads, rather than
+for the business of the forum and the court, the speculations of
+the study, and the declamation of the theatre. Efforts had indeed
+been made, culminating in the heavy and tasteless erudition of
+the schools of Chartier and Crétin, to supply the defect; but
+it was reserved for the 16th century completely to efface it.
+The series of prose writers from Calvin to Montaigne, of poets
+from Marot to Regnier, elaborated a language yielding to no
+modern tongue in beauty, richness, flexibility and strength,
+a language which the reactionary purism of succeeding generations
+defaced rather than improved, and the merits of which have
+in still later days been triumphantly vindicated by the confession
+and the practice of all the greatest writers of modern France.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th-Century Poetry.</i>&mdash;The first few years of the 16th century
+were naturally occupied rather with the last developments of
+the medieval forms than with the production of the new model.
+The clerks of the Bazoche and the Confraternity of the Passion
+still produced and acted mysteries, moralities and farces. The
+poets of the &ldquo;Grands Rhétoriqueurs&rdquo; school still wrote elaborate
+allegorical poetry. Chansons de geste, rhymed romances and
+fabliaux had long ceased to be written. But the press was
+multiplying the contents of the former in the prose form which
+they had finally assumed, and in the <i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i>
+there already existed admirable specimens of the short prose tale.
+There even were signs, as in some writers already mentioned and
+in Roger de Collérye, a lackpenny but light-hearted singer of
+the early part of the century, of definite enfranchisement in
+verse. But the first note of the new literature was sounded by
+<span class="sidenote">Marot.</span>
+Clément Marot (1496/7-1544). The son of an elder
+poet, Jehan des Mares called Marot (1463-1523),
+Clément at first wrote, like his father&rsquo;s contemporaries, allegorical
+and mythological poetry, afterwards collected in a volume with
+a charming title, <i>L&rsquo;Adolescence clémentine</i>. It was not till he was
+nearly thirty years old that his work became really remarkable.
+From that time forward till his death, about twenty years afterwards,
+he was much involved in the troubles and persecutions
+of the Huguenot party to which he belonged; nor was the protection
+of Marguerite d&rsquo;Angoulême, the chief patroness of
+Huguenots and men of letters, always efficient. But his troubles,
+so far from harming, helped his literary faculties; and his epistles,
+epigrams, <i>blasons</i> (descendants of the medieval <i>dits</i>), and <i>coq-à-l&rsquo;âne</i>
+became remarkable for their easy and polished style, their
+light and graceful wit, and a certain elegance which had not as
+yet been even attempted in any modern tongue, though the
+Italian humanists had not been far from it in some of their
+Latin compositions. Around Marot arose a whole school of
+disciples and imitators, such as Victor Brodeau (1470?-1540),
+the great authority on rondeaux, Maurice Scève, a fertile author
+of blasons, Salel, Marguerite herself (1492-1549), of whom more
+hereafter, and Mellin de Saint Gelais (1491-1558). The last,
+son of the bishop named above, is a courtly writer of occasional
+pieces, who sustained as well as he could the <i>style marotique</i>
+against Ronsard, and who has the credit of introducing the
+regular sonnet into French. But the inventive vigour of the age
+was so great that one school had hardly become popular before
+another pushed it from its stool, and even of the Marotists
+just mentioned Scève and Salel are often regarded as chief and
+member respectively of a Lyonnese coterie, intermediate between
+the schools of Marot and of Ronsard, containing other members
+of repute such as Antoine Heroët and Charles Fontaine and
+<span class="sidenote">Ronsard.</span>
+claiming Louise Labé (<i>v. inf.</i>) herself. Pierre de
+Ronsard (1524-1585) was the chief of this latter. At
+first a courtier and a diplomatist, physical disqualification made
+him change his career. He began to study the classics under
+Jean Daurat (1508-1588), and with his master and five other
+writers, Étienne Jodelle (1532-1573), Rémy Belleau (1528-1577),
+Joachim du Bellay (1525-1560), Jean Antoine de Baïf (1532-1589),
+and Pontus de Tyard (d. 1605, bishop of Châlons-sur-Saône),
+composed the famous &ldquo;Pléiade.&rdquo; The object of this
+band was to bring the French language, in vocabulary,
+<span class="sidenote">The Pléiade.</span>
+constructions and application, on a level with the
+classical tongues by borrowings from the latter. They
+would have imported the Greek licence of compound words,
+though the genius of the French language is but little adapted
+thereto; and they wished to reproduce in French the regular
+tragedy, the Pindaric and Horatian ode, the Virgilian epic, &amp;c.
+But it is an error (though one which until recently was very
+common, and which perhaps requires pretty thorough study of
+their work completely to extirpate it) to suppose that they
+advocated or practised <i>indiscriminate</i> borrowing. On the contrary
+both in du Bellay&rsquo;s famous manifesto, the <i>Deffense et illustration
+de la langue française</i>, and in Ronsard&rsquo;s own work, caution
+and attention to the genius and the tradition of French are
+insisted upon. Being all men of the highest talent, and not a
+few of them men of great genius, they achieved much that they
+designed, and even where they failed exactly to achieve it, they
+very often indirectly produced results as important and more
+beneficial than those which they intended. Their ideal of a
+separate poetical language distinct from that intended for prose
+use was indeed a doubtful if not a dangerous one. But it is
+certain that Marot, while setting an example of elegance and
+grace not easily to be imitated, set also an example of trivial and,
+so to speak, pedestrian language which was only too imitable.
+If France was ever to possess a literature containing something
+besides fabliaux and farces, the tongue must be enriched and
+strengthened. This accession of wealth and vigour it received
+from Ronsard and the Ronsardists. Doubtless they went too far
+and provoked to some extent the reaction which Malherbe led.
+Their importations were sometimes unnecessary. It is almost
+impossible to read the <i>Franciade</i> of Ronsard, and not too easy
+to read the tragedies of Jodelle and Garnier, fine as the latter are
+in parts. But the best of Ronsard&rsquo;s sonnets and odes, the finest
+of du Bellay&rsquo;s <i>Antiquités de Rome</i> (translated into English by
+Spenser), the exquisite <i>Vanneur</i> of the same author, and the
+<i>Avril</i> of Belleau, even the finer passages of d&rsquo;Aubigné and du
+Bartas, are not only admirable in themselves, and of a kind not
+previously found in French literature, but are also such things
+as could not have been previously found, for the simple reason
+that the medium of expression was wanting. They constructed
+that medium for themselves, and no force of the reaction which
+they provoked was able to undo their work. Adverse criticism
+and the natural course of time rejected much that they had added.
+The charming diminutives they loved so much went out of
+fashion; their compounds (sometimes it must be confessed,
+justly) had their letters of naturalization promptly cancelled;
+many a gorgeous adjective, including some which could trace
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span>
+their pedigree to the earliest ages of French literature, but
+which bore an unfortunate likeness to the new-comers, was
+proscribed. But for all that no language has ever had its destiny
+influenced more powerfully and more beneficially by a small
+literary clique than the language of France was influenced by the
+example and disciples of that Ronsard whom for two centuries
+it was the fashion to deride and decry.</p>
+
+<p>In a sketch such as the present it is impossible to give a
+separate account of individual writers, the more important of
+whom will be found treated under their own names.
+The effort of the &ldquo;Pléiade&rdquo; proper was continued and
+<span class="sidenote">The Ronsardists.</span>
+shared by a considerable number of minor poets,
+some of them, as has been already noted, belonging to different
+groups and schools. Olivier de Magny (d. 1560) and Louise
+Labé (b. 1526) were poets and lovers, the lady deserving far the
+higher rank in literature. There is more depth of passion in the
+writings of &ldquo;La Belle Cordière,&rdquo; as this Lyonnese poetess
+was called, than in almost any of her contemporaries. Jacques
+Tahureau (1527-1555) scarcely deserves to be called a minor poet.
+There is less than the usual hyperbole in the contemporary
+comparison of him to Catullus, and he reminds an Englishman
+of the school represented nearly a century later by Carew,
+Randolph and Suckling. The title of a part of his poem&mdash;<i>Mignardises
+amoureuses de l&rsquo;admirée</i>&mdash;is characteristic both of
+the style and of the time. Jean Doublet (<i>c.</i> 1528-<i>c.</i> 1580), Amadis
+Jamyn (<i>c.</i> 1530-1585), and Jean de la Taille (1540-1608) deserve
+mention at least as poets, but two other writers require a longer
+allusion. Guillaume de Salluste, seigneur du Bartas (1544-1590),
+<span class="sidenote">Du Bartas.</span>
+whom Sylvester&rsquo;s translation, Milton&rsquo;s imitation, and
+the copious citations of Southey&rsquo;s <i>Doctor</i>, have
+made known if not familiar in England, was partly a disciple
+and partly a rival of Ronsard. His poem of <i>Judith</i> was eclipsed
+by his better-known <i>La Divine Sepmaine</i> or epic of the Creation.
+Du Bartas was a great user and abuser of the double compounds
+alluded to above, but his style possesses much stateliness, and has
+a peculiar solemn eloquence which he shared with the other
+French Calvinists, and which was derived from the study partly
+of Calvin and partly of the Bible. Théodore Agrippa d&rsquo;Aubigné
+<span class="sidenote">D&rsquo;Aubigné.</span>
+(1552-1630), like du Bartas, was a Calvinist. His
+genius was of a more varied character. He wrote sonnets
+and odes as became a Ronsardist, but his chief poetical
+work is the satirical poem of <i>Les Tragiques</i>, in which the author
+brands the factions, corruptions and persecutions of the time,
+and in which there are to be found alexandrines of a strength,
+vigour and original cadence hardly to be discovered elsewhere,
+save in Corneille and Victor Hugo. Towards the end of the
+century, Philippe Desportes (1546-1606) and Jean Bertaut
+(1552-1611), with much enfeebled strength, but with a certain
+grace, continue the Ronsardizing tradition. Among their contemporaries
+must be noticed Jean Passerat (1534-1602), a writer
+of much wit and vigour and rather resembling Marot than
+Ronsard, and Vauquelin de la Fresnaye (1536-1607), the author
+of a valuable <i>Ars poëtica</i> and of the first French satires which
+actually bear that title. Jean le Houx (fl. c. 1600) continued,
+rewrote or invented the vaux de vire, commonly known as the
+work of Olivier Basselin, and already alluded to, while a still
+lighter and more eccentric verse style was cultivated by Étienne
+Tabourot des Accords (1549-1590), whose epigrams and other
+pieces were collected under odd titles, <i>Les Bigarrures, Les Touches</i>,
+&amp;c. A curious pair are Guy du Faur de Pibrac (1529-1584) and
+Pierre Mathieu (b. 1563), authors of moral quatrains, which were
+learnt by heart in the schools of the time, replacing the distichs
+of the grammarian Cato, which, translated into French, had
+served the same purpose in the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The nephew of Desportes, Mathurin Regnier (1573-1613),
+marks the end, and at the same time perhaps the climax, of the
+poetry of the century. A descendant at once of the
+older Gallic spirit of Villon and Marot, in virtue of his
+<span class="sidenote">Regnier.</span>
+consummate acuteness, terseness and wit, of the school of Ronsard
+by his erudition, his command of language, and his scholarship,
+Regnier is perhaps the best representative of French poetry at
+the critical time when it had got together all its materials, had
+lost none of its native vigour and force, and had not yet submitted
+to the cramping and numbing rules and restrictions which
+the next century introduced. The satirical poems of Regnier, and
+especially the admirable epistle to Rapin, in which he denounces
+and rebuts the critical dogmas of Malherbe, are models of nervous
+strength, while some of the elegies and odes contain expression
+not easily to be surpassed of the softer feelings of affection and
+regret. No poet has had more influence on the revival of French
+poetry in the last century than Regnier, and he had imitators
+in his own time, the chief of whom was Courval-Sonnet (Thomas
+Sonnet, sieur de Courval) (1577-1635), author of satires of some
+value for the history of manners.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th-Century Drama.</i>&mdash;The change which dramatic poetry
+underwent during the 16th century was at least as remarkable
+as that undergone by poetry proper. The first half of the period
+saw the end of the religious mysteries, the licence of which had
+irritated both the parliament and the clergy. Louis XII., at
+the beginning of the century, was far from discouraging the disorderly
+but popular and powerful theatre in which the Confraternity
+of the Passion, the clerks of the Bazoche, and the Enfans
+sans souci enacted mysteries, moralities, soties and farces.
+He made them, indeed, an instrument in his quarrel with the
+papacy, just as Philippe le Bel had made use of the allegorical
+poems of Jehan de Meung and his fellows. Under his patronage
+were produced the chief works of Gringore or Gringoire (<i>c.</i> 1480-1547),
+by far the most remarkable writer of this class of composition.
+His <i>Prince des sots</i> and his <i>Mystère de St Louis</i> are among
+the best of their kind. An enormous volume of composition of
+this class was produced between 1500 and 1550. One morality
+by itself, <i>L&rsquo;Homme juste et l&rsquo;homme mondain</i>, contains some
+36,000 lines. But in 1548, when the Confraternity was formally
+established at the Hôtel de Bourgogne, leave to play sacred
+subjects was expressly refused it. Moralities and soties dragged
+on under difficulties till the end of the century, and the farce,
+which is immortal, continually affected comedy. But the effect
+of the Renaissance was to sweep away all other vestiges of the
+medieval drama, at least in the capital. An entirely new class
+of subjects, entirely new modes of treatment, and a different
+kind of performers were introduced. The change naturally
+came from Italy. In the close relationship with that country
+which France had during the early years of the century, Italian
+translations of the classical masterpieces were easily imported.
+Soon French translations were made afresh of the <i>Electra</i>, the
+<i>Hecuba</i>, the <i>Iphigenia in Aulis</i>, and the French humanists
+hastened to compose original tragedies on the classical model,
+especially as exhibited in the Latin tragedian Seneca. It was
+impossible that the &ldquo;Pléiade&rdquo; should not eagerly seize such an
+opportunity of carrying out its principles, and one of its members,
+Jodelle (1532-1573), devoting himself mainly to dramatic
+<span class="sidenote">Regular tragedy and comedy.</span>
+composition, fashioned at once the first tragedy,
+<i>Cléopatre</i>, and the first comedy, <i>Eugène</i>, thus setting
+the example of the style of composition which for two
+centuries and a half Frenchmen were to regard as the
+highest effort of literary ambition. The amateur performance
+of these dramas by Jodelle and his friends was followed by a
+Bacchic procession after the manner of the ancients, which caused
+a great deal of scandal, and was represented by both Catholics
+and Protestants as a pagan orgy. The <i>Cléopâtre</i> is remarkable
+as being the first French tragedy, nor is it destitute of merit.
+It is curious that in this first instance the curt antithetic
+<span class="grk" title="stichomuthia">&#963;&#964;&#953;&#967;&#959;&#956;&#965;&#952;&#943;&#945;</span>, which was so long characteristic of French plays and
+plays imitated from them, and which Butler ridicules in his
+<i>Dialogue of Cat and Puss</i>, already appears. There appears also
+the grandiose and smooth but stilted declamation which came
+rather from the imitation of Seneca than of Sophocles, and the
+tradition of which was never to be lost. <i>Cléopâtre</i> was followed
+by <i>Didon</i>, which, unlike its predecessor, is entirely in alexandrines,
+and observes the regular alternation of masculine and feminine
+rhymes. Jodelle was followed by Jacques Grévin (1540?-1570)
+with a <i>Mort de César</i>, which shows an improvement in tragic art,
+and two still better comedies, <i>Les Ébahis</i> and <i>La Trésorière</i> by
+Jean de la Taille (1540-1608), who made still further progress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span>
+towards the accepted French dramatic pattern in his <i>Saul
+furieux</i> and his <i>Corrivaux</i>, Jacques, his brother (1541-1562), and
+Jean de la Péruse (1529-1554), who wrote a <i>Médée</i>. A very
+<span class="sidenote">Garnier.</span>
+different poet from all these is Robert Garnier (1545-1601).
+Garnier is the first tragedian who deserves a
+place not too far below Rotrou, Corneille, Racine, Voltaire and
+Hugo, and who may be placed in the same class with them. He
+chose his subjects indifferently from classical, sacred and medieval
+literature. <i>Sédécie</i>, a play dealing with the capture of Jerusalem
+by Nebuchadnezzar, is held to be his masterpiece, and <i>Bradamante</i>
+deserves notice because it is the first tragi-comedy of merit in
+French, and because the famous confidant here makes his first
+appearance. Garnier&rsquo;s successor, Antoine de Monchrétien or
+Montchrestien (<i>c.</i> 1576-1621), set the example of dramatizing
+contemporary subjects. His masterpiece is <i>L&rsquo;Écossaise</i>, the
+first of many dramas on the fate of Mary, queen of Scots. While
+tragedy thus clings closely to antique models, comedy, as might
+be expected in the country of the fabliaux, is more independent.
+Italy had already a comic school of some originality, and the
+French farce was too vigorous and lively a production to permit
+of its being entirely overlooked. The first comic writer of great
+<span class="sidenote">Larivey.</span>
+merit was Pierre Larivey (<i>c.</i> 1550-<i>c.</i> 1612), an Italian
+by descent. Most if not all of his plays are founded
+on Italian originals, but the translations or adaptations are made
+with the greatest freedom, and almost deserve the title of original
+works. The style is admirable, and the skilful management
+of the action contrasts strongly with the languor, the awkward
+adjustment, and the lack of dramatic interest found in contemporary
+tragedians. Even Molière found something to use in
+Larivey.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th-Century Prose Fiction.</i>&mdash;Great as is the importance of
+the 16th century in the history of French poetry, its importance
+in the history of French prose is greater still. In poetry
+the middle ages could fairly hold their own with any of the ages
+that have succeeded them. The epics of chivalry, whether of the
+cycles of Charlemagne, Arthur, or the classic heroes, not to
+mention the miscellaneous romans d&rsquo;aventures, have indeed
+more than held their own. Both relatively and absolutely the
+<i>Franciade</i> of the 16th century, the <i>Pucelle</i> of the 17th, the
+<i>Henriade</i> of the 18th, cut a very poor figure beside <i>Roland</i> and
+<i>Percivale</i>, <i>Gerard de Roussillon</i>, and <i>Parthenopex de Blois</i>. The
+romances, ballads and pastourelles, signed and unsigned, of
+medieval France were not merely the origin, but in some respects
+the superiors, of the lyric poetry which succeeded them. Thibaut
+de Champagne, Charles d&rsquo;Orléans and Villon need not veil
+their crests in any society of bards. The charming forms of the
+rondel, the rondeau and the ballade have won admiration from
+every competent poet and critic who has known them. The
+fabliaux give something more than promise of La Fontaine,
+and the two great compositions of the <i>Roman du Renart</i> and
+the <i>Roman de la rose</i>, despite their faults and their alloy, will
+always command the admiration of all persons of taste and
+judgment who take the trouble to study them. But while
+poetry had in the middle ages no reason to blush for her French
+representatives, prose (always the younger and less forward
+sister) had far less to boast of. With the exception of chronicles
+and prose romances, no prose works of any real importance can
+be quoted before the end of the 15th century, and even then the
+chief if not the only place of importance must be assigned to the
+<i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i>, a work of admirable prose, but necessarily
+light in character, and not yet demonstrating the efficacy
+of the French language as a medium of expression for serious and
+weighty thought. Up to the time of the Renaissance and the
+consequent reformation, Latin had, as we have already remarked,
+been considered the sufficient and natural organ for this expression.
+In France as in other countries the disturbance in religious
+thought may undoubtedly claim the glory of having repaired
+this disgrace of the vulgar tongue, and of having fitted and
+taught it to express whatever thoughts the theologian, the
+historian, the philosopher, the politician and the savant had
+occasion to utter. But the use of prose as a vehicle for lighter
+themes was more continuous with the literature that preceded,
+and serves as a natural transition from poetry and the drama
+to history and science. Among the prose writers, therefore,
+of the 16th century we shall give the first place to the novelists
+and romantic writers.</p>
+
+<p>Among these there can be no doubt of the precedence, in
+every sense of the word, of François Rabelais (<i>c.</i> 1490-1553),
+the one French writer (or with Molière one of the two)
+whom critics the least inclined to appreciate the
+<span class="sidenote">Rabelais.</span>
+characteristics of French literature have agreed to place among
+the few greatest of the world. With an immense erudition
+representing almost the whole of the knowledge of his time,
+with an untiring faculty of invention, with the judgment of a
+philosopher, and the common sense of a man of the world, with
+an observation that let no characteristic of the time pass unobserved,
+and with a tenfold portion of the special Gallic gift
+of good-humoured satire, Rabelais united a height of speculation
+and depth of insight and a vein of poetical imagination rarely
+found in any writer, but altogether portentous when taken in
+conjunction with his other characteristics. His great work has
+been taken for an exercise of transcendental philosophy, for a
+concealed theological polemic, for an allegorical history of this
+and that personage of his time, for a merely literary utterance,
+for an attempt to tickle the popular ear and taste. It is all of
+these, and it is none&mdash;all of them in parts, none of them in
+deliberate and exclusive intention. It may perhaps be called
+the exposition and commentary of all the thoughts, feelings,
+aspirations and knowledge of a particular time and nation put
+forth in attractive literary form by a man who for once combined
+the practical and the literary spirit, the power of knowledge and
+the power of expression. The work of Rabelais is the mirror
+of the 16th century in France, reflecting at once its comeliness
+and its uncomeliness, its high aspirations, its voluptuous tastes,
+its political and religious dissensions, its keen criticism, its
+eager appetite and hasty digestion of learning, its gleams of poetry,
+and its ferocity of manners. In Rabelais we can divine the
+&ldquo;Pléiade&rdquo; and Marot, the <i>Cymbalum mundi</i> and Montaigne,
+Amyot and the <i>Amadis</i>, even Calvin and Duperron.</p>
+
+<p>It was inevitable that such extraordinary works as <i>Gargantua</i>
+and <i>Pantagruel</i> should attract special imitators in the direction
+of their outward form. It was also inevitable that this imitation
+should frequently fix upon these Rabelaisian characteristics
+which are least deserving of imitation, and most likely to be
+depraved in the hands of imitators. It fell within the plan of
+the master to indulge in what has been called <i>fatrasie</i>, the
+huddling together, that is to say, of a medley of language and
+images which is best known to English readers in the not always
+successful following of Sterne. It pleased him also to disguise
+his naturally terse, strong and nervous style in a burlesque
+envelope of redundant language, partly ironical, partly the result
+of superfluous erudition, and partly that of a certain childish
+wantonness and exuberance, which is one of his raciest and
+pleasantest characteristics. In both these points he was somewhat
+corruptly followed. But fortunately the romancical
+writers of the 16th century had not Rabelais for their sole model,
+but were also influenced by the simple and straightforward
+style of the <i>Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles</i>. The joint influence gives
+us some admirable work. Nicholas of Troyes, a saddler of
+Champagne, came too early (his <i>Grand Parangon des nouvelles
+nouvelles</i> appeared in 1536) to copy Rabelais. But Noël du
+Fail (d. <i>c.</i> 1585?), a judge at Rennes, shows the double influence
+in his <i>Propos rustiques</i> and <i>Contes d&rsquo;Eutrapel</i>, both of which,
+especially the former, are lively and well-written pictures of
+contemporary life and thought, as the country magistrate
+actually saw and dealt with them. In 1558, however, appeared
+two works of far higher literary and social interest. These are
+<span class="sidenote">Des Periers.</span>
+the <i>Heptaméron</i> of the queen of Navarre, and the <i>Contes et
+joyeux devis</i> of Bonaventure des Periers (<i>c.</i> 1500-1544).
+Des Periers, who was a courtier of Marguerite&rsquo;s, has
+sometimes been thought to have had a good deal
+to do with the first-named work as well as with the second,
+and was also the author of a curious Lucianic satire, strongly
+sceptical in cast, the <i>Cymbalum mundi</i>. Indeed, not merely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span>
+the queen&rsquo;s prose works, but also the poems gracefully entitled
+<i>Les Marguerites de la Marguerite</i>, are often attributed to the
+literary men whom the sister of Francis I. gathered round
+her. However this may be, some single influence of power
+enough to give unity and distinctness of savour evidently
+<span class="sidenote">The Heptaméron.</span>
+presided over the composition of the <i>Heptaméron</i>.
+Composed as it is on the model of Boccaccio, its tone
+and character are entirely different, and few works
+have a more individual charm. The <i>Tales</i> of des Periers are
+shorter, simpler and more homely; there is more wit in them
+and less refinement. But both works breathe, more powerfully
+perhaps than any others, the peculiar mixture of cultivated
+and poetical voluptuousness with a certain religiosity and a
+vigorous spirit of action which characterizes the French Renaissance.
+Later in time, but too closely connected with Rabelais
+in form and spirit to be here omitted, came the <i>Moyen de parvenir</i>
+of Béroalde de Verville (1558?-1612?), a singular <i>fatrasie</i>, uniting
+wit, wisdom, learning and indecency, and crammed with anecdotes
+which are always amusing though rarely decorous.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time a fresh vogue was given to the chivalric
+romance by Herberay&rsquo;s translation of <i>Amadis de Gaula</i>. French
+writers have supposed a French original for the
+<i>Amadis</i> in some lost roman d&rsquo;aventures. It is of course
+<span class="sidenote">Amadis of Gaul.</span>
+impossible to say that this is not the case, but there
+is not one tittle of evidence to show that it is. At any rate
+the adventures of Amadis were prolonged in Spanish through
+generation after generation of his descendants. This vast work
+Herberay des Essarts in 1540 undertook to translate or retranslate,
+but it was not without the assistance of several followers
+that the task was completed. Southey has charged Herberay
+with corrupting the simplicity of the original, a charge which
+does not concern us here. It is sufficient to say that the French
+<i>Amadis</i> is an excellent piece of literary work, and that Herberay
+deserves no mean place among the fathers of French prose.
+His book had an immense popularity; it was translated into
+many foreign languages, and for some time it served as a favourite
+reading book for foreigners studying French. Nor is it to be
+doubted that the romancers of the Scudéry and Calprenède
+type in the next century were much more influenced both for
+good and harm by these Amadis romances than by any of the
+earlier tales of chivalry.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th-Century Historians.</i>&mdash;As in the case of the tale-tellers,
+so in that of the historians, the writers of the 16th century had
+traditions to continue. It is doubtful indeed whether many of
+them can risk comparison as artists with the great names cf
+Villehardouin and Joinville, Froissart and Comines. The 16th
+century, however, set the example of dividing the functions
+of the chronicler, setting those of the historian proper on one
+side, and of the anecdote-monger and biographer on the other.
+The efforts at regular history made in this century were not of
+the highest value. But on the other hand the practice of memoir-writing,
+in which the French were to excel every nation in the
+world, and of literary correspondence, in which they were to
+excel even their memoirs, was solidly founded.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest historical writers of the century was Claude
+de Seyssel (1450-1520), whose history of Louis XII. aims not
+unsuccessfully at style. De Thou (1553-1617) wrote in Latin,
+but Bernard de Girard, sieur du Haillan (1537-1610), composed
+a <i>Histoire de France</i> on Thucydidean principles as transmitted
+through the successive mediums of Polybius, Guicciardini and
+Paulus Aemilius. The instance invariably quoted, after Thierry,
+of du Haillan&rsquo;s method is his introduction, with appropriate
+speeches, of two Merovingian statesmen who argue out the
+relative merits of monarchy and oligarchy on the occasion of
+the election of Pharamond. Besides du Haillan, la Popelinière
+(<i>c.</i> 1540-1608), who less ambitiously attempted a history of
+Europe during his own time, and expended immense labour
+on the collection of information and materials, deserves mention.</p>
+
+<p>There is no such poverty of writers of memoirs. Robert
+de la Mark, du Bellay, Marguerite de Valois (the youngest or
+third Marguerite, first wife of Henri IV., 1553-1615), Villars,
+Tavannes, La Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne, and many others composed
+commentaries and autobiographies. The well-known and very
+agreeable <i>Histoire du gentil seigneur de Bayart</i> (1524) is by
+an anonymous &ldquo;Loyal Serviteur.&rdquo; Vincent Carloix (fl. 1550),
+the secretary of the marshal de Vielleville, composed some
+memoirs abounding in detail and incident. The <i>Lettres</i> of
+Cardinal d&rsquo;Ossat (1536-1604) and the <i>Négociations</i> of Pierre
+Jeannin (1540-1622) have always had a high place among
+documents of their kind. But there are four collections of
+memoirs concerning this time which far exceed all others in
+interest and importance. The turbulent dispositions of the time,
+the loose dependence of the nobles and even the smaller gentry
+on any single or central authority, the rapid changes of political
+situations, and the singularly active appetite, both for pleasure
+and for business, for learning and for war, which distinguished
+the French gentleman of the 16th century, place the memoirs
+of François de Lanoue (1531-1591), Blaise de Mon[t]luc (1503-1577),
+Agrippa d&rsquo;Aubigné and Pierre de Bourdeille[s] Brantôme
+(1540-1614) almost at the head of the literature of their class.
+The name of Brantôme is known to all who have the least
+tincture of French literature, and the works of the others are not
+inferior in interest, and perhaps superior in spirit and conception,
+to the <i>Dames Galantes</i>, the <i>Grands Capitaines</i> and the <i>Hommes
+illustres</i>. The commentaries of Montluc, which Henri Quatre is
+said to have called the soldier&rsquo;s Bible, are exclusively military
+and deal with affairs only. Montluc was governor in Guienne,
+where he repressed the savage Huguenots of the south with a
+savagery worse than their own. He was, however, a partisan
+of order, not of Catholicism. He hung and shot both parties
+with perfect impartiality, and refused to have anything to do
+with the massacre of St Bartholomew. Though he was a man
+of no learning, his style is excellent, being vivid, flexible and
+straightforward. Lanoue, who was a moderate in politics, has
+left his principles reflected in his memoirs. D&rsquo;Aubigné, so often
+to be mentioned, gives the extreme Huguenot side as opposed
+to the royalist partisanship of Montluc and the <i>via media</i> of
+<span class="sidenote">Brantôme.</span>
+Lanoue. Brantôme, on the other hand, is quite free
+from any political or religious prepossessions, and,
+indeed, troubles himself very little about any such matters.
+He is the shrewd and somewhat cynical observer, moving
+through the crowd and taking note of its ways, its outward
+appearance, its heroisms and its follies. It is really difficult
+to say whether the recital of a noble deed of arms or the telling
+of a scandalous story about a court lady gave him the most
+pleasure, and impossible to say which he did best. Certainly
+he had ample material for both exercises in the history of his
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The branches of literature of which we have just given an
+account may be fairly connected, from the historical point of
+view, with work of the same kind that went before as well as
+with work of the same kind that followed them. It was not so
+with the literature of theology, law, politics and erudition, which
+the 16th century also produced, and with which it for the first
+time enlarged the range of composition in the vulgar tongue.
+Not only had Latin been invariably adopted as the language
+of composition on such subjects, but the style of the treatises
+dealing with such matters had been traditional rather than
+original. In speculative philosophy or metaphysics proper even
+this century did not witness a great development; perhaps,
+indeed, such a development was not to be expected until the
+minds of men had in some degree settled down from their agitation
+on more practical matters. It is not without significance that
+Calvin (1509-1564) is the great figure in serious French prose
+in the first half of the century, Montaigne the corresponding
+figure in the second half. After Calvin and Montaigne we expect
+Descartes.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th-Century Theologians.</i>&mdash;In France, as in all other countries,
+the Reformation was an essentially popular movement, though
+from special causes, such as the absence of political
+homogeneity, the nobles took a more active part both
+<span class="sidenote">Calvin.</span>
+with pen and sword in it than was the case in England. But the
+great textbook of the French Reformation was not the work
+of any noble. Jean Calvin&rsquo;s <i>Institution of the Christian Religion</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span>
+is a book equally remarkable in matter and in form, in circumstances
+and in result. It is the first really great composition
+in argumentative French prose. Its severe logic and careful
+arrangement had as much influence on the manner of future
+thought, both in France and the other regions whither its widespread
+popularity carried it, as its style had on the expression
+of such thought. It was the work of a man of only seven-and-twenty,
+and it is impossible to exaggerate the originality of its
+manner when we remember that hardly any models of French
+prose then existed except tales and chronicles, which required
+and exhibited totally different qualities of style. It is indeed
+probable that had not the <i>Institution</i> been first written by its
+author in Latin, and afterwards translated by him, it might have
+had less dignity and vigour; but it must at the same time be
+remembered that this process of composition was at least equally
+likely, in the hands of any but a great genius, to produce a heavy
+and pedantic style neither French nor Latin in character. Something
+like this result was actually produced in some of Calvin&rsquo;s
+minor works, and still more in the works of many of his followers,
+whose lumbering language gained for itself, in allusion to their
+exile from France, the title of &ldquo;style refugié.&rdquo; Nevertheless,
+the use of the vulgar tongue on the Protestant side, and the
+possession of a work of such importance written therein, gave
+the Reformers an immense advantage which their adversaries
+were some time in neutralizing. Even before the <i>Institution</i>,
+Lefèvre d&rsquo;Étaples (1455-1537) and Guillaume Farel (1489-1565)
+saw and utilized the importance of the vernacular. Calvin
+(1509-1564) was much helped by Pierre Viret (1511-1571), who
+wrote a large number of small theological and moral dialogues,
+and of satirical pamphlets, destined to captivate as well as to
+instruct the lower people. The more famous Beza (Théodore de
+Bèze) (1519-1605) wrote chiefly in Latin, but he composed in
+French an ecclesiastical history of the Reformed churches and
+some translations of the Psalms. Marnix de Sainte Aldegonde
+(1530-1593), a gentleman of Brabant, followed Viret as a satirical
+pamphleteer on the Protestant side. On the other hand, the
+Catholic champions at first affected to disdain the use of the
+vulgar tongue, and their pamphleteers, when they did attempt
+it, were unequal to the task. Towards the end of the century
+a more decent war was waged with Philippe du Plessis Mornay
+(1549-1623) on the Protestant side, whose work is at least as
+much directed against freethinkers and enemies of Christianity
+in general as against the dogmas and discipline of Rome. His
+adversary, the redoubtable Cardinal du Perron (1556-1618),
+who, originally a Calvinist, went over to the other side, employed
+French most vigorously in controversial works, chiefly with
+reference to the eucharist. Du Perron was celebrated as the first
+controversialist of the time, and obtained dialectical victories
+over all comers. At the same time the bishop of Geneva, St
+Francis of Sales (1567-1622), supported the Catholic side, partly
+by controversial works, but still more by his devotional writings.
+The <i>Introduction to a Devout Life</i>, which, though actually
+published early in the next century, had been written some time
+previously, shares with Calvin&rsquo;s <i>Institution</i> the position of the
+most important theological work of the period, and is in remarkable
+contrast with it in style and sentiment as well as in principles
+and plan. It has indeed been accused of a certain effeminacy,
+the appearance of which is in all probability mainly due to this
+very contrast. The 16th century does not, like the 17th, distinguish
+itself by literary exercises in the pulpit. The furious
+preachers of the League, and their equally violent opponents,
+have no literary value.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th-Century Moralists and Political Writers.</i>&mdash;The religious
+dissensions and political disturbances of the time could not fail
+to exert an influence on ethical and philosophical
+thought. Yet, as we have said, the century was
+<span class="sidenote">Montaigne.</span>
+not prolific of pure philosophical speculation. The
+scholastic tradition, though long sterile, still survived, and with
+it the habit of composing in Latin all works in any way connected
+with philosophy. The <i>Logic</i> of Ramus in 1555 is cited as the
+first departure from this rule. Other philosophical works are
+few, and chiefly express the doubt and the freethinking which
+were characteristic of the time. This doubt assumes the form
+of positive religious scepticism only in the <i>Cymbalum mundi</i> of
+Bonaventure des Periers, a remarkable series of dialogues which
+excited a great storm, and ultimately drove the author to commit
+suicide. The <i>Cymbalum mundi</i> is a curious anticipation of the
+18th century. The literature of doubt, however, was to receive
+its principal accession in the famous essays of Michel Eyguem,
+seigneur de Montaigne (1533-1592). It would be a mistake to
+imagine the existence of any sceptical propaganda in this charming
+and popular book. Its principle is not scepticism but egotism;
+and as the author was profoundly sceptical, this quality necessarily
+rather than intentionally appears. We have here to deal only very
+superficially with this as with other famous books, but it cannot
+be doubted that it expresses the mental attitude of the latter
+part of the century as completely as Rabelais expresses the mental
+attitude of the early part. There is considerably less vigour and
+life in this attitude. Inquiry and protest have given way to a
+placid conviction that there is not much to be found out, and
+that it does not much matter; the erudition though abundant
+is less indiscriminate, and is taken in and given out with less
+gusto; exuberant drollery has given way to quiet irony; and
+though neither business nor pleasure is decried, both are regarded
+rather as useful pastimes incident to the life of man than with
+the eager appetite of the Renaissance. From the purely literary
+point of view, the style is remarkable from its absence of pedantry
+In construction, and yet for its rich vocabulary and picturesque
+brilliancy. The follower and imitator of Montaigne, Pierre
+Charron (1541-1603), carried his master&rsquo;s scepticism to a somewhat
+more positive degree. His principal book, <i>De la sagesse</i>,
+scarcely deserves the comparative praise which Pope has given
+it. On the other hand Guillaume du Vair (1556-1621), a lawyer
+and orator, takes the positive rather than the negative side in
+morality, and regards the vicissitudes in human affairs from the
+religious and theological point of view in a series of works
+characterized by the special merit of the style of great orators.</p>
+
+<p>The revolutionary and innovating instinct which showed itself
+in the 16th century with reference to church government and
+doctrine spread naturally enough to political matters. The
+intolerable disorder of the religious wars naturally set the
+thinkers of the age speculating on the doctrines of government
+in general. The favourite and general study of antiquity helped
+this tendency, and the great accession of royal power in all the
+monarchies of Europe invited a speculative if not a practical reaction.
+The persecutions of the Protestants naturally provoked
+a republican spirit among them, and the violent antipathy
+of the League to the houses of Valois and Bourbon made its
+partisans adopt almost openly the principles of democracy and
+tyrannicide.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest political writer of the age is Jean Bodin (1530-1596),
+whose <i>République</i> is founded partly on speculative considerations
+like the political theories of the ancients,
+and partly on an extended historical inquiry. Bodin,
+<span class="sidenote">Bodin.</span>
+like most lawyers who have taken the royalist side, is for unlimited
+monarchy, but notwithstanding this, he condemns religious
+persecution and discourages slavery. In his speculations on the
+connexion between forms of government and natural causes,
+he serves as a link between Aristotle and Montesquieu. On the
+other hand, the causes which we have mentioned made a large
+number of writers adopt opposite conclusions. Étienne de la
+Boétie (1530-1563), the friend of Montaigne&rsquo;s youth, composed
+the <i>Contre un or Discours de la servitude volontaire</i>, a protest
+against the monarchical theory. The boldness of the protest
+and the affectionate admiration of Montaigne have given
+la Boétie a much higher reputation than any extant work of his
+actually deserves. The <i>Contre un</i> is a kind of prize essay, full of
+empty declamation borrowed from the ancients, and showing no
+grasp of the practical conditions of politics. Not much more
+historically based, but far more vigorous and original, is the
+<i>Franco-Gallia</i> of François Hotmann (1524-1590), a work which
+appeared both in Latin and French, which extols the authority
+of the states-general, represents them as direct successors of the
+political institutions of Gauls and Franks, and maintains the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+right of insurrection. In the last quarter of the century political
+animosity knew no bounds. The Protestants beheld a divine
+instrument in Poltrot de Méré, the Catholics in Jacques Clément.
+The Latin treatises of Hubert Languet (1518-1581) and Buchanan
+formally vindicated&mdash;the first, like Hotmann, the right of rebellion
+based on an original contract between prince and people,
+the second the right of tyrannicide. Indeed, as Montaigne
+confesses, divine authorization for political violence was claimed
+and denied by both parties according as the possession or the
+expectancy of power belonged to each, and the excesses of the
+preachers and pamphleteers knew no bounds.</p>
+
+<p>Every one, however, was not carried away. The literary
+merits of the chancellor Michel de l&rsquo;Hôpital (1507-1573) are not
+very great, but his efforts to promote peace and moderation were
+unceasing. On the other side Lanoue, with far greater literary
+gifts, pursued the same ends, and pointed out the ruinous
+consequences of continued dissension. Du Plessis Mornay took
+a part in political discussion even more important than that
+which he bore in religious polemics, and was of the utmost service
+to Henri Quatre in defending his cause against the League, as
+was also Hurault, another author of state papers. Du Vair,
+already mentioned, powerfully assisted the same cause by his
+successful defence of the Salic law, the disregard of which by the
+Leaguer states-general was intended to lead to the admission of
+the Spanish claim to the crown. But the foremost work against
+<span class="sidenote">Satire Ménippée.</span>
+the League was the famous <i>Satire Ménippée</i> (1594),
+in a literary point of view one of the most remarkable
+of political books. The <i>Ménippée</i> was the work of no
+single author, but was due, it is said, to the collaboration of five,
+Pierre Leroi, who has the credit of the idea, Jacques Gillot,
+Florent Chrétien, Nicolas Rapin (1541-1596) and Pierre Pithou
+(1539-1596), with some assistance in verse from Passerat and
+Gilles Durand. The book is a kind of burlesque report of the
+meeting of the states-general, called for the purpose of supporting
+the views of the League in 1593. It gives an account of the
+procession of opening, and then we have the supposed speeches
+of the principal characters&mdash;the duc de Mayenne, the papal
+legate, the rector of the university (a ferocious Leaguer) and
+others. But by far the most remarkable is that attributed to
+Claude d&rsquo;Aubray, the leader of the <i>Tiers État</i>, and said to be
+written by Pithou, in which all the evils of the time and the
+malpractices of the leaders of the League are exposed and
+branded. The satire is extraordinarily bitter and yet perfectly
+good-humoured. It resembles in character rather that of
+Butler, who unquestionably imitated it, than any other. The
+style is perfectly suited to the purpose, having got rid of almost
+all vestiges of the cumbrousness of the older tongue without
+losing its picturesque quaintness. It is no wonder that, as we are
+told by contemporaries, it did more for Henri Quatre than all
+other writings in his cause. In connexion with politics some
+mention of legal orators and writers may be necessary. In 1539
+the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets enjoined the exclusive use of
+the French language in legal procedure. The bar and bench of
+France during the century produced, however, besides those
+names already mentioned in other connexions, only one deserving
+of special notice, that of Étienne Pasquier (1529-1615), author
+of a celebrated speech against the right of the Jesuits to take
+part in public teaching. This he inserted in his great work,
+<i>Recherches de la France</i>, a work dealing with almost every
+aspect of French history whether political, antiquarian or
+literary.</p>
+
+<p><i>16th-Century Savants.</i>&mdash;One more division, and only one,
+that of scientific and learned writers pure and simple, remains.
+Much of the work of this kind during the period was naturally
+done in Latin, the vulgar tongue of the learned. But in France,
+as in other countries, the study of the classics led to a vast
+number of translations, and it so happened that one of the
+translators deserves as a prose writer a rank among the highest.
+Many of the authors already mentioned contributed to the
+literature of translation. Des Periers translated the Platonic
+dialogue <i>Lysis</i>, la Boétie some works of Xenophon and Plutarch,
+du Vair the <i>De corona</i>, the <i>In Ctesiphontem</i> and the <i>Pro Milone</i>.
+Salel attempted the <i>Iliad</i>, Belleau the false <i>Anacreon</i>, Baïf some
+plays of Plautus and Terence. Besides these Lefèvre d&rsquo;Étaples
+gave a version of the Bible, Saliat one of Herodotus, and Louis
+Leroi (1510-1577), not to be confounded with the part author
+of the <i>Ménippée</i>, many works of Plato, Aristotle and other Greek
+writers. But while most if not all of these translators owed the
+merits of their work to their originals, and deserved, much more
+deserve, to be read only by those to whom those originals are
+<span class="sidenote">Amyot.</span>
+sealed, Jacques Amyot (1513-1593), bishop of Auxerre,
+takes rank as a French classic by his translations
+of Plutarch, Longus and Heliodorus. The admiration which
+Amyot excited in his own time was immense. Montaigne
+declares that it was thanks to him that his contemporaries
+knew how to speak and to write, and the Academy in the next
+age, though not too much inclined to honour its predecessors,
+ranked him as a model. His Plutarch, which had an enormous
+influence at the time, and coloured perhaps more than any
+classic the thoughts and writings of the 16th century, both in
+French and English, was then considered his masterpiece. Nowadays
+perhaps, and from the purely literary standpoint, that
+position would be assigned to his exquisite version of the exquisite
+story of Daphnis and Chloe. It is needless to say
+that absolute fidelity and exact scholarship are not the pre-eminent
+merits of these versions. They are not philological
+exercises, but works of art.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Claude Fauchet (1530-1601) in two antiquarian
+works, <i>Antiquités gauloises et françoises</i> and <i>L&rsquo;Origine de
+la langue et de la poésie française</i>, displays a remarkable critical
+faculty in sweeping away the fables which had encumbered
+history. Fauchet had the (for his time) wonderful habit of
+consulting manuscripts, and we owe to him literary notices of
+many of the trouvères. At the same time François Grudé, sieur
+de la Croix du Maine (1552-1592), and Antoine Duverdier
+(1544-1600) founded the study of bibliography in France.
+Pasquier&rsquo;s <i>Recherches</i>, already alluded to, carries out the principles
+of Fauchet independently, and besides treating the history
+of the past in a true critical spirit, supplies us with voluminous
+and invaluable information on contemporary politics and literature.
+He has, moreover, the merit which Fauchet had not, of
+being an excellent writer. Henri Estienne [Stephanus] (1528-1598)
+also deserves notice in this place, both for certain treatises
+on the French language, full of critical crotchets, and also for
+his curious <i>Apologie pour Hérodote</i>, a remarkable book not
+particularly easy to class. It consists partly of a defence of its
+nominal subject, partly of satirical polemics on the Protestant
+side, and is filled almost equally with erudition and with the
+buffoonery and <i>fatrasie</i> of the time. The book, indeed, was
+much too Rabelaisian to suit the tastes of those in whose defence
+it was composed.</p>
+
+<p>The 16th century is somewhat too early for us to speak of
+science, and such science as was then composed falls for the
+most part outside French literature. The famous potter,
+Bernard Palissy (1510-1590), however, was not much less
+skilful as a fashioner of words than as a fashioner of pots, and
+his description of the difficulties of his experiments in enamelling,
+which lasted sixteen years, is well known. The great surgeon
+Ambrose Paré (<i>c.</i> 1510-1590) was also a writer, and his descriptions
+of his military experiences at Turin, Metz and elsewhere
+have all the charm of the 16th-century memoir. The only other
+writers who require special mention are Olivier de Serres (1539-1619),
+who composed, under the title of <i>Théâtre d&rsquo;agriculture</i>, a
+complete treatise on the various operations of rural economy,
+and Jacques du Fouilloux (1521-1580), who wrote on hunting
+(<i>La Vénerie</i>). Both became extremely popular and were frequently
+reprinted.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-Century Poetry.</i>&mdash;It is not always easy or possible to make
+the end or the beginning of a literary epoch synchronize exactly
+with historical dates. It happens, however, that for
+once the beginning of the 17th century coincides
+<span class="sidenote">Malherbe.</span>
+almost exactly with an entire revolution in French literature.
+The change of direction and of critical standard given by François
+de Malherbe (1556-1628) to poetry was to last for two whole
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span>
+centuries, and to determine, not merely the language and complexion,
+but also the form of French verse during the whole of that
+time. Accidentally, or as a matter of logical consequence (it
+would not be proper here to attempt to decide the question),
+poetry became almost synonymous with drama. It is true,
+as we shall have to point out, that there were, in the early part
+of the 17th century at least, poets, properly so called, of no contemptible
+merit. But their merit, in itself respectable, sank in
+comparison with the far greater merit of their dramatic rivals.
+Théophile de Viau and Racan, Voiture and Saint-Amant cannot
+for a moment be mentioned in the same rank with Corneille.
+It is certainly curious, if it is not something more than curious,
+that this decline in poetry proper should have coincided with the
+so-called reforms of Malherbe. The tradition of respect for this
+elder and more gifted Boileau was at one time all-powerful in
+France, and, notwithstanding the Romantic movement, is still
+strong. In rejecting a large number of the importations of the
+Ronsardists, he certainly did good service. But it is difficult to
+avoid ascribing in great measure to his influence the origin of
+the chief faults of modern French poetry, and modern French
+in general, as compared with the older language. He pronounced
+against &ldquo;poetic diction&rdquo; as such, forbade the overlapping
+(<i>enjambement</i>) of verse, insisted that the middle pause should be
+of sense as well as sound, and that rhyme must satisfy eye as
+well as ear. Like Pope, he sacrificed everything to &ldquo;correctness,&rdquo;
+and, unluckily for French, the sacrifice was made at a time when
+no writer of an absolutely supreme order had yet appeared in the
+language. With Shakespeare and Milton, not to mention scores
+of writers only inferior to them, safely garnered, Pope and his
+followers could do us little harm. Corneille and Molière unfortunately
+came after Malherbe. Yet it would be unfair to this writer,
+however badly we may think of his influence, to deny him talent,
+and even a certain amount of poetical inspiration. He had not
+felt his own influence, and the very influences which he despised
+and proscribed produced in him much tolerable and some admirable
+verse, though he is not to be named as a poet with Regnier,
+who had the courage, the sense and the good taste to oppose
+and ridicule his innovations. Of Malherbe&rsquo;s school, Honorat de
+Bueil, marquis de Racan (1589-1670), and François de Maynard
+(1582-1646) were the most remarkable. The former was a true
+poet, though not a very strong one. Like his master, he is best
+when he follows the models whom that master contemned.
+Perhaps more than any other poet, he set the example of the
+classical alexandrine, the smooth and melodious but monotonous
+and rather effeminate measure which Racine was to bring to the
+highest perfection, and which his successors, while they could not
+improve its smoothness, were to make more and more monotonous
+until the genius of Victor Hugo once more broke up its facile
+polish, supplied its stiff uniformity, and introduced vigour,
+variety, colour and distinctness in the place of its feeble sameness
+and its pale indecision. But the vigour, not to say the licence,
+of the 16th century could not thus die all at once. In Théophile
+de Viau (1591-1626) the early years of the 17th century had their
+Villon. The later poet was almost as unfortunate as the earlier,
+and almost as disreputable, but he had a great share of poetical
+and not a small one of critical power. The <i>étoile enragée</i> under
+which he complains that he was born was at least kind to him
+in this respect; and his readers, after he had been forgotten for
+two centuries, have once more done him justice. Racan and
+Théophile were followed in the second quarter of the century
+by two schools which sufficiently well represented the tendencies
+of each. The first was that of Vincent Voiture (1598-1648),
+Isaac de Benserade (1612-1691), and other poets such as Claude
+de Maleville (1597-1647), author of <i>La Belle Matineuse</i>, who were
+connected more or less with the famous literary coterie of the
+Hôtel de Rambouillet. Théophile was less worthily succeeded by
+a class, it can hardly be called a school of poets, some of whom,
+like Gérard Saint-Amant (1594-1660), wrote drinking songs
+of merit and other light pieces; others, like Paul Scarron (1610-1660)
+and Sarrasin (1603? 4? 5?-1654), devoted themselves
+rather to burlesque of serious verse. Most of the great dramatic
+authors of the time also wrote miscellaneous poetry, and there
+was even an epic school of the most singular kind, in ridiculing
+and discrediting which Boileau for once did undoubtedly good
+service. The <i>Pucelle</i> of Jean Chapelain (1595-1674), the unfortunate
+author who was deliberately trained and educated for a
+poet, who enjoyed for some time a sort of dictatorship in French
+literature on the strength of his forthcoming work, and at whom
+from the day of its publication every critic of French literature
+has agreed to laugh, was the most famous and perhaps the worst
+of these. But Georges de Scudéry (1601-1667) wrote an <i>Alaric</i>,
+the Père le Moyne (1602-1671) a <i>Saint Louis</i>, Jean Desmarets
+de Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a dramatist and critic of some note,
+a <i>Clovis</i>, and Saint-Amant a <i>Moïse</i>, which were not much better,
+though Théophile Gautier in his <i>Grotesques</i> has valiantly defended
+these and other contemporary versifiers. And indeed it cannot
+be denied that even the epics, especially <i>Saint Louis</i>, contain
+flashes of finer poetry than France was to produce for more than
+a century outside of the drama. Some of the lighter poets and
+classes of poetry just alluded to also produced some remarkable
+verse. The <i>Précieuses</i> of the Hôtel Rambouillet, with all their
+absurdities, encouraged if they did not produce good literary
+work. In their society there is no doubt that a great reformation
+of manners took place, if not of morals, and that the tendency
+to literature elegant and polished, yet not destitute of vigour,
+which marks the 17th century, was largely developed side by
+side with much scandal-mongering and anecdotage. Many of the
+authors whom these influences inspired, such as Voiture, Saint-Évremond
+and others, have been or will be noticed. But even
+such poets and wits as Antoine Baudouin de Sénecé (1643-1737),
+Jean de Segrais (1624-1701), Charles Faulure de Ris, sieur de
+Charleval (1612-1693), Antoine Godeau (1605-1672), Jean Ogier
+de Gombaud (1590-1666), are not without interest in the history
+of literature; while if Charles Cotin (1604-1682) sinks below this
+level and deserves Molière&rsquo;s caricature of him as Trissotin in
+<i>Les Femmes savantes</i>, Gilles de Ménage (1630-1692) certainly
+rises above it, notwithstanding the companion satire of Vadius.
+Ménage&rsquo;s name naturally suggests the <i>Ana</i> which arose at this
+time and were long fashionable, stores of endless gossip, sometimes
+providing instruction and often amusement. The <i>Guirlande
+de Julie</i>, in which most of the poets of the time celebrated
+Julie d&rsquo;Angennes, daughter of the marquise de Rambouillet, is
+perhaps the best of all such albums, and Voiture, the typical poet
+of the coterie, was certainly the best writer of <i>vers de société</i>
+who is known to us. The poetical war which arose between the
+Uranistes, the followers of Voiture, and the Jobistes, those of
+Benserade, produced reams of sonnets, epigrams and similar
+verses. This habit of occasional versification continued long.
+It led as a less important consequence to the rhymed <i>Gazettes</i> of
+Jean Loret (d. 1665), which recount in octosyllabic verse of a
+light and lively kind the festivals and court events of the early
+years of Louis XIV. It led also to perhaps the most remarkable
+non-dramatic poetry of the century, the <i>Contes</i> and <i>Fables</i> of
+Jean de la Fontaine (1621-1695). No French writer is better
+known than la Fontaine, and there is no need to dilate on his
+merits. It has been well said that he completes Molière, and that
+the two together give something to French literature which no
+other literature possesses. Yet la Fontaine is after all only a
+writer of fabliaux, in the language and with the manners of his
+own century.</p>
+
+<p>All the writers we have mentioned belong more or less to the
+first half of the century, and so do Valentin Conrart (1603-1675),
+Antoine Furetière (1626-1688), Chapelle (Claude Emmanuel)
+l&rsquo;Huillier (1626-1686), and others not worth special mention.
+The latter half of the century is far less productive, and the
+poetical quality of its production is even lower than the quantity.
+In it Boileau (1636-1711) is the chief poetical figure. Next to
+him can only be mentioned Madame Deshoulières (1638-1694),
+Guillaume de Brébeuf (1618-1661), the translator of Lucan,
+Philippe Quinault (1635-1688), the composer of opera libretti.
+Boileau&rsquo;s satire, where it has much merit, is usually borrowed
+direct from Horace. He had a certain faculty as a critic of the
+slashing order, and might have profitably used it if he had written
+in prose. But of his poetry it must be said, not so much that it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+bad, as that it is not, in strictness, poetry at all, and the same
+is generally true of all those who followed him.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-Century Drama.</i>&mdash;We have already seen how the medieval
+theatre was formed, and how in the second half of the 16th century
+it met with a formidable rival in the classical drama of Jodelle
+and Garnier. In 1588 mysteries had been prohibited, and with
+the prohibition of the mysteries the Confraternity of the Passion
+lost the principal part of its reason for existence. The other
+bodies and societies of amateur actors had already perished, and
+at length the Hôtel de Bourgogne itself, the home of the confraternity,
+had been handed over to a regular troop of actors,
+while companies of strollers, whose life has been vividly depicted
+in the <i>Roman comique</i> of Scarron and the <i>Capitaine Fracasse</i>
+of Théophile Gautier, wandered all about the provinces. The old
+farce was for a time maintained or revived by Tabarin, a remarkable
+figure in dramatic history, of whom but little is known.
+The great dramatic author of the first quarter of the 17th century
+was Alexandre Hardy (1569-1631), who surpassed even Heywood
+<span class="sidenote">Hardy.</span>
+in fecundity, and very nearly approached the portentous
+productiveness of Lope de Vega. Seven
+hundred is put down as the modest total of Hardy&rsquo;s pieces, but
+not much more than a twentieth of these exist in print. From
+these latter we can judge Hardy. They are hardly up to the
+level of the worst specimens of the contemporary Elizabethan
+theatre, to which, however, they bear a certain resemblance.
+Marston&rsquo;s <i>Insatiate Countess</i> and the worst parts of Chapman&rsquo;s
+<i>Bussy d&rsquo;Ambois</i> may give English readers some notion of them.
+Yet Hardy was not totally devoid of merit. He imitated and
+adapted Spanish literature, which was at this time to France
+what Italian was in the century before and English in the century
+after, in the most indiscriminate manner. But he had a considerable
+command of grandiloquent and melodramatic expression,
+a sound theory if not a sound practice of tragic writing, and that
+peculiar knowledge of theatrical art and of the taste of the
+theatrical public which since his time has been the special possession
+of the French playwright. It is instructive to compare the
+influence of his irregular and faulty genius with that of the regular
+and precise Malherbe. From Hardy to Rotrou is, in point of
+literary interest, a great step, and from Rotrou to Corneille a
+greater. Yet the theory of Hardy only wanted the genius of
+Rotrou and Corneille to produce the latter. Jean de Rotrou
+(1610-1650) has been called the French Marlowe, and there is
+<span class="sidenote">Rotrou.</span>
+a curious likeness and yet a curious contrast between
+the two poets. The best parts of Rotrou&rsquo;s two best
+plays, <i>Venceslas</i> and <i>St Genest</i>, are quite beyond comparison
+in respect of anything that preceded them, and the central
+speech of the last-named play will rank with anything in
+French dramatic poetry. Contemporary with Rotrou were
+other dramatic writers of considerable dramatic importance,
+most of them distinguished by the faults of the Spanish
+school, its declamatory rodomontade, its conceits, and its
+occasionally preposterous action. Jean de Schélandre (d.
+1635) has left us a remarkable work in <i>Tyr et Sidon</i>, which
+exemplifies in practice, as its almost more remarkable preface by
+François Ogier defends in principle, the English-Spanish model.
+Théophile de Viau in <i>Pyrame et Thisbé</i> and in <i>Pasiphaé</i> produced
+a singular mixture of the classicism of Garnier and the extravagancies
+of Hardy. Scudéry in <i>l&rsquo;Amour tyrannique</i> and other
+plays achieved a considerable success. The <i>Marianne</i> of Tristan
+(1601-1655) and the <i>Sophonisbe</i> of Jean de Mairet (1604-1686)
+are the chief pieces of their authors. Mairet resembles Marston
+in something more than his choice of subject. Another dramatic
+writer of some eminence is Pierre du Ryer (1606-1648). But
+the fertility of France at this moment in dramatic authors
+was immense; nearly 100 are enumerated in the first quarter
+<span class="sidenote">Corneille.</span>
+of the century. The early plays of Pierre Corneille
+(1606-1684) showed all the faults of his contemporaries
+combined with merits to which none of them except Rotrou,
+and Rotrou himself only in part, could lay claim. His first play
+was <i>Mélite</i>, a comedy, and in <i>Clitandre</i>, a tragedy, he soon produced
+what may perhaps be not inconveniently taken as the
+typical piece of the school of Hardy. A full account of Corneille
+may be found elsewhere. It is sufficient to say here that his
+importance in French literature is quite as great in the way of
+influence and example as in the way of intellectual excellence.
+The <i>Cid</i> and the <i>Menteur</i> are respectively the first examples of
+French tragedy and comedy which can be called modern. But
+this influence and example did not at first find many imitators.
+Corneille was a member of Richelieu&rsquo;s band of five poets. Of
+the other four Rotrou alone deserves the title; the remaining
+three, the prolific abbé de Boisrobert, Guillaume Colletet (whose
+most valuable work, a MS. <i>Lives of Poets</i>, was never printed, and
+burnt by the Communards in 1871), and Claude de Lestoile
+(1597-1651), are as dramatists worthy of no notice, nor were they
+soon followed by others more worthy. Yet before many years
+had passed the examples which Corneille had set in tragedy and
+in comedy were followed up by unquestionably the greatest comic
+writer, and by one who long held the position of the greatest
+tragic writer of France. Beginning with mere farces of the
+Italian type, and passing from these to comedies still of an Italian
+character, it was in <i>Les Précieuses ridicules</i>, acted in 1659, that
+<span class="sidenote">Molière.<br /><br />
+Racine.</span>
+Molière (1622-1673), in the words of a spectator, hit
+at last on &ldquo;la bonne comédie.&rdquo; The next fifteen years
+comprise the whole of his best known work, the finest expression
+beyond doubt of a certain class of comedy that any literature
+has produced. The tragic masterpieces of Racine
+(1639-1699) were not far from coinciding with the
+comic masterpieces of Molière, for, with the exception of the
+remarkable aftergrowth of <i>Esther</i> and <i>Athalie</i>, they were produced
+chiefly between 1667 and 1677. Both Racine and Molière fall
+into the class of writers who require separate mention. Here
+we can only remark that both to a certain extent committed
+and encouraged a fault which distinguished much subsequent
+French dramatic literature. This was the too great individualizing
+of one point in a character, and the making the man or woman
+nothing but a blunderer, a lover, a coxcomb, a tyrant and the
+like. The very titles of French plays show this influence&mdash;they
+are <i>Le Grondeur</i>, <i>Le Joueur</i>, &amp;c. The complexity of human
+character is ignored. This fault distinguishes both Molière and
+Racine from writers of the very highest order; and in especial
+it distinguishes the comedy of Molière and the tragedy of Racine
+from the comedy and tragedy of Shakespeare. In all probability
+this and other defects of the French drama (which are not wholly
+apparent in the work of Molière and Corneille, are shown in
+their most favourable light in those of Racine, and appear in all
+their deformity in the successors of the latter) arise from the
+rigid adoption of the Aristotelian theory of the drama with its
+unities and other restrictions, especially as transmitted by Horace
+through Boileau. This adoption was very much due to the influence
+of the French Academy, which was founded unofficially
+by Conrart in 1629, which received official standing six years later,
+<span class="sidenote">The Academy.</span>
+and which continued the tradition of Malherbe in
+attempting constantly to school and correct, as the
+phrase went, the somewhat disorderly instincts of
+the early French stage. Even the Cid was formally censured
+for irregularity by it. But it is fair to say that François Hédélin,
+abbé d&rsquo;Aubignac (1604-1676), whose <i>Pratique du théâtre</i> is the
+most wooden of the critical treatises of the time, was not an
+academician. It is difficult to say whether the subordination
+of all other classes of composition to the drama, which has ever
+since been characteristic of French literature, was or was not
+due to the predilection of Richelieu, the main protector if not
+exactly the founder of the Academy, for the theatre. Among
+the immediate successors and later contemporaries of the three
+great dramatists we do not find any who deserve high rank as
+tragedians, though there are some whose comedies are more than
+respectable. It is at least significant that the restrictions imposed
+by the academic theory on the comic drama were far less
+severe than those which tragedy had to undergo. The latter was
+practically confined, in respect of sources of attraction, to the
+dexterous manipulation of the unities; the interest of a plot
+attenuated as much as possible, and intended to produce, instead
+of pity a mild sympathy, and instead of terror a mild alarm
+(for the purists decided against Corneille that &ldquo;admiration was not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span>
+a tragic passion&rdquo;); and lastly the composition of long tirades
+of smooth but monotonous verses, arranged in couplets tipped
+with delicately careful rhymes. Only Thomas Corneille (1625-1709),
+the inheritor of an older tradition and of a great name,
+deserves to be excepted from the condemnation to be passed on
+the lesser tragedians of this period. He was unfortunate in
+possessing his brother&rsquo;s name, and in being, like him, too voluminous
+in his compositions; but <i>Camma</i>, <i>Ariane</i>, <i>Le Comte d&rsquo;Essex</i>,
+are not tragedies to be despised. On the other hand, the names of
+Jean de Campistron (1656-1723) and Nicolas Pradon (1632-1698)
+mainly serve to point injurious comparisons; Joseph François
+Duché (1668-1704) and Antoine La Fosse (1653-1708) are of still
+less importance, and Quinault&rsquo;s tragedies are chiefly remarkable
+because he had the good sense to give up writing them and to
+take to opera. The general excellence of French comedy, on the
+other hand, was sufficiently vindicated. Besides the splendid
+sum of Molière&rsquo;s work, the two great tragedians had each, in
+<i>Le Menteur</i> and <i>Les Plaideurs</i>, set a capital example to their
+successors, which was fairly followed. David Augustin de
+Brueys (1640-1723) and Jean Palaprat (1650-1721) brought out
+once more the ever new <i>Advocat Patelin</i> besides the capital
+<i>Grondeur</i> already referred to. Quinault and Campistron wrote
+fair comedies. Florent Carton Dancourt (1661-1726), Charles
+Rivière Dufresny (<i>c.</i> 1654-1724), Edmond Boursault (1638-1701),
+were all comic writers of considerable merit. But the chief comic
+dramatist of the latter period of the 17th century was Jean
+François Regnard (1655-1709), whose <i>Joueur</i> and <i>Légataire</i>
+are comedies almost of the first rank.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-Century Fiction.</i>&mdash;In the department of literature which
+comes between poetry and prose, that of romance-writing,
+the 17th century, excepting one remarkable development,
+was not very fertile. It devoted itself to so
+<span class="sidenote">Heroic Romance.</span>
+many new or changed forms of literature that it had no
+time to anticipate the modern novel. Yet at the beginning
+of the century one very curious form of romance-writing was
+diligently cultivated, and its popularity, for the time immense,
+prevented the introduction of any stronger style. It is remarkable
+that, as the first quarter of the 17th century was pre-eminently
+the epoch of Spanish influence in France, the distinctive
+satire of Cervantes should have been less imitated than the
+models which Cervantes satirized. However this may be, the
+romances of 1600 to 1650 form a class of literature vast, isolated,
+and, perhaps, of all such classes of literature most utterly
+obsolete and extinct. Taste, affectation or antiquarian diligence
+have, at one time or another, restored to a just, and sometimes
+a more than just, measure of reputation most of the literary
+relics of the past. Romances of chivalry, fabliaux, early drama,
+Provençal poetry, prose chronicles, have all had, and deservedly,
+their rehabilitators. But <i>Polexandre</i> and <i>Cléopâtre</i>, <i>Clélie</i> and
+the <i>Grand Cyrus</i>, have been too heavy for all the industry and
+energy of literary antiquarians. As we have already hinted,
+the nearest ancestry which can be found for them is the romances
+of the <i>Amadis</i> type. But the <i>Amadis</i>, and in a less degree its
+followers, although long, are long in virtue of incident. The
+romances of the <i>Clélie</i> type are long in virtue of interminable
+discourse, moralizing and description. Their manner is not
+unlike that of the <i>Arcadia</i> and the <i>Euphues</i> which preceded them
+in England; and they express in point of style the tendency
+which simultaneously manifested itself all over Europe at this
+period, and whose chief exponents were Gongora in Spain,
+Marini in Italy, and Lyly in England. Everybody knows the
+<i>Carte de Tendre</i> which originally appeared in <i>Clélie</i>, while most
+people have heard of the shepherds and shepherdesses who
+figure in the <i>Astrée</i> of Honoré D&rsquo;Urfé (1568-1625), on the borders
+of the Lignon; but here general knowledge ends, and there is
+perhaps no reason why it should go much further. It is sufficient
+to say that Madeleine de Scudéry (1607-1701) principally
+devotes herself in the books above mentioned to laborious
+gallantry and heroism, La Calprénède (1610-1663) in <i>Cassandre
+et Cléopâtre</i> to something which might have been the historical
+novel if it had been constructed on a less preposterous scale,
+and Marin le Roy de Gomberville (1600-1647) in <i>Polexandre</i>
+to moralizings and theological discussions on Jansenist principles,
+while Pierre Camus, bishop of Belley (1582-1652), in <i>Palombe</i>
+and others, approached still nearer to the strictly religious story.
+In the latter part of the century, the example of La Fontaine,
+though he himself wrote in poetry, helped to recall the tale-tellers
+of France to an occupation more worthy of them, more
+suitable to the genius of the literature, and more likely to last.
+The reaction against the <i>Clélie</i> school produced first Madame de
+Villedieu (Cathérine Desjardins) (1632-1692), a fluent and
+facile novelist, who enjoyed great but not enduring popularity.
+The form which the prose tale took at this period was that of
+the fairy story. Perrault (1628-1703) and Madame d&rsquo;Aulnoy
+(d. 1705) composed specimens of this kind which have never ceased
+to be popular since. Hamilton (1646-1720), the author of the
+well-known <i>Mémoires du comte de Gramont</i>, wrote similar stories
+of extraordinary merit in style and ingenuity. There is yet a
+third class of prose writing which deserves to be mentioned. It
+also may probably be traced to Spanish influence, that is to say,
+to the picaresque romances which the 16th and 17th centuries
+produced in Spain in large numbers. The most remarkable
+example of this is the <i>Roman comique</i> of the burlesque writer
+Scarron. The <i>Roman bourgeois</i> of Antoine Furetière (1619-1688)
+also deserves mention as a collection of pictures of the life of the
+time, arranged in the most desultory manner, but drawn with
+great vividness, observation and skill. A remarkable writer who
+had great influence on Molière has also to be mentioned in this
+connexion rather than in any other. This is Cyrano de Bergerac
+(1619-1655), who, besides composing doubtful comedies and
+tragedies, writing political pamphlets, and exercising the task
+of literary criticism in objecting to Scarron&rsquo;s burlesques, produced
+in his <i>Histoires comiques des états et empires de la lune et du soleil</i>,
+half romantic and half satirical compositions, in which some
+have seen the original of <i>Gulliver&rsquo;s Travels</i>, in which others have
+discovered only a not very successful imitation of Rabelais,
+and which, without attempting to decide these questions, may
+fairly be ranked in the same class of fiction with the masterpieces
+of Swift and Rabelais, though of course at an immense distance
+below them. One other work, and in literary influence perhaps
+the most remarkable of its kind in the century, remains. Madame
+de Lafayette, Marie de la Vergne (1634-1692), the friend of La
+Rochefoucauld and of Madame de Sévigné, though she did not
+exactly anticipate the modern novel, showed the way to it in
+her stories, the principal of which are <i>Zaïde</i> and still more La
+<i>Princesse de Clèves</i>. The latter, though a long way from <i>Manon</i>
+<i>Lescaut</i>, <i>Clarissa</i>, or <i>Tom Jones</i>, is a longer way still from <i>Polexandre</i>
+or the <i>Arcadia</i>. The novel becomes in it no longer a more
+or less fictitious chronicle, but an attempt at least at the display
+of character. <i>La Princesse de Clèves</i> has never been one of the
+works widely popular out of their own country, nor perhaps
+does it deserve such popularity, for it has more grace than
+strength; but as an original effort in an important direction
+its historical value is considerable. But with this exception,
+the art of fictitious prose composition, except on a small scale,
+is certainly not one in which the century excelled, nor are any
+of the masterpieces which it produced to be ranked in this class.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-Century Prose.</i>&mdash;If, however, this was the case, it cannot
+be said that French prose as a whole was unproductive at this
+time. On the contrary, it was now, and only now,
+that it attained the strength and perfection for which
+<span class="sidenote">J. G. de Balzac and modern French prose.</span>
+it has been so long renowned, and which has perhaps,
+by a curious process of compensation, somewhat
+deteriorated since the restoration of poetry proper
+in France. The prose Malherbe of French literature was Jean
+Guez de Balzac (1594-1654). The writers of the 17th century
+had practically created the literary language of prose, but they
+had not created a prose style. The charm of Rabelais, of Amyot,
+of Montaigne, and of the numerous writers of tales and memoirs
+whom we have noticed, was a charm of exuberance, of naïveté,
+of picturesque effect&mdash;in short, of a mixture of poetry and prose,
+rather than of prose proper. Sixteenth-century French prose
+is a delightful instrument in the hands of men and women of
+genius, but in the hands of those who have not genius it is full
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span>
+of defects, and indeed is nearly unreadable. Now, prose is
+essentially an instrument of all work. The poet who has not
+genius had better not write at all; the prose writer often may
+and sometimes must dispense with this qualification. He has
+need, therefore, of a suitable machine to help him to perform
+his task, and this machine it is the glory of Balzac to have done
+more than any other person to create. He produced himself
+no great work, his principal writings being letters, a few discourses
+and dissertations, and a work entitled <i>Le Socrate chrétien</i>, a
+sort of treatise on political theology. But if the matter of his
+work is not of the first importance, its manner is of a very different
+value. Instead of the endless diffuseness of the preceding century,
+its ill-formed or rather unformed sentences, and its haphazard
+periods, we find clauses, sentences and paragraphs distinctly
+planned, shaped and balanced, a cadence introduced which is
+rhythmical but not metrical, and, in short, prose which is written
+knowingly instead of the prose which is unwittingly talked.
+It has been well said of him that he &ldquo;<i>écrit pour écrire</i>&rdquo;; and
+such a man, it is evident, if he does nothing else, sets a valuable
+example to those who write because they have something to say.
+Voiture seconded Balzac without much intending to do so.
+His prose style, also chiefly contained in letters, is lighter than
+that of his contemporary, and helped to gain for French prose
+the tradition of vivacity and sparkle which it has always
+possessed, as well as that of correctness and grace.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-century History.</i>&mdash;In historical composition, especially
+in the department of memoirs, this period was exceedingly rich.
+At last there was written, in French, an entire history of France.
+The author was François Eudes de Mézeray (1610-1683), whose
+work, though not exhibiting the perfection of style at which some
+of his contemporaries had already arrived, and though still more
+or less uncritical, yet deserves the title of history. The example
+was followed by a large number of writers, some of extended
+works, some of histories in part. Mézeray himself is said to
+have had a considerable share in the <i>Histoire du roi Henri le
+grand</i> by the archbishop Péréfixe (1605-1670); Louis Maimbourg
+(1610-1686) wrote histories of the Crusades and of the League;
+Paul Pellisson (1624-1693) gave a history of Louis XIV. and a
+more valuable <i>Mémoire</i> in defence of the superintendent Fouquet.
+Still later in the century, or at the beginning of the next, the
+Père d&rsquo;Orléans (1644-1698) wrote a history of the revolutions
+of England, the Père Daniel (1649-1728), like d&rsquo;Orléans a
+Jesuit, composed a lengthy history of France and a shorter one
+on the French military forces. Finally, at the end of the period,
+comes the great ecclesiastical history of Claude Fleury (1640-1723),
+a work which perhaps belongs more to the section of
+erudition than to that of history proper. Three small treatises,
+however, composed by different authors towards the middle
+part of the century, supply remarkable instances of prose style
+in its application to history. These are the <i>Conjurations du
+comte de Fiesque</i>, written by the famous Cardinal de Retz
+(1613-1679), the <i>Conspiration de Walstein</i> of Sarrasin, and the
+<i>Conjuration des Espagnols contre Venise</i>, composed in 1672
+by the abbé de Saint-Réal (1639-1692), the author of various
+historical and critical works deserving less notice. These three
+works, whose similarity of subject and successive composition
+at short intervals leave little doubt that a certain amount of
+intentional rivalry animated the two later authors, are among
+the earliest and best examples of the monographs for which
+French, in point of grace of style and lucidity of exposition,
+has long been the most successful vehicle of expression among
+European languages. Among other writers of history, as
+distinguished from memoirs, need only be noticed Agrippa
+d&rsquo;Aubigné, whose <i>Histoire universelle</i> closed his long and varied
+list of works, and Varillas (1624-1696), a historian chiefly
+remarkable for his extreme untrustworthiness. In point of
+memoirs and correspondence the period is hardly less fruitful
+than that which preceded it. The <i>Régistres-Journaux</i> of Pierre
+de l&rsquo;Étoile (1540-1611) consist of a diary something of the Pepys
+character, kept for nearly forty years by a person in high official
+employment. The memoirs of Sully (1560-1641), published
+under a curious title too long to quote, date also from this time.</p>
+
+<p>Henri IV. himself has left a considerable correspondence,
+which is not destitute of literary merit, though not equal to the
+memoirs of his wife. What are commonly called Richelieu&rsquo;s
+<i>Memoirs</i> were probably written to his order; his <i>Testament
+politique</i> may be his own. Henri de Rohan (1579-1638) has not
+memoirs of the first value. Both this and earlier times found
+chronicle in the singular <i>Historiettes</i> of Gédéon Tallemant des
+Réaux (1619-1690), a collection of anecdotes, frequently scandalous,
+reaching from the times of Henri IV. to those of Louis XIV.,
+to which may be joined the letters of Guy Patin (1602-1676).
+The early years of the latter monarch and the period of the
+Fronde had the cardinal de Retz himself, than whom no one
+was certainly better qualified for historian, not to mention a
+crowd of others, of whom we may mention Madame de Motteville
+(1621-1689), Jean Hérault de Gourville (1625-1703),
+Mademoiselle de Montpensier (&ldquo;La Grande Mademoiselle&rdquo;)
+(1627-1693), Conrart, Turenne and Mathieu Molé (1584-1663),
+François du Val, marquis de Fontenay-Mareuil (1594-1655),
+Arnauld d&rsquo;Andilly (1588-1670). From this time memoirs and
+memoir writers were ever multiplying. The queen of them
+all is Madame de Sevigné (1626-1696), on whom, as on most of
+the great and better-known writers whom we have had and shall
+have to mention, it is impossible here to dwell at length. The
+last half of the century produced crowds of similar but inferior
+writers. The memoirs of Roger de Bussy-Rabutin (1618-1693)
+(author of a kind of scandalous chronicle called <i>Histoire amoureuse
+des Gaules</i>) and of Madame de Maintenon (1635-1719)
+perhaps deserve notice above the others. But this was in truth
+the style of composition in which the age most excelled. Memoir-writing
+became the occupation not so much of persons who
+made history, as was the case from Comines to Retz, as of those
+who, having culture, leisure and opportunity of observation,
+devoted themselves to the task of recording the deeds of others,
+and still more of regarding the incidents of the busy, splendid
+and cultivated if somewhat frivolous world of the court, in which,
+from the time of Louis XIV.&rsquo;s majority, the political life of the
+nation and almost its whole history were centred. Many, if not
+most, of these writers were women, who thus founded the celebrity
+of the French lady for managing her mother-tongue,
+and justified by results the taste and tendencies of the blue-stockings
+and précieuses of the Hôtel Rambouillet and similar
+coteries. The life which these writers saw before them furnished
+them with a subject to be handled with the minuteness and care
+to which they had been accustomed in the ponderous romances
+of the <i>Clélie</i> type, but also with the wit and terseness hereditary
+in France, and only temporarily absent in those ponderous
+compositions. The efforts of Balzac and the Academy supplied
+a suitable language and style, and the increasing tendency
+towards epigrammatic moralizing, which reached its acme
+in La Rochefoucauld (1663-1680) and La Bruyère (1639-1696),
+added in most cases point and attractiveness to their writings.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-Century Philosophers and Theologians.</i>&mdash;To these moralists
+we might, perhaps, not inappropriately pass at once. But it
+seems better to consider first the philosophical and
+theological developments of the age, which must share
+<span class="sidenote">Descartes.</span>
+with its historical experiences and studies the credit of producing
+these writers. Philosophy proper, as we have already had
+occasion to remark, had hitherto made no use of the vulgar
+tongue. The 16th century had contributed a few vernacular
+treatises on logic, a considerable body of political and ethical
+writing, and a good deal of sceptical speculation of a more or
+less vague character, continued into our present epoch by such
+writers as François de la Mothe le Vayer (1588-1672), the last
+representative of the orthodox doubt of Montaigne and Charron.
+But in metaphysics proper it had not dabbled. The 17th century,
+on the contrary, was to produce in René Descartes (1596-1650), at
+once a master of prose style, the greatest of French philosophers,
+and one of the greatest metaphysicians, not merely of France
+and of the 17th century, but of all countries and times. Even
+before Descartes there had been considerable and important
+developments of metaphysical speculation in France. The first
+eminent philosopher of French birth was Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span>
+Gassendi devoted himself to the maintenance of a
+modernized form of the Epicurean doctrines, but he wrote mainly,
+if not entirely, in Latin. Another sceptical philosopher of a less
+scientific character was the physicist Gabriel Naudé (1600-1653),
+who, like many others of the philosophers of the time, was
+accused of atheism. But as none of these could approach
+Descartes in philosophical power and originality, so also none
+has even a fraction of his importance in the history of French
+literature. Descartes stands with Plato, and possibly Berkeley
+and Malebranche, at the head of all philosophers in respect of
+style; and in his case the excellence is far more remarkable
+than in others, inasmuch as he had absolutely no models, and
+was forced in a great degree to create the language which he
+used. The <i>Discours de la méthode</i> is not only one of the epoch-making
+books of philosophy, it is also one of the epoch-making
+books of French style. The tradition of his clear and perfect
+expression was taken up, not merely by his philosophical disciples,
+but also by Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and the school of
+Port Royal, who will be noticed presently. The very genius
+of the Cartesian philosophy was intimately connected with
+this clearness, distinctness and severity of style; and there is
+something more than a fanciful contrast between these literary
+characteristics of Descartes, on the one hand, and the elaborate
+splendour of Bacon, the knotty and crabbed strength of Hobbes,
+and the commonplace and almost vulgar slovenliness of Locke.
+Of the followers of Descartes, putting aside the Port Royalists,
+by far the most distinguished, both in philosophy and in literature,
+<span class="sidenote">Malebranche.</span>
+is Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715). His <i>Recherche
+de la vérité</i>, admirable as it is for its subtlety and its
+consecutiveness of thought, is equally admirable for
+its elegance of style. Malebranche cannot indeed, like his great
+master, claim absolute originality. But his excellence as a
+writer is as great as, if not greater than, that of Descartes, and the
+<i>Recherche</i> remains to this day the one philosophical treatise of
+great length and abstruseness which, merely as a book, is delightful
+to read&mdash;not like the works of Plato and Berkeley, because
+of the adventitious graces of dialogue or description, but from
+the purity and grace of the language, and its admirable adjustment
+to the purposes of the argument. Yet, for all this, philosophy
+hardly flourished in France. It was too intimately
+connected with theological and ecclesiastical questions, and
+especially with Jansenism, to escape suspicion and persecution.
+Descartes himself was for much of his life an exile in Holland
+and Sweden; and though the unquestionable orthodoxy of
+Malebranche, the strongly religious cast of his works, and the
+remoteness of the abstruse region in which he sojourned from
+that of the controversies of the day, protected him, other followers
+of Descartes were not so fortunate. Holland, indeed, became
+a kind of city of refuge for students of philosophy, though even
+in Holland itself they were by no means entirely safe from
+persecution. By far the most remarkable of French philosophical
+<span class="sidenote">Bayle.</span>
+sojourners in the Netherlands was Pierre Bayle
+(1647-1706), a name not perhaps of the first rank in
+respect of literary value, but certainly of the first as regards
+literary influence. Bayle, after oscillating between the two
+confessions, nominally remained a Protestant in religion. In
+philosophy he in the same manner oscillated between Descartes
+and Gassendi, finally resting in an equally nominal Cartesianism.
+Bayle was, in fact, both in philosophy and in religion, merely
+a sceptic, with a scepticism at once like and unlike that of
+Montaigne, and differenced both by temperament and by circumstance&mdash;the
+scepticism of the mere student, exercised more or
+less in all histories, sciences and philosophies, and intellectually
+unable or unwilling to take a side. His style is hardly to be called
+good, being diffuse and often inelegant. But his great dictionary,
+though one of the most heterogeneous and unmethodical of
+compositions, exercised an enormous influence. It may be
+called the Bible of the 18th century, and contains in the germ
+all the desultory philosophy, the ill-ordered scepticism, and the
+critical but negatively critical acuteness of the <i>Aufklärung</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that the philosophical, theological and moral
+tendencies of the century, which produced, with the exception
+of its dramatic triumphs, all its greatest literary works, are almost
+inextricably intermingled. Its earliest years, however, bear
+<span class="sidenote">Jansenists.</span>
+in theological matters rather the complexion of the
+previous century. Du Perron and St Francis of Sales
+survived until nearly the end of its first quarter, and the
+most remarkable works of the latter bear the dates of 1608 and
+later. It was not, however, till some years had passed, till the
+counter-Reformation had reconverted the largest and most
+powerful portion of the Huguenot party, and till the influence of
+Jansenius and Descartes had time to work, that the extraordinary
+outburst of Gallican theology, both in pulpit and in press, took
+place. The Jansenist controversy may perhaps be awarded the
+merit of provoking this, as far as writing was concerned. The
+astonishing eloquence of contemporary pulpit oratory may be set
+down partly to the zeal for conversion of which du Perron and
+de Sales had given the example, partly to the same taste of the
+time which encouraged dramatic performances, for the sermon
+and the tirade have much in common. Jansenius himself, though
+a Dutchman by birth, passed much time in France, and it was
+in France that he found most disciples. These disciples consisted
+in the first place of the members of the society of Port Royal
+des Champs, a coterie after the fashion of the time, but one which
+devoted itself not to sonnets or madrigals but to devotional
+exercises, study and the teaching of youth. This coterie early
+<span class="sidenote">Port Royal.<br /><br />
+Pascal.</span>
+adopted the Cartesian philosophy, and the Port Royal
+<i>Logic</i> was the most remarkable popular handbook
+of that school. In theology they adopted Jansenism,
+and were in consequence soon at daggers drawn with the Jesuits,
+according to the polemical habits of the time. The most distinguished
+champions on the Jansenist side were Jean Duvergier
+de Hauranne, abbé de St Cyran (1581-1643), and Antoine Arnauld
+(1560-1619), but by far the most important literary results of the
+quarrel were the famous <i>Provinciales</i> of Pascal, or, to give them
+their proper title, <i>Lettres écrites à un provincial</i>.
+Their literary importance consists, not merely in their
+grace of style, but in the application to serious discussion of the
+peculiarly polished and quiet irony of which Pascal is the greatest
+master the world has ever seen. Up to this time controversy had
+usually been conducted either in the mere bludgeon fashion of
+the Scaligers and Saumaises&mdash;of which in the vernacular the
+Jesuit François Garasse (1585-1631) had already contributed
+remarkable examples to literary and moral controversy&mdash;or else
+in a dull and legal style, or lastly under an envelope of Rabelaisian
+buffoonery such as survives to a considerable extent in the
+<i>Satire Ménippée</i>. Pascal set the example of combining the use
+of the most terribly effective weapons with good humour, good
+breeding and a polished style. The example was largely
+followed, and the manner of Voltaire and his followers in the 18th
+century owes at least as much to Pascal as their method and
+matter do to Bayle. The Jansenists, attacked and persecuted by
+the civil power, which the Jesuits had contrived to interest,
+were finally suppressed. But the <i>Provinciales</i> had given them
+an unapproachable superiority in matter of argument and
+literature. Their other literary works were inferior, though still
+remarkable. Antoine Arnauld (the younger, often called &ldquo;the
+great&rdquo;) (1612-1694) and Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) managed
+their native language with vigour if not exactly with grace.
+They maintained their orthodoxy by writings, not merely against
+the Jesuits, but also against the Protestants such as the <i>Perpétuité
+de la foi</i> due to both, and the <i>Apologie des Catholiques</i>
+written by Arnauld alone. The latter, besides being responsible
+for a good deal of the <i>Logic</i> (<i>L&rsquo;Art de penser</i>) to which we have
+alluded, wrote also much of a <i>Grammaire générale</i> composed
+by the Port Royalists for the use of their pupils; but his principal
+devotion was to theology and theological polemics. To the latter
+Nicole also contributed <i>Les Visionnaires</i>, <i>Les Imaginaires</i> and
+other works. The studious recluses of Port Royal also produced
+a large quantity of miscellaneous literary work, to which full
+justice has been done in Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s well-known volumes.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-Century Preachers.</i>&mdash;When we think of Gallican theology
+during the 17th century, it is always with the famous pulpit
+orators of the period that thought is most busied. Nor is this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span>
+unjust, for though the most prominent of them all, Jacques
+Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704) was remarkable as a writer of
+matter intended to be read, not merely as a speaker of matter
+intended to be heard, this double character is not possessed
+by most of the orthodox theologians of the time; and even
+Bossuet, great as is his genius, is more of a rhetorician than of a
+philosopher or a theologian. In no quarter was the advance of
+culture more remarkable in France than in the pulpit. We have
+already had occasion to notice the characteristics of French pulpit
+eloquence in the 15th and 16th centuries. Though this was very
+far from destitute of vigour and imagination, the political frenzy
+of the preachers, and the habit of introducing anecdotic buffoonery,
+spoilt the eloquence of Maillard and of Raulin, of
+Boucher and of Rose. The powerful use which the Reformed
+ministers made of the pulpit stirred up their rivals; the advance
+in science and classical study added weight and dignity to the
+matter of their discourses. The improvement of prose style and
+language provided them with a suitable instrument, and the
+growth of taste and refinement purged their sermons of grossness
+and buffoonery, of personal allusions, and even, as the monarchy
+became more absolute, of direct political purpose. The earliest
+examples of this improved style were given by St Francis de
+Sales and by Fenouillet, bishop of Marseilles (d. 1652); but it
+was not till the latter half of the century, when the troubles of
+the Fronde had completely subsided, and the church was established
+in the favour of Louis XIV., that the full efflorescence of
+theological eloquence took place. There were at the time pulpit
+orators of considerable excellence in England, and perhaps
+Jeremy Taylor, assisted by the genius of the language, has
+wrought a vein more precious than any which the somewhat
+academic methods and limitations of the French teachers
+allowed them to reach. But no country has ever been able
+to show a more magnificent concourse of orators, sacred or
+profane, than that formed by Bossuet, Fénelon (1651-1715),
+Esprit Fléchier (1632-1710), Jules Mascaron (1634-1703),
+Louis Bourdaloue (1632-1704), and Jean Baptiste Massillon
+(1663-1742), to whom may be justly added the Protestant
+divines, Jean Claude (1619-1687) and Jacques Saurin (1677-1730).
+<span class="sidenote">Bossuet.</span>
+The characteristics of all these were different. Bossuet,
+the earliest and certainly the greatest, was also the most
+universal. He was not merely a preacher; he was, as we have
+said, a controversialist, indeed somewhat too much of a controversialist,
+as his battle with Fénelon proved. He was a
+philosophical or at least a theological historian, and his <i>Discours
+sur l&rsquo;histoire universelle</i> is equally remarkable from the point of
+view of theology, philosophy, history and literature. Turning
+to theological politics, he wrote his <i>Politique tirée de l&rsquo;écriture
+sainte</i>, to theology proper his <i>Méditations sur les évangiles</i>
+and his <i>Élevations sur les mystères</i>. But his principal work, after
+all, is his <i>Oraisons funèbres</i>. The funeral sermon was the special
+oratorical exercise of the time. Its subject and character invited
+the gorgeous if somewhat theatrical commonplaces, the
+display of historical knowledge and parallel, and the moralizing
+analogies, in which the age specially rejoiced. It must also be
+noticed, to the credit of the preachers, that such occasions gave
+them an opportunity, rarely neglected, of correcting the adulation
+which was but too frequently characteristic of the period. The
+spirit of these compositions is fairly reflected in the most famous
+and often quoted of their phrases, the opening &ldquo;Mes frères, Dieu
+seul est grand&rdquo; of Massillon&rsquo;s funeral discourse on Louis XIV.;
+and though panegyric is necessarily by no means absent, it is
+rarely carried beyond bounds. While Bossuet made himself
+chiefly remarkable in his sermons and in his writings by an
+almost Hebraic grandeur and rudeness, the more special characteristics
+of Christianity, largely alloyed with a Greek and Platonic
+<span class="sidenote">Fénelon.</span>
+spirit, displayed themselves in Fénelon. In pure
+literature he is not less remarkable than in theology,
+politics and morals. His practice in matters of style was admirable,
+as the universally known <i>Télémaque</i> sufficiently shows to
+those who know nothing else of his writing. But his taste, both
+in its correctness and its audacity, is perhaps more admirable
+still. Despite of Malherbe, Balzac, Boileau and the traditions
+of nearly a century, he dared to speak favourably of Ronsard,
+and plainly expressed his opinion that the practice of his own
+contemporaries and predecessors had cramped and impoverished
+the French language quite as much as they had polished or purified
+it. The other doctors whom we have mentioned were more
+purely theological than the accomplished archbishop of Cambray.
+Fléchier is somewhat more archaic in style than Bossuet or
+Fénelon, and he is also more definitely a rhetorician than either.
+Mascaron has the older fault of prodigal and somewhat indiscriminate
+erudition. But the two latest of the series, Bourdaloue
+and Massillon, had far the greatest repute in their own time
+purely as orators, and perhaps deserved this preference. The difference
+between the two repeated that between du Perron and de
+Sales. Bourdaloue&rsquo;s great forte was vigorous argument and
+unsparing denunciation, but he is said to have been lacking in
+the power of influencing and affecting his hearers. His attraction
+was purely intellectual, and it is reflected in his style, which is
+clear and forcible, but destitute of warmth and colour. Massillon,
+on the other hand, was remarkable for his pathos, and for his
+power of enlisting and influencing the sympathies of his hearers.
+Of minor preachers on the same side, Charles de la Rue, a Jesuit
+(1643-1725), and the Père Cheminais (1652-1680), according to a
+somewhat idle form of nomenclature, &ldquo;the Racine of the pulpit,&rdquo;
+may be mentioned. The two Protestant ministers whom we
+have mentioned, though inferior to their rivals, yet deserve
+honourable mention among the ecclesiastical writers of the
+period. Claude engaged in a controversy with Bossuet, in
+which victory is claimed for the invincible eagle of Meaux.
+Saurin, by far the greater preacher of the two, long continued to
+occupy, and indeed still occupies, in the libraries of French
+Protestants, the position given to Bossuet and Massillon on the
+other side.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-Century Moralists.</i>&mdash;It is not surprising that the works
+of Montaigne and Charron, with the immense popularity of the
+former, should have inclined the more thoughtful minds in France
+to moral reflection, especially as many other influences, both
+direct and indirect, contributed to produce the same result.
+The constant tendency of the refinements in French prose was
+towards clearness, succinctness and precision, the qualities
+most necessary in the moralist. The characteristics of the
+prevailing philosophy, that of Descartes, pointed in the same
+direction. It so happened, too, that the times were more favourable
+to the thinker and writer on ethical subjects than to the
+speculator in philosophy proper, in theology or in politics.
+Both the former subjects exposed their cultivators, as we have
+seen, to the suspicion of unorthodoxy; and to political speculation
+of any kind the rule of Richelieu, and still more that of
+Louis XIV., were in the highest degree unfavourable. No
+successors to Bodin and du Vair appeared; and even in the
+domain of legal writings, which comes nearest to that of politics,
+but few names of eminence are to be found.</p>
+
+<p>Only the name of Omer-Talon (1595-1652) really illustrates
+the legal annals of France at this period on the bench, and that
+of Olivier Patru (1604-1681) at the bar. Thus it
+happened that the interests of many different classes
+<span class="sidenote">Pascal and pensée-writing.</span>
+of persons were concentrated upon moralizings, which
+took indeed very different forms in the hands of Pascal
+and other grave and serious thinkers of the Jansenist complexion
+in theology, and in those of literary courtiers like Saint-Évremond
+(1613-1703) and La Rochefoucauld, whose chief object was to
+depict the motives and characters prominent in the brilliant
+and not altogether frivolous society in which they moved. Both
+classes, however, were more or less tempted by the cast of their
+thoughts and the genius of the language to adopt the tersest
+and most epigrammatic form of expression possible, and thus
+to originate the &ldquo;<i>pensée</i>&rdquo; in which, as its greatest later writer,
+Joubert, has said, &ldquo;the ambition of the author is to put a
+book into a page, a page into a phrase, and a phrase into a word.&rdquo;
+The great genius and admirable style of Pascal are certainly
+not less shown in his <i>Pensées</i> than in his <i>Provinciales</i>, though
+perhaps the literary form of the former is less strikingly supreme
+than that of the latter. The author is more dominated by his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span>
+subject and dominates it less. Nicole, a far inferior writer as
+well as thinker, has also left a considerable number of <i>Pensées</i>,
+which have about them something more of the essay and less
+of the aphorism. They are, however, though not comparable
+to Pascal, excellent in matter and style, and go far to justify
+Bayle in calling their author &ldquo;l&rsquo;une des plus belles plumes de
+l&rsquo;Europe.&rdquo; In sharp contrast with these thinkers, who are
+invariably not merely respecters of religion but ardently and
+avowedly religious, who treat morality from the point of view
+of the Bible and the church, there arose side by side with them,
+or only a little later, a very different group of moralists, whose
+writings have been as widely read, and who have had as great
+a practical and literary influence as perhaps any other class
+of authors. The earliest to be born and the last to die of these
+was Charles de Saint-Denis, seigneur de saint-Évremond (1613-1703).
+<span class="sidenote">Saint-Évremond.</span>
+Saint-Évremond was long known rather as a
+conversational wit, some of whose good things were
+handed about in manuscript, or surreptitiously printed
+in foreign lands, than as a writer, and this is still to a certain
+extent his reputation. He was at least as cynical as his still
+better known contemporary La Rochefoucauld, if not more so,
+and he had less intellectual force and less nobility of character.
+But his wit was very great, and he set the example of the brilliant
+societies of the next century. Many of Saint-Évremond&rsquo;s
+printed works are nominally works of literary criticism, but
+the moralizing spirit pervades all of them. No writer had a
+greater influence on Voltaire, and through Voltaire on the
+whole course of French literature after him. In direct literary
+value, however, no comparison can be made between Saint-Évremond
+and the author of the <i>Sentences et maximes morales</i>.
+François, duc de la Rochefoucauld (1613-1680), has other literary
+<span class="sidenote">La Rochefoucauld.</span>
+claims besides those of this famous book. His <i>Mémoires</i>
+were very favourably judged by his contemporaries,
+and they are still held to deserve no little praise even
+among the numerous and excellent works of the kind which that
+age of memoir-writers produced. But while the <i>Mémoires</i> thus
+invite comparison, the <i>Maximes et sentences</i> stand alone. Even
+allowing that the mere publication of detached reflections in
+terse language was not absolutely new, it had never been carried,
+perhaps has never since been carried, to such a perfection.
+Beside La Rochefoucauld all other writers are diffuse, vacillating,
+unfinished, rough. Not only is there in him never a word too
+much, but there is never a word too little. The thought is always
+fully expressed, not compressed. Frequently as the metaphor
+of minting or stamping coin has been applied to the art of managing
+words, it has never been applied so appropriately as to the
+maxims of La Rochefoucauld. The form of them is almost
+beyond praise, and its excellencies, combined with their immense
+and enduring popularity, have had a very considerable share in
+influencing the character of subsequent French literature. Of
+hardly less importance in this respect, though of considerably
+less intellectual and literary individuality, was the translator
+of Theophrastus and the author of the <i>Caractères</i>, La Bruyère.
+<span class="sidenote">La Bruyère.</span>
+Jean de la Bruyère (1645-1696), though frequently
+epigrammatic, did not aim at the same incredible
+terseness as the author of the <i>Maximes</i>. His plan did
+not, indeed, render it necessary. Both in England and in France
+there had been during the whole of the century a mania for
+character writing, both of the general and Theophrastic kind, and
+of the historical and personal order. The latter, of which our
+own Clarendon is perhaps the greatest master, abound in the
+French memoirs of the period. The former, of which the naïve
+sketches of Earle and Overbury are English examples, culminated
+in those of La Bruyère, which are not only light and easy in
+manner and matter, but also in style essentially amusing, though
+instructive as well. Both he and La Rochefoucauld had an
+enduring effect on the literature which followed them&mdash;an effect
+perhaps superior to that exercised by any other single work in
+French, except the <i>Roman de la rose</i> and the <i>Essais</i> of Montaigne.</p>
+
+<p><i>17th-century Savants.</i>&mdash;Of the literature of the 17th century
+there only remains to be dealt with the section of those writers
+who devoted themselves to scientific pursuits or to antiquarian
+erudition of one form or another. It was in this century that
+literary criticism of French and in French first began to be largely
+composed, and after this time we shall give it a separate heading.
+It was very far, however, from attaining the excellence or
+observing the form which it afterwards assumed. The institution
+of the Academy led to various linguistic works. One of the
+earliest of these was the <i>Remarques</i> of the Savoyard Claude
+Favre de Vaugelas (1595-1650), afterwards re-edited by Thomas
+Corneille. Pellisson wrote a history of the Academy itself when
+it had as yet but a brief one. The famous <i>Examen du Cid</i> was
+an instance of the literary criticism of the time which was
+afterwards represented by René Rapin (1621-1687), Dominique
+Bouhours (1628-1702) and René de Bossu (1631-1680), while
+Adrien Baillet (1649-1706) has collected the largest thesaurus
+of the subject in his <i>Jugemens des savants</i>. Boileau set the
+example of treating such subjects in verse, and in the latter part
+of the century <i>Reflexions</i>, <i>Discourses</i>, <i>Observations</i>, and the like,
+on particular styles, literary forms and authors, became exceedingly
+numerous. In earlier years France possessed a numerous
+band of classical scholars of the first rank, such as Scaliger and
+Casaubon, who did not lack followers. But all or almost all this
+sort of work was done in Latin, so that it contributed little to
+French literature properly so-called, though the translations from
+the classics of Nicolas Perrot d&rsquo;Ablancourt (1606-1664) have
+always taken rank among the models of French style. On the
+other hand, mathematical studies were pursued by persons of
+far other and far greater genius, and, taking from this time
+forward a considerable position in education and literature in
+France, had much influence on both. The mathematical discoveries
+of Pascal and Descartes are well known. Of science
+proper, apart from mathematics, France did not produce many
+distinguished cultivators in this century. The philosophy of
+Descartes was not on the whole favourable to such investigations,
+which were in the next century to be pursued with ardour. Its
+tendencies found more congenial vent and are more thoroughly
+<span class="sidenote">Controversy between Ancients and Moderns.</span>
+exemplified in the famous quarrel between the Ancients
+and the Moderns. This, of Italian origin, was mainly
+started in France by Charles Perrault (1628-1703),
+who thereby rendered much less service to literature
+than by his charming fairy tales. The opposite side
+was taken by Boileau, and the fight was afterwards
+revived by Antoine Houdar[d, t] de la Motte (1672-1731), a
+writer of little learning but much talent in various ways, and
+by the celebrated Madame Dacier, Anne Lefèvre (1654-1720).
+The discussion was conducted, as is well known, without very
+much knowledge or judgment among the disputants on the one
+side or on the other. But at this very time there were in France
+students and scholars of the most profound erudition. We
+have already mentioned Fleury and his ecclesiastical history.
+But Fleury is only the last and the most popular of a race of
+omnivorous and untiring scholars, whose labours have ever since,
+until the modern fashion of first-hand investigations came in,
+furnished the bulk of historical and scholarly references and
+quotations. To this century belong le Nain de Tillemont (1637-1698),
+whose enormous <i>Histoire des empereurs</i> and <i>Mémoires
+pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire ecclésiastique</i> served Gibbon and a
+hundred others as quarry; Charles Dufresne, seigneur de
+Ducange (1614-1688), whose well-known glossary was only one
+of numerous productions; Jean Mabillon (1632-1707), one
+of the most voluminous of the voluminous Benedictines; and
+Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741), chief of all authorities of
+the dry-as-dust kind on classical archaeology and art.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opening of the 18th Century.</i>&mdash;The beginning of the 18th
+century is among the dead seasons of French literature. All
+the greatest men whose names had illustrated the early reign of
+Louis XIV. in profane literature passed away long before him,
+and the last if the least of them, Boileau and Thomas Corneille,
+only survived into the very earliest years of the new age. The
+political and military disasters of the last years of the reign were
+accompanied by a state of things in society unfavourable to
+literary development. The devotion to pure literature and philosophy
+proper which Descartes and Corneille had inspired had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span>
+died out, and the devotion to physical science, to sociology,
+and to a kind of free-thinking optimism which was to inspire
+Voltaire and the Encyclopedists had not yet become fashionable.
+Fénelon and Malebranche still survived, but they were emphatically
+men of the last age, as was Massillon, though he lived till
+nearly the middle of the century. The characteristic literary
+figures of the opening years of the period are d&rsquo;Aguesseau,
+Fontenelle, Saint-Simon, personages in many ways interesting
+and remarkable, but purely transitional in their characteristics.
+Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657-1757) is, indeed, perhaps
+the most typical figure of the time. He was a dramatist, a
+moralist, a philosopher, physical and metaphysical, a critic, an
+historian, a poet and a satirist. The manner of his works is
+always easy and graceful, and their matter rarely contemptible.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century Poetry.</i>&mdash;The dispiriting signs shown during the
+17th century by French poetry proper received entire fulfilment
+in the following age. The two poets who were most prominent
+at the opening of the period were the abbé de Chaulieu (1639-1720)
+and the marquis de la Fare (1644-1712), poetical or rather
+versifying twins who are always quoted together. They were
+both men who lived to a great age, yet their characteristics are
+rather those of their later than of their earlier contemporaries.
+They derive on the one hand from the somewhat trifling school
+of Voiture, on the other from the Bacchic sect of Saint-Amant;
+and they succeed in uniting the inferior qualities of both with
+the cramped and impoverished though elegant style of which
+Fénelon had complained. Their compositions are as a rule
+lyrical, as lyrical poetry was understood after the days of Malherbe&mdash;that
+is to say, quatrains of the kind ridiculed by Molière,
+and Pindaric odes, which have been justly described as made
+up of alexandrines after the manner of Boileau cut up into shorter
+or longer lengths. They were followed, however, by the one
+poet who succeeded in producing something resembling poetry
+<span class="sidenote">J. B. Rousseau.</span>
+in this artificial style, J. B. Rousseau (1671-1741).
+Rousseau, who in some respects was nothing so little
+as a religious poet, was nevertheless strongly influenced,
+as Marot had been, by the Psalms of David. His <i>Odes</i> and his
+<i>Cantates</i> are perhaps less destitute of that spirit than the work
+of any other poet of the century excepting André Chénier.
+Rousseau was also an extremely successful epigrammatist,
+having in this respect, too, resemblances to Marot. Le Franc
+de Pompignan (1700-1784), to whom Voltaire&rsquo;s well-known
+sarcasms are not altogether just, and Louis Racine (1692-1763),
+who wrote pious and altogether forgotten poems, belonged to
+the same poetical school; though both the style and matter of
+Racine are strongly tinctured by his Port Royalist sympathies
+and education. Lighter verse was represented in the 18th
+century by the long-lived Saint-Aulaire (1643-1742), by Gentil
+Bernard (1710-1775), by the abbé (afterwards cardinal) de Bernis
+(1715-1794), by Claude Joseph Dorat (1734-1780), by Antoine
+Bertin (1752-1790) and by Evariste de Parny (1753-1814), the
+last the most vigorous, but all somewhat deserving the term
+applied to Dorat of <i>ver luisant du Parnasse</i>. The jovial traditions
+of Saint-Amant begat a similar school of anacreontic songsters,
+which, represented in turn by Charles François Panard (1674-1765),
+Charles Collé (1709-1783), Armand Gouffé (1775-1845),
+and Marc-Antoine-Madeleine Desaugiers (1772-1827), led directly
+to the best of all such writers, Béranger. To this class Rouget
+de Lisle (1760-1836) perhaps also belongs; though his most
+famous composition, the <i>Marseillaise</i>, is of a different stamp.
+Nor is the account of the light verse of the 18th century complete
+without reference to a long succession of fable writers, who, in an
+unbroken chain, connect La Fontaine in the 17th century with
+Viennet in the 19th. None of the links, however, of this chain,
+with the exception of Jean Pierre Florian (1759-1794) deserve
+<span class="sidenote">Voltaire (poetry).</span>
+much attention. The universal faculty of Voltaire
+(1694-1778) showed itself in his poetical productions
+no less than in his other works, and it is perhaps not
+least remarkable in verse. It is impossible nowadays to regard
+the <i>Henriade</i> as anything but a highly successful prize poem,
+but the burlesque epic of <i>La Pucelle</i>, discreditable as it may be
+from the moral point of view, is remarkable enough as literature.</p>
+
+<p>The epistles and satires are among the best of their kind, the
+verse tales are in the same way admirable, and the epigrams,
+impromptus, and short miscellaneous poems generally are the
+<i>ne plus ultra</i> of verse which is not poetry. The Anglomania
+of the century extended into poetry, and the <i>Seasons</i> of Thomson
+set the example of a whole library of tedious descriptive verse,
+which in its turn revenged France upon England by producing
+or helping to produce English poems of the Darwin school.
+The first of these descriptive performances was the <i>Saisons</i>
+of Jean François de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803), identical in
+title with its model, but of infinitely inferior value. Saint-Lambert
+was followed by Jacques Delille (1738-1813) in <i>Les
+Jardins</i>, Antoine Marin le Mierre (1723-1793) in <i>Les Fastes</i>,
+and Jean Antoine Roucher (1745-1794) in <i>Les Mois</i>. Indeed,
+everything that could be described was seized upon by these
+describers. Delille also translated the <i>Georgics</i>, and for a time
+was the greatest living poet of France, the title being only disputed
+by Escouchard le Brun (1729-1807), a lyrist and ode
+writer of the school of J. B. Rousseau, but not destitute of energy.
+The only other poets until Chénier who deserve notice are
+Nicolas Gilbert (1751-1780)&mdash;the French Chatterton, or perhaps
+rather the French Oldham, who died in a workhouse at
+twenty-nine after producing some vigorous satires and, at the
+point of death, an elegy of great beauty; Jacques Charles Louis
+Clinchaut de Malfilâtre (1732-1767), another short-lived poet
+whose &ldquo;Ode to the Sun&rdquo; has a certain stateliness; and Jean
+Baptiste Gresset (1709-1777), the author of <i>Ver-Vert</i> and of other
+poems of the lighter order, which are not far, if at all, below the
+<span class="sidenote">Chénier.</span>
+level of Voltaire. André Chénier (1762-1794) stands
+far apart from the art of his century, though the strong
+chain of custom, and his early death by the guillotine, prevented
+him from breaking finally through the restraints of its language
+and its versification. Chénier, half a Greek by blood, was wholly
+one in spirit and sentiment. The manner of his verses, the very
+air which surrounds them and which they diffuse, are different
+from those of the 18th century; and his poetry is probably the
+utmost that its language and versification could produce. To
+do more, the revolution which followed a generation after his
+death was required.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century Drama.</i>&mdash;The results of the cultivation of dramatic
+poetry at this time were even less individually remarkable than
+those of the attention paid to poetry proper. Here again the
+astonishing power and literary aptitude of Voltaire gave value to
+his attempts in a style which, notwithstanding that it counts
+Racine among its practitioners, was none the less predestined
+to failure. Voltaire&rsquo;s own efforts in this kind are indisputably as
+successful as they could be. Foreigners usually prefer <i>Mahomet</i>
+and <i>Zaïre</i> to <i>Bajazet</i> and <i>Mithridate</i>, though there is no doubt
+that no work of Voltaire&rsquo;s comes up to <i>Polyeucte</i> and <i>Rodogune</i>,
+as certainly no single passage in any of his plays can approach
+the best passages of <i>Cinna</i> and <i>Les Horaces</i>. But the remaining
+tragic writers of the century, with the single exception of Crébillon
+<i>père</i>, are scarcely third-rate. C. Jolyot de Crébillon (1674-1762)
+himself had genius, and there are to be found in his work evidences
+of a spirit which had seemed to die away with <i>Saint-Genest</i>, and
+was hardly to revive until <i>Hernani</i>. Of the imitators of Racine
+and Voltaire, La Motte in <i>Inés de Castro</i> was not wholly unsuccessful.
+François Joseph de la Grange-Chancel (1677-1758) copied
+chiefly the worst side of the author of <i>Britannicus</i>, and Bernard
+Joseph Saurin (1706-1781) and Pierre-Laurent de Belloy (1727-1775)
+performed the same service for Voltaire. Le Mierre and La
+Harpe, mentioned and to be mentioned, were tragedians; but
+the <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i> of Guimond de la Touche (1725-1760)
+deserves more special mention than anything of theirs. There
+was an infinity of tragic writers and tragic plays in this century,
+but hardly any others of them even deserve mention. The muse
+of comedy was decidedly more happy in her devotees. Molière
+was a far safer if a more difficult model than Racine, and the
+inexorable fashion which had bound down tragedy to a feeble
+imitation of Euripides did not similarly prescribe an undeviating
+adherence to Terence. Tragedy had never been, has scarcely
+been since, anything but an exotic in France; comedy was of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span>
+soil and native. Very early In the century Alain René le Sage
+(1668-1747), in the admirable comedy of <i>Turcaret</i>, produced a
+work not unworthy to stand by the side of all but his master&rsquo;s
+best. Philippe Destouches (1680-1754) was also a fertile comedy
+writer in the early years of the century, and in <i>Le Glorieux</i> and
+<i>Le Philosophe marié</i> achieved considerable success. As the age
+went on, comedy, always apt to lay hold of passing events,
+devoted itself to the great struggle between the Philosophes and
+their opponents. Curiously enough, the party which engrossed
+almost all the wit of France had the worst of it in this dramatic
+portion of the contest, if in no other. The <i>Méchant</i> of Gresset and
+the <i>Métromanie</i> of Alexis Piron (1689-1773) were far superior
+to anything produced on the other side, and the <i>Philosophes</i> of
+Charles Palissot de Montenoy (1730-1814), though scurrilous
+and broadly farcical, had a great success. On the other hand, it
+was to a Philosophe that the invention of a new dramatic style
+was due, and still more the promulgation of certain ideas on
+dramatic criticism and construction, which, after being filtered
+through the German mind, were to return to France and to
+exercise the most powerful influence on its dramatic productions.
+<span class="sidenote">Diderot (plays).</span>
+This was Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the most fertile
+genius of the century, but also the least productive
+in finished and perfect work. His chief dramas, the
+<i>Fils naturel</i> and the <i>Père de famille</i>, are certainly not great
+successes; the shorter plays, <i>Est-il bon?</i> <i>est-il méchant?</i> and
+<i>La Pièce et le prologue</i>, are better. But it was his follower
+Michel Jean Sédaine (1719-1797) who, in <i>Le Philosophe sans le
+savoir</i> and other pieces, produced the best examples of the bourgeois
+as opposed to the heroic drama. Diderot is sometimes
+credited or discredited with the invention of the <i>Comédie Larmoyante</i>,
+a title which indeed his own plays do not altogether refuse,
+but this special variety seems to be, in its invention, rather the
+property of Pierre Claude Nivelle de la Chaussée (1692-1754).
+Comedy sustained itself, and even gained ground towards the end
+of the century; the <i>Jeune Indienne</i> of Nicolas Chamfort (1741-1794),
+if not quite worthy of its author&rsquo;s brilliant talent in other
+paths, is noteworthy, and so is the <i>Billet perdu</i> of Joseph François
+Edouard de Corsembleu Desmahis (1722-1761), while at the
+extreme limit of our present period there appears the remarkable
+figure of Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais (1732-1799). The
+<i>Mariage de Figaro</i> and the <i>Barbier de Séville</i> are well known as
+having had attributed to them no mean place among the literary
+causes and forerunners of the Revolution. Their dramatic and
+literary value would itself have sufficed to obtain attention for
+them at any time, though there can be no doubt that their
+popularity was mainly due to their political appositeness. The
+most remarkable point about them, as about the school of
+comedy of which Congreve was the chief master in England at
+the beginning of the century, was the abuse and superfluity of
+wit in the dialogue, indiscriminately allotted to all characters
+alike. It is difficult to give particulars, but would be improper
+to omit all mention, of such dramatic or quasi-dramatic work
+as the libretti of operas, farces for performance at fairs and the
+like. French authors of the time from Le Sage downwards
+usually managed these with remarkable skill.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century Fiction.</i>&mdash;With prose fiction the case was altogether
+different. We have seen how the short tale of a few
+pages had already in the 16th century attained high if not the
+highest excellence; how at three different periods the fancy for
+long-winded prose narration developed itself in the prose rehandlings
+of the chivalric poems, in the <i>Amadis</i> romances,
+and in the portentous recitals of Gomberville and La Calprenède;
+how burlesques of these romances were produced from Rabelais
+to Scarron; and how at last Madame de Lafayette showed the
+way to something like the novel of the day. If we add the fairy
+story, of which Perrault and Madame d&rsquo;Aulnoy were the chief
+practitioners, and a small class of miniature romances, of which
+<i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i> in the 13th, and the delightful <i>Jehan de
+Paris</i> (of the 15th or 16th, in which a king of England is patriotically
+sacrificed) are good representatives, we shall have exhausted
+the list. The 18th century was quick to develop the system
+of the author of the <i>Princesse de Clèves</i>, but it did not abandon
+the cultivation of the romance, that is to say, fiction dealing
+with incident and with the simpler passions, in devoting itself
+to the novel, that is to say, fiction dealing with the analysis
+of sentiment and character. Le Sage, its first great novelist, in
+his <i>Diable boiteux</i> and <i>Gil Blas</i>, went to Spain not merely for
+his subject but also for his inspiration and manner, following
+the lead of the picaroon romance of Rojas and Scarron. Like
+Fielding, however, whom he much resembles, Le Sage mingled
+with the romance of incident the most careful attention to character
+and the most lively portrayal of it, while his style and
+language are such as to make his work one of the classics of
+French literature. The novel of character was really founded
+in France by the abbé Prévost d&rsquo;Exilles (1697-1763), the author
+of <i>Cleveland</i> and of the incomparable <i>Manon Lescaut</i>. The
+popularity of this style was much helped by the immense vogue
+in France of the works of Richardson. Side by side with it,
+however, and for a time enjoying still greater popularity, there
+flourished a very different school of fiction, of which Voltaire,
+whose name occupies the first or all but the first place in every
+branch of literature of his time, was the most brilliant cultivator.
+This was a direct development of the earlier <i>conte</i>, and consisted
+usually of the treatment, in a humorous, satirical, and not
+always over-decent fashion, of contemporary foibles, beliefs,
+philosophies and occupations. These tales are of every rank
+of excellence and merit both literary and moral, and range from
+the astonishing wit, grace and humour of <i>Candide</i> and <i>Zadig</i>
+to the book which is Diderot&rsquo;s one hardly pardonable sin, and
+the similar but more lively efforts of Crébillon <i>fils</i> (1707-1777).
+These latter deeps led in their turn to the still lower depths
+of La Clos and Louvet. A third class of 18th-century fiction
+consists of attempts to return to the humorous <i>fatrasie</i> of the
+16th century, attempts which were as much influenced by Sterne
+as the sentimental novel was by Richardson. The <i>Homme
+aux quarante écus</i> of Voltaire has something of this character,
+but the most characteristic works of the style are the <i>Jacques
+le fataliste</i> of Diderot, which shows it nearly at its best, and
+the <i>Compère Mathieu</i>, sometimes attributed to Pigault-Lebrun
+(1753-1835), but no doubt in reality due to Jacques du Laurens
+(1719-1797), which shows it at perhaps its worst. Another
+remarkable story-teller was Cazotte (1719-1792), whose <i>Diable
+amoureux</i> displays much fantastic power, and connects itself
+with a singular fancy of the time for occult studies and <i>diablerie</i>,
+manifested later by the patronage shown to Cagliostro, Mesmer,
+St Germain and others. In this connexion, too, may perhaps
+also be mentioned most appropriately <span class="correction" title="amended from Bestif">Restif</span> de la Bretonne,
+a remarkably original and voluminous writer, who was little
+noticed by his contemporaries and successors for the best part
+of a century. Restif, who was nicknamed the &ldquo;Rousseau of
+the gutter,&rdquo; <i>Rousseau du ruisseau</i>, presents to an English
+imagination many of the characteristics of a non-moral Defoe.
+While these various schools busied themselves more or less with
+real life seriously depicted or purposely travestied, the great
+vogue and success of <i>Télémaque</i> produced a certain number of
+didactic works, in which moral or historical information was
+sought to be conveyed under a more or less thin guise of fiction.
+Such was the <i>Voyage du jeune Anacharsis</i> of Jean Jacques
+Barthélemy (1716-1795); such the <i>Numa Pompilius</i> and
+<i>Gonzalve de Cordoue</i> of Florian (1755-1794), who also deserves
+notice as a writer of pastorals, fables and short prose tales;
+such the <i>Bélisaire</i> and <i>Les Incas</i> of Jean François Marmontel
+(1723-1799). Between this class and that of the novel of sentiment
+may perhaps be placed <i>Paul et Virginie</i> and <i>La Chaumière
+indienne</i>; though Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814) should
+more properly be noticed after Rousseau and as a moralist.
+Diderot&rsquo;s fiction-writing has already been referred to more than
+once, but his <i>Religieuse</i> deserves citation here as a powerful
+specimen of the novel both of analysis and polemic; while his
+undoubted masterpiece, the <i>Neveu de Rameau</i>, though very
+difficult to class, comes under this head as well as under any
+other. There are, however, two of the novelists of this age, and
+of the most remarkable, who have yet to be noticed, and these
+are the author of <i>Marianne</i> and the author of <i>Julie</i>. We do
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span>
+not mention Pierre de Marivaux (1688-1763) in this connexion
+as the equal of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), but merely
+as being in his way almost equally original and equally remote
+from any suspicion of school influence. He began with burlesque
+writing, and was also the author of several comedies, of which
+<i>Les Fausses Confidences</i> is the principal. But it is in prose fiction
+that he really excels. He may claim to have, at least in the
+opinion of his contemporaries, invented a style, though perhaps
+the term <i>marivaudage</i>, which was applied to it, has a not altogether
+complimentary connotation. He may claim also to have
+invented the novel without a purpose, which aims simply at
+amusement, and at the same time does not seek to attain that
+end by buffoonery or by satire. Gray&rsquo;s definition of happiness,
+&ldquo;to lie on a sofa and read endless novels by Marivaux&rdquo; (it is
+true that he added Crébillon), is well known, and the production
+of mere pastime by means more or less harmless has since become
+so well-recognized a function of the novelist that Marivaux, as
+one of the earliest to discharge it, deserves notice. The name,
+<span class="sidenote">J. J. Rousseau.</span>
+however, of Jean Jacques Rousseau is of far different
+importance. His two great works, the <i>Nouvelle
+Héloïse</i> and <i>Émile</i>, are as far as possible from being
+perfect as novels. But no novels in the world have ever had
+such influence as these. To a great extent this influence was
+due mainly to their attractions as novels, imperfect though they
+may be in this character, but it was beyond dispute also owing
+to the doctrines which they contained, and which were exhibited
+in novel form.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the principal developments of fiction during the
+century; but it is remarkable that, varied as they were, and
+excellent as was some of the work to which they gave rise, none
+of these schools was directly very fertile in results or successors.
+The period with which we shall next have to deal, that from
+the outbreak of the Revolution to the death of Louis XVIII., is
+curiously barren of fiction of any merit. It was not till English
+influence began again to assert itself in the later days of
+the Restoration that the prose romance began once more to be
+written.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century History.</i>&mdash;It is not, however, in any of the
+departments of <i>belles-lettres</i> that the real eminence of the 18th
+century as a time of literary production in France consists.
+In all serious branches of study its accomplishments were, from
+a literary point of view, remarkable, uniting as it did an extraordinary
+power of popular and literary expression with an ardent
+spirit of inquiry, a great speculative ability, and even a far more
+considerable amount of laborious erudition than is generally
+supposed. The historical studies and results of 18th-century
+speculation in France are of especial and peculiar importance.
+There is no doubt that what is called the science of history
+dates from this time, and though the beginning of it is usually
+assigned to the Italian Vico, its complete indication may perhaps
+with equal or greater justice be claimed by the Frenchman
+Turgot. Before Turgot, however, there were great names in
+French historical writing, and perhaps the greatest of all is that
+of Charles Secondat de Montesquieu (1689-1755). The three
+principal works of this great writer are all historical and at the
+same time political in character. In the <i>Lettres persanes</i> he
+handled, with wit inferior to the wit of no other writer even in
+that witty age, the corruptions and dangers of contemporary
+morals and politics. The literary charm of this book&mdash;the
+plan of which was suggested by a work, the <i>Amusements sérieux
+et comiques</i>, of Dufresny (1648-1724), a comic writer not destitute
+of merit&mdash;is very great, and its plan was so popular as to lead
+to a thousand imitations, of which all, except those of Voltaire
+and Goldsmith, only bring out the immense superiority of the
+original. Few things could be more different from this lively
+and popular book than Montesquieu&rsquo;s next work, the <i>Grandeur
+et décadence des Romains</i>, in which the same acuteness and
+knowledge of human nature are united with considerable erudition,
+and with a weighty though perhaps somewhat grandiloquent
+and rhetorical style. His third and greatest work, the <i>Esprit
+des lois</i>, is again different both in style and character, and such
+defects as it has are as nothing when compared with the merits
+of its fertility in ideas, its splendid breadth of view, and the
+felicity with which the author, in a manner unknown before,
+recognizes the laws underlying complicated assemblages of fact.
+The style of this great work is equal to its substance; less light
+than that of the <i>Lettres</i>, less rhetorical than that of the <i>Grandeur
+des Romains</i>, it is still a marvellous union of dignity and wit.
+Around Montesquieu, partly before and partly after him, is
+a group of philosophical or at least systematic historians, of
+whom the chief are Jean Baptiste Dubos (1670-1742), and G.
+Bonnot de Mably (1709-1785). Dubos, whose chief work is not
+historical but aesthetic (<i>Réflexions sur la poésie et la peinture</i>),
+wrote a so-called <i>Histoire critique de l&rsquo;établissement de la monarchie
+française</i>, which is as far as possible from being in the modern
+sense critical, inasmuch as, in the teeth of history, and in order
+to exalt the <i>Tiers état</i>, it pretends an amicable coalition of Franks
+and Gauls, and not an irruption by the former. Mably (<i>Observations
+sur l&rsquo;histoire de la France</i>) had a much greater influence
+than either of these writers, and a decidedly mischievous one,
+especially at the period of the Revolution. He, more than any
+one else, is responsible for the ignorant and childish extolling
+of Greek and Roman institutions, and the still more ignorant
+depreciation of the middle ages, which was for a time characteristic
+of French politicians. Montesquieu was, as we have said,
+followed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1727-1781), whose
+writings are few in number, and not remarkable for style, but
+full of original thought. Turgot in his turn was followed by
+Condorcet (1743-1794), whose tendency is somewhat more
+sociological than directly historical. Towards the end of the
+period, too, a considerable number of philosophical histories
+were written, the usual object of which was, under cover of a kind
+of allegory, to satirize and attack the existing institutions and
+government of France. The most famous of these was the
+<i>Histoire des Indes</i>, nominally written by the Abbé Guillaume
+Thomas François Raynal (1713-1796), but really the joint work
+of many members of the Philosophe party, especially Diderot.
+Side by side with this really or nominally philosophical school
+of history there existed another and less ambitious school, which
+contented itself with the older and simpler view of the science.
+The Abbé René de Vertot (1655-1735) belongs almost as much
+to the 17th as to the 18th century; but his principal works,
+especially the famous <i>Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte</i>, date from
+the later period, as do also the <i>Révolutions romaines</i>. Vertot
+is above all things a literary historian, and the well-known
+&ldquo;Mon siège est fait,&rdquo; whether true or not, certainly expresses
+his system. Of the same school, though far more comprehensive,
+was the laborious Charles Rollin (1661-1741), whose works in
+the original, or translated and continued in the case of the
+<i>Histoire romaine</i> by Jean Baptiste Louis Crévier (1693-1765),
+were long the chief historical manuals of Europe. The president
+Charles Jean François Hénault (1685-1770), and Louis Pierre
+Anquetil (1723-1806) were praiseworthy writers, the first of
+French history, the second of that and much else. In the same
+class, too, far superior as is his literary power, must be ranked
+the historical works of Voltaire, <i>Charles XII</i>., <i>Pierre le Grand</i>,
+&amp;c. A very perfect example of the historian who is literary
+first of all is supplied by Claude Carloman de Rulhière (1735-1791),
+whose <i>Révolution en Russie en 1762</i> is one of the little
+masterpieces of history, while his larger and posthumous work on
+the last days of the Polish kingdom exhibits perhaps some of
+the defects of this class of historians. Lastly must be mentioned
+the memoirs and correspondence of the period, the materials
+of history if not history itself. The century opened with the most
+famous of all these, the memoirs of the duc de Saint-Simon
+(1675-1755), an extraordinary series of pictures of the court
+of Louis XIV. and the Regency, written in an unequal and
+incorrect style, but with something of the irregular excellence
+of the great 16th-century writers, and most striking in the sombre
+bitterness of its tone. The subsequent and less remarkable
+memoirs of the century are so numerous that it is almost impossible
+to select a few for reference, and altogether impossible to
+mention all. Of those bearing on public history the memoirs
+of Madame de Staël (Mlle Delaunay) (1684-1750), of Pierre
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span>
+Louis de Voyer, marquis d&rsquo;Argenson (1694-1757), of Charles
+Pinot Duclos (1704-1772), of Stephanie Félicité de Saint-Aubin,
+Madame de Genlis (1746-1830), of Pierre Victor de Bésenval
+(1722-1791), of Madame Campan (1752-1822) and of the cardinal
+de Bernis (1715-1794), may perhaps be selected for mention;
+of those bearing on literary and private history, the memoirs
+of Madame d&rsquo;Épinay (1726-1783), those of Mathieu Marais
+(1664-1737) the so-called <i>Mémoires secrets</i> of Louis Petit de
+Bachaumont (1690-1770), and the innumerable writings having
+reference to Voltaire and to the Philosophe party generally.
+Here, too, may be mentioned a remarkable class of literature,
+consisting of purely private and almost confidential letters,
+which were written at this time with very remarkable literary
+excellence. As specimens may be selected those of Mademoiselle
+Aissé (1694-1757), which are models of easy and unaffected
+tenderness, and those of Mademoiselle de Lespinasse (1732-1776)
+the companion of Madame du Deffand and afterwards of
+d&rsquo;Alembert. These latter, in their extraordinary fervour and
+passion, not merely contrast strongly with the generally languid
+and frivolous gallantry of the age, but also constitute one of its
+most remarkable literary monuments. It has been said of them
+that they &ldquo;burn the paper,&rdquo; and the expression is not exaggerated.
+Madame du Deffand&rsquo;s (1697-1780) own letters, many of
+which were written to Horace Walpole, are noteworthy in a very
+different way. Of lighter letters the charming correspondence
+of Diderot with Mademoiselle Voland deserves special mention.
+But the correspondence, like the memoirs of this century, defies
+justice to be done to it in any cursory or limited mention. In
+this connexion, however, it may be well to mention some of the
+most remarkable works of the time, the <i>Confessions</i>, <i>Rêveries</i>,
+and <i>Promenades d&rsquo;un solitaire</i> of Rousseau. In these works,
+especially in the <i>Confessions</i>, there is not merely exhibited
+passion as fervid though perhaps less unaffected than that of
+Mademoiselle de Lespinasse&mdash;there appear in them two literary
+characteristics which, if not entirely novel, were for the first time
+brought out deliberately by powers of the first order, were for the
+first time made the mainspring of literary interest, and thereby
+set an example which for more than a century has been persistently
+followed, and which has produced some of the finest
+results of modern literature. The first of these was the elaborate
+and unsparing analysis and display of the motives, the weaknesses
+and the failings of individual character. This process, which
+Rousseau unflinchingly performed on himself, has been followed
+usually in respect to fictitious characters by his successors. The
+other novelty was the feeling for natural beauty and the elaborate
+description of it, the credit of which latter must, it has been
+agreed by all impartial critics, be assigned rather to Rousseau
+than to any other writer. His influence in this direction was,
+however, soon taken up and continued by Bernardin de Saint-Pierre,
+the connecting link between Rousseau and Chateaubriand,
+some of whose works have been already alluded to. In particular
+the author of <i>Paul et Virginie</i> set himself to develop the example
+of description which Rousseau had set, and his word-paintings,
+though less powerful than those of his model, are more abundant,
+more elaborate, and animated by a more amiable spirit.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century Philosophy.</i>&mdash;The Anglomania which distinguished
+the time was nowhere more <span class="correction" title="amended from stongly">strongly</span> shown than in the
+cast and direction of its philosophical speculations. As Montesquieu
+and Voltaire had imported into France a vivid theoretical
+admiration for the British constitution and for British theories
+in politics, so Voltaire, Diderot and a crowd of others popularized
+and continued in France the philosophical ideas of Hobbes and
+Locke and even Berkeley, the theological ideas of Bolingbroke,
+Shaftesbury and the English deists, and the physical discoveries
+of Newton. Descartes, Frenchman and genius as he was, and
+though his principles in physics and philosophy were long clung
+to in the schools, was completely abandoned by the more adventurous
+and progressive spirits. At no time indeed, owing to the
+confusion of thought and purpose to which we have already
+alluded, was the word philosophy used with greater looseness
+than at this time. Using it, as we have hitherto used it, in the
+sense of metaphysics, the majority of the Philosophes have very
+little claim to their title. There were some who manifested,
+however, an aptitude for purely philosophical argument, and one
+who confined himself strictly thereto. Among these the most
+remarkable are Julien Offroy de la Mettrie (1709-1751) and
+Denis Diderot. La Mettrie in his works <i>L&rsquo;Homme machine</i>,
+<i>L&rsquo;Homme plante</i>, &amp;c., applied a lively and vigorous imagination,
+a considerable familiarity with physics and medicine, and a
+brilliant but unequal style, to the task of advocating materialistic
+ideas on the constitution of man. Diderot, in a series of early
+works, <i>Lettre sur les aveugles</i>, <i>Promenade d&rsquo;un sceptique</i>, <i>Pensées
+philosophiques</i>, &amp;c., exhibited a good acquaintance with philosophical
+history and opinion, and gave sign in this direction,
+as in so many others, of a far-reaching intellect. As in almost all
+his works, however, the value of the thought is extremely unequal,
+while the different pieces, always written in the hottest haste,
+and never duly matured or corrected, present but few
+specimens of finished and polished writing. Charles Bonnet
+(1720-1793), a Swiss of Geneva, wrote a large number of works,
+many of which are purely scientific. Others, however, are more
+psychological, and these, though advocating the materialistic
+philosophy generally in vogue, were remarkable for uniting
+materialism with an honest adherence to Christianity. The
+half mystical writer, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin (1743-1803)
+also deserves notice. But the French metaphysician of the
+century is undoubtedly Étienne Bonnot, abbé de
+<span class="sidenote">Condillac.</span>
+Condillac (1714-1780), almost the only writer of the
+time in France who succeeded in keeping strictly to philosophy
+without attempting to pursue his system to its results in ethics,
+politics and theology. In the <i>Traité des sensations</i>, the <i>Essai
+sur l&rsquo;origine des connaissances humaines</i> and other works
+Condillac elaborated and continued the imperfect sensationalism
+of Locke. As his philosophical view, though perhaps more restricted,
+was far more direct, consecutive and uncompromising
+than that of the Englishman, so his style greatly exceeded
+Locke&rsquo;s in clearness and elegance and as a good medium of
+philosophical expression.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century Theology.</i>&mdash;To devote a section to the history of
+the theological literature of the 18th century in France may
+seem something of a contradiction; for, indeed, all or most of
+such literature was anti-theological. The magnificent list of
+names which the church had been able to claim on her side in
+the 17th century was exhausted before the end of the second
+quarter of the 18th with Massillon, and none came to fill their
+place. Very rarely has orthodoxy been so badly defended as at
+this time. The literary championship of the church was entirely
+in the hands of the Jesuits, and of a few disreputable literary freelances
+like Élie Fréron (1719-1776) and Pierre François Guyot,
+abbé Desfontaines (1685-1745). The Jesuits were learned enough,
+and their principal journal, that of Trévoux, was conducted with
+much vigour and a great deal of erudition. But they were in the
+first place discredited by the moral taint which has always hung
+over Jesuitism, and in the second place by the persecutions of the
+Jansenists and the Protestants, which were attributed to their
+influence. But one single work on the orthodox side has preserved
+the least reputation; while, on the other hand, the names
+of Père Nonotte (1711-1793) and several of his fellows have been
+enshrined unenviably in the imperishable ridicule of Voltaire,
+one only of whose adversaries, the abbé Antoine Guénée (1717-1803),
+was able to meet him in the <i>Lettres de quelques Juifs</i> with
+something like his own weapons. It has never been at all accurately
+<span class="sidenote">Voltaire (theology).</span>
+decided how far what may be called the scoffing
+school of Voltaire represents a direct revolt against
+Christianity, and how far it was merely a kind of
+guerilla warfare against the clergy. It is positively certain that
+Voltaire was not an atheist, and that he did not approve of
+atheism. But his <i>Dictionnaire philosophique</i>, which is typical of
+a vast amount of contemporary and subsequent literature, consists
+of a heterogeneous assemblage of articles directed against
+various points of dogma and ritual and various characteristics
+of the sacred records. From the literary point of view, it is one
+of the most characteristic of all Voltaire&rsquo;s works, though it is
+perhaps not entirely his. The desultory arrangement, the light
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span>
+and lively style, the extensive but not always too accurate
+erudition, and the somewhat captious and quibbling objections,
+are intensely Voltairian. But there is little seriousness about it,
+and certainly no kind of rancorous or deep-seated hostility.
+With many, however, of Voltaire&rsquo;s pupils and younger contemporaries
+the case was altered. They were distinctively atheists
+and anti-supernaturalists. The atheism of Diderot, unquestionably
+the greatest of them all, has been keenly debated; but in
+the case of Étienne Damilaville (1723-1768), Jacques André
+Naigeon (1738-1810), Paul Henri Dietrich, baron d&rsquo;Holbach,
+and others there is no room for doubt. By these persons a
+great mass of atheistic and anti-Christian literature was composed
+and set afloat. The characteristic work of this school, its last
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;System of Nature.&rdquo;</span>
+word indeed, is the famous <i>Système de la nature</i>,
+attributed to Holbach (1723-1789), but known to be,
+in part at least, the work of Diderot. In this remarkable
+work, which caps the climax of the metaphysical
+materialism or rather nihilism of the century, the atheistic
+position is clearly put. It made an immense sensation; and it so
+fluttered not merely the orthodox but the more moderate freethinkers,
+that Frederick of Prussia and Voltaire, perhaps the
+most singular pair of defenders that orthodoxy ever had, actually
+set themselves to refute it. Its style and argument are very
+unequal, as books written in collaboration are apt to be, and
+especially books in which Diderot, the paragon of inequality,
+had a hand. But there is an almost entire absence of the heterogeneous
+assemblage of anecdotes, jokes good and bad, scraps of
+accurate or inaccurate physical science, and other incongruous
+matter with which the Philosophes were wont to stuff their
+works; and lastly, there is in the best passages a kind of sombre
+grandeur which recalls the manner as well as the matter of
+Lucretius. It is perhaps well to repeat, in the case of so notorious
+a book, that this criticism is of a purely literary and formal
+character; but there is little doubt that the literary merits of
+the work considerably assisted its didactic influence. As the
+Revolution approached, and the victory of the Philosophe
+party was declared, there appeared for a brief space a group of
+cynical and accomplished phrase-makers presenting some similarity
+to that of which, a hundred years before, Saint-Évremond
+was the most prominent figure. The chief of this group were
+<span class="sidenote">Chamfort. Rivarol.</span>
+Nicolas Chamfort (1747-1794) on the republican side,
+and Antoine Rivarol (1753-1801) on that of the royalists.
+Like the older writer to whom we have compared them,
+neither can be said to have produced any one work of eminence,
+and in this they stand distinguished from moralists like
+La Rochefoucauld. The floating sayings, however, which are
+attributed to them, or which occur here and there in their
+miscellaneous work, yield in no respect to those of the most
+famous of their predecessors in wit and a certain kind of wisdom,
+though they are frequently more personal than aphoristic.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century Moralists and Politicians.</i>&mdash;Not the least part,
+however, of the energy of the period in thought and writing was
+devoted to questions of a directly moral and political kind. With
+regard to morality proper the favourite doctrine of the century
+was what is commonly called the selfish theory, the only one
+indeed which was suitable to the sensationalism of Condillac
+and the materialism of Holbach. The pattern book of this
+<span class="sidenote">Helvétius.</span>
+doctrine was the <i>De l&rsquo;esprit</i> of Claude Adrien Helvétius
+(1715-1771), the most amusing book perhaps which
+ever pretended to the title of a solemn philosophical treatise.
+There is some analogy between the principles of this work and
+those of the <i>Système de la nature</i>. With the inconsistency&mdash;some
+would say with the questionable honesty&mdash;which distinguished
+the more famous members of the Philosophe party
+when their disciples spoke with what they considered imprudent
+outspokenness, Voltaire and even Diderot attacked Helvétius
+as the former afterwards attacked Holbach. But whatever may
+be the general value of <i>De l&rsquo;esprit</i>, it is full of acuteness, though
+<span class="sidenote">Thomas.</span>
+that acuteness is as desultory and disjointed as its
+style. As Helvétius may be taken as the representative
+author of the cynical school, so perhaps Alexandre Gérard
+Thomas (1732-1785) may be taken as representative of the
+votaries of noble sentiment to whom we have also alluded.
+The works of Thomas chiefly took the form of academic <i>éloges</i>
+or formal panegyrics, and they have all the defects, both in
+manner and substance, which are associated with that style.
+Of yet a third school, corresponding in form to La Rochefoucauld
+and La Bruyère, and possessed of some of the antique vigour
+of preceding centuries, was Luc de Clapiers, marquis de
+<span class="sidenote">Vauvenargues.</span>
+Vauvenargues (1715-1747). This writer, who died
+very young, has produced maxims and reflections
+of considerable mental force and literary finish. From
+Voltaire downwards it has been usual to compare him with
+Pascal, from whom he is chiefly distinguished by a striking but
+somewhat empty stoicism. Between the moralists, of whom we
+have taken these three as examples, and the politicians may
+be placed Rousseau, who in his novels and miscellaneous works
+is of the first class, in his famous <i>Contrat social</i> of the second.
+All his theories, whatever their originality and whatever their
+value, were made novel and influential by the force of their
+statement and the literary beauties of its form. Of direct and
+avowed political writings there were few during the century, and
+none of anything like the importance of the <i>Contrat social</i>,
+theoretical acceptance of the established French constitution
+being a point of necessity with all Frenchmen. Nevertheless
+it may be said that almost the whole of the voluminous writings
+of the Philosophes, even of those who, like Voltaire, were sincerely
+aristocratic and monarchic in predilection, were of more or less
+veiled political significance. There was one branch of political
+writing, moreover, which could be indulged in without much fear.
+Political economy and administrative theories received much
+attention. The earliest writer of eminence on these subjects
+was the great engineer Sébastien le Prestre, marquis de Vauban
+(1633-1707), whose <i>Oisivetés</i> and <i>Dîme royale</i> exhibit both great
+ability and extensive observation. A more utopian economist
+of the same time was Charles Irénée Castel, abbé de Saint-Pierre
+(1658-1743), not to be confounded with the author of <i>Paul et
+Virginie</i>. Soon political economy in the hands of François
+Quesnay (1694-1774) took a regular form, and towards the middle
+of the century a great number of works on questions connected
+with it, especially that of free trade in corn, on which Ferdinand
+Galiani (1728-1787), André Morellet (1727-1819), both abbés,
+and above all Turgot, distinguished themselves. Of writers on
+legal subjects and of the legal profession, the century, though not
+less fertile than in other directions, produced few or none of any
+great importance from the literary point of view. The chief
+name which in this connexion is known is that of Chancellor
+Henri François d&rsquo;Aguesseau (1668-1751), at the beginning of the
+century, an estimable writer of the Port Royal school, who took
+the orthodox side in the great disputes of the time, but failed
+to display any great ability therein. He was, as became his
+profession, more remarkable as an orator than a writer, and his
+works contain valuable testimonies to the especially perturbed
+and unquiet condition of his century&mdash;a disquiet which is perhaps
+also its chief literary note. There were other French magistrates,
+such as Montesquieu, Hénault (1685-1770), de Brosses (1706-1773)
+and others, who made considerable mark in literature;
+but it was usually (except in the case of Montesquieu) in subjects
+not even indirectly connected with their profession. The <i>Esprit
+des lois</i> stands alone; but as an example of work barristerial
+in kind, famous partly for political reasons but of some real
+literary merit, we may mention the <i>Mémoire</i> for Calas written by
+J. B. J. Élie de Beaumont (1732-1786).</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-century Criticism and Periodical Literature.</i>&mdash;We have said
+that literary criticism assumes in this century a sufficient importance
+to be treated under a separate heading. Contributions
+were made to it of many different kinds and from many different
+points of view. Periodical literature, the chief stimulus to its
+production, began more and more to come into favour. Even
+in the 17th century the <i>Journal des savants</i>, the Jesuit <i>Journal
+de Trévoux</i>, and other publications had set the example of different
+kinds of it. Just before the Revolution the <i>Gazette de France</i> was
+in the hands of J. B. A. Suard (1734-1817), a man who was
+nothing if not a literary critic. Perhaps, however, the most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span>
+remarkable contribution of the century to criticism of the
+periodical kind was the <i>Feuilles de Grimm</i>, a circular sent for
+many years to the German courts by Frédéric Melchior Grimm
+(1723-1807), the comrade of Diderot and Rousseau, and containing
+a <i>compte rendu</i> of the ways and works of Paris, literary
+and artistic as well as social. These <i>Leaves</i> not only include
+much excellent literary criticism by Diderot, but also gave
+occasion to the incomparable <i>salons</i> or accounts of the exhibition
+of pictures from the same hand, essays which founded the art
+of picture criticism, and which have hardly been surpassed since.
+The prize competitions of the Academy were also a considerable
+stimulus to literary criticism, though the prevailing taste in
+such compositions rather inclined to elegant themes than to
+careful studies of analyses. The most characteristic critic of
+the mid-century was the abbé Charles Batteux (1713-1780)
+who illustrated a tendency of the time by beginning with a treatise
+on <i>Les Beaux Arts réduits à un même principe</i> (1746); reduced it
+and others into <i>Principes de la littérature</i> (1764) and added in
+1771 <i>Les Quatres Poétiques</i> (Aristotle, Horace, Vida and Boileau).
+Batteux is a very ingenious critic and his attempt to conciliate
+&ldquo;taste&rdquo; and &ldquo;the rules,&rdquo; though inadequate, is interesting.
+Works on the arts in general or on special divisions of them
+were not wanting, as, for instance, that of Dubos before alluded
+to, the <i>Essai sur la peinture</i> of Diderot and others. Critically
+annotated editions of the great French writers also came into
+fashion, and were no longer written by mere pedants. Of these
+Voltaire&rsquo;s edition of Corneille was the most remarkable, and his
+annotations, united separately under the title of <i>Commentaire
+sur Corneille</i>, form not the least important portion of his works.
+Even older writers, looked down upon though they were by the
+general taste of the day, received a share of this critical interest.
+In the earlier portion of the century Nicolas Lenglet-Dufresnoy
+(1674-1755) and Bernard de la Monnoye (1641-1728) devoted
+their attention to Rabelais, Regnier, Villon, Marot and others.
+Étienne Barbazan (1696-1770) and P. J. B. Le Grand d&rsquo;Aussy
+(1737-1800) gathered and brought into notice the long scattered
+and unknown rather than neglected fabliaux of the middle ages.
+Even the chansons de geste attracted the notice of the Comte
+de Caylus (1692-1765) and the Comte de Tressan (1705-1783).
+The latter, in his <i>Bibliothèque des romans</i>, worked up a large
+number of the old epics into a form suited to the taste of the
+century. In his hands they became lively tales of the kind
+suited to readers of Voltaire and Crébillon. But in this travestied
+form they had considerable influence both in France and abroad.
+By these publications attention was at least called to early
+French literature, and when it had been once called, a more
+serious and appreciative study became merely a matter of time.
+The method of much of the literary criticism of the close of this
+period was indeed deplorable enough. Jean François de la
+Harpe (1739-1803), who though a little later in time as to most
+of his critical productions is perhaps its most representative
+figure, shows criticism in one of its worst forms. The critic
+specially abhorred by Sterne, who looked only at the stop-watch,
+was a kind of prophecy of La Harpe, who lays it down distinctly
+that a beauty, however beautiful, produced in spite of rules is
+a &ldquo;monstrous beauty&rdquo; and cannot be allowed. But such a
+writer is a natural enough expression of an expiring principle.
+The year after the death of La Harpe Sainte-Beuve was born.</p>
+
+<p><i>18th-Century Savants.</i>&mdash;In science and general erudition the
+18th century in France was at first much occupied with the
+mathematical studies for which the French genius is so peculiarly
+adapted, which the great discoveries of Descartes had made
+possible and popular, and which those of his supplanter Newton
+only made more popular still. Voltaire took to himself the credit,
+which he fairly deserves, of first introducing the Newtonian
+system into France, and it was soon widely popular&mdash;even ladies
+devoting themselves to the exposition of mathematical subjects,
+as in the case of Gabrielle de Breteuil, marquise du Châtelet
+(1706-1749) Voltaire&rsquo;s &ldquo;divine Émilie.&rdquo; Indeed ladies played
+a great part in the literary and scientific activity of the century,
+by actual contribution sometimes, but still more by continuing
+and extending the tradition of &ldquo;salons.&rdquo; The duchesse du
+Maine, Mesdames de Lambert, de Tencin, Geoffrin, du Deffand,
+Necker, and above all, the baronne d&rsquo;Holbach (whose husband,
+however, was here the principal personage) presided over coteries
+which became more and more &ldquo;philosophical.&rdquo; Many of the
+greatest mathematicians of the age, such as de Moivre and
+Laplace, were French by birth, while others like Euler belonged
+to French-speaking races, and wrote in French. The physical
+sciences were also ardently cultivated, the impulse to them
+being given partly by the generally materialistic tendency of
+the age, partly by the Newtonian system, and partly also by the
+extended knowledge of the world provided by the circumnavigatory
+voyage of Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811), and
+other travels. P. L. de Moreau Maupertuis (1698-1759) and
+C. M. de la Condamine (1701-1774) made long journeys for
+scientific purposes and duly recorded their experiences. The
+former, a mathematician and physicist of some ability but more
+oddity, is chiefly known to literature by the ridicule of Voltaire
+in the <i>Diatribe du Docteur Akakia</i>. Jean le Rond, called
+d&rsquo;Alembert (1717-1783), a great mathematician and a writer of
+considerable though rather academic excellence, is principally
+known from his connexion with and introduction to the <i>Encyclopédie</i>,
+of which more presently. Chemistry was also assiduously
+cultivated, the baron d&rsquo;Holbach, among others, being a devotee
+thereof, and helping to advance the science to the point where,
+at the conclusion of the century, it was illustrated by Berthollet
+and Lavoisier. During all this devotion to science in its modern
+acceptation, the older and more literary forms of erudition were
+not neglected, especially by the illustrious Benedictines of the
+abbey of St Maur. Dom Augustin Calmet (1672-1757) the
+author of the well-known <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, belonged to
+this order, and to them also (in particular to Dom Rivet) was
+due the beginning of the immense <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>,
+a work interrupted by the Revolution and long suspended,
+but diligently continued since the middle of the 19th century.
+Of less orthodox names distinguished for erudition, Nicolas
+Fréret (1688-1749), secretary of the Academy, is perhaps the
+most remarkable. But in the consideration of the science and
+learning in the 18th century from a literary point of view, there
+is one name and one book which require particular and, in the
+case of the book, somewhat extended mention. The man is
+Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1717-1788), the book
+the <i>Encyclopédie</i>. The immense <i>Natural History</i> of Buffon,
+<span class="sidenote">Buffon.</span>
+though not entirely his own, is a remarkable monument
+of the union of scientific tastes with literary ability.
+As has happened in many similar instances, there is in parts
+more literature than science to be found in it; and from the
+point of view of the latter, Buffon was far too careless in observation
+and far too solicitous of perfection of style and grandiosity
+of view. The style of Buffon has sometimes been made the
+subject of the highest eulogy, and it is at its best admirable;
+but one still feels in it the fault of all serious French prose in this
+century before Rousseau&mdash;the presence, that is to say, of an
+artificial spirit rather than of natural variety and power. The
+<span class="sidenote">The Encyclopédie.</span>
+<i>Encyclopédie</i>, unquestionably on the whole the most
+important French literary production of the century,
+if we except the works of Rousseau and Voltaire, was
+conducted for a time by Diderot and d&rsquo;Alembert, afterwards
+by Diderot alone. It numbered among its contributors almost
+every Frenchman of eminence in letters. It is often spoken of as if,
+under the guise of an encyclopaedia, it had been merely a <i>plaidoyer</i>
+against religion, but this is entirely erroneous. Whatever anti-ecclesiastical
+bent some of the articles may have, the book as a
+whole is simply what it professes to be, a dictionary&mdash;that is to
+say, not merely an historical and critical lexicon, like those of
+Bayle and Moreri (indeed history and biography were nominally
+excluded), but a dictionary of arts, sciences, trades and technical
+terms. Diderot himself had perhaps the greatest faculty of any
+man that ever lived for the literary treatment in a workman-like
+manner of the most heterogeneous and in some cases rebellious
+subjects; and his untiring labour, not merely in writing original
+articles, but in editing the contributions of others, determined
+the character of the whole work. There is no doubt that it had,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span>
+quite independently of any theological or political influence,
+an immense share in diffusing and gratifying the taste for general
+information.</p>
+
+<p><i>1789-1830&mdash;General Sketch.</i>&mdash;The period which elapsed
+between the outbreak of the Revolution and the accession of
+Charles X. has often been considered a sterile one in point of
+literature. As far as mere productiveness goes, this judgment
+is hardly correct. No class of literature was altogether neglected
+during these stirring five-and-thirty years, the political events
+of which have so engrossed the attention of posterity that it
+has sometimes been necessary for historians to remind us that
+during the height of the Terror and the final disasters of the
+empire the theatres were open and the booksellers&rsquo; shops patronized.
+Journalism, parliamentary eloquence and scientific
+writing were especially cultivated, and the former in its modern
+sense may almost be said to have been created. But of the higher
+products of literature the period may justly be considered to
+have been somewhat barren. During the earlier part of it there
+is, with the exception of André Chénier, not a single name of the
+first or even second order of excellence. Towards the midst
+those of Chateaubriand (1768-1848) and Madame de Staël
+(1766-1817) stand almost alone; and at the close those of
+Courier, Béranger and Lamartine are not seconded by any
+others to tell of the magnificent literary burst which was to
+follow the publication of <i>Cromwell</i>. Of all departments of
+literature, poetry proper was worst represented during this
+period. André Chénier was silenced at its opening by the
+guillotine. Le Brun and Delille, favoured by an extraordinary
+longevity, continued to be admired and followed. It was the
+palmy time of descriptive poetry. Louis, marquis de Fontanes
+(1757-1821, who deserves rather more special notice as a critic
+and an official patron of literature), Castel, Boisjolin, Esmenard,
+Berchoux, Ricard, Martin, Gudin, Cournaud, are names which
+chiefly survive as those of the authors of scattered attempts to
+turn the Encyclopaedia into verse. Charles Julien de Chênedollé
+(1769-1833) owes his reputation rather to amiability, and to his
+association with men eminent in different ways, such as Rivarol
+and Joubert, than to any real power. He has been regarded as
+a precursor of Lamartine; but the resemblance is chiefly on
+Lamartine&rsquo;s weakest side; and the stress laid on him recently,
+as on Lamartine himself and even on Chénier, is part of a passing
+reaction against the school of Hugo. Even more ambitiously,
+Luce de Lancival, Campenon, Dumesnil and Parseval de Grand-Maison
+endeavoured to write epics, and succeeded rather worse
+than the Chapelains and Desmarets of the 17th century. The
+characteristic of all this poetry was the description of everything
+in metaphor and paraphrase, and the careful avoidance of anything
+like directness of expression; and the historians of the
+Romantic movement have collected many instances of this
+absurdity. Lamartine will be more properly noticed in the next
+division. But about the same time as Lamartine, and towards
+the end of the present period, there appeared a poet who may
+be regarded as the last important echo of Malherbe. This was
+Casimir Delavigne (1793-1843), the author of <i>Les Messéniennes</i>,
+a writer of very great talent, and, according to the measure
+of J. B. Rousseau and Lebrun, no mean poet. It is usual to
+reckon Delavigne as transitionary between the two schools, but
+in strictness he must be counted with the classicists. Dramatic
+poetry exhibited somewhat similar characteristics. The system
+of tragedy writing had become purely mechanical, and every
+act, almost every scene and situation, had its regular and appropriate
+business and language, the former of which the poet was
+not supposed to alter at all, and the latter only very slightly.
+Poinsinet, La Harpe, M. J. Chénier, Raynouard, de Jouy, Briffaut,
+Baour-Lormian, all wrote in this style. Of these Chénier (1764-1811)
+had some of the vigour of his brother André, from whom
+he was distinguished by more popular political principles and
+better fortune. On the other hand, Jean François Ducis (1733-1816),
+who passes with Englishmen as a feeble reducer of Shakespeare
+to classical rules, passed with his contemporaries as an
+introducer into French poetry of strange and revolutionary
+novelties. Comedy, on the other hand, fared better, as indeed
+it had always fared. Fabre d&rsquo;Églantine (1755-1794) (the
+companion in death of Danton), Collin d&rsquo;Harleville (1755-1806),
+François G. J. S. Andrieux (1759-1833), Picard, Alexandre
+Duval, and Népomucène Lemercier (1771-1840) (the most
+vigorous of all as a poet and a critic of mark) were the comic
+authors of the period, and their works have not suffered the
+complete eclipse of the contemporary tragedies which in part
+they also wrote. If not exactly worthy successors of Molière,
+they are at any rate not unworthy children of Beaumarchais.
+In romance writing there is again, until we come to Madame de
+Staël, a great want of originality and even of excellence in
+workmanship. The works of Madame de Genlis (1746-1830)
+exhibit the tendencies of the 18th century to platitude and
+noble sentiment at their worst. Madame Cottin (1770-1807),
+Madame de Souza (1761-1836), and Madame de Krudener,
+exhibited some of the qualities of Madame de Lafayette and
+more of those of Madame de Genlis. Joseph Fiévée (1767-1839),
+in <i>Le Dot de Suzette</i> and other works, showed some power over the
+domestic story; but perhaps the most remarkable work in
+point of originality of the time was Xavier de Maistre&rsquo;s (1763-1852)
+<i>Voyage autour de ma chambre</i>, an attempt in quite a
+new style, which has been happily followed up by other writers.
+Turning to history we find comparatively little written at this
+period. Indeed, until quite its close, men were too much occupied
+in making history to have time to write it. There is, however,
+a considerable body of memoir writers, especially in the earlier
+years of the period, and some great names appear even in history
+proper. Many of Sismondi&rsquo;s (1773-1842) best works were
+produced during the empire. A. G. P. Brugière, baron de
+Barante (1782-1866), though his best-known works date much
+later, belongs partially to this time. On the other hand, the
+production of philosophical writing, especially in what we may
+call applied philosophy, was considerable. The sensationalist
+views of Condillac were first continued as by Destutt de Tracy
+(1754-1836) and Laromiguière (1756-1837) and subsequently
+opposed, in consequence partly of a religious and spiritualist
+revival, partly of the influence of foreign schools of thought,
+especially the German and the Scotch. The chief philosophical
+writers from this latter point of view were Pierre Paul Royer
+Collard (1763-1845), F. P. G. Maine de Biran (1776-1824),
+and Théodore Simon Jouffroy (1796-1842). Their influence on
+literature, however, was altogether inferior to that of the reactionist
+school, of whom Louis Gabriel, vicomte de Bonald
+(1754-1840), and Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) were the great
+leaders. These latter were strongly political in their tendencies,
+and political philosophy received, as was natural, a large share
+of the attention of the time. In continuation of the work of
+the Philosophes, the most remarkable writer was Constantin
+François Chasseboeuf, comte de Volney (1757-1820), whose
+<i>Ruines</i> are generally known. On the other hand, others belonging
+to that school, such as Necker and Morellet, wrote from the
+moderate point of view against revolutionary excesses. Of
+the reactionists Bonald is extremely royalist, and carries out in
+his <i>Législations primitives</i> somewhat the same patriarchal and
+absolutist theories as our own Filmer, but with infinitely greater
+<span class="sidenote">Maistre.</span>
+genius. As Bonald is royalist and aristocratic, so
+Maistre is the advocate of a theocracy pure and
+simple, with the pope for its earthly head, and a vigorous despotism
+for its system of government. Pierre Simon Ballanche
+(1776-1847), often mentioned in the literary memoirs of his
+time, wrote among other things <i>Essais de palingénésie sociale</i>,
+good in style but vague in substance. Of theology proper there
+is almost necessarily little or nothing, the clergy being in the
+earlier period proscribed, in the latter part kept in a strict and
+somewhat discreditable subjection by the Empire. In moralizing
+literature there is one work of the very highest excellence, which,
+though not published till long afterwards, belongs in point of
+composition to this period. This is the <i>Pensées</i> of Joseph
+<span class="sidenote">Joubert.</span>
+Joubert (1754-1824), the most illustrious successor
+of Pascal and Vauvenargues, and to be ranked perhaps
+above both in the literary finish of his maxims, and certainly
+above Vauvenargues in the breadth and depth of thought which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span>
+they exhibit. In pure literary criticism more particularly,
+Joubert, though exhibiting some inconsistencies due to his time,
+is astonishingly penetrating and suggestive. Of science and
+erudition the time was fruitful. At an early period of it appeared
+the remarkable work of Pierre Cabanis (1757-1808), the <i>Rapports
+du physique et du morale de l&rsquo;homme</i>, a work in which physiology
+is treated from the extreme materialist point of view but with
+all the liveliness and literary excellence of the Philosophe movement
+at its best. Another physiological work of great merit
+at this period was the <i>Traité de la vie et de la mort</i> of Bichat,
+and the example set by these works was widely followed; while
+in other branches of science Laplace, Lagrange, Haüy, Berthollet,
+&amp;c., produced contributions of the highest value. From the
+literary point of view, however, the chief interest of this time
+is centred in two individual names, those of Chateaubriand and
+Madame de Staël, and in three literary developments of a more
+or less novel character, which were all of the highest importance
+in shaping the course which French literature has taken since
+1824. One of these developments was the reactionary movement
+of Maistre and Bonald, which in its turn largely influenced
+Chateaubriand, then Lamennais and Montalembert, and was
+later represented in French literature in different guises, chiefly
+by Louis Veuillot (1815-1883) and Mgr Dupanloup (1802-1878).
+The second and third, closely connected, were the immense
+advances made by parliamentary eloquence and by political
+writing, the latter of which, by the hand of Paul Louis Courier
+(1773-1825), contributed for the first time an undoubted masterpiece
+to French literature. The influence of the two combined
+has since raised journalism to even a greater pitch of power in
+France than in any other country. It is in the development of
+these new openings for literature, and in the cast and complexion
+which they gave to its matter, that the real literary importance
+of the Revolutionary period consists; just as it is in the new
+elements which they supplied for the treatment of such subjects
+that the literary value of the authors of <i>René</i> and <i>De l&rsquo;Allemagne</i>
+mainly lies. We have already alluded to some of the beginnings
+of periodical and journalistic letters in France. For some time,
+in the hands of Bayle, Basnage, Des Maizeaux, Jurieu, Leclerc,
+periodical literature consisted mainly of a series, more or less
+disconnected, of pamphlets, with occasional extracts from
+forthcoming works, critical <i>adversaria</i> and the like. Of a more
+regular kind were the often-mentioned <i>Journal de Trévoux</i> and
+<i>Mercure de France</i>, and later the <i>Année littéraire</i> of Fréron and
+the like. The <i>Correspondance</i> of Grimm also, as we have pointed
+out, bore considerable resemblance to a modern monthly review,
+though it was addressed to a very few persons. Of political
+news there was, under a despotism, naturally very little. 1789,
+however, saw a vast change in this respect. An enormous
+efflorescence of periodical literature at once took place, and a
+few of the numerous journals founded in that year or soon afterwards
+survived for a considerable time. A whole class of authors
+arose who pretended to be nothing more than journalists, while
+many writers distinguished for more solid contributions to literature
+took part in the movement, and not a few active politicians
+contributed. Thus to the original staff of the <i>Moniteur</i>, or, as
+it was at first called, <i>La Gazette Nationale</i>, La Harpe, Lacretelle,
+Andrieux, Dominique Joseph Garat (1749-1833) and Pierre
+Ginguené (1748-1826) were attached. Among the writers of
+the <i>Journal de Paris</i> André Chénier had been ranked. Fontanes
+contributed to many royalist and moderate journals. Guizot
+and Morellet, representatives respectively of the 19th and the
+18th century, shared in the <i>Nouvelles politiques</i>, while Bertin,
+Fievée and J. L. Geoffroy (1743-1814), a critic of peculiar
+acerbity, contributed to the <i>Journal de l&rsquo;empire</i>, afterwards
+turned into the still existing <i>Journal des débats</i>. With Geoffroy,
+François Bénoit Hoffman (1760-1828), Jean F. J. Dussault
+(1769-1824) and Charles F. Dorimond, abbé de Féletz (1765-1850),
+constituted a quartet of critics sometimes spoken of as
+&ldquo;the <i>Débats</i> four,&rdquo; though they were by no means all friends.
+Of active politicians Marat (<i>L&rsquo;Ami du peuple</i>), Mirabeau (<i>Courrier
+de Provence</i>), Barère (<i>Journal des débats et des décrets</i>), Brissot
+(<i>Patriote français</i>), Hébert (<i>Père Duchesne</i>), Robespierre (<i>Défenseur
+de la constitution</i>), and Tallien (<i>La Sentinelle</i>) were the most
+remarkable who had an intimate connexion with journalism.
+On the other hand, the type of the journalist pure and simple
+is Camille Desmoulins (1759-1794), one of the most brilliant, in a
+literary point of view, of the short-lived celebrities of the time.
+Of the same class were Pelletier, Durozoir, Loustalot, Royou.
+As the immediate daily interest in politics drooped, there were
+formed periodicals of a partly political and partly literary
+character. Such had been the <i>décade philosophique</i>, which
+counted Cabanis, Chénier, and De Tracy among its contributors,
+and this was followed by the <i>Revue française</i> at a later period,
+which was in its turn succeeded by the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>.
+On the other hand, parliamentary eloquence was even more
+important than journalism during the early period of the Revolution.
+Mirabeau naturally stands at the head of orators of this
+class, and next to him may be ranked the well-known names of
+Malouet and Meunier among constitutionalists; of Robespierre,
+Marat and Danton, the triumvirs of the Mountain; of Maury,
+Cazalès and the vicomte de Mirabeau, among the royalists;
+and above all of the Girondist speakers Barnave, Vergniaud,
+and Lanjuinais. The last named survived to take part in the
+revival of parliamentary discussion after the Restoration. But
+the permanent contributions to French literature of this period
+of voluminous eloquence are, as frequently happens in such cases,
+by no means large. The union of the journalist and the parliamentary
+spirit produced, however, in Paul Louis Courier a
+<span class="sidenote">Courier.</span>
+master of style. Courier spent the greater part of
+his life, tragically cut short, in translating the classics
+and studying the older writers of France, in which study he
+learnt thoroughly to despise the pseudo-classicism of the 18th
+century. It was not till he was past forty that he took to political
+writing, and the style of his pamphlets, and their wonderful
+irony and vigour, at once placed them on the level of the very
+best things of the kind. Along with Courier should be mentioned
+Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), who, though partly a romance
+writer and partly a philosophical author, was mainly a politician
+and an orator, besides being fertile in articles and pamphlets.
+Lamennais, like Lamartine, will best be dealt with later, and the
+same may be said of Béranger; but Chateaubriand and Madame
+de Staël must be noticed here. The former represents, in the
+influence which changed the literature of the 18th century into
+the literature of the 19th, the vague spirit of unrest and &ldquo;Weltschmerz,&rdquo;
+the affection for the picturesque qualities of nature,
+the religious spirit occasionally turning into mysticism, and the
+respect, sure to become more and more definite and appreciative,
+for antiquity. He gives in short the romantic and conservative
+<span class="sidenote">Madame de Staël.</span>
+element. Madame de Staël (1766-1817) on the other
+hand, as became a daughter of Necker, retained a
+great deal of the Philosophe character and the traditions
+of the 18th century, especially its liberalism, its <i>sensibilité</i>, and
+its thirst for general information; to which, however, she
+added a cosmopolitan spirit, and a readiness to introduce into
+France the literary and social, as well as the political and philosophical,
+peculiarities of other countries to which the 18th century,
+in France at least, had been a stranger, and which Chateaubriand
+himself, notwithstanding his excursions into English literature,
+had been very far from feeling. She therefore contributed to
+the positive and liberal side of the future movement. The
+absolute literary importance of the two was very different.
+Madame de Staël&rsquo;s early writings were of the critical kind,
+half aesthetic half ethical, of which the 18th century had been
+fond, and which their titles, <i>Lettres sur J. J. Rousseau</i>, <i>De l&rsquo;influence
+des passions</i>, <i>De la littérature considérée dans ses rapports
+avec les institutions sociales</i>, sufficiently show. Her romances,
+<i>Delphine</i> and <i>Corinne</i>, had immense literary influence at the time.
+Still more was this the case with <i>De l&rsquo;Allemagne</i>, which practically
+opened up to the rising generation in France the till then unknown
+<span class="sidenote">Chateaubriand.</span>
+treasures of literature and philosophy, which during
+the most glorious half century of her literary history
+Germany had, sometimes on hints taken from France
+herself, been accumulating. The literary importance of Chateaubriand
+(1768-1848) is far greater, while his literary influence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span>
+can hardly be exaggerated. Chateaubriand&rsquo;s literary father was
+Rousseau, and his voyage to America helped to develop the seeds
+which Rousseau had sown. In <i>René</i> and other works of the
+same kind, the naturalism of Rousseau received a still further
+development. But it was not in mere naturalism that Chateaubriand
+was to find his most fertile and most successful theme.
+It was, on the contrary, in the rehabilitation of Christianity as
+an inspiring force in literature. The 18th century had used
+against religion the method of ridicule; Chateaubriand, by
+genius rather than by reasoning, set up against this method that
+of poetry and romance. &ldquo;Christianity,&rdquo; says he, almost in
+so many words, &ldquo;is the most poetical of all religions, the most
+attractive, the most fertile in literary, artistic and social results.&rdquo;
+This theme he develops with the most splendid language, and
+with every conceivable advantage of style, in the <i>Génie du
+Christianisme</i> and the <i>Martyrs</i>. The splendour of imagination,
+the summonings of history and literature to supply effective and
+touching illustrations, analogies and incidents, the rich colouring
+so different from the peculiarly monotonous and grey tones of
+the masters of the 18th century, and the fervid admiration for
+nature which were Chateaubriand&rsquo;s main attractions and characteristics,
+could not fail to have an enormous literary influence.
+Indeed he has been acclaimed, with more reason than is usually
+found in such acclamations, as the founder of comparative <i>and</i>
+imaginative literary criticism in France if not in Europe. The
+Romantic school acknowledged, and with justice, its direct
+indebtedness to him.</p>
+
+<p><i>Literature since 1830.</i>&mdash;In dealing with the last period of the
+history of French literature and that which was introduced by
+the literary revolution of 1830 and has continued, in phases of
+only partial change, to the present day, a slight alteration of
+treatment is requisite. The subdivisions of literature have lately
+become so numerous, and the contributions to each have reached
+such an immense volume, that it is impossible to give more than
+cursory notice, or indeed allusion, to most of them. It so
+happens, however, that the purely literary characteristics of this
+period, though of the most striking and remarkable, are confined
+to a few branches of literature. The character of the 19th
+century in France has hitherto been at least as strongly marked
+as that of any previous period. In the middle ages men of letters
+followed each other in the cultivation of certain literary forms
+for long centuries. The <i>chanson de geste</i>, the Arthurian legend,
+the <i>roman d&rsquo;aventure</i>, the <i>fabliau</i>, the allegorical poem, the
+rough dramatic <i>jeu</i>, mystery and farce, served successively as
+moulds into which the thought and writing impulse of generations
+of authors were successively cast, often with little attention
+to the suitability of form and subject. The end of the 15th
+century, and still more the 16th, owing to the vast extension
+of thought and knowledge then introduced, finally broke up the
+old forms, and introduced the practice of treating each subject
+in a manner more or less appropriate to it, and whether appropriate
+or not, freely selected by the author. At the same time
+a vast but somewhat indiscriminate addition was made to the
+actual vocabulary of the language. The 17th and 18th centuries
+witnessed a process of restriction once more to certain forms
+and strict imitation of predecessors, combined with attention
+to purely arbitrary rules, the cramping and impoverishing effect
+of this (in Fénelon&rsquo;s words) being counterbalanced partly by
+the efforts of individual genius, and still more by the constant
+and steady enlargement of the range of thought, the choice of
+subjects, and the familiarity with other literature, both of the
+ancient and modern world. The literary work of the 19th
+century and of the great Romantic movement which began in its
+second quarter was to repeat on a far larger scale the work of the
+16th, to break up and discard such literary forms as had become
+useless or hopelessly stiff, to give strength, suppleness and
+variety to such as were retained, to invent new ones where
+necessary, to enrich the language by importations, inventions
+and revivals, and, above all, to bring into prominence the principle
+of individualism. Authors and even books, rather than groups
+and kinds, demand principal attention.</p>
+
+<p>The result of this revolution is naturally most remarkable in
+the <i>belles-lettres</i> and the kindred department of history. Poetry,
+not dramatic, has been revived; prose romance and literary
+criticism have been brought to a perfection previously unknown;
+and history has produced works more various, if not more remarkable,
+than at any previous stage of the language. Of all these
+branches we shall therefore endeavour to give some detailed
+account. But the services done to the language were not limited
+to the strictly literary branches of literature. Modern French,
+if it lacks, as it probably does lack, the statuesque precision and
+elegance of prose style to which between 1650 and 1800 all else
+was sacrificed, has become a much more suitable instrument
+for the accurate and copious treatment of positive and concrete
+subjects. These subjects have accordingly been treated in an
+abundance corresponding to that manifested in other countries,
+though the literary importance of the treatment has perhaps
+proportionately declined. We cannot even attempt to indicate
+the innumerable directions of scientific study which this copious
+industry has taken, and must confine ourselves to those which
+come more immediately under the headings previously adopted.
+In philosophy proper France, like other nations, has been more
+remarkable for attention to the historical side of the matter
+than for the production of new systems; and the principal
+exception among her philosophical writers, Auguste Comte (1793-1857),
+besides inclining, as far as his matter went to the political
+and scientific rather than to the purely philosophical side (which
+indeed he regarded as antiquated), was not very remarkable
+merely as a man of letters. Victor Cousin (1792-1867), on the
+other hand, almost a brilliant man of letters and for a time
+regarded as something of a philosophical apostle preaching
+&ldquo;eclecticism,&rdquo; betook himself latterly to biographical and other
+miscellaneous writing, especially on the famous French ladies of
+the 17th century, and is likely to be remembered chiefly in this
+department, though not to be forgotten in that of philosophical
+history and criticism. The same curious declension was observable
+in the much younger Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893),
+who, beginning with philosophical studies, and always maintaining
+a strong tincture of philosophical determinism, applied himself
+later, first to literary history and criticism in his famous <i>Histoire
+de la littérature anglaise</i> (1864), and then to history proper in
+his still more famous and far more solidly based <i>Origines de la
+France contemporaine</i> (1876). To him, however, we must recur
+under the head of literary criticism. And not dissimilar
+phenomena, not so much of inconstancy to philosophy as of a
+tendency towards the applied rather than the pure branches of
+the subject, are noticeable in Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), in
+Charles de Rémusat (1797-1875), and in Ernest Renan (1823-1892),
+the first of whom began by translating Herder while the
+second and third devoted themselves early to scholastic philosophy,
+de Rémusat dealing with Abelard (1845) and Anselm
+(1856), Renan with Averroes (1852). More single-minded
+devotion to at least the historical side was shown by Jean
+Philibert Damiron (1794-1862), who published in 1842 a <i>Cours
+de philosophie</i> and many minor works at different times; but
+the inconstancy recurs in Jules Simon (1814-1896), who, in the
+earlier part of his life a professor of philosophy and a writer of
+authority on the Greek philosophers (especially in <i>Histoire de
+l&rsquo;école d&rsquo;Alexandrie</i>, 1844-1845), began before long to take an
+active and, towards the close of his life-work, all but a foremost
+part in politics. In theology the chief name of great literary
+eminence in the earlier part of the century is that of Lamennais,
+of whom more presently, in the later, that of Renan again.
+But Charles Forbes de Montalembert (1810-1870), an historian
+with a strong theological tendency, deserves notice; and among
+ecclesiastics who have been orators and writers the père Jean
+Baptiste Henri Lacordaire (1802-1861), a pupil of Lamennais
+who returned to orthodoxy but always kept to the Liberal side;
+the père Célestin Joseph Félix (1810-1891), a Jesuit teacher and
+preacher of eminence; and the père Didon (1840-1900), a very
+popular preacher and writer who, though thoroughly orthodox,
+did not escape collision with his superiors. On the Protestant
+side Athanase Coquerel (1820-1875) is the most remarkable
+name. Recently Paul Sabatier (b. 1858) has displayed, especially
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span>
+in dealing with Saint Francis of Assisi, much power of literary
+and religious sympathy and a style somewhat modelled on that
+of Renan, but less unctuous and effeminate. There are strong
+philosophical tendencies, and at least a revolt against the religious
+as well as philosophical ideas of the Encyclopédists, in
+the <i>Pensées</i> of Joubert, while the hybrid position characteristic
+of the 19th century is particularly noticeable in Étienne Pivert de
+Sénancour (1770-1846), whose principal work, <i>Obermann</i> (1804),
+had an extraordinary influence on its own and the next generation
+in the direction of melancholy moralizing. This tone was notably
+taken up towards the other end of the century by Amiel (<i>q.v.</i>),
+who, however, does not strictly belong to <i>French</i> literature:
+while in Ximénès Doudon (1800-1872), author of <i>Mélanges et
+lettres</i> posthumously published, we find more of a return to the
+attitude of Joubert&mdash;literary criticism occupying a very large
+part of his reflections. Political philosophy and its kindred
+sciences have naturally received a large share of attention.
+Towards the middle of the century there was a great development
+of socialist and fanciful theorizing on politics, with which
+the names of Claude Henri, comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825),
+Charles Fourier (1772-1837), Étienne Cabet (1788-1856), and
+others are connected. As political economists Frédéric Bastiat
+(1801-1850), L. G. L. Guilhaud de Lavergne (1809-1880), Louis
+Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881), and Michel Chevalier (1806-1879)
+may be noticed. In Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) France
+produced a political observer of a remarkably acute, moderate
+and reflective character, and Armand Carrel (1800-1836), whose
+life was cut short in a duel, was a real man of letters, as well as
+a brilliant journalist and an honest if rather violent party
+politician. The name of Jean Louis Eugène Lerminier (1803-1857)
+is of wide repute for legal and constitutional writings, and
+that of Henri, baron de Jomini (1779-1869) is still more celebrated
+as a military historian; while that of François Lenormant (1837-1883)
+holds a not dissimilar position in archaeology. With the
+publications devoted to physical science proper we do not attempt
+to meddle. Philology, however, demands a brief notice. In
+classical studies France has till recently hardly maintained the
+position which might be expected of the country of Scaliger
+and Casaubon. She has, however, produced some considerable
+Orientalists, such as Champollion the younger, Burnouf, Silvestre
+de Sacy and Stanislas Julien. The foundation of Romance philology
+was due, indeed, to the foreigners Wolf and Diez. But
+early in the century the curiosity as to the older literature of
+France created by Barbazan, Tressan and others continued to
+extend. Dominique Martin Méon (1748-1829) published many
+unprinted fabliaux, gave the whole of the French <i>Renart</i> cycle,
+with the exception of <i>Renart le contrefait</i>, and edited the <i>Roman
+de la rose</i>. Charles Claude Fauriel (1772-1844) and François
+Raynouard (1761-1836) dealt elaborately with Provençal
+poetry as well as partially with that of the trouvères; and the
+latter produced his comprehensive <i>Lexique romane</i>. These
+examples were followed by many other writers, who edited
+manuscript works and commented on them, always with zeal
+and sometimes with discretion. Foremost among these must
+be mentioned Paulin Paris (1800-1881) who for fifty years served
+the cause of old French literature with untiring energy, great
+literary taste, and a pleasant and facile pen. His selections from
+manuscripts, his <i>Romancero français</i>, his editions of <i>Garin le
+Loherain</i> and <i>Berte aus grans piés</i>, and his <i>Romans de la table
+ronde</i> may especially be mentioned. Soon, too, the Benedictine
+<i>Histoire littéraire</i>, so long interrupted, was resumed under M.
+Paris&rsquo;s general management, and has proceeded nearly to the
+end of the 14th century. Among its contents M. Paris&rsquo;s dissertations
+on the later <i>chansons de gestes</i> and the early song
+writers, M. Victor le Clerc&rsquo;s on the <i>fabliaux</i>, and M. Littré&rsquo;s
+on the <i>romans d&rsquo;aventures</i> may be specially noticed. For some
+time indeed the work of French editors was chargeable with a
+certain lack of critical and philological accuracy. This reproach,
+however, was wiped off by the efforts of a band of younger
+scholars, chiefly pupils of the École des Chartes, with MM. Gaston
+Paris (1839-1903) and Paul Meyer at their head. Of M. Paris
+in particular it may be said that no scholar in the subject has ever
+combined literary and linguistic competence more admirably.
+The Société des Anciens Textes Français was formed for the purpose
+of publishing scholarly editions of inedited works, and a lexicon
+of the older tongue by M. Godefroy at last supplemented, though
+not quite with equal accomplishment, the admirable dictionary
+in which Émile Littré (1801-1881), at the cost of a life&rsquo;s labour,
+embodied the whole vocabulary of the classical French language.
+Meanwhile the period between the middle ages proper and the
+17th century has not lacked its share of this revival of attention.
+To the literature between Villon and Regnier especial attention
+was paid by the early Romantics, and Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s <i>Tableau
+historique et critique de la poésie et du théâtre au seizième siècle</i>
+was one of the manifestoes of the school. Since the appearance
+of that work in 1828 editions with critical comments of the
+literature of this period have constantly multiplied, aided by the
+great fancy for tastefully produced works which exists among
+the richer classes in France; and there are probably now few
+countries in which works of old authors, whether in cheap reprints
+or in <i>éditions de luxe</i> can be more readily procured.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Romantic Movement.</i>&mdash;It is time, however, to return to the
+literary revolution itself, and its more purely literary results.
+At the accession of Charles X. France possessed three
+writers, and perhaps only three, of already remarkable
+<span class="sidenote">Béranger.</span>
+eminence, if we except Chateaubriand, who was already of a
+past generation. These three were Pierre Jean de Béranger
+(1780-1857), Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), and Hugues
+Félicité Robert Lamennais (1782-1854). The first belongs
+definitely in manner, despite his striking originality of <i>nuance</i>,
+to the past. He has remnants of the old periphrases, the cumbrous
+mythological allusions, the poetical &ldquo;properties&rdquo; of French
+verse. He has also the older and somewhat narrow limitations
+of a French poet; foreigners are for him mere barbarians. At
+the same time his extraordinary lyrical faculty, his excellent wit,
+which makes him a descendant of Rabelais and La Fontaine,
+and his occasional touches of pathos made him deserve and
+obtain something more than successes of occasion. Béranger,
+moreover, was very far from being the mere improvisatore
+which those who cling to the inspirationist theory of poetry
+would fain see in him. His studies in style and composition were
+persistent, and it was long before he attained the firm and brilliant
+manner which distinguishes him. Béranger&rsquo;s talent, however,
+was still too much a matter of individual genius to have great
+literary influence, and he formed no school. It was different
+<span class="sidenote">Lamartine.</span>
+with Lamartine, who was, nevertheless, like Béranger,
+a typical Frenchman. The <i>Méditations</i> and the
+<i>Harmonies</i> exhibit a remarkable transition between
+the old school and the new. In going direct to nature, in borrowing
+from her striking outlines, vivid and contrasted tints,
+harmony and variety of sound, the new poet showed himself
+an innovator of the best class. In using romantic and religious
+associations, and expressing them in affecting language, he was
+the Chateaubriand of verse. But with all this he retained some
+of the vices of the classical school. His versification, harmonious
+as it is, is monotonous, and he does not venture into the bold
+lyrical forms which true poetry loves. He has still the horror of
+the <i>mot propre</i>; he is always spiritualizing and idealizing, and
+his style and thought have a double portion of the feminine
+and almost flaccid softness which had come to pass for grace in
+French. The last of the trio, Lamennais, represents an altogether
+<span class="sidenote">Lamennais.</span>
+bolder and rougher genius. Strongly influenced by
+the Catholic reaction, Lamennais also shows the
+strongest possible influence of the revolutionary spirit.
+His earliest work, the <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;indifférence en matière de
+religion</i> (1817 and 1818) was a defence of the church on curiously
+unecclesiastical lines. It was written in an ardent style, full of
+illustrations, and extremely ambitious in character. The plan
+was partly critical and partly constructive. The first part disposed
+of the 18th century; the second, adopting the theory of
+papal absolutism which Joseph de Maistre had already advocated,
+proceeded to base it on a supposed universal consent. The after
+history of Lamennais was perhaps not an unnatural recoil from
+this; but it is sufficient here to point out that in his prose,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span>
+especially as afterwards developed in the apocalyptic <i>Paroles
+d&rsquo;un croyant</i> (1839) are to be discerned many of the tendencies
+of the Romantic school, particularly its hardy and picturesque
+choice of language, and the disdain of established and accepted
+methods which it professed. The signs of the revolution itself
+were, as was natural, first given in periodical literature. The
+feudalist affectations of Chateaubriand and the legitimists
+excited a sort of aesthetic affection for Gothicism, and Walter
+Scott became one of the most favourite authors in France.
+Soon was started the periodical <i>La Muse française</i>, in which the
+names of Hugo, Vigny, Deschamps and Madame de Girardin
+appear. Almost all the writers in this periodical were eager
+royalists, and for some time the battle was still fought on political
+grounds. There could, however, be no special connexion
+between classical drama and liberalism; and the liberal journal,
+the Globe, with no less a person than Sainte-Beuve among its
+contributors, declared definite war against classicism in the
+drama. The chief &ldquo;classical&rdquo; organs were the <i>Constitutionnel</i>,
+the <i>Journal des débats</i>, and after a time and not exclusively,
+the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. Soon the question became purely
+literary, and the Romantic school proper was born in the famous
+<i>cénacle</i> or clique in which Hugo was chief poet, Sainte-Beuve
+chief critic, and Gautier, Gérard de Nerval, the brothers Émile
+(1791-1871) and Antony (1800-1869), Deschamps, Petrus Borel
+(1809-1859) and others were officers. Alfred de Vigny and
+Alfred de Musset stand somewhat apart, and so does Charles
+Nodier (1780-1844), a versatile and voluminous writer, the very
+variety and number of whose works have somewhat prevented
+the individual excellence of any of them from having justice
+done to it. The objects of the school, which was at first violently
+opposed, so much so that certain academicians actually petitioned
+the king to forbid the admission of any Romantic piece at the
+Théâtre Français, were, briefly stated, the burning of everything
+which had been adored, and the adoring of everything which
+had been burnt. They would have no unities, no arbitrary
+selection of subjects, no restraints on variety of versification, no
+academically limited vocabulary, no considerations of artificial
+beauty, and, above all, no periphrastic expression. The <i>mot
+propre</i>, the calling of a spade a spade, was the great commandment
+of Romanticism; but it must be allowed that what was
+taken away in periphrase was made up in adjectives. Musset,
+who was very much of a free-lance in the contest, maintained
+indeed that the <i>differentia</i> of the Romantic was the copious use
+of this part of speech. All sorts of epithets were invented to
+distinguish the two parties, of which <i>flamboyant</i> and <i>grisâtre</i>
+are perhaps the most accurate and expressive pair&mdash;the former
+serving to denote the gorgeous tints and bold attempts of the
+new school, the latter the grey colour and monotonous outlines
+of the old. The representation of <i>Hernani</i> in 1830 was the culmination
+of the struggle, and during great part of the reign of
+Louis Philippe almost all the younger men of letters in France
+were Romantics. The representation of the <i>Lucrèce</i> of François
+Ponsard (1814-1867) in 1846 is often quoted as the herald or sign
+of a classical reaction. But this was only apparent, and signified,
+if it signified anything, merely that the more juvenile excesses
+of the Romantics were out of date. All the greatest men of
+letters of France since 1830 have been on the innovating side,
+and all without exception, whether intentionally or not, have had
+their work coloured by the results of the movement, and of those
+which have succeeded it as developments rather than reactions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drama and Poetry since 1830.</i>&mdash;Although the immediate
+subject on which the battles of Classics and Romantics arose
+was dramatic poetry, the dramatic results of the movement
+have not been those of greatest value or most permanent character.
+The principal effect in the long run has been the introduction
+of a species of play called <i>drame</i>, as opposed to regular
+comedy and tragedy, admitting of much freer treatment than
+either of these two as previously understood in French, and
+lending itself in some measure to the lengthy and disjointed
+action, the multiplicity of personages, and the absence of stock
+characters which characterized the English stage in its palmy
+days. All Victor Hugo&rsquo;s dramatic works are of this class, and
+each, as it was produced or published (<i>Cromwell</i>, <i>Hernani</i>,
+<i>Marion de l&rsquo;Orme</i>, <i>Le Roi s&rsquo;amuse</i>, <i>Lucrèce Borgia</i>, <i>Marie Tudor</i>,
+<i>Ruy Blas</i> and <i>Les Burgraves</i>), was a literary event, and excited
+the most violent discussion&mdash;the author&rsquo;s usual plan being to
+prefix a prose preface of a very militant character to his work.
+A still more melodramatic variety of <i>drame</i> was that chiefly
+represented by Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870), whose <i>Henri III</i>
+and <i>Antony</i>, to which may be added later <i>La Tour de Nesle</i>
+and <i>Mademoiselle de Belleisle</i>, were almost as much rallying
+points for the early Romantics as the dramas of Hugo, despite
+their inferior literary value. At the same time Alexandre Soumet
+(1788-1845), in <i>Norma</i>, <i>Une Fête de Néron</i>, &amp;c., and Casimir
+Delavigne in <i>Marino Faliero</i>, <i>Louis XI</i>, &amp;c., maintained a
+somewhat closer adherence to the older models. The classical
+or semi-classical reaction of the last years of Louis Philippe was
+represented in tragedy by Ponsard (<i>Lucrèce</i>, <i>Agnes de Méranie</i>,
+<i>Charlotte Corday</i>, <i>Ulysse</i>, and several comedies), and on the comic
+side, to a certain extent, by Émile Augier (1820-1889) in
+<i>L&rsquo;Aventurière</i>, <i>Le Gendre de M. Poirier</i>, <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i>, &amp;c.
+During almost the whole period Eugène Scribe (1791-1861)
+poured forth innumerable comedies of the vaudeville order,
+which, without possessing much literary value, attained immense
+popularity. For the last half-century the realist development
+of Romanticism has had the upper hand in dramatic composition,
+its principal representatives being on the one side Victorien
+Sardou (1831-1909), who in <i>Nos Intimes</i>, <i>La Famille Benoîton</i>,
+<i>Rabagas</i>, <i>Dora</i>, &amp;c., chiefly devoted himself to the satirical
+treatment of manners, and Alexandre Dumas <i>fils</i> (1824-1895),
+author in 1852 of the famous <i>Dame aux camélias</i>, who in such
+pieces as <i>Les Idées de Madame Aubray</i> and <i>L&rsquo;Étrangère</i> rather
+busied himself with morals and &ldquo;problems,&rdquo; while his <i>Dame
+aux camélias</i> (1852) is sometimes ranked as the first of such things
+in &ldquo;modern&rdquo; style. Certain isolated authors also deserve
+notice, such as Joseph Autran (1813-1877), a poet and academician
+having some resemblance to Lamartine, whose <i>Fille
+d&rsquo;Æschyle</i> created for him a dramatic reputation which he did
+not attempt to follow up, and Gabriel Legouvé (b. 1807), whose
+<i>Adrienne Lecouvreur</i> was assisted to popularity by the admirable
+talent of Rachel. A special variety of drama of the first literary
+importance has also been cultivated in this century under the
+title of <i>scènes</i> or <i>proverbes</i>, slight dramatic sketches in which the
+dialogue and style are of even more importance than the action.
+The best of all of these are those of Alfred de Musset (1810-1857),
+whose <i>Il faut qu&rsquo;une porte soit ouverte ou fermée</i>, <i>On ne badine
+pas avec l&rsquo;amour</i>, &amp;c., are models of grace and wit. Among his
+followers may be mentioned especially Octave Feuillet (1821-1890).
+Few social dramas of the kind in modern times have
+attained a greater success than <i>Le Monde où l&rsquo;on s&rsquo;ennuie</i> (1868)
+of Édouard Pailleron (1834-1899). (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>In poetry proper, as in drama, Victor Hugo showed the way.
+In him all the Romantic characteristics were expressed and
+embodied&mdash;disregard of arbitrary critical rules, free
+choice of subject, variety and vigour of metre, splendour
+<span class="sidenote">Victor Hugo.</span>
+and sonorousness of diction, abundant &ldquo;local colour,&rdquo;
+and that irrepressible individualism which is one of the chief,
+though not perhaps the chief, of the symptoms. If the careful
+attention to form which is also characteristic of the movement is
+less apparent in him than in some of his followers, it is not
+because it is absent, but because the enthusiastic conviction
+with which he attacked every subject somewhat diverts attention
+from it. As with the merits so with the defects. A deficient
+sense of the ludicrous which characterized many of the Romantics
+was strongly apparent in their leader, as was also an equally
+representative grandiosity, and a fondness for the introduction
+of foreign and unfamiliar words, especially proper names,
+which occasionally produces an effect of burlesque. Victor
+Hugo&rsquo;s earliest poetical works, his chiefly royalist and political
+<i>Odes</i>, were cast in the older and accepted forms, but already
+displayed astonishing poetical qualities. But it was in the
+<i>Ballades</i> (for instance, the splendid <i>Pas d&rsquo;armes du roi Jean</i>,
+written in verses of three syllables) and the <i>Orientales</i> (of which
+may be taken for a sample the sixth section of <i>Navarin</i>, a perfect
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span>
+torrent of outlandish terms poured forth in the most admirable
+verse, or <i>Les Djinns</i>, where some of the stanzas have lines of
+two syllables each) that the grand provocation was thrown
+to the believers in alexandrines, careful caesuras and strictly
+separated couplets. <i>Les Feuilles d&rsquo;automne</i>, <i>Les Chants du
+crépuscule</i>, <i>Les Voix intérieures</i>, <i>Les Rayons et les ombres</i>, the
+productions of the next twenty years, were quieter in style and
+tone, but no less full of poetical spirit. The Revolution of 1848,
+the establishment of the empire and the poet&rsquo;s exile brought
+about a fresh determination of his genius to lyrical subjects.
+<i>Les Châtiments</i> and <i>La Légende des siècles</i>, the one political, the
+other historical, reach perhaps the high-water mark of French
+verse; and they were followed by the philosophical <i>Contemplations</i>,
+the lighter <i>Chansons des rues et des bois</i>, the <i>Année
+terrible</i>, the second <i>Légende des siècles</i>, and the later work to be
+found noticed <i>sub nom</i>. We have been thus particular here
+because the literary productiveness of Victor Hugo himself has
+been the measure and sample of the whole literary productiveness
+of France on the poetical side. At five-and-twenty he was
+acknowledged as a master, at seventy-five he was a master still.
+His poetical influence has been represented in three different
+schools, from which very few of the poetical writers of the
+century can be excluded. These few we may notice first. Alfred
+<span class="sidenote">Musset.</span>
+de Musset, a writer of great genius, felt part of the
+Romantic inspiration very strongly, but was on the
+whole unfortunately influenced by Byron, and partly out of
+wilfulness, partly from a natural want of persevering industry
+and vigour, allowed himself to be careless and even slovenly
+in composition. Notwithstanding this, many of his lyrics are
+among the finest poems in the language, and his verse, careless
+as it is, has extraordinary natural grace. Auguste Barbier
+(1805-1882) whose <i>Iambes</i> shows an extraordinary command of
+nervous and masculine versification, also comes in here; and the
+Breton poet, Auguste Brizeux (1803-1858), much admired by
+some, together with Hégésippe Moreau, an unequal writer
+possessing some talent, Pierre Dupont (1821-1870), one of much
+greater gifts, and Gustave Nadaud (1820-1893), a follower of
+Béranger, also deserve mention. Of the school of Lamartine
+rather than of Hugo are Alfred de Vigny (1799-1865) and
+Victor de Laprade (1812-1887), the former a writer of little
+bulk and somewhat over-fastidious, but possessing one of the
+most correct and elegant styles to be found in French, with a
+curious restrained passion and a complicated originality, the
+latter a meditative and philosophical poet, like Vigny an admirable
+writer, but somewhat deficient in pith and substance, as
+well as in warmth and colour. Madame Ackermann (1813-1890)
+is the chief philosophical poetess of France, and this style has
+recently been very popular; but for actual poetical powers,
+Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (1786-1859) perhaps excelled her,
+though in a looser and more sentimental fashion. The poetical
+schools which more directly derive from the Romantic movement
+as represented by Hugo are three in number, corresponding in
+point of time with the first outburst of the movement, with the
+period of reaction already alluded to, and with the closing years
+of the second empire. Of the first by far the most distinguished
+member was Théophile Gautier (1811-1872), the most perfect
+<span class="sidenote">Gautier.</span>
+poet in point of form that France has produced. When
+quite a boy he devoted himself to the study of 16th-century
+masters, and though he acknowledged the supremacy
+of Hugo, his own talent was of an individual order, and developed
+itself more or less independently. <i>Albertus</i> alone of his poems
+has much of the extravagant and grotesque character which
+distinguished early romantic literature. The <i>Comédie de la
+mort</i>, the <i>Poésies diverses</i>, and still more the <i>Émaux et camées</i>,
+display a distinctly classical tendency&mdash;classical, that is to say,
+not in the party and perverted sense, but in its true acceptation.
+The tendency to the fantastic and horrible may be taken as best
+shown by Petrus Borel (1809-1859), a writer of singular power
+almost entirely wasted. Gerard Labrunie or de Nerval (1808-1855)
+adopted a manner also fantastic but more idealistic than
+Borel&rsquo;s, and distinguished himself by his Oriental travels and
+studies, and by his attention to popular ballads and traditions,
+while his style has an exquisite but unaffected strangeness
+hardly inferior to Gautier&rsquo;s. This peculiar and somewhat
+quintessenced style is also remarkable in the <i>Gaspard de la nuit</i>
+of Louis Bertrand (1807-1841), a work of rhythmical prose
+almost unique in its character. One famous sonnet preserves
+the name of Félix Arvers (1806-1850). The two Deschamps
+were chiefly remarkable as translators. The next generation
+produced three remarkable poets, to whom may perhaps be
+added a fourth. Théodore de Banville (1823-1891), adopting
+the principles of Gautier, and combining with them a considerable
+satiric faculty, composed a large amount of verse, faultless in
+form, delicate and exquisite in shades and colours, but so entirely
+neutral in moral and political tone that it has found fewer
+admirers than it deserved. Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle
+(1818-1894), carrying out the principle of ransacking foreign
+literature for subjects, went to Celtic, classical or even Oriental
+sources for his inspiration, and despite a science in verse not much
+inferior to Banville&rsquo;s, and a far wider range and choice of
+subject, diffused an air of erudition, not to say pedantry, over
+his work which disgusted some readers, and a pessimism which
+displeased others, but has left poetry only inferior to that of
+the greatest of his countrymen. Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867),
+by his choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of his
+analysis, revolted not a few of those who, in the words of an
+English critic, cannot take pleasure in the representation if they
+do not take pleasure in the thing represented, and who thus
+miss his extraordinary command of the poetical appeal in
+sound, in imagery and in suggestion generally. Thus, by a
+strange coincidence, each of the three representatives of the
+second Romantic generation was for a time disappointed of
+his due fame. A fourth poet of this time, Joséphin Soulary
+(1815-1891), produced sonnets of rare beauty and excellence.
+A fifth, Louis Bouilhet (1822-1869), an intimate friend of Flaubert,
+pushed even farther the fancy for strange subjects, but
+showed powers in <i>Melænis</i> and other things. In 1866 a collection
+of poems, entitled after an old French fashion <i>Le Parnasse
+contemporain</i>, appeared. It included contributions by many
+of the poets just mentioned, but the mass of the contributors
+were hitherto unknown to fame. A similar collection appeared
+in 1869, and was interrupted by the German war, but continued
+after it, and a third in 1876.</p>
+
+<p>The first <i>Parnasse</i> had been projected by MM. Xavier de
+Ricard (b. 1843) and Catulle Mendès (1841-1909) as a sort of manifesto
+of a school of young poets: but its contents were largely
+coloured by the inclusion among them of work by representatives
+of older generations&mdash;Gautier, Laprade, Leconte de Lisle,
+Banville, Baudelaire and others. The continuation, however,
+of the title in the later issues, rather than anything else, led to
+the formation and promulgation of the idea of a &ldquo;Parnassien&rdquo;
+or an &ldquo;Impassible&rdquo; school which was supposed to adopt as its
+watchword the motto of &ldquo;Art for Art&rsquo;s sake,&rdquo; to pay especial
+attention to form, and also to aim at a certain objectivity. As
+a matter of fact the greater poets and the greater poems of the
+Parnasse admit of no such restrictive labelling, which can only
+be regarded as mischievous, though (or very mainly because)
+it has been continued. Another school, arising mainly in the
+later &rsquo;eighties and calling itself that of &ldquo;Symbolism,&rdquo; has been
+supposed to indicate a reaction against Parnassianism and even
+against the main or Hugonic Romantic tradition generally;
+with a throwing back to Lamartine and perhaps Chénier. This
+idea of successive schools (&ldquo;Decadents,&rdquo; &ldquo;Naturists,&rdquo; &ldquo;Simplists,&rdquo;
+&amp;c.) has even been reduced to such an <i>absurdum</i> as
+the statement that &ldquo;France sees a new school of poetry every
+fifteen years.&rdquo; Those who have studied literature sufficiently
+widely, and from a sufficient elevation, know that these systematisings
+are always more or less delusive. Parnassianism,
+symbolism and the other things are merely phases of the
+Romantic movement itself&mdash;as may be proved to demonstration
+by the simple process of taking, say, Hugo and Verlaine on the
+one hand, Delille or Escouchard Lebrun on the other, and comparing
+the two first mentioned with each other and with the
+older poet. The differences in the first case will be found to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span>
+differences at most of individuality: in the other of kind. We
+shall not, therefore, further refer to these dubious classifications:
+but specify briefly the most remarkable poets whom they concern,
+and all the older of whom, it may be observed, were represented
+in the <i>Parnasse</i> itself. Of these the most remarkable were Sully
+Prudhomme (1839-1907), François Coppée (1842-1908) and Paul
+Verlaine (1844-1896). The first (<i>Stances et poèmes</i>, 1865, <i>Vaines
+Tendresses</i>, 1875, <i>Bonheur</i>, 1888, &amp;c.) is a philosophical and
+rather pessimistic poet who has very strongly rallied the suffrages
+of the rather large present public who care for the embodiment
+of these tendencies in verse; the second (<i>La Grève des forgerons</i>,
+1869, <i>Les Humbles</i>, 1872, <i>Contes et vers</i>, 1881-1887, &amp;c.) a
+dealer with more generally popular subjects in a more sentimental
+manner; and the third (<i>Sagesse</i>, 1881, <i>Parallèlement</i>, 1889,
+<i>Poèmes saturniens</i>, including early work, 1867-1890), by far the
+most original and remarkable poet of the three, starting with
+Baudelaire and pushing farther the fancy for forbidden subjects,
+but treating both these and others with wonderful command of
+sound and image-suggestion. Verlaine in fact (he was actually
+well acquainted with English) endeavoured, and to a small
+extent succeeded in the endeavour, to communicate to French
+the vague suggestion of visual and audible appeal which has
+characterized English poetry from Blake through Coleridge.
+Others of the original Parnassiens who deserve mention are
+Albert Glatigny (1839-1873), a Bohemian poet of great talent
+who died young; Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-1898), afterwards
+chief of the Symbolists, also a true poet in his way, but somewhat
+barren, and the victim of pose and trick; José Maria de Heredia
+(1842-1905), a very exquisite practitioner of the sonnet but with
+perhaps more art than matter in him; Henri Cazalis (1840-1909),
+who long afterwards, under his name of Jean Lahor, appeared
+as a Symbolist pessimist; A. Villiers de l&rsquo;Isle-Adam, another
+eccentric but with a spark of genius; Emmanuel des Essarts;
+Auguste de Châtillon (1810-1882); Léon Dierx (b. 1838) who,
+after producing even less than Mallarmé, succeeded him as
+Symbolist chief; Jean Aicard (b. 1848), a southern bard of merit;
+and lastly Catulle Mendès himself, who has been a brilliant
+writer in verse and prose ever since, and whose <i>Mouvement
+poétique français de 1867 à 1900</i> (1903), an official report largely
+amplified so that it is in fact a history and dictionary of French
+poetry during the century, forms an almost unique work of
+reference on the subject. Among the later recruits the most
+specially noticeable was Armand Silvestre (1837-1901), whose
+verse (<i>La Chanson des heures</i>, 1878, <i>Ailes d&rsquo;or</i>, 1880, <i>La Chanson
+des étoiles</i>, 1885), of an ethereal beauty, was contrasted with
+prose admirably written and sometimes most amusing, but
+&ldquo;Pantagruelist,&rdquo; and more, in manners and morals. This
+declension from poetry to prose fiction was also noticeable in
+Guy de Maupassant, André Theuriet, Anatole France and even
+Alphonse Daudet.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another flight of poets may be grouped as those specially
+representing the last quarter of the century and (whether Parnassian,
+Symbolist or what not) the latest development of French
+poetry. Verlaine and Mallarmé already mentioned were in a
+manner the leaders of these. Perhaps something of the influence
+of Whitman may be detected in the irregular verses of Gustave
+Kahn (b. 1859), Francis Viélé Griffin, actually an American by
+birth (b. 1864), Stuart Merrill, of like origin, and Paul Fort
+(b. 1872). But the whole tendency of the period has been to
+relax the stringency of French prosody. Albert Samain (1859-1900),
+a musical versifier enough; Jean Moréas (1856-1910) who
+began with a volume called <i>Les Syrtes</i> in 1884; Laurent Tailhade
+(b. 1854) and others are more or less Symbolist, and contributed
+to the Symbolist periodical (one of many such since the beginning
+of the Romantic movement which would almost require an
+article to themselves), the <i>Mercure de France</i>. An older man
+than many of these, M. Jean Richepin (b. 1849), made for
+a time considerable noise with poetical work of a colour older
+even than his age, and harking back somewhat to the Jeune-France
+and &ldquo;Bousingot&rdquo; type of early Romanticism&mdash;<i>La
+Chanson des gueux</i>, <i>Les Blasphèmes</i>, &amp;c. Other writers of note
+are M. Paul Déroulède (b. 1846), a violently nationalist poet;
+M. Maurice Bouchor (b. 1864), who started his serious and
+respectable work with <i>Les Symboles</i> in 1888; while M. Henri de
+Regnier, born in the same year, has received very high praise
+for work from <i>Lendemains</i> in 1886 and other volumes up to
+<i>Les Jeux rustiques et divins</i> (1897) and <i>Les Médailles d&rsquo;argile</i>
+(1900). The truth, however, perhaps is that this extraordinary
+abundance of verse (for we have not mentioned a quarter of the
+names which present themselves, or a twentieth part of those
+who figure in M. Mendès&rsquo;s catalogue for the last half-century)
+reminds the literary historian somewhat too much of similar
+phenomena in other times. There is undoubtedly a great diffusion
+of poetical dexterity, and not perhaps a small one of poetical
+spirit, but it requires the settling, clarifying and distinguishing
+effects of time to separate the poet from the minor poet. Still
+more perhaps must we look to time to decide whether the <i>vers
+libre</i> as it is called&mdash;that is to say, the verse freed from the minute
+traditions of the elder prosody, admitting hiatus, neglecting to
+a greater or less extent <i>caesura</i>, and sometimes relying upon mere
+rhythm to the neglect of strict metre altogether&mdash;can hold its
+ground. It has as yet been practised by no poet at all approaching
+the first class, except Verlaine, and not by him in its extremer
+forms. And the whole history of prosody and poetry teaches us
+that though similar changes often come in as it were unperceived,
+they scarcely ever take root in the language unless a great poet
+adopts them. Or rather it should perhaps be said that when
+they are going to take root in the language a great poet always
+does adopt them before very long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prose Fiction since 1830.</i>&mdash;Even more remarkable, because
+more absolutely novel, was the outburst of prose fiction which
+followed 1830. Madame de Lafayette, Le Sage, Marivaux,
+Voltaire, the Abbé Prévost, Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Bernardin
+de Saint-Pierre and Fiévée had all of them produced work
+excellent in its way, and comprising in a more or less rudimentary
+condition most varieties of the novel. But none of them had,
+in the French phrase, made a school, and at no time had prose
+fiction been composed in any considerable quantities. The immense
+influence which Walter Scott exercised was perhaps the
+direct cause of the attention paid to prose fiction; the facility,
+too, with which all the fancies, tastes and beliefs of the
+time could be embodied in such work may have had considerable
+importance. But it is difficult on any theory of cause
+and effect to account for the appearance in less than ten years of
+such a group of novelists as Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée,
+Balzac, George Sand, Jules Sandeau and Charles de Bernard,
+names to which might be added others scarcely inferior. There is
+hardly anything else resembling it in literature, except the great
+cluster of English dramatists in the beginning of the 17th century,
+and of English poets at the beginning of the 19th; and it is
+remarkable that the excellence of the first group was maintained
+by a fresh generation&mdash;Murger, About, Feuillet, Flaubert,
+Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbuliez and Gaboriau,
+forming a company of <i>diadochi</i> not far inferior to their predecessors,
+and being themselves not unworthily succeeded almost
+up to the present day. The romance-writing of France during
+the period has taken two different directions&mdash;the first that of
+the novel of incident, the second that of analysis and character.
+The first, now mainly deserted, was that which, as was natural
+when Scott was the model, was formerly most trodden; the
+second required the genius of George Sand and of Balzac and the
+more problematical talent of Beyle to attract students to it.
+The novels of Victor Hugo are novels of incident, with a strong
+infusion of purpose, and considerable but rather ideal character
+drawing. They are in fact lengthy prose <i>drames</i> rather than
+romances proper, and they have found no imitators. They
+display, however, the powers of the master at their fullest.
+<span class="sidenote">Dumas.</span>
+On the other hand, Alexandre Dumas originally composed
+his novels in close imitation of Scott, and they
+are much less dramatic than narrative in character, so that they
+lend themselves to almost indefinite continuation, and there is
+often no particular reason why they should terminate even at
+the end of the score or so of volumes to which they sometimes
+actually extend. Of this purely narrative kind, which hardly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span>
+even attempts anything but the boldest character drawing,
+the best of them, such as <i>Les Trois Mousquetaires</i>, <i>Vingt ans
+après</i>, <i>La Reine Margot</i>, are probably the best specimens extant.
+Dumas possesses, almost alone among novelists, the secret of
+writing interminable dialogue without being tedious, and of
+telling the story by it. Of something the same kind, but of a far
+lower stamp, are the novels of Eugène Sue (1804-1857). Dumas
+and Sue were accompanied and followed by a vast crowd of companions,
+independent or imitative. Alfred de Vigny had already
+attempted the historical novel in <i>Cinq-Mars</i>. Henri de La Touche
+(1785-1851) (<i>Fragoletta</i>), an excellent critic who formed George
+Sand, but a mediocre novelist, may be mentioned: and perhaps
+also Roger de Beauvoir, whose real name was Eugène Auguste
+Roger de Bully (1806-1866) (<i>Le Chronique de Saint Georges</i>),
+and Frédéric Soulié (<i>Les Mémoires du diable</i>) (1800-1847).
+Paul Féval (<i>La Fée des grèves</i>) (1817-1877) and Amédée Achard
+(<i>Belle-Rose</i>) (1814-1875) are of the same school, and some of the
+attempts of Jules Janin (1804-1874), more celebrated as a critic,
+may also be connected with it. By degrees, however, the taste
+for the novel of incident, at least of an historical kind, died out
+till it was revived in another form, and with an admixture of
+domestic interest, by MM. Erckmann-Chatrian. The last and
+one of the most splendid instances of the old style was <i>Le Capitaine
+Fracasse</i>, which Théophile Gautier began early and finished
+late as a kind of <i>tour de force</i>. The last-named writer in his earlier
+days had modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kind
+of writing for which French has always been famous, and in
+which Gautier&rsquo;s sketches are masterpieces. His only other long
+novel, <i>Mademoiselle de Maupin</i>, belongs rather to the class of
+analysis. With Gautier, as a writer whose literary characteristics
+even excel his purely tale-telling powers, may be classed Prosper
+Mérimée (1803-1870), one of the most exquisite 19th-century
+masters of the language. Already, however, in 1830 the tide
+was setting strongly in favour of novels of contemporary life
+and manners. These were of course susceptible of extremely
+various treatment. For many years Paul de Kock (1793-1871),
+a writer who did not trouble himself about Classics or Romantics
+or any such matter, continued the tradition of Marivaux,
+Crébillon <i>fils</i>, and Pigault Lebrun (1753-1835) in a series of not
+very moral or polished but lively and amusing sketches of life,
+principally of the bourgeois type. Later Charles de Bernard
+(1804-1850) (<i>Gerfaut</i>) with infinitely greater wit, elegance,
+propriety and literary skill, did the same thing for the higher
+classes of French society. But the two great masters of the
+novel of character and manners as opposed to that of history
+and incident are Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850) and Aurore
+Dudevant, commonly called George Sand (1804-1876). Their
+influence affected the entire body of novelists who succeeded
+them, with very few exceptions. At the head of these exceptions
+may be placed Jules Sandeau (1811-1883), who, after writing
+a certain number of novels in a less individual style, at last made
+for himself a special subject in a certain kind of domestic novel,
+where the passions set in motion are less boisterous than those
+usually preferred by the French novelist, and reliance is mainly
+placed on minute character drawing and shades of colour sober
+in hue but very carefully adjusted (<i>Catherine</i>, <i>Mademoiselle de
+Penarvan</i>, <i>Mademoiselle de la Seiglière</i>). In the same class of
+the more quiet and purely domestic novelists may be placed
+X. B. Saintine (1798-1865) (<i>Picciola</i>), Madame C. Reybaud
+(1802-1871) (<i>Clémentine</i>, <i>Le Cadet de Colobrières</i>), J. T. de Saint-Germain
+(<i>Pour en épingle</i>, <i>La Feuille de coudrier</i>), Madame Craven
+(1808-1891) (<i>Récit d&rsquo;une s&oelig;ur</i>, <i>Fleurange</i>). Henri Beyle (1798-1865),
+who wrote under the <i>nom de plume</i> of Stendhal and belongs
+to an older generation than most of these, also stands by himself.
+His chief book in the line of fiction is <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i>, an
+exceedingly powerful novel of the analytical kind, and he also
+composed a considerable number of critical and miscellaneous
+works. Of little influence at first (though he had great power
+over Mérimée) and never master of a perfect style, he has exercised
+ever increasing authority as a master of pessimist analysis.
+Indeed much of his work was never published till towards the
+close of the century. Last among the independents must be
+mentioned Henry Murger (1822-1861), the painter of what is
+called Bohemian life, that is to say, the struggles, difficulties and
+amusements of students, youthful artists, and men of letters.
+In this peculiar style, which may perhaps be regarded as an
+irregular descendant of the picaroon romance, Murger has no
+rival; and he is also, though on no extensive scale, a poet of great
+pathos. But with these exceptions, the influences of the two
+writers we have mentioned, sometimes combined, more often
+separate, may be traced throughout the whole of later novel
+literature. George Sand began with books strongly tinged with
+the spirit of revolt against moral and social arrangements,
+and she sometimes diverged into very curious paths of pseudo-philosophy,
+such as was popular in the second quarter of the
+century. At times, too, as in <i>Lucrezia Floriani</i> and some other
+works, she did not hesitate to draw largely on her own personal
+adventures and experiences. But latterly she devoted herself
+rather to sketches of country life and manners, and to novels
+involving bold if not very careful sketches of character and more
+or less dramatic situations. She was one of the most fertile
+of novelists, continuing to the end of her long life to pour forth
+fiction at the rate of many volumes a year. Of her different
+styles may be mentioned as fairly characteristic, <i>Lélia</i>, <i>Lucrezia</i>
+<i>Floriani</i>, <i>Consuelo</i>, <i>La Mare au diable</i>, <i>La Petite Fadette</i>, <i>François
+le champi</i>, <i>Mademoiselle de la Quintinie</i>. Considering the shorter
+<span class="sidenote">Balzac the younger.</span>
+length of his life the productiveness of Balzac was
+almost more astonishing, especially if we consider that
+some of his early work was never reprinted, and that
+he left great stores of fragments and unfinished sketches. He is,
+moreover, the most remarkable example in literature of untiring
+work and determination to achieve success despite the greatest
+discouragements. His early work was worse than unsuccessful,
+it was positively bad. After more than a score of unsuccessful
+attempts, <i>Les Chouans</i> at last made its mark, and for twenty
+years from that time the astonishing productions composing the
+so-called <i>Comédie humaine</i> were poured forth successively.
+The sub-titles which Balzac imposed upon the different batches,
+<i>Scènes de la vie parisienne</i>, <i>de la vie de province</i>, <i>de la vie
+intime</i>, &amp;c., show, like the general title, a deliberate intention
+on the author&rsquo;s part to cover the whole ground of human, at
+least of French life. Such an attempt could not succeed wholly;
+yet the amount of success attained is astonishing. Balzac has,
+however, with some justice been accused of creating the world
+which he described, and his personages, wonderful as is the
+accuracy and force with which many of the characteristics of
+humanity are exemplified in them, are somehow not altogether
+human. Since these two great novelists, many others have
+arisen, partly to tread in their steps, partly to strike out independent
+paths. Octave Feuillet (1821-1890), beginning his
+career by apprenticeship to Alexandre Dumas and the historical
+novel, soon found his way in a very different style of composition,
+the <i>roman intime</i> of fashionable life, in which, notwithstanding
+some grave defects, he attained much popularity and showed
+remarkable skill in keeping abreast of his time. The so-called
+realist side of Balzac was developed (but, as he himself acknowledged,
+with a double dose of intermixed if somewhat transformed
+Romanticism) by Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), who
+showed culture, scholarship and a literary power over the language
+inferior to that of no writer of the century. No novelist of his
+generation has attained a higher literary rank than Flaubert.
+<i>Madame Bovary</i> and <i>L&rsquo;Éducation sentimentale</i> are studies of contemporary
+life; in <i>Salammbô</i> and <i>La Tentation de Saint Antoine</i>
+erudition and antiquarian knowledge furnish the subjects for
+the display of the highest literary skill. Of about the same date
+Edmond About (1828-1885), before he abandoned novel-writing,
+devoted himself chiefly to sketches of abundant but not always
+refined wit (<i>L&rsquo;Homme à l&rsquo;oreille cassée</i>, <i>Le Nez d&rsquo;un notaire</i>),
+and sometimes to foreign scenes (<i>Tolla</i>, <i>Le Roi des montagnes</i>).
+Champfleury (Henri Husson, 1829-1889), a prolific critic,
+deserves notice for stories of the extravaganza kind. During the
+whole of the Second Empire one of the most popular writers was
+Ernest Feydeau (1821-1873), a writer of great ability, but morbid
+and affected in the choice and treatment of his subjects (<i>Fanny</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span>
+<i>Sylvie</i>, <i>Catherine d&rsquo;Overmeire</i>). Émile Gaboriau (1833-1873),
+taking up that side of Balzac&rsquo;s talent which devoted itself to
+inextricable mysteries, criminal trials, and the like, produced
+<i>M. Le Coq</i>, <i>Le Crime d&rsquo;Orcival</i>, <i>La Dégringolade</i>, &amp;c.; and
+Adolphe Belot (b. 1829) for a time endeavoured to out-Feydeau
+Feydeau in <i>La Femme de feu</i> and other works. Eugène
+Fromentin (1820-1876), best known as a painter, wrote a novel,
+<i>Dominique</i>, which was highly appreciated by good judges.</p>
+
+<p>During the last decade of the Second Empire there arose,
+continuing for varying lengths of time till nearly the end of the
+century, another remarkable group of novelists, most of whom
+are dealt with under separate headings, but who must receive
+combined treatment here; with the warning that even more
+danger than in the case of the poets is incurred by classing
+them in &ldquo;schools.&rdquo; Undoubtedly, however, the &ldquo;Naturalist&rdquo;
+tendency, starting from Balzac and continued through Flaubert,
+but taking quite a new direction under some of those to be
+mentioned, is in a manner dominant. Flaubert himself and
+Feuillet (an exact observer of manners but an anti-Naturalist)
+have already been mentioned. Victor Cherbuliez (1829-1899),
+a constant writer in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> on politics and
+other subjects, also accomplished a long series of novels from
+<i>Le Comte Kostia</i> (1863) onwards, of which the most remarkable
+are that just named, <i>Le Roman d&rsquo;une honnête femme</i> (1866),
+and <i>Meta Holdenis</i> (1873). With something of Balzac and
+more of Feuillet, Cherbuliez mixed with his observation of
+society a dose of sentimental and popular romance which offended
+the younger critics of his day, but he had solid merits. Gustave
+Droz (b. 1832) devoted himself chiefly to short stories sufficiently
+&ldquo;free&rdquo; in subject (<i>Monsieur, madame et bébé</i>, <i>Entre nous</i>, &amp;c.)
+but full of fancy, excellently written, and of a delicate wit in one
+sense if not in all. André Theuriet (1833-1907) began with poetry
+but diverged to novels, in which the scenery of France and
+especially of its great forests is used with much skill; <i>Le Fils
+Maugars</i> (1879) may be mentioned out of many as a specimen.
+Léon Cladel (1835-1892), whose most remarkable work was
+<i>Les Va-nu-pieds</i> (1874), had, as this title of itself shows, Naturalist
+leanings; but with a quaint Romantic tendency in prose and
+verse.</p>
+
+<p>The Naturalists proper chiefly developed or seemed to develop
+one side of Balzac, but almost entirely abandoned his Romantic
+element. They aimed first at exact and almost photographic
+delineation of the accidents of modern life, and secondly at
+still more uncompromising non-suppression of the essential
+features and functions of that life which are usually suppressed.
+This school may be represented in chief by four novelists (really
+<i>three</i>, as two of them were brothers who wrote together till the
+rather early death of one of them), Émile Zola (1840-1903),
+Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897), and Edmond (1822-1897) and
+Jules (1830-1870) de Goncourt. The first, of Italian extraction
+and Marseillais birth, began by work of undecided kinds and
+was always a critic as well as a novelist. Of this first stage
+<i>Contes à Ninon</i> (1864) and <i>Thérèse Raquin</i> (1867) deserve to be
+specified. But after 1870 Zola entered upon a huge scheme
+(suggested no doubt by the <i>Comédie humaine</i>) of tracing the
+fortunes in every branch, legitimate and illegitimate, and in
+every rank of society of a family, <i>Les Rougon-Macquart</i>, and
+carried it out in a full score of novels during more than as many
+years. He followed this with a shorter series on places, <i>Paris</i>,
+<i>Rome</i>, <i>Lourdes</i>, and lastly by another of strangely apocalyptic
+tone, <i>Fécondité</i>, <i>Travail</i>, <i>Vérité</i>, the last a story of the Dreyfus
+case, retrospective and, as it proved, prophetic. The extreme
+repulsiveness of much of his work, and the overdone detail of
+almost the whole of it, caused great prejudice against him, and
+will probably always prevent his being ranked among the greatest
+novelists; but his power is indubitable, and in passages, if not
+in whole books, does itself justice.</p>
+
+<p>MM. de Goncourt, besides their work in Naturalist (they
+would have preferred to call it &ldquo;Impressionist&rdquo;) fiction, devoted
+themselves especially to study and collection in the fine arts,
+and produced many volumes on the historical side of these,
+volumes distinguished by accurate and careful research. This
+quality they carried, and the elder of them after his brother&rsquo;s
+death continued to carry, into novel-writing (<i>Renée Mauperin</i>,
+<i>Germinie Lacerteux</i>, <i>Chérie</i>, &amp;c.) with the addition of an extraordinary
+care for peculiar and, as they called it, &ldquo;personal&rdquo;
+diction. On the other hand, Alphonse Daudet (who with the
+other three, Flaubert to some extent, and the Russian novelist
+Turgenieff, formed a sort of <i>cénacle</i> or literary club) mixed with
+some Naturalism a far greater amount of fancy and wit than his
+companions allowed themselves or could perhaps attain; and
+in the <i>Tartarin</i> series (dealing with the extravagances of his
+fellow-Provençaux) added not a little to the gaiety of Europe.
+His other novels (<i>Fromont jeune et Risler aîné</i>, <i>Jack</i>, <i>Le Nabab</i>,
+&amp;c.), also very popular, have been variously judged, there
+being something strangely like plagiarism in some of them, and
+in others, in fact in most, an excessive use of that privilege of
+the novelist which consists in introducing real persons under
+more or less disguise. It should be observed in speaking of this
+group that the Goncourts, or rather the survivor of them, left an
+elaborate <i>Journal</i> disfigured by spite and bad taste, but of much
+importance for the appreciation of the personal side of French
+literature during the last half of the century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1880 Zola, who had by this time formed a regular school of
+disciples, issued with certain of them a collection of short stories,
+<i>Les Soirées de Médan</i>, which contains one of his own best things,
+<i>L&rsquo;Attaque du moulin</i>, and also the capital story, <i>Boule de suif</i>,
+by Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893), who in the same year
+published poems, <i>Des vers</i>, of very remarkable if not strictly
+poetical quality. Maupassant developed during his short
+literary career perhaps the greatest powers shown by any French
+novelist since Flaubert (his sponsor in both senses) in a series
+of longer novels (<i>Une Vie</i>, <i>Bel Ami</i>, <i>Pierre et Jean</i>, <i>Fort comme
+la mort</i>) and shorter stories (<i>Monsieur Parent</i>, <i>Les S&oelig;urs
+Rondoli</i>, <i>Le Horla</i>), but they were distorted by the Naturalist
+pessimism and grime, and perhaps also by the brain-disease
+of which their author died. M. J. K. Huysmans (b. 1848), also
+a contributor to <i>Les Soirées de Médan</i>, who had begun a little
+earlier with <i>Marthe</i> (1876) and other books, gave his most
+characteristic work in 1884 with <i>Au rebours</i> and in 1891 with
+<i>Là-bas</i>, stories of exaggerated and &ldquo;satanic&rdquo; pose, decorated
+with perhaps the extremest achievements of the school in mere
+ugliness and nastiness. Afterwards, by an obvious reaction,
+he returned to Catholicism. Of about the same date as these
+two are two other novelists of note, Julien Viaud (&ldquo;Pierre Loti,&rdquo;
+b. 1850), a naval officer who embodied his experiences of foreign
+service with a faint dose of story and character interest, and a
+far larger one of elaborate description, in a series of books
+(<i>Aziyadé</i>, <i>Le Mariage de Loti</i>, <i>Madame Chrysanthème</i>, &amp;c.), and
+M. Paul Bourget (b. 1852), an important critic as well as novelist
+who deflected the Naturalist current into a &ldquo;psychological&rdquo;
+channel, connecting itself higher with Stendhal, and composed
+in its books very popular in their way&mdash;<i>Cruelle Énigme</i> (1885),
+<i>Le Disciple</i>, <i>Terre promise</i>, <i>Cosmopolis</i>. As a contrast or complement
+to Bourget&rsquo;s &ldquo;psychological&rdquo; novel may be taken the
+&ldquo;ethical&rdquo; novel of Edouard Rod (1857-1909)&mdash;<i>La Vie privée
+de Michel Tessier</i> (1893), <i>Le Sens de la vie</i>, <i>Les Trois C&oelig;urs</i>.
+Contemporary with these as a novelist though a much older man,
+and occupied at different times of his life with verse and with
+criticism, came Anatole France (b. 1844), who in <i>Le Crime de
+Silvestre Bonnard</i>, <i>La Rôtisserie de la reine Pédauque</i>, <i>Le Lys
+rouge</i>, and others, has made a kind of novel as different from
+the ordinary styles as Pierre Loti&rsquo;s, but of far higher appeal
+in its wit, its subtle fancy, and its perfect French. Ferdinand
+Fabre (1830-1898) and René Bazin (b. 1853) represent the union,
+not too common in the French novel, of orthodoxy in morals and
+religion with literary ability. Further must be mentioned Paul
+Hervieu (b. 1857), a dramatist rather than a novelist; the
+brothers Margueritte (Paul, b. 1860, Victor, b. 1866), especially
+strong in short stories and passages; another pair of brothers
+of Belgian origin writing under the name of &ldquo;J. H. Rosny&rdquo;&mdash;Zolaists
+partly converted not to religion but to science and a
+sort of non-Christian virtue; the ingenious and amusing, if not
+exactly moral, brilliancy of Marcel Prévost (b. 1862); the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span>
+contorted but rather attractive style and the perverse sentiment
+of Maurice Barrès (b. 1862); and, above all, the audacious and
+inimitable dialogue pieces of &ldquo;Gyp&rdquo; (Madame de Martel, b.
+1850), worthy of the best times of French literature for gaiety,
+satire, acuteness and style, and perhaps likely, with the work
+of Maupassant, Pierre Loti and Anatole France, to represent the
+capital achievement of their particular generation to posterity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Periodical Literature since 1830.</i> <i>Criticism.</i>&mdash;One of the causes
+which led to this extensive composition of novels was the great
+spread of periodical literature in France, and the custom of
+including in almost all periodicals, daily, weekly or monthly,
+a <i>feuilleton</i> or instalment of fiction. Of the contributors of these
+periodicals who were strictly journalists and almost political
+journalists only, the most remarkable after Carrel were his
+opponent in the fatal duel,&mdash;Émile de Girardin, Lucien A.
+Prévost-Paradol (1829-1870), Jean Hippolyte Cartier, called
+de Villemessant (1812-1879), and, above all, Louis Veuillot
+(1815-1883), the most violent and unscrupulous but by no means
+the least gifted of his class. The same spread of periodical
+literature, together with the increasing interest in the literature
+of the past, led also to a very great development of criticism.
+Almost all French authors of any eminence during nearly the
+last century have devoted themselves more or less to criticism
+of literature, of the theatre, or of art. And sometimes, as in the
+case of Janin and Gautier, the comparatively lucrative nature of
+journalism, and the smaller demands which it made for labour and
+intellectual concentration, have diverted to feuilleton-writing
+abilities which might perhaps have been better employed.
+At the same time it must be remembered that from this devotion
+of men of the best talents to critical work has arisen an immense
+elevation of the standard of such work. Before the romantic
+movement in France Diderot in that country, Lessing and some
+of his successors in Germany, Hazlitt, Coleridge and Lamb in
+England, had been admirable critics and reviewers. But the
+theory of criticism, though these men&rsquo;s principles and practice
+had set it aside, still remained more or less what it had been for
+centuries. The critic was merely the administrator of certain
+hard and fast rules. There were certain recognized kinds of
+literary composition; every new book was bound to class itself
+under one or other of these. There were certain recognized rules
+for each class; and the goodness or badness of a book consisted
+simply in its obedience or disobedience to these rules. Even the
+kinds of admissible subjects and the modes of admissible treatment
+were strictly noted and numbered. This was especially the
+case in France and with regard to French <i>belles-lettres</i>, so that, as
+we have seen, certain classes of composition had been reduced to
+unimportant variations of a registered pattern. The Romantic
+protest against this absurdity was specially loud and completely
+victorious. It is said that a publisher advised the youthful
+Lamartine to try &ldquo;to be like somebody else&rdquo; if he wished to
+succeed. The Romantic standard of success was, on the contrary,
+to be as individual as possible. Victor Hugo himself composed
+a good deal of criticism, and in the preface to his <i>Orientales</i> he
+states the critical principles of the new school clearly. The critic,
+he says, has nothing to do with the subject chosen, the colours
+employed, the materials used. Is the work, judged by itself and
+with regard only to the ideal which the worker had in his mind,
+good or bad? It will be seen that as a legitimate corollary of
+this theorem the critic becomes even more of an interpreter than
+of a judge. He can no longer satisfy himself or his readers by
+comparing the work before him with some abstract and accepted
+standard, and marking off its shortcomings. He has to reconstruct,
+more or less conjecturally, the special ideal at which each
+of his authors aimed, and to do this he has to study their idiosyncrasies
+with the utmost care, and set them before his readers
+in as full and attractive a fashion as he can manage. The first
+writer who thoroughly grasped this necessity and successfully
+<span class="sidenote">Sainte-Beuve.</span>
+dealt with it was Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
+(1804-1869), who has indeed identified his name with
+the method of criticism just described. Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s
+first remarkable work (his poems and novels we may leave out
+of consideration) was the sketch of 16th-century literature
+already alluded to, which he contributed to the <i>Globe</i>. But it
+was not till later that his style of criticism became fully developed
+and accentuated. During the first decade of Louis Philippe&rsquo;s
+reign his critical papers, united under the title of <i>Critiques et
+portraits littéraires</i>, show a gradual advance. During the next
+ten years he was mainly occupied with his studies of the writers
+of the Port Royal school. But it was during the last twenty
+years of his life, when the famous <i>Causeries du lundi</i> appeared
+weekly in the columns of the <i>Constitutionnel</i> and the <i>Moniteur</i>,
+that his most remarkable productions came out. Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s
+style of criticism (which is the key to so much of French literature
+of the last half-century that it is necessary to dwell on it at some
+length), excellent and valuable as it is, lent itself to two corruptions.
+There is, in the first place, in making the careful investigations
+into the character and circumstances of each writer which
+it demands, a danger of paying too much attention to the man
+and too little to his work, and of substituting for a critical study
+a mere collection of personal anecdotes and traits, especially if
+the author dealt with belongs to a foreign country or a past age.
+The other danger is that of connecting the genius and character
+of particular authors too much with their conditions and circumstances,
+so as to regard them as merely so many products of the
+age. These faults, and especially the latter, have been very
+noticeable in many of Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s successors, particularly in,
+perhaps, Hippolyte Taine, who, however, besides his work on
+English literature, did much of importance on French, and has
+been regarded as the first critic who did thorough honour to
+Balzac in his own country. A large number of other critics
+during the period deserve notice because, though acting more
+or less on the newer system of criticism, they have manifested
+considerable originality in its application. As far as merely
+critical faculty goes, and still more in the power of giving literary
+expression to criticism, Théophile Gautier yields to no one.
+His <i>Les Grotesques</i>, an early work dealing with Villon, the earlier
+&ldquo;Théophile&rdquo; de Viau, and other <i>enfants terribles</i> of French
+literature, has served as a model to many subsequent writers,
+such as Charles Monselet (1825-1888), and Charles Asselineau
+(1820-1874), the affectionate historian, in his <i>Bibliographie
+romantique</i> (1872-1874), of the less famous promoters of the
+Romantic movement. On the other hand, Gautier&rsquo;s picture
+criticisms, and his short reviews of books, obituary notices,
+and other things of the kind contributed to daily papers, are in
+point of style among the finest of all such fugitive compositions.
+Jules Janin (1804-1874), chiefly a theatrical critic, excelled in
+light and easy journalism, but his work has neither weight of
+substance nor careful elaboration of manner sufficient to give it
+permanent value. This sort of light critical comment has become
+almost a speciality of the French press, and among its numerous
+practitioners the names of Armand de Pontmartin (1811-1890)
+(an imitator and assailant of Sainte-Beuve), Arsène Houssaye,
+Pierangelo Fiorentino (1806-1864), may be mentioned. Edmond
+Scherer (1815-1889) and Paul de Saint-Victor (1827-1881)
+represent different sides of Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s style in literary
+criticism, Scherer combining with it a martinet and somewhat
+prudish precision, while Saint-Victor, with great powers of
+appreciation, is the most flowery and &ldquo;prose-poetical&rdquo; of French
+critics. In theatrical censure Francisque Sarcey (1827-1899),
+an acute but somewhat severe and limited judge, succeeded to
+the good-natured sovereignty of Janin. The criticism of the
+<i>Revue des deux mondes</i> has played a sufficiently important part
+in French literature to deserve separate notice in passing.
+Founded in 1829, the <i>Revue</i>, after some vicissitudes, soon attained,
+under the direction of the Swiss Buloz, the character of being
+one of the first of European critical periodicals. Its style of
+criticism has, on the whole, inclined rather to the classical side&mdash;that
+is, to classicism as modified by, and possible after, the
+Romantic movement. Besides some of the authors already
+named, its principal critical contributors were Gustave Planche
+(1808-1857), an acute but somewhat truculent critic, Saint-René
+Taillandier (1817-1879), and Émile Montégut (1825-1895),
+a man of letters whom greater leisure would have made greater,
+but who actually combined much and varied critical power with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span>
+an agreeable style. Lastly we must notice the important section
+of professorial or university critics, whose critical work has taken
+the form either of regular treatises or of courses of republished
+lectures, books somewhat academic and rhetorical in character,
+but often representing an amount of influence which has served
+largely to stir up attention to literature. The most prominent
+name among these is that of Abel Villemain (1790-1867), who
+was one of the earliest critics of the literature of his own country
+to obtain a hearing out of it. Désiré Nisard (1806-1888) was
+perhaps more fortunate in his dealings with Latin than with
+French, and in his <i>History</i> of the latter literature represents
+too much the classical tradition, but he had dignity, erudition
+and an excellent style. Alexandre Vinet (1797-1847), a Swiss
+critic of considerable eminence, Saint-Marc-Girardin (1801-1873),
+whose <i>Cours de littérature dramatique</i> is his chief work, and
+Eugène Géruzez (1799-1865), the author not only of an extremely
+useful and well-written handbook to French literature before the
+Revolution, but also of other works dealing with separate portions
+of the subject, must also be mentioned. One remarkable critic,
+Ernest Hello (1818-1885), attracted during his life little attention
+even in France, and hardly any out of it, his work being strongly
+tinctured with the unpopular flavour and colour of uncompromising
+&ldquo;clericalism,&rdquo; and his extremely bad health keeping
+him out of the ordinary fraternities of literary society. It was,
+however, as full of idiosyncrasy as of partisanship, and is exceedingly
+interesting to those who regard criticism as mainly valuable
+because it gives different aspects of the same thing.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps in no branch of <i>belles-lettres</i> did the last quarter of the
+century maintain the level at which predecessors had arrived
+better than in criticism; though whether this fact is connected
+with something of decadence in the creative branches, is a question
+which may be better posed than resolved here. A remarkable
+writer whose talent, approaching genius, was spoilt by eccentricity
+and pose, and who belonged to a more modern generation,
+Jules Barbey d&rsquo;Aurevilly (1808-1889), poet, novelist and critic,
+produced much of his last critical work, and corrected more, in
+these later days. Not only did the critical work in various ways
+of Renan, Taine, Scherer, Sarcey and others continue during
+parts of it, but a new generation, hardly in this case inferior to
+the old, appeared. The three chiefs of this were the already
+mentioned Anatole France, Émile Faguet (b. 1847), and Ferdinand
+Brunetière (1849-1906), to whom some would add Jules Lemaître
+(b. 1853). The last, however, though a brilliant writer, was but
+an &ldquo;interim&rdquo; critic, beginning with poetry and other matters,
+and after a time turning to yet others, while, brilliant as he was,
+his criticism was often ill-informed. So too Anatole France,
+after compiling four volumes of <i>La Vie littéraire</i> in his own
+inimitable style and with singular felicity of appreciation, also
+turned away. The phenomenon in both cases may be associated,
+though it must not be too intimately connected in the relation
+of cause and effect, with the fact that both were champions
+and practitioners of &ldquo;impressionist criticism&rdquo;&mdash;of the doctrine
+(unquestionably sound if not exaggerated) that the first duty of
+the critic is to reproduce the effect produced on his own mind
+by the author. Brunetière and Faguet, on the other hand, are
+partisans of the older academic style of criticism by kind and on
+principle. Faguet, besides regular volumes on each of the four
+great centuries of French literature, has produced much other
+work&mdash;all of it somewhat &ldquo;classical&rdquo; in tendency and frequently
+exhibiting something of a want of comprehension of the Romantic
+side. Brunetière was still more prolific on the same side but with
+still greater effort after system and &ldquo;science.&rdquo; In the books
+definitely called <i>L&rsquo;Évolution des genres</i>, in his <i>Manuel</i> of French
+literature, and in a large number of other volumes of collected
+essays he enforced with great learning and power of argument,
+if with a somewhat narrow purview and with some prejudice
+against writers whom he disliked, a new form of the old doctrine
+that the &ldquo;kind&rdquo; not the individual author or book ought to be
+the main subject of the critic&rsquo;s attention. He did not escape
+the consequential danger of taking authors and books not as
+they are but as in relation to the kinds which they in fact constitute
+and to his general views. But he was undoubtedly at
+his death the first critic of France and a worthy successor of
+her best.</p>
+
+<p>Of others older and younger must be mentioned Paul Stapfer
+(b. 1840), professor of literature, and the author of divers excellent
+works from <i>Shakespeare et l&rsquo;antiquité</i> to volumes of the first value
+on Montaigne and Rabelais; Paul Bourget and Edouard Rod,
+already noticed; Augustin Filon (b. 1841), author of much good
+work on English literature and an excellent book on Mérimée;
+Alexandre Beljame (1843-1906), another eminent student of
+English literature, in which subject J. A. Jusserand (b. 1855),
+Legouis, K. A. J. Angellier (b. 1848), and others have recently
+distinguished themselves; Gustave Larroumet, especially an
+authority on Marivaux; Eugène Lintilhac (b. 1854); Georges
+Pellissier; Gustave Lanson, author of a compact history of
+French literature in French; Marcel Schwob, who had done
+excellent work on Villon and other subjects before his early
+death; René Doumic, a frequent writer in the <i>Revue des deux
+mondes</i>, who collected four volumes of <i>Études sur la littérature
+française</i> between 1895 and 1900; and the Vicomte Melchior de
+Vogüé (b. 1848), whose interests have been more political-philosophical
+than strictly literary, but who has done much to
+familiarize the French public with that Russian literature to
+which Mérimée had been the first to introduce them. But the
+body of recent critical literature in France is perhaps larger
+in actual proportion and of greater value when considered in
+relation to other kinds of literature than has been the case at
+any previous period.</p>
+
+<p><i>History since 1830.</i>&mdash;The remarkable development of historical
+studies which we have noticed as taking place under the Restoration
+was accelerated and intensified in the reigns of Charles X.
+and Louis Philippe. Both the scope and the method of the
+historian underwent a sensible alteration. For something like
+150 years historians had been divided into two classes, those who
+produced elegant literary works pleasant to read, and those who
+produced works of laborious erudition, but not even intended for
+general perusal. The Vertots and Voltaires were on one side,
+the Mabillons and Tillemonts on another. Now, although the
+duty of a French historian to produce works of literary merit
+was not forgotten, it was recognized as part of that duty to
+consult original documents and impart original observation. At
+the same time, to the merely political events which had formerly
+been recognized as forming the historian&rsquo;s province were added
+the social and literary phenomena which had long been more or
+less neglected. Old chronicles and histories were re-read and
+re-edited; innumerable monographs on special subjects and
+periods were produced, and these latter were of immense service
+to romance writers at the time of the popularity of the historical
+novel. Not a few of the works, for instance, which were signed
+by Alexandre Dumas consist mainly of extracts or condensations
+from old chronicles, or modern monographs, ingeniously united
+by dialogue and varnished with a little description. History,
+however, had not to wait for this second-hand popularity, and
+its cultivators had fully sufficient literary talent to maintain its
+dignity. Sismondi, whom we have already noticed, continued
+during this period his great <i>Histoire des Français</i>, and produced
+his even better-known <i>Histoire des républiques italiennes au
+moyen âge</i>. The brothers Thierry devoted themselves to early
+French history, Amédée Thierry (1797-1873) producing a <i>Histoire
+des Gaulois</i> and other works concerning the Roman period, and
+Augustin Thierry (1795-1856) the well-known history of the
+Norman Conquest, the equally attractive <i>Récits des temps
+Mérovingiens</i> and other excellent works. Philippe de Ségur
+(1780-1873) gave a history of the Russian campaign of Napoleon,
+and some other works chiefly dealing with Russian history.
+The voluminous <i>Histoire de France</i> of Henri Martin (1810-1883)
+is perhaps the best and most impartial work dealing in detail
+with the whole subject. A. G. P. Brugière, baron de Barante
+(1782-1866), after beginning with literary criticism, turned to
+history, and in his <i>Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne</i> produced a
+work of capital importance. As was to be expected, many of the
+most brilliant results of this devotion to historical subjects
+consisted of works dealing with the French Revolution. No
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span>
+series of historical events has ever perhaps received treatment
+at the same time from so many different points of view, and by
+writers of such varied literary excellence, among whom it must,
+however, be said that the purely royalist side is hardly at all
+represented. One of the earliest of these histories is that of
+François Mignet (1796-1884), a sober and judicious historian of
+the older school, also well known for his <i>Histoire de Marie Stuart</i>.
+About the same time was begun the brilliant if not extremely
+trustworthy work of Adolphe Thiers (1797-1877) on the Revolution,
+which established the literary reputation of the future
+president of the French republic, and was at a later period completed
+by the <i>Histoire du consulat et de l&rsquo;empire</i>. The downfall
+of the July monarchy and the early years of the empire witnessed
+the publication of several works of the first importance on this
+subject. Barante contributed histories of the Convention and
+the Directory, but the three books of greatest note were those
+of Lamartine, Jules Michelet (1798-1874), and Louis Blanc
+(1811-1882). Lamartine&rsquo;s <i>Histoire des Girondins</i> is written
+from the constitutional-republican point of view, and is sometimes
+considered to have had much influence in producing the events
+of 1848. It is, perhaps, rather the work of an orator and poet
+than of an historian. The work of Michelet is of a more original
+character. Besides his history of the Revolution, Michelet wrote
+an extended history of France, and a very large number of smaller
+works on historical, political and social subjects. His imaginative
+powers are of the highest order, and his style stands alone in
+French for its strangely broken and picturesque character, its
+turbid abundance of striking images, and its somewhat sombre
+magnificence, qualities which, as may easily be supposed, found
+full occupation in a history of the Revolution. The work of
+Louis Blanc was that of a sincere but ardent republican, and is
+useful from this point of view, but possesses no extraordinary
+literary merit. The principal contributions to the history of the
+Revolution of the third quarter of the century were those of
+Quinet, Lanfrey and Taine. Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), like
+Louis Blanc a devotee of the republic and an exile for its sake,
+brought to this one of his latest works a mind and pen long
+trained to literary and historical studies; but <i>La Révolution</i> is
+not considered his best work. P. Lanfrey devoted himself with
+extraordinary patience and acuteness to the destruction of the
+Napoleonic legend, and the setting of the character of Napoleon I.
+in a new, authentic and very far from favourable light. And
+Taine, after distinguishing himself, as we have mentioned,
+in literary criticism (<i>Histoire de la littérature anglaise</i>), and attaining
+less success in philosophy (<i>De l&rsquo;intelligence</i>), turned in
+<i>Les Origines de la France moderne</i> to an elaborate discussion of
+the Revolution, its causes, character and consequences, which
+excited some commotion among the more ardent devotees of the
+principles of &rsquo;89. To return from this group, we must notice
+J. F. Michaud (1767-1839), the historian of the crusades,
+and François Pierre Guillaume Guizot (1787-1874), who, like
+his rival Thiers, devoted himself much to historical study. His
+earliest works were literary and linguistic, but he soon turned
+to political history, and for the last half-century of his long life
+his contributions to historical literature were almost incessant
+and of the most various character. The most important are
+the histories <i>Des Origines du gouvernement représentatif</i>, <i>De la
+révolution d&rsquo;Angleterre</i>, <i>De la civilisation en France</i>, and latterly
+a <i>Histoire de France</i>, which he was writing at the time of his
+death. Among minor historians of the earlier century may
+be mentioned Prosper Duvergier de Hauranne (1798-1881)
+(<i>Gouvernement parlementaire en France</i>), J. J. Ampère (1800-1864)
+(<i>Histoire romaine à Rome</i>), Auguste Arthur Beugnot (1797-1865)
+(<i>Destruction du paganisme d&rsquo;occident</i>), J. O. B. de Cléron,
+comte d&rsquo;Haussonville (<i>La Réunion de la Lorraine à la France</i>),
+Achille Tendelle de Vaulabelle (1799-1870) (<i>Les Deux Restaurations</i>).
+In the last quarter of the century, under the department
+of history, the most remarkable names were still those of Taine
+and Renan, the former being distinguished for thought and
+matter, the latter for style. Indeed it may be here proper to
+remark that Renan, in the kind of elaborated semi-poetic style
+which has most characterized the prose of the 19th century in
+all countries of Europe, takes pre-eminence among French
+writers even in the estimation of critics who are not enamoured
+of his substance and tone. But, under the influence of Taine to
+some extent and of a general European tendency still more,
+France during this period attained or recovered a considerable
+place for what is called &ldquo;scientific&rdquo; history&mdash;the history which
+while, in some cases, though not in all, not neglecting the development
+of style attaches itself particularly to &ldquo;the document,&rdquo;
+on the one hand, and to philosophical arrangement on the other.
+The chief representative of the school was probably Albert Sorel
+(1842-1906), whose various handlings of the Revolutionary period
+(including an excursion into partly literary criticism in the shape
+of an admirable monograph on Madame de Staël) have established
+themselves once for all. In a wider sweep Ernest Lavisse (b.
+1842), who has dealt mainly with the 18th century, may hold
+a similar position. Of others, older and younger, the duc de
+Broglie (1821-1901), who devoted himself also to the 18th century
+and especially to its secret diplomacy; Gaston Boissier (b. 1823),
+a classical scholar rather than an historian proper, and one of the
+latest masters of the older French academic style; Thureau-Dangin
+(b. 1837), a student of mid 19th-century history; Henri
+Houssaye (b. 1848), one of the Napoleonic period; Gabriel
+Hanotaux (b. 1853), an historian of Richelieu and other subjects,
+and a practical politician, may be mentioned. A large accession
+has also been made to the publication of older memoirs&mdash;that
+important branch of French literature from almost the whole of
+its existence since the invention of prose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summary and Conclusion.</i>&mdash;We have in these last pages given
+such an outline of the 19th-century literature of France as seemed
+convenient for the completion of what has gone before. It has
+been already remarked that the nearer approach is made to our
+own time the less is it possible to give exhaustive accounts of
+the individual cultivators of the different branches of literature.
+It may be added, perhaps, that such exhaustiveness becomes,
+as we advance, less and less necessary, as well as less and less
+possible. The individual poet of to-day may and does produce
+work that is in itself of greater literary value than that of the
+individual trouvère. As a matter of literary history his contribution
+is less remarkable because of the examples he has
+before him and the circumstances which he has around him.
+Yet we have endeavoured to draw such a sketch of French
+literature from the <i>Chanson de Roland</i> onwards that no important
+development and hardly any important partaker in such development
+should be left out. A few lines may, perhaps, be now
+profitably given to summing up the aspects of the whole,
+remembering always that, as in no case is generalization easier
+than in the case of the literary aspects and tendencies of periods
+and nations, so in no case is it apt to be more delusive unless
+corrected and supported by ample information of fact and detail.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the 11th century and at the beginning of the
+12th we find the vulgar tongue in France not merely in fully
+organized use for literary purposes, but already employed in
+most of the forms of poetical writing. An immense outburst of
+epic and narrative verse has taken place, and lyrical poetry,
+not limited as in the case of the epics to the north of France, but
+extending from Roussillon to the Pas de Calais, completes this.
+The 12th century adds to these earliest forms the important
+development of the mystery, extends the subjects and varies
+the manner of epic verse, and begins the compositions of literary
+prose with the chronicles of St Denis and of Villehardouin, and
+the prose romances of the Arthurian cycle. All this <span class="correction" title="amended from literaure">literature</span>
+is so far connected purely with the knightly and priestly orders,
+though it is largely composed and still more largely dealt in by
+classes of men, trouvères and jongleurs, who are not necessarily
+either knights or priests, and in the case of the jongleurs are
+certainly neither. With a possible ancestry of Romance and
+Teutonic <i>cantilenae</i>, Breton <i>lais</i>, and vernacular legends, the
+new literature has a certain pattern and model in Latin and for
+the most part ecclesiastical compositions. It has the sacred books
+and the legends of the saints for examples of narrative, the
+rhythm of the hymns for a guide to metre, and the ceremonies of
+the church for a stimulant to dramatic performance. By degrees
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span>
+also, in this 12th century, forms of literature which busy themselves
+with the unprivileged classes begin to be born. The
+fabliau takes every phase of life for its subject; the folk-song
+acquires elegance and does not lose raciness and truth. In the
+next century, the 13th, medieval literature in France arrives at
+its prime&mdash;a prime which lasts until the first quarter of the 14th.
+The early epics lose something of their savage charms, the polished
+literature of Provence quickly perishes. But in the provinces
+which speak the more prevailing tongue nothing is wanting to
+literary development. The language itself has shaken off all
+its youthful incapacities, and, though not yet well adapted
+for the requirements of modern life and study, is in every way
+equal to the demands made upon it by its own time. The
+dramatic germ contained in the fabliau and quickened by the
+mystery produces the profane drama. Ambitious works of merit
+in the most various kinds are published; <i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i>
+stands side by side with the <i>Vie de Saint Louis</i>, the <i>Jeu de la
+feuillie</i> with <i>Le Miracle de Théophile</i>, the <i>Roman de la rose</i>
+with the <i>Roman du Renart</i>. The earliest notes of ballads and
+rondeau are heard; endeavours are made with zeal, and not
+always without understanding, to naturalize the wisdom of the
+ancients in France, and in the graceful tongue that France
+possesses. Romance in prose and verse, drama, history, songs,
+satire, oratory and even erudition, are all represented and
+represented worthily. Meanwhile all nations of western Europe
+have come to France for their literary models and subjects,
+and the greatest writers in English, German, Italian, content
+themselves with adaptations of Chrétien de Troyes, of Benoit
+de Sainte More, and of a hundred other known and unknown
+trouvères and fabulists. But this age does not last long. The
+language has been put to all the uses of which it is as yet capable;
+those uses in their sameness begin to pall upon reader and hearer;
+and the enormous evils of the civil and religious state reflect themselves
+inevitably in literature. The old forms die out or are
+prolonged only in half-lifeless travesties. The brilliant colouring
+of Froissart, and the graceful science of ballade and rondeau
+writers like Lescurel and Deschamps, alone maintain the literary
+reputation of the time. Towards the end of the 14th century
+the translators and political writers import many terms of art,
+and strain the language to uses for which it is as yet unhandy,
+though at the beginning of the next age Charles d&rsquo;Orléans by
+his natural grace and the virtue of the forms he used emerges
+from the mass of writers. Throughout the 15th century the
+process of enriching or at least increasing the vocabulary goes on,
+but as yet no organizing hand appears to direct the process.
+Villon stands alone in merit as in peculiarity. But in this time
+dramatic literature and the literature of the floating popular
+broadsheet acquire an immense extension&mdash;all or almost all the
+vigour of spirit being concentrated in the rough farce and rougher
+lampoon, while all the literary skill is engrossed by insipid
+<i>rhétoriqueurs</i> and pedants. Then comes the grand upheaval
+of the Renaissance and the Reformation. An immense influx
+of science, of thought to make the science living, of new terms
+to express the thought, takes place, and a band of literary
+workers appear of power enough to master and get into shape
+the turbid mass. Rabelais, Amyot, Calvin and Herberay
+fashion French prose; Marot, Ronsard and Regnier refashion
+French verse. The Pléiade introduces the drama as it is to be
+and the language that is to help the drama to express itself.
+Montaigne for the first time throws invention and originality
+into some other form than verse or than prose fiction. But by the
+end of the century the tide has receded. The work of arrangement
+has been but half done, and there are no master spirits
+left to complete it. At this period Malherbe and Balzac make
+their appearance. Unable to deal with the whole problem, they
+determine to deal with part of it, and to reject a portion of the
+riches of which they feel themselves unfit to be stewards. Balzac
+and his successors make of French prose an instrument faultless
+and admirable in precision, unequalled for the work for which
+it is fit, but unfit for certain portions of the work which it was
+once able to perform. Malherbe, seconded by Boileau, makes
+of French verse an instrument suited only for the purposes of the
+drama of Euripides, or rather of Seneca, with or without its
+chorus, and for a certain weakened echo of those choruses,
+under the name of lyrics. No French verse of the first merit
+other than dramatic is written for two whole centuries. The
+drama soon comes to its acme, and during the succeeding time
+usually maintains itself at a fairly high level until the death of
+Voltaire. But prose lends itself to almost everything that is
+required of it, and becomes constantly a more and more perfect
+instrument. To the highest efforts of pathos and sublimity
+its vocabulary and its arrangement likewise are still unsuited,
+though the great preachers of the 17th century do their utmost
+with it. But for clear exposition, smooth and agreeable narrative,
+sententious and pointed brevity, witty repartee, it soon proves
+itself to have no superior and scarcely an equal in Europe.
+In these directions practitioners of the highest skill apply it
+during the 17th century, while during the 18th its powers are
+shown to the utmost of their variety by Voltaire, and receive
+a new development at the hands of Rousseau. Yet, on the whole,
+it loses during this century. It becomes more and more unfit
+for any but trivial uses, and at last it is employed for those uses
+only. Then occurs the Revolution, repeating the mighty stir
+in men&rsquo;s minds which the Renaissance had given, but at first
+experiencing more difficulty in breaking up the ground and once
+more rendering it fertile. The faulty and incomplete genius
+of Chateaubriand and Madame de Staël gives the first evidence
+of a new growth, and after many years the Romantic movement
+completes the work. Whether the force of that movement is
+now, after three-quarters of a century, spent or not, its results
+remain. The poetical power of French has been once more
+triumphantly proved, and its productiveness in all branches of
+literature has been renewed, while in that of prose fiction there has
+been almost created a new class of composition. In the process
+of reform, however, not a little of the finish of French prose
+style has been lost, and the language itself has been affected in
+something the same way as it was affected by the less judicious
+innovations of the Ronsardists. The pedantry of the Pléiade
+led to the preposterous compounds of Du Bartas; the passion
+of the Romantics for foreign tongues and for the <i>mot propre</i>
+has loaded French with foreign terms on the one hand and with
+<i>argot</i> on the other, while it is questionable whether the <i>vers libre</i>
+is really suited to the French genius. There is, therefore, room
+for new Malherbes and Balzacs, if the days for Balzacs and Malherbes
+had not to all appearance passed. Should they be once
+more forthcoming, they have the failure as well as the success
+of their predecessors to guide them.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, we may sum up even this summary. For volume
+and merit taken together the product of these eight centuries of
+literature excels that of any European nation, though for individual
+works of the supremest excellence they may perhaps be
+asked in vain. No French writer is lifted by the suffrages of
+other nations&mdash;the only criterion when sufficient time has elapsed&mdash;to
+the level of Homer, of Shakespeare, or of Dante, who reign
+alone. Of those of the authors of France who are indeed of the
+thirty but attain not to the first three Rabelais and Molière
+alone unite the general suffrage, and this fact roughly but surely
+points to the real excellence of the literature which these men are
+chosen to represent. It is great in all ways, but it is greatest on
+the lighter side. The house of mirth is more suited to it than the
+house of mourning. To the latter, indeed, the language of the
+unknown marvel who told Roland&rsquo;s death, of him who gave
+utterance to Camilla&rsquo;s wrath and despair, and of Victor Hugo,
+who sings how the mountain wind makes mad the lover who cannot
+forget, has amply made good its title of entrance. But for
+one Frenchman who can write admirably in this strain there are
+a hundred who can tell the most admirable story, formulate the
+most pregnant reflection, point the acutest jest. There is thus
+no really great epic in French, few great tragedies, and those
+imperfect and in a faulty kind, little prose like Milton&rsquo;s or like
+Jeremy Taylor&rsquo;s, little verse (though more than is generally
+thought) like Shelley&rsquo;s or like Spenser&rsquo;s. But there are the most
+delightful short tales, both in prose and in verse, that the world
+has ever seen, the most polished jewelry of reflection that has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span>
+ever been wrought, songs of incomparable grace, comedies that
+must make men laugh as long as they are laughing animals, and
+above all such a body of narrative fiction, old and new, prose and
+verse, as no other nation can show for art and for originality, for
+grace of workmanship in him who fashions, and for certainty of
+delight to him who reads.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The most elaborate book on French literature
+as a whole is that edited by Petit de Julleville, and composed of
+chapters by different authors, <i>Histoire de la langue et de la littérature
+françaises</i> (8 vols., Paris, 1896-1899). Unfortunately these chapters,
+some of which are of the highest excellence, are of very unequal
+value: they require connexions which are not supplied, and there
+is throughout a neglect of minor authors. The bibliographical indications
+are, however, most valuable. For a survey in a single
+volume Lanson&rsquo;s <i>Histoire</i> has superseded the older but admirable
+manuals of Demogeot and Géruzez, which, however, are still worth
+consulting. Brunetière&rsquo;s <i>Manuel</i> (translated into English) is very
+valuable with the cautions above given; and the large <i>Histoire de
+la langue française depuis le seizième siècle</i> of Godefroy supplies copious
+and well-chosen extracts with much biographical information. In
+English there is an extensive <i>History</i> by H. van Laun (3 vols., 1874,
+&amp;c.); a <i>Short History</i> by Saintsbury (1882; 6th ed. continued to
+the end of the century, 1901); and a <i>History</i> by Professor Dowden
+(1895).</p>
+
+<p>To pass to special periods&mdash;the fountain-head of the literature
+of the middle ages is the ponderous <i>Histoire littéraire</i> already referred
+to, which, notwithstanding that it extended to 27 quarto
+volumes in 1906, and had occupied, with interruptions, 150 years in
+publication, had only reached the 14th century. Many of the
+monographs which it contains are the best authorities on their
+subjects, such as that of P. Paris on the early chansonniers, of V.
+Leclerc on the fabliaux, and of Littré on the romans d&rsquo;aventures.
+For the history of literature before the 11th century, the period
+mainly Latin, J. J. Ampère&rsquo;s <i>Histoire littéraire de la France avant
+Charlemagne, sous Charlemagne, et jusqu&rsquo;au onzième siècle</i> is the chief
+authority. Léon Gautier&rsquo;s <i>Épopées françaises</i> (5 vols., 1878-1897)
+contains almost everything known concerning the chansons de geste.
+P. Paris&rsquo;s <i>Romans de la table ronde</i> was long the main authority for
+this subject, but very much has been written recently in France
+and elsewhere. The most important of the French contributions,
+especially those by Gaston Paris (whose <i>Histoire poétique de Charlemagne</i>
+has been reprinted since his death), will be found in the
+periodical <i>Romania</i>, which for more than thirty years has been the
+chief receptacle of studies on old French literature. On the cycle
+of Reynard the standard work is Rothe, <i>Les Romans de Renart</i>.
+All parts of the lighter literature of old France are excellently
+treated by Lenient, <i>Le Satire au moyen âge</i>. The early theatre has
+been frequently treated by the brothers Parfaict (<i>Histoire du théâtre
+français</i>), by Fabre (<i>Les Clercs de la Bazoche</i>), by Leroy (<i>Étude sur
+les mystères</i>), by Aubertin (<i>Histoire de la langue et de la littérature
+française au moyen âge</i>). This latter book will be found a useful
+summary of the whole medieval period. The historical, dramatic
+and oratorical sections are especially full. On a smaller scale but
+of unsurpassed authority is G. Paris&rsquo;s <i>Littérature du moyen âge</i>
+translated into English.</p>
+
+<p>On the 16th century an excellent handbook is that by Darmesteter
+and Hatzfeld; and the recent <i>Literature of the French Renaissance</i>
+of A. Tilley (2 vols., 1904) is of high value. Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s <i>Tableau</i>
+has been more than once referred to. Ebert (<i>Entwicklungsgeschichte
+der französischen Tragödie vornehmlich im 16<span class="sp">ten</span> Jahrhundert</i>) is
+the chief authority for dramatic matters. Essays and volumes on
+periods and sub-periods since 1600 are innumerable; but those who
+desire thorough acquaintance with the literature of these three
+hundred years should read as widely as possible in all the critical
+work of Sainte-Beuve, of Schérer, of Faguet and Brunetière&mdash;which
+may be supplemented <i>ad libitum</i> from that of other critics mentioned
+above. The series of volumes entitled <i>Les grands écrivains français</i>,
+now pretty extensive, is generally very good, and Catulle Mendès&rsquo;s
+invaluable book on 19th-century poetry has been cited above. As
+a companion to the study of poetry E. Crepet&rsquo;s <i>Poètes français</i>
+(4 vols., 1861), an anthology with introductions by Sainte-Beuve
+and all the best critics of the day, cannot be surpassed, but to it
+may be added the later <i>Anthologie des poètes français du XIX<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i> (1877-1879).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRENCH POLISH,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a liquid for polishing wood, made by
+dissolving shellac in methylated spirit. There are four different
+tints, brown, white, garnet and red, but the first named is that
+most extensively used. All the tints are made in the same
+manner, with the exception of the red, which is a mixture of the
+brown polish and methylated spirit with either Saunders wood
+or Bismarck brown, according to the strength of colour required.
+Some woods, and especially mahogany, need to be stained before
+they are polished. To stain mahogany mix some bichromate
+of potash in hot water according to the depth of colour required.
+After staining the wood the most approved method of filling the
+grain is to rub in fine plaster of Paris (wet), wiping off before it
+&ldquo;sets.&rdquo; After this is dry it should be oiled with linseed oil and
+thoroughly wiped off. The wood is then ready for the polish,
+which is put on with a rubber made of wadding covered with
+linen rag and well wetted with polish. The polishing process has
+to be repeated gradually, and after the work has hardened,
+the surface is smoothed down with fine glass-paper, a few drops
+of linseed oil being added until the surface is sufficiently smooth.
+After a day or two the surface can be cleared by using a fresh
+rubber with a double layer of linen, removing the top layer when
+it is getting hard and finishing off with the bottom layer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> Among the many revolutions
+which from time to time have given a new direction to the
+political development of nations the French Revolution stands
+out as at once the most dramatic in its incidents and the most
+momentous in its results. This exceptional character is, indeed,
+implied in the name by which it is known; for France has experienced
+many revolutions both before and since that of 1789,
+but the name &ldquo;French Revolution,&rdquo; or simply &ldquo;the Revolution,&rdquo;
+without qualification, is applied to this one alone. The causes
+which led to it: the gradual decay of the institutions which
+France had inherited from the feudal system, the decline of the
+centralized monarchy, and the immediate financial necessities
+that compelled the assembling of the long neglected states-general
+in 1789, are dealt with in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>.
+The successive constitutions, and the other legal changes which
+resulted from it, are also discussed in their general relation to
+the growth of the modern French polity in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>
+(<i>Law and Institutions</i>). The present article deals with the
+progress of the Revolution itself from the convocation of the
+states-general to the coup d&rsquo;état of the 18th Brumaire which
+placed Napoleon Bonaparte in power.</p>
+
+<p>The elections to the states-general of 1789 were held in unfavourable
+circumstances. The failure of the harvest of 1788
+and a severe winter had caused widespread distress.
+The government was weak and despised, and its agents
+<span class="sidenote">Opening of the States-General.</span>
+were afraid or unwilling to quell outbreaks of disorder.
+At the same time the longing for radical reform and
+the belief that it would be easy were almost universal. The
+<i>cahiers</i> or written instructions given to the deputies covered
+well-nigh every subject of political, social or economic interest,
+and demanded an amazing number of changes. Amid this commotion
+the king and his ministers remained passive. They did
+not even determine the question whether the estates should act
+as separate bodies or deliberate collectively. On the 5th of May
+the states-general were opened by Louis in the Salle des Menus
+Plaisirs at Versailles. Barentin, the keeper of the seals, informed
+them that they were free to determine whether they would vote
+by orders or vote by head. Necker, as director-general of the
+finances, set forth the condition of the treasury and proposed
+some small reforms. The Tiers État (Third Estate) was dissatisfied
+that the question of joint or separate deliberation should
+have been left open. It was aware that some of the nobles
+and many of the inferior clergy agreed with it as to the need
+for comprehensive reform. Joint deliberation would ensure a
+majority to the reformers and therefore the abolition of privileges
+and the extinction of feudal rights of property. Separate deliberation
+would enable the majority among the nobles and the
+superior clergy to limit reform. Hence it became the first object
+of the Tiers État to effect the amalgamation of the three estates.</p>
+
+<p>The conflict between those who desired and those who resisted
+amalgamation took the form of a conflict over the verification
+of the powers of the deputies. The Tiers État insisted
+that the deputies of all three estates should have their
+<span class="sidenote">Conflict between the Three Estates.</span>
+powers verified in common as the first step towards
+making them all members of one House. It resolved
+to hold its meetings in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs, whereas the
+nobles and the clergy met in smaller apartments set aside for their
+exclusive use. It refrained from taking any step which might
+have implied that it was an organized assembly, and persevered
+in regarding itself as a mere crowd of individual members
+incapable of transacting business. Meanwhile the clergy and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span>
+the nobles began a separate verification of their powers. But
+a few of the nobles and a great many of the clergy voted against
+this procedure. On the 7th the Tiers État sent deputations to
+exhort the other estates to union, while the clergy sent a deputation
+to it with the proposal that each estate should name commissioners
+to discuss the best method of verifying powers.
+The Tiers État accepted the proposal and conferences were held,
+but without result. It then made another appeal to the clergy
+which was almost successful. The king interposed with a command
+for the renewal of the conferences. They were resumed
+under the presidency of Barentin, but again to no purpose.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th of June Sieyès moved that the Tiers État should
+for the last time invite the First and Second Estates to join in the
+verification of powers and announce that, whether they did or
+not, the work of verifying would begin forthwith. The motion
+was carried by an immense majority. As there was no response,
+the Tiers État on the 12th named Bailly provisional president
+and commenced verification. Next day three curés of Poitou
+came to have their powers verified. Other clergymen followed
+later. When the work of verification was over, a title had to be
+found for the body thus created, which would no longer accept
+the style of the Tiers État. On the 15th Sieyès proposed that
+they should entitle themselves the Assembly of the known and
+verified representatives of the French nation. Mirabeau, Mounier
+and others proposed various appellations. But success was
+reserved for Legrand, an obscure deputy who proposed the
+simple name of National Assembly. Withdrawing his own
+motion, Sieyès adopted Legrand&rsquo;s suggestion, which was carried
+by 491 votes to 90. The Assembly went on to declare that it
+placed the debts of the crown under the safeguard of the national
+honour and that all existing taxes, although illegal as having
+been imposed without the consent of the people, should
+continue to be paid until the day of dissolution.</p>
+
+<p>By these proceedings the Tiers État and a few of the clergy
+declared themselves the national legislature. Then and thereafter
+the National Assembly assumed full sovereign
+and constituent powers. Nobles and clergy might
+<span class="sidenote">The National Assembly.</span>
+come in if they pleased, but it could do without them.
+The king&rsquo;s assent to its measures would be convenient,
+but not necessary. This boldness was rewarded, for on the 19th
+the clergy decided by a majority of one in favour of joint verification.
+On the same day the nobles voted an address to the king
+condemning the action of the Tiers État. Left to himself, Louis
+might have been too inert for resistance. But the queen and
+his brother, the count of Artois, with some of the ministers and
+courtiers, urged him to make a stand. A Séance Royale was
+notified for the 22nd and workmen were sent to prepare the Salle
+des Menus Plaisirs for the ceremony. On the 20th Bailly and the
+deputies proceeded to the hall and found it barred against their
+entrance. Thereupon they adjourned to a neighbouring tennis
+<span class="sidenote">Oath of the Tennis Court.</span>
+court, where Mounier proposed that they should swear
+not to separate until they had established the constitution.
+With a solitary exception they swore and the
+Oath of the Tennis Court became an era in French
+history. As the ministers could not agree on the policy which the
+king should announce in the Séance Royale, it was postponed
+to the 23rd. The Assembly found shelter in the church of St
+Louis, where it was joined by the main body of the clergy and by
+the first of the nobles.</p>
+
+<p>At the Séance Royale Louis made known his will that the
+Estates should deliberate apart, and declared that if they should
+refuse to help him he would do by his sole authority what was
+necessary for the happiness of his people. When he quitted the
+hall, some of the clergy and most of the nobles retired to their
+separate chambers. But the rest, together with the Tiers État,
+remained, and Mirabeau declared that, as they had come by the
+will of the nation, force only should make them withdraw.
+&ldquo;Gentlemen,&rdquo; said Sieyès, &ldquo;you are to-day what you were
+yesterday.&rdquo; With one voice the Assembly proclaimed its
+adhesion to its former decrees and the inviolability of its members.
+In Versailles and in Paris popular feeling was clamorous for the
+Assembly and against the court. During the next few days
+many of the clergy and nobles, including the archbishop of Paris
+and the duke of Orleans, joined the Assembly. Louis tamely
+accepted his defeat. He recalled Necker, who had resigned
+after the Séance Royale. On the 27th he wrote to those clerical
+and noble deputies who still held out, urging submission. By
+the 2nd of July the joint verification of powers was completed.
+The last trace of the historic States-General disappeared and the
+National Assembly was perfect. On the same day it claimed an
+absolute discretion by a decree that the mandates of the electors
+were not binding on its members.</p>
+
+<p>Having failed in their first attempt on the Assembly, the Court
+party resolved to try what force could do. A large number of
+troops, chiefly foreign regiments in the service of France,
+were concentrated near Paris under the command of the
+<span class="sidenote">Dismissal of Necker.</span>
+marshal de Broglie. On Mirabeau&rsquo;s motion the Assembly
+voted an address to the king asking for their withdrawal. The
+king replied that the troops were not meant to act against the
+Assembly, but intimated his purpose of transferring the session
+to some provincial town. On the same day he dismissed Necker
+and ordered him to quit Versailles. These acts led to the first
+insurrection of Paris. The capital had long been in a dangerous
+condition. Bread was dear and employment was scarce. The
+measures taken to relieve distress had allured a multitude of needy
+and desperate men from the surrounding country. Among the
+middle class there already existed a party, consisting of men like
+Danton or Camille Desmoulins, which was prepared to go much
+further than any of the leaders of the Assembly. The rich citizens
+were generally fund-holders, who regarded the Assembly as the
+one bulwark against a public bankruptcy. The duke of Orleans,
+a weak and dissolute but ambitious man, had conceived the hope
+of supplanting his cousin on the throne. He strained his wealth
+and influence to recruit followers and to make mischief. The
+gardens of his residence, the Palais Royal, became the centre of
+political agitation. Ever since the elections virtual freedom of
+the press and freedom of speech had prevailed in Paris. Clubs
+were multiplied and pamphlets came forth every hour. The
+municipal officers who were named by the Crown had little
+influence with the citizens. The police were a mere handful. Of
+the two line regiments quartered in the capital, one was Swiss and
+therefore trusty; but the other, the Gardes Françaises, shared
+all the feelings of the populace.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th of July Camille Desmoulins announced the dismissal
+of Necker to the crowd in the Palais Royal. Warmed by
+his eloquence, they sallied into the street. Part of
+Broglie&rsquo;s troops occupied the Champs Elysées and the
+<span class="sidenote">Rioting in Paris.</span>
+Place Louis Quinze. After one or two petty encounters
+with the mob they were withdrawn, either because their temper
+was uncertain or because their commanders shunned responsibility.
+Paris was thus left to the rioters, who seized arms
+wherever they could find them, broke open the jails, burnt the
+octroi barriers and soon had every man&rsquo;s life and goods at their
+discretion. Citizens with anything to lose were driven to act
+for themselves. For the purpose of choosing its representatives
+in the states-general the Third Estate of Paris had named 300
+electors. Their function once discharged, these men had no
+public character, but they resolved that they would hold together
+in order to watch over the interests of the city. After the Séance
+Royale the municipal authority, conscious of its own weakness,
+allowed them to meet at the Hôtel de Ville, where they proceeded
+to consider the formation of a civic guard. On the 13th, when
+all was anarchy in Paris, they were joined by Flesselles, Provost
+of the Merchants, and other municipal officers. The project of a
+civic guard was then adopted. The insurrection, however, ran
+its course unchecked. Crowds of deserters from the regular
+troops swelled the ranks of the insurgents. They attacked the
+<span class="sidenote">Fall of the Bastille, July 14, 1789.</span>
+Hôtel des Invalides and carried off all the arms
+which were stored there. With the same object they
+assailed the Bastille. The garrison was small and
+disheartened, provisions were short, and after some
+hours&rsquo; fighting De Launay the governor surrendered on
+promise of quarter. He and several of his men were, notwithstanding,
+butchered by the mob before they could be brought to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span>
+the Hôtel de Ville. As all Paris was in the hands of the insurgents,
+the king saw the necessity of submission. On the morning of the
+15th he entered the hall of the Assembly to announce that the
+troops would be withdrawn. Immediately afterwards he dismissed
+his new ministers and recalled Necker. Thereupon the
+princes and courtiers most hostile to the National Assembly,
+the count of Artois, the prince of Condé, the duke of Bourbon
+and many others, feeling themselves no longer safe, quitted
+France. Their departure is known as the first emigration.</p>
+
+<p>The capture of the Bastille was hailed throughout Europe as
+symbolizing the fall of absolute monarchy, and the victory of the
+insurgents had momentous consequences. Recognizing
+<span class="sidenote">New municipality of Paris and National Guard.</span>
+the 300 electors as a temporary municipal government,
+the Assembly sent a deputation to confer with them at
+the Hôtel de Ville, and on a sudden impulse one of these
+deputies, Bailly, lately president of the Assembly, was
+chosen to be mayor of Paris. The marquis Lafayette,
+doubly popular as a veteran of the American War and as one of
+the nobles who heartily upheld the cause of the Assembly, was
+chosen commandant of the new civic force, thenceforwards
+known as the National Guard. On the 17th Louis himself visited
+Paris and gave his sanction to the new authorities. In the course
+of the following weeks the example of Paris was copied throughout
+France. All the cities and towns set up new elective authorities
+and organized a National Guard. At the same time the revolution
+<span class="sidenote">Revolution in the provinces.</span>
+spread to the country districts. In most of the provinces
+the peasants rose and stormed and burnt the
+houses of the <i>seigneurs</i>, taking peculiar care to destroy
+their title-deeds. Some of the <i>seigneurs</i> were murdered
+and the rest were driven into the towns or across the frontier.
+Amid the universal confusion the old administrative system
+vanished. The intendants and sub-delegates quitted or were
+driven from their posts. The old courts of justice, whether
+royal or feudal, ceased to act. In many districts there was no
+more police, public works were suspended and the collection of
+taxes became almost impossible. The insurrection of July really
+ended the <i>ancien régime</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Disorder in the provinces led directly to the proceedings on
+the famous night of the 4th of August. While the Assembly was
+considering a declaration which might calm revolt, the
+vicomte de Noailles and the duc d&rsquo;Aiguillon moved
+<span class="sidenote">The 4th of August.</span>
+that it should proclaim equality of taxation and the
+suppression of feudal burdens. Other deputies rose to demand
+the repeal of the game laws, the enfranchisement of such serfs
+as were still to be found in France, and the abolition of tithes and
+of feudal courts and to renounce all privileges, whether of classes,
+of cities, or of provinces. Amid indescribable enthusiasm the
+Assembly passed resolution after resolution embodying these
+changes. The resolutions were followed by decrees sometimes
+hastily and unskilfully drawn. In vain Sieyès remarked that in
+extinguishing tithes the Assembly was making a present to every
+landed proprietor. In vain the king, while approving most of
+the decrees, tendered some cautious criticisms of the rest. The
+majority did not, indeed, design to confiscate property wholesale.
+They drew a distinction between feudal claims which did and
+did not carry a moral claim to compensation. But they were
+embarrassed by the wording of their own decrees and forestalled
+by the violence of the people. The proceedings of the 4th of
+August issued in a wholesale transfer of property from one class
+to another without any indemnity for the losers.</p>
+
+<p>The work of drafting a constitution for France had already
+been begun. Parties in the Assembly were numerous and ill-defined.
+The Extreme Right, who desired to keep
+the government as it stood, were a mere handful.
+<span class="sidenote">Parties in the Assembly.</span>
+The Right who wanted to revive, as they said, the
+ancient constitution, in other words, to limit the king&rsquo;s
+power by periodic States-General of the old-fashioned sort, were
+more numerous and had able chiefs in Cazalès and Maury, but
+strove in vain against the spirit of the time. The Right Centre,
+sometimes called the Monarchiens, were a large body and included
+several men of talent, notably Mounier and Malouet, as well as
+many men of rank and wealth. They desired a constitution like
+that of England which should reserve a large executive power
+to the king, while entrusting the taxing and legislative powers to a
+modern parliament. The Left or Constitutionals, known afterwards
+as the Feuillants, among whom Barnave and Charles and
+Alexander Lameth were conspicuous, also wished to preserve
+monarchy but disdained English precedent. They were possessed
+with feelings then widespread, weariness of arbitrary government,
+hatred of ministers and courtiers, and distrust not so much
+of Louis as of those who surrounded him and influenced his
+judgment. Republicans without knowing it, they grudged every
+remnant of power to the Crown. The Extreme Left, still more
+republican in spirit, of whom Robespierre was the most noteworthy,
+were few and had little power. Mirabeau&rsquo;s independence
+of judgment forbids us to place him in any party.</p>
+
+<p>The first Constitutional Committee, elected on the 14th of July,
+had Mounier for its reporter. It was instructed to begin with
+drafting a Declaration of the Rights of Man. Six
+weeks were spent by the Assembly in discussing this
+<span class="sidenote">Declaration of the Rights of Man.</span>
+document. The Committee then presented a report
+which embodied the principle of two Chambers. This
+principle contradicted the extreme democratic theories so much
+in fashion. It also offended the self-love of most of the nobles
+and the clergy who were loath that a few of their number should
+be erected into a House of Lords. The Assembly rejected the
+principle of two Chambers by nearly 10 to 1. The question
+whether the king should have a veto on legislation was next
+raised. Mounier contended that he should have an
+<span class="sidenote">The royal veto.</span>
+absolute veto, and was supported by Mirabeau, who
+had already described the unlimited power of a single
+Chamber as worse than the tyranny of Constantinople. The Left
+maintained that the king, as depositary of the executive, should
+be wholly excluded from the legislative power. Lafayette, who
+imagined himself to be copying the American constitution,
+proposed that the king should have a suspensive veto. Thinking
+that it would be politic to claim no more, Necker persuaded
+the king to intimate that he was satisfied with Lafayette&rsquo;s
+proposal. The suspensive veto was therefore adopted. As the
+king had no power of dissolution, it was an idle form. Mounier
+and his friends having resigned their places in the Constitutional
+Committee, it came to an end and the Assembly elected a new
+Committee which represented the opinions of the Left.</p>
+
+<p>Soon afterwards a fresh revolt in Paris caused the king and the
+Assembly to migrate thither. The old causes of disorder were
+still working in that city. The scarcity of bread was set down
+to conspirators against the Revolution. Riots were frequent
+and persons supposed hostile to the Assembly and the nation
+were murdered with impunity. The king still had counsellors
+who wished for his departure as a means to regaining freedom
+of action. At the end of September the Flanders regiment came
+to Versailles to reinforce the Gardes du Corps. The officers of
+the Gardes du Corps entertained the officers of the Flanders
+regiment and of the Versailles National Guard at dinner in the
+palace. The king, queen and dauphin visited the company.
+There followed a vehement outbreak of loyalty. Rumour
+enlarged the incident into a military plot against freedom.
+Those who wanted a more thorough revolution wrought up the
+<span class="sidenote">Removal of the royal family and Assembly to Paris.</span>
+crowd and even respectable citizens wished to have the
+king among them and amenable to their opinion. On
+the 5th of October a mob which had gathered to
+assault the Hôtel de Ville was diverted into a march on
+Versailles. Lafayette was slow to follow it and, when
+he arrived, took insufficient precautions. At daybreak
+on the 6th some of the rioters made their way into the palace
+and stormed the apartment of the queen who escaped with
+difficulty. At length the National Guards arrived and the mob
+was quieted by the announcement that the king had resolved
+to go to Paris. The Assembly declared itself inseparable from
+the king&rsquo;s person. Louis and his family reached Paris on the
+same evening and took up their abode in the Tuileries. A
+little later the Assembly established itself in the riding school
+of the palace. Thenceforward the king and queen were to all
+intents prisoners. The Assembly itself was subject to constant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span>
+intimidation. Many members of the Right gave up the struggle
+and emigrated, or at least withdrew from attendance, so that the
+Left became supreme.</p>
+
+<p>Mirabeau had already taken alarm at the growing violence of
+the Revolution. In September he had foretold that it would
+not stop short of the death of both king and queen.
+After the insurrection of October he sought to communicate
+<span class="sidenote">Mirabeau and the court.</span>
+with them through his friend the comte de
+la Marck. In a remarkable correspondence he sketched
+a policy for the king. The abolition of privilege and the establishment
+of a parliamentary system were, he wrote, unalterable
+facts which it would be madness to dispute. But a strong
+executive authority was essential, and a king who frankly adopted
+the Revolution might still be powerful. In order to rally the
+sound part of the nation Louis should leave Paris, and, if necessary,
+he should prepare for a civil war; but he should never
+appeal to foreign powers. Neither the king nor the queen could
+grasp the wisdom of this advice. They distrusted Mirabeau as
+an unscrupulous adventurer, and were confirmed in this feeling
+by his demands for money. His correspondence with the court,
+although secret, was suspected. The politicians who envied
+his talents and believed him a rascal raised the cry of treason.
+In the Assembly Mirabeau, though sometimes successful on
+particular questions, never had a chance of giving effect to his
+policy as a whole. Whether even he could have controlled the
+Revolution is highly doubtful; but his letters and minutes drawn
+up for the king form the most striking monument of his genius
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mirabeau</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montmorin de Saint-Hérem</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Early in the year 1790 a dispute with England concerning
+the frontier in North America induced the Spanish government
+to claim the help of France under the Family Compact.
+This demand led the Assembly to consider in what
+<span class="sidenote">The Assembly and the royal power.</span>
+hands the power of concluding alliances and of making
+peace and war should be placed. Mirabeau tried to
+keep the initiative for the king, subject to confirmation
+by the Chamber. On Barnave&rsquo;s motion the Assembly decreed that
+the legislature should have the power of war and peace and the
+king a merely advisory power. Mirabeau was defeated on another
+point of the highest consequence, the inclusion of ministers
+in the National Assembly. His colleagues generally adhered to
+the principle that the legislative and executive powers should be
+totally separate. The Left assumed that, if deputies could hold
+office, the king would have the means of corrupting the ablest
+and most influential. It was decreed that no deputy should
+be minister while sitting in the House or for two years after.
+Ministers excluded from the House being necessarily objects
+of suspicion, the Assembly was careful to allow them the least
+possible power. The old provinces were abolished, and France
+was divided anew into eighty departments. Each department
+<span class="sidenote">Reorganization of France.</span>
+was subdivided into districts, cantons and communes.
+The main business of administration, even the levying
+of taxes, was entrusted to the elective local authorities.
+The judicature was likewise made elective. The army
+and the navy were so organized as to leave the king but a small
+share in appointing officers and to leave the officers but scanty
+means of maintaining discipline. Even the cases in which the
+sovereign might be deposed were foreseen and expressly stated.
+Monarchy was retained, but the monarch was regarded as a possible
+traitor and every precaution was taken to render him harmless
+even at the cost of having no effective national government.</p>
+
+<p>The distrust which the Assembly felt for the actual ministers
+led it to undertake the business of government as well as the
+business of reform. There were committees for all
+the chief departments of state, a committee for the
+<span class="sidenote">Executive committees of the Assembly.</span>
+army, a committee for the navy, another for diplomacy,
+another for finance. These committees sometimes
+asked the ministers for information, but rarely took their advice.
+Even Necker found the Assembly heedless of his counsels. The
+condition of the treasury became worse day by day. The yield
+of the indirect taxes fell off through the interruption of business,
+and the direct taxes were in large measure withheld, for want of
+an authority to enforce payment. With some trouble Necker
+induced the Assembly to sanction first a loan of 30,000,000
+livres and then a loan of 80,000,000 livres. The public having
+shown no eagerness to subscribe, Necker proposed that every
+man should be invited to make a patriotic contribution of one-fourth
+of his income. This expedient also failed. On the 10th
+<span class="sidenote">Confiscation of church property.</span>
+of October 1789 Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, proposed
+that the Assembly should take possession of the lands
+of the church. In November the Assembly enacted
+that they should be at the disposal of the nation, which
+would provide for the maintenance of the clergy. Since the
+church lands were supposed to occupy one-fifth of France, the
+Assembly thought that it had found an inexhaustible source
+of public wealth. On the security of the church lands it based
+a paper currency (the famous assignats). In December it ordered
+an issue to the amount of 400,000,000 livres. As the revenue
+still declined and the reforms enacted by the Assembly involved
+<span class="sidenote">The assignats.</span>
+a heavy outlay, it recurred again and again to this expedient.
+Before its dissolution the Assembly had authorized
+the creation of 1,800,000,000 livres of assignats and
+the depreciation of its paper had begun. Finding that
+he had lost all credit with the Assembly, Necker resigned office
+and left France in September 1790.</p>
+
+<p>Even the committees of the Assembly had far less power
+than the new municipal authorities throughout France. They
+really governed so far as there was any government.
+Often full of public spirit, they lacked experience and
+<span class="sidenote">Power of the municipalities and popular clubs.</span>
+in a time of peculiar difficulty had no guide save their
+own discretion. They opened letters, arrested suspects,
+controlled the trade in corn, and sent their National
+Guards on such errands as they thought proper.
+The political clubs which sprang up all over the country often
+presumed to act as though they were public authorities (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jacobins</a></span>). The revolutionary journalists, Desmoulins in his
+<i>Révolutions de France et de Brabant</i>, Loustallot in his <i>Révolutions
+de Paris</i>, Marat in his <i>Ami du peuple</i>, continued to feed the
+fire of discord. Amid this anarchy it became a practice for the
+National Guards of different districts to form federations, that
+is, to meet and swear loyalty to each other and obedience to the
+laws made by the National Assembly. At the suggestion of the
+municipality of Paris the Assembly decreed a general federation
+of all France, to be held on the anniversary of the fall of the
+Bastille. The ceremony took place in the Champ de Mars (July
+14, 1790) in presence of the king, the queen, the Assembly,
+and an enormous concourse of spectators. It was attended by
+deputations from the National Guards in every part of the
+kingdom, from the regular regiments, and from the crews of the
+fleet. Talleyrand celebrated Mass, and Lafayette was the first
+to swear fidelity to the Assembly and the nation. In this gathering
+the provincial deputations caught the revolutionary fever
+of Paris. Still graver was the effect upon the regular army.
+It had been disaffected since the outbreak of the Revolution.
+The rank and file complained of their food, their lodging and
+their pay. The non-commissioned officers, often intelligent
+<span class="sidenote">Disaffection in the army.</span>
+and hard-working, were embittered by the refusal
+of promotion. The officers, almost all nobles, rarely
+showed much concern for their men, and were often
+mere courtiers and triflers. After the festival of the
+federation the soldiers were drawn into the political clubs, and
+named regimental committees to defend their interests. Not
+content with asking for redress of grievances, they sometimes
+seized the regimental chest or imprisoned their officers. In
+August a formidable outbreak at Nancy was only quelled with
+much loss of life. Desertion became more frequent than ever, and
+the officers, finding their position unbearable, began to emigrate.
+Similar causes produced an even worse effect upon the navy.</p>
+
+<p>By its rough handling of the church the Assembly brought
+fresh trouble upon France. The suppression of tithe and the
+confiscation of church lands had reduced the clergy to
+live on whatever stipend the legislature might think fit
+<span class="sidenote">Civil constitution of the clergy.</span>
+to give them. A law of February 1790 suppressed the
+religious orders not engaged in education or in works of
+charity, and forbade the introduction of new ones. Monastic vows
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span>
+were deprived of legal force and a pension was granted to the
+religious who were cast upon the world. These measures aroused
+no serious discontent; but the so-called civil constitution of
+the clergy went much further. Old ecclesiastical divisions were
+set aside. Henceforth the diocese was to be conterminous with
+the department, and the parish with the commune. The electors
+of the commune were to choose the curé, the electors of the department
+the bishop. Every curé was to receive at least 1200 livres
+(about £50) a year. Relatively modest stipends were assigned
+to bishops and archbishops. French citizens were forbidden to
+acknowledge any ecclesiastical jurisdiction outside the kingdom.
+The Assembly not only adopted this constitution but decreed
+that all beneficed ecclesiastics should swear to its observance.
+As the constitution implicitly abrogated the papal authority and
+entrusted the choice of bishops and curés to electors who often
+were not Catholics, most of the clergy declined to swear and lost
+their preferments. Their places were filled by election. Thenceforwards
+the clergy were divided into hostile factions, the Constitutionals
+and the Nonjurors. As the generality of Frenchmen
+at that time were orthodox although not zealous Catholics,
+the Nonjurors carried with them a large part of the laity. The
+Assembly was misled by its Jansenist, Protestant and Free-thinking
+members, natural enemies of an established church
+which had persecuted them to the best of its power.</p>
+
+<p>In colonial affairs the Assembly acted with the same imprudence.
+Eager to set an example of suppressing slavery, it
+took measures which prepared a terrible negro insurrection
+in St Domingo. With regard to foreign relations
+<span class="sidenote">The Assembly, the colonies, and foreign powers.</span>
+the Assembly showed itself well-meaning but indiscreet.
+It protested in good faith that it desired no conquests
+and aimed only at peace. Yet it laid down maxims
+which involved the utmost danger of war. It held
+that no treaty could be binding without the national consent.
+As this consent had not been given to any existing treaty, they
+were all liable to be revised by the French government without
+consulting the other parties. Thus the Assembly treated the
+Family Compact as null and void. Similarly, when it abolished
+feudal tenures in France, it ignored the fact that the rights of
+certain German princes over lands in Alsace were guaranteed by
+the treaties of Westphalia. It offered them compensation in
+money, and when this was declined, took no heed of their protests.
+Again, in the papal territory of Avignon a large number of
+the inhabitants declared for union with France. The Assembly
+could hardly be restrained by Mirabeau from acting upon their
+vote and annexing Avignon. Some time after his death it was
+annexed. The other states of Europe did not admit the doctrines
+of the Assembly, but peace was not broken. Foreign statesmen
+who flattered themselves that France was sinking into anarchy
+and therefore into decay were content to follow their respective
+ambitions without the dread of French interference.</p>
+
+<p>Deprived of authority and in fact a prisoner, Louis had for
+many months acquiesced in the decrees of the Assembly however
+distasteful. But the civil constitution of the clergy
+wounded him in his conscience as well as in his pride.
+<span class="sidenote">Attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from Paris.</span>
+From the autumn of 1790 onwards he began to scheme
+for his liberation. Himself incapable of strenuous
+effort, he was spurred on by Marie Antoinette, who
+keenly felt her own degradation and the curtailment of that
+royal prerogative which her son would one day inherit. The king
+and queen failed to measure the forces which had caused the
+Revolution. They ascribed all their misfortunes to the work of
+a malignant faction, and believed that, if they could escape from
+Paris, a display of force by friendly powers would enable them
+to restore the supremacy of the crown. But no foreign ruler,
+not even the emperor Leopold II., gave the king or queen any
+encouragement. Whatever secrecy they might observe, the
+adherents of the Revolution divined their wish to escape. When
+Louis tried to leave the Tuileries for St Cloud at Easter 1791,
+in order to enjoy the ministrations of a nonjuring priest, the
+National Guards of Paris would not let him budge. Mirabeau,
+who had always dissuaded the king from seeking foreign help,
+died on the 2nd of April. Finally the king and queen resolved to
+fly to the army of the East, which the marquis de Bouillé had in
+some measure kept under discipline. Sheltered by him they could
+await foreign succour or a reaction at home. On the evening
+of the 20th of June they escaped from the Tuileries. Louis left
+behind him a declaration complaining of the treatment which he
+had received and revoking his assent to all measures which had
+been laid before him while under restraint. On the following
+day the royal party was captured at Varennes and sent back to
+Paris. The king&rsquo;s eldest brother, the count of Provence, who had
+laid his plans much better, made his escape to Brussels and joined
+the <i>émigrés</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It was no longer possible to pretend that the Revolution had
+been made with the free consent of the king. Some Republicans
+called for his deposition. Afraid to take a course which involved
+danger both at home and abroad, the Assembly decreed that
+Louis should be suspended from his office. The club of the
+Cordeliers (<i>q.v.</i>), led by Danton, demanded not only his deposition
+but his trial. A petition to that effect having been exposed for
+signature on the altar in the Champ de Mars, a disturbance ensued
+and the National Guard fired on the crowd, killing a few and
+wounding many. This incident afterwards became known as
+the massacre of the Champ de Mars. On the other hand, the
+leaders of the Left, Barnave and the Lameths, felt that they had
+weakened the executive power too much. They would gladly
+have come to an understanding with the king and revised the
+constitution so as to strengthen his prerogative. They failed in
+both objects. Louis and still more Marie Antoinette regarded
+them with incurable distrust. The Constitutional Act without
+any material change was voted on the 3rd of September.
+On the 14th Louis swore to the Constitution, thus regaining his
+nominal sovereignty. The National Assembly was dissolved
+on the 30th. Upon Robespierre&rsquo;s motion it had decreed that
+none of its members should be capable of sitting in the next
+legislature.</p>
+
+<p>If we view the work of the National Assembly as a whole, we
+are struck by the immense demolition which it effected. No
+other legislature has ever destroyed so much in the
+same time. The old form of government, the old
+<span class="sidenote">Review of the work of the National Assembly.</span>
+territorial divisions, the old fiscal system, the old
+judicature, the old army and navy, the old relations
+of Church and State, the old law relating to property
+in land, all were shattered. Such a destruction could not have
+been effected without the support of popular opinion. Most of
+what the Assembly did had been suggested in the <i>cahiers</i>, and
+many of its decrees were anticipated by actual revolt. In its
+constructive work many sound maxims were embodied. It
+asserted the principles of civil equality and freedom of conscience,
+it reformed the criminal law, and laid down a just scheme of
+taxation. Not intelligence and public spirit but political wisdom
+was lacking to the National Assembly. Its members did not
+suspect how limited is the usefulness of general propositions in
+practical life. Nor did they perceive that new ideas can be
+applied only by degrees in an old world. The Constitution of
+1791 was impracticable and did not last a year. The civil constitution
+of the clergy was wholly mischievous. In the attempt
+to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an
+empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, a people
+debauched by safe and successful riot.</p>
+
+<p>At the elections of 1791 the party which desired to carry the
+Revolution further had a success out of all keeping with its
+numbers. This was due partly to a weariness of politics
+which had come over the majority of French citizens,
+<span class="sidenote">The Legislative Assembly.</span>
+partly to downright intimidation exercised by the
+Jacobin Club and by its affiliated societies throughout
+the kingdom. The Legislative Assembly met on the 1st of
+October. It consisted of 745 members. Few were nobles, very few
+were clergymen, and the great body was drawn from the middle
+class. The members were generally young, and, since none had
+sat in the previous Assembly, they were wholly without experience.
+The Right consisted of the Feuillants (<i>q.v.</i>). They
+numbered about 160, and among them were some able men, such
+as Matthieu Dumas and Bigot de Préamenau, but they were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span>
+guided chiefly by persons outside the House, because incapable
+of re-election, Barnave, Duport and the Lameths. The Left consisted
+of the Jacobins, a term which still included the party
+afterwards known as the Girondins or Girondists (<i>q.v.</i>)&mdash;so
+termed because several of their leaders came from the region of
+the Gironde in southern France. They numbered about 330.
+Among the extreme Left sat Cambon, Couthon, Merlin de
+Thionville. The Girondins could claim the most brilliant orators,
+Vergniaud, Guadet, Isnard. Inferior to these men in talent,
+Brissot de Warville, a restless pamphleteer, exerted more influence
+over the party which has sometimes gone by his name. The Left
+as a whole was republican, although it did not care to say so.
+Strong in numbers, it was reinforced by the disorderly elements
+in Paris and throughout France. The remainder of the House,
+about 250 deputies, scarcely belonged to any definite party,
+but voted oftenest with the Left, as the Left was the most
+powerful.</p>
+
+<p>The Left had three objects of enmity: first, the king, the queen
+and the royal family; secondly, the <i>émigrés</i>; and thirdly, the
+clergy. The king could not like the new constitution,
+although, if left to himself, indolence and good nature
+<span class="sidenote">The court and the émigrés.</span>
+might have rendered him passive. The queen throughout
+had only one thought, to shake off the impotence
+and humiliation of the crown; and for this end she still clung
+to the hope of foreign succour and corresponded with Vienna.
+Those <i>émigrés</i> who had assembled in arms on the territories of
+the electors of Mainz and Treves (Trier) and in the Austrian
+Netherlands had put themselves in the position of public enemies.
+Their chiefs were the king&rsquo;s brothers, who affected to consider
+Louis as a captive and his acts as therefore invalid. The count
+of Provence gave himself the airs of a regent and surrounded
+himself with a ministry. The <i>émigrés</i> were not, however,
+dangerous. They were only a few thousand strong; they had no
+competent leader and no money; they were unwelcome to the
+rulers whose hospitality they abused. The nonjuring clergy,
+although harassed by the local authorities, kept the respect and
+confidence of most Catholics. No acts of disloyalty were proved
+against them, and commissioners of the National Assembly
+reported to its successor that their flocks only desired to be let
+alone. But the anti-clerical bias of the Legislative Assembly
+was too strong for such a policy.</p>
+
+<p>The king&rsquo;s ministers, named by him and excluded from the
+Assembly, were mostly persons of little mark. Montmorin gave
+up the portfolio of foreign affairs on the 31st of October and was
+succeeded by De Lessart. Cahier de Gerville was minister of
+the interior; Tarbé, minister of finance; and Bertrand de Molleville,
+minister of marine. But the only minister who influenced
+the course of affairs was the comte de Narbonne, minister of
+war.</p>
+
+<p>On the 9th of November the Assembly decreed that the <i>émigrés</i>
+assembled on the frontiers should be liable to the penalties of
+death and confiscation unless they returned to France
+by the 1st of January following. Louis did not love
+<span class="sidenote">The king and the nonjurors.</span>
+his brothers, and he detested their policy, which
+without rendering him any service made his liberty
+and even his life precarious; yet, loath to condemn them to death,
+he vetoed the decree. On the 29th of November the Assembly
+decreed that every nonjuring clergyman must take within eight
+days the civic oath, substantially the same as the oath previously
+administered, on pain of losing his pension and, if any troubles
+broke out, of being deported. This decree Louis vetoed as a
+matter of conscience. In either case his resistance only served
+to give a weapon to his enemies in the Assembly. But foreign
+affairs were at this time the most critical. The armed bodies of
+<i>émigrés</i> on the territory of the Empire afforded matter of complaint
+to France. The persistence of the French in refusing more
+than a money compensation to the German princes who had
+claims in Alsace afforded matter of complaint to the Empire.
+Foreign statesmen noticed with alarm the effect of the French
+Revolution upon opinion in their own countries, and they
+resented the endeavours of French revolutionists to make
+converts there. Of these statesmen, the emperor Leopold was
+the most intelligent. He had skilfully extricated himself from
+the embarrassments at home and abroad left by his predecessor
+Joseph. He was bound by family ties to Louis, and he was
+obliged, as chief of the Holy Roman Empire, to protect the border
+princes. On the other hand, he understood the weakness of the
+Habsburg monarchy. He knew that the Austrian Netherlands,
+where he had with difficulty restored his authority, were full of
+friends of the Revolution and that a French army would be welcomed
+by many Belgians. He despised the weakness and the
+folly of the <i>émigrés</i> and excluded them from his councils. He
+earnestly desired to avoid a war which might endanger his sister
+or her husband. In August 1791 he had met Frederick William
+<span class="sidenote">Declaration of Pillnitz.</span>
+II. of Prussia at Pillnitz near Dresden, and the two
+monarchs had joined in a declaration that they considered
+the restoration of order and of monarchy in
+France an object of interest to all sovereigns. They
+further declared that they would be ready to act for this purpose
+in concert with the other powers. This declaration appears to
+have been drawn from Leopold by pressure of circumstances.
+He well knew that concerted action of the powers was impossible,
+as the English government had firmly resolved not to meddle with
+French affairs. After Louis had accepted the constitution,
+Leopold virtually withdrew his declaration. Nevertheless it
+was a grave error of judgment and contributed to the approaching
+war.</p>
+
+<p>In France many persons desired war for various reasons.
+Narbonne trusted to find in it the means of restoring a certain
+authority to the crown and limiting the Revolution. He contemplated
+a war with Austria only. The Girondins desired war
+in the hope that it would enable them to abolish monarchy
+altogether. They desired a general war because they believed
+that it would carry the Revolution into other countries and make
+it secure in France by making it universal. The extreme Left
+had the same objects, but it held that a war for those objects could
+not safely be entrusted to the king and his ministers. Victory
+would revive the power of the crown; defeat would be the undoing
+of the Revolution. Hence Robespierre and those who
+thought with him desired peace. The French nation generally
+had never approved of the Austrian alliance, and regarded the
+Habsburgs as traditional enemies. The king and queen, however,
+who looked for help from abroad and especially from Leopold,
+dreaded a war with Austria and had no faith in the schemes of
+Narbonne. Nor was France in a condition to wage a serious war.
+The constitution was unworkable and the governing authorities
+were mutually hostile. The finances remained in disorder, and
+assignats of the face value of 900,000,000 livres were issued by
+the Legislative Assembly in less than a year. The army had been
+thinned by desertion and was enervated by long indiscipline.
+The fortresses were in bad condition and short of supplies.</p>
+
+<p>In October Leopold ordered the dispersion of the <i>émigrés</i> who
+had mustered in arms in the Austrian Netherlands. His example
+was followed by the electors of Treves and Mainz. At the same
+time they implored the emperor&rsquo;s protection, and the Austrian
+chancellor Kaunitz informed Noailles the French ambassador
+that this protection would be given if necessary. Narbonne
+demanded a credit of 20,000,000 livres, which the Assembly
+granted. He made a tour of inspection in the north of France
+and reported untruly to the Assembly that all was in readiness
+for war. On the 14th of January 1792 the diplomatic committee
+reported to the Assembly that the emperor should be required to
+give satisfactory assurances before the 10th of February. The
+Assembly put off the term to the 1st of March. In February
+Leopold concluded a defensive treaty with Frederick William.
+But there was no mutual confidence between the sovereigns, who
+were at that very time pursuing opposite policies with regard to
+Poland. Leopold still hesitated and still hoped to avoid war. He
+died on the 1st of March, and the imperial dignity became vacant.
+The hereditary dominions of Austria passed to his son Francis,
+afterwards the emperor Francis II., a youth of small abilities and
+no experience. The real conduct of affairs fell, therefore, to the
+aged Kaunitz. In France Narbonne failed to carry the king or
+his colleagues along with him. The king took courage to dismiss
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span>
+him on the 9th of March, whereupon the assembly testified its
+confidence in Narbonne. De Lessart having incurred its anger
+by the tameness of his replies to Austrian dictation, the Assembly
+voted his impeachment.</p>
+
+<p>The king, seeing no other course open, formed a new ministry
+which was chiefly Girondin. Roland became minister of the
+interior, Clavière of finance, De Grave of war, and
+Lacoste of marine. Far abler and more resolute than
+<span class="sidenote">War declared against Austria.</span>
+any of these men was Dumouriez, the new minister
+for foreign affairs. A soldier by profession, he had
+been employed in the secret diplomacy of Louis XV. and had thus
+gained a wide knowledge of international politics. He stood
+aloof from parties and had no rigid principles, but held views
+closely resembling those of Narbonne. He wished for a war with
+Austria which should restore some influence to the crown and
+make himself the arbiter of France. The king bent to necessity,
+and on the 20th of April came to the Assembly with the proposal
+that war should be declared against Austria. It was carried by
+acclamation. Dumouriez intended to begin with an invasion
+of the Austrian Netherlands. As this would awaken English
+jealousy, he sent Talleyrand to London with assurances that,
+if victorious, the French would annex no territory.</p>
+
+<p>It was designed that the French should invade the Netherlands
+at three points simultaneously. Lafayette was to march against
+Namur, Biron against Mons, and Dillon against Tournay. But
+the first movement disclosed the miserable state of the army.
+Smitten with panic, Dillon&rsquo;s force fled at sight of the enemy, and
+Dillon, after receiving a wound from one of his own soldiers,
+was murdered by the mob of Lille. Biron was easily routed
+before Mons. On hearing of these disasters Lafayette found it
+necessary to retreat. This shameful discomfiture quickened all
+the suspicion and jealousy fermenting in France. De Grave had
+to resign and was succeeded by Servan. The Austrian forces in
+the Netherlands were, however, so weak that they could not take
+the offensive. Austria demanded help from Prussia under the
+recent alliance, and the claim was admitted. Prussia declared
+war against France, and the duke of Brunswick was chosen to
+command the allied forces, but various causes delayed action.
+Austrian and Prussian interests clashed in Poland. The Austrian
+government wished to preserve a harmless neighbour. The
+Prussian government desired another partition and a large tract
+of Polish territory. Only after long discussion was it agreed that
+Prussia should be free to act in Poland, while Austria might find
+compensation in provinces conquered from France.</p>
+
+<p>A respite was thus given and something was done to improve
+the army. Meantime the Assembly passed three decrees: one
+for the deportation of nonjuring priests, another to suppress the
+king&rsquo;s Constitutional Guard, and a third for the establishment
+of a camp of <i>fédérés</i> near Paris. Louis consented to sacrifice
+his guard, but vetoed the other decrees. Roland having addressed
+to him an arrogant letter of remonstrance, the king with the
+support of Dumouriez dismissed Roland, Servan and Clavière.
+Dumouriez then took the ministry of war, and the other places
+were filled with such men as could be had. Dumouriez, who
+cared only for the successful prosecution of the war, urged the
+king to accept the decrees. As Louis was obstinate, he felt that
+he could do no more, resigned office on the 15th of June and
+<span class="sidenote">Émeute of the 20th of June 1792.</span>
+went to join the army of the north. Lafayette, who
+remained faithful to the constitution of 1791, ventured
+on a letter of remonstrance to the Assembly. It paid
+no attention, for Lafayette could no longer sway the
+people. The Jacobins tried to frighten the king into accepting the
+decrees and recalling his ministers. On the 20th of June the
+armed populace invaded the hall of the Assembly and the royal
+apartments in the Tuileries. For some hours the king and queen
+were in the utmost peril. With passive courage Louis refrained
+from making any promise to the insurgents.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of the insurrection encouraged a movement in
+favour of the king. Some twenty thousand Parisians signed a
+petition expressing sympathy with Louis. Addresses of like
+tenour poured in from the departments and the provincial cities.
+Lafayette himself came to Paris in the hope of rallying the
+constitutional party, but the king and queen eluded his offers of
+assistance. They had always disliked and distrusted Lafayette
+and the Feuillants, and preferred to rest their hopes of deliverance
+on the foreigner. Lafayette returned to his troops without having
+effected anything. The Girondins made a last advance to Louis,
+offering to save the monarchy if he would accept them as
+ministers. His refusal united all the Jacobins in the project of
+overturning the monarchy by force. The ruling spirit of this new
+revolution was Danton, a barrister only thirty-two years of age,
+who had not sat in either Assembly, although he had been the
+leader of the Cordeliers, an advanced republican club, and had
+a strong hold on the common people of Paris. Danton and his
+friends were assisted in their work by the fear of invasion, for
+the allied army was at length mustering on the frontier. The
+Assembly declared the country in danger. All the regular troops
+in or near Paris were sent to the front. Volunteers and <i>fédérés</i>
+were constantly arriving in Paris, and, although most went on to
+join the army, the Jacobins enlisted those who were suitable for
+their purpose, especially some 500 whom Barbaroux, a Girondin,
+had summoned from Marseilles. At the same time the National
+Guard was opened to the lowest class. Brunswick&rsquo;s famous
+declaration of the 25th of July, announcing that the allies would
+enter France to restore the royal authority and would visit the
+Assembly and the city of Paris with military execution if any
+further outrage were offered to the king, heated the republican
+spirit to fury. It was resolved to strike the decisive blow on the
+10th of August.</p>
+
+<p>On the night of the 9th a new revolutionary Commune took
+possession of the hôtel de ville, and early on the morning of the
+10th the insurgents assailed the Tuileries. As the
+preparations of the Jacobins had been notorious, some
+<span class="sidenote">Rising of the 10th of August.</span>
+measures of defence had been taken. Beside a few
+gentlemen in arms and a number of National Guards
+the palace was garrisoned by the Swiss Guard, about 950 strong.
+The disparity of force was not so great as to make resistance
+altogether hopeless. But Louis let himself be persuaded into
+betraying his own cause and retiring with his family under the
+shelter of the Assembly. The National Guards either dispersed
+or fraternized with the assailants. The Swiss Guard stood firm,
+and, possibly by accident, a fusillade began. The enemy were
+gaining ground when the Swiss received an order from the king to
+cease firing and withdraw. They were mostly shot down as they
+were retiring, and of those who surrendered many were murdered
+in cold blood next day. The king and queen spent long hours in
+a reporter&rsquo;s box while the Assembly discussed their fate and the
+fate of the French monarchy. Little more than a third of the
+deputies were present and they were almost all Jacobins. They
+decreed that Louis should be suspended from his office and that
+a convention should be summoned to give France a new constitution.
+An executive council was formed by recalling Roland,
+Clavière and Servan to office and joining with them Danton as
+minister of justice, Lebrun as minister of foreign affairs, and
+Monge as minister of marine.</p>
+
+<p>When Lafayette heard of the insurrection in Paris he tried
+to rally his troops in defence of the constitution, but they refused
+to follow him. He was driven to cross the frontier
+and surrender himself to the Austrians. Dumouriez
+<span class="sidenote">The revolutionary Commune of Paris.</span>
+was named his successor. But the new government was
+still beset with danger. It had no root in law and little
+hold on public opinion. It could not lean on the Assembly, a
+mere shrunken remnant, whose days were numbered. It remained
+dependent on the power which had set it up, the revolutionary
+Commune of Paris. The Commune could therefore extort
+what concessions it pleased. It got the custody of the king and
+his family who were imprisoned in the Temple. Having obtained
+an indefinite power of arrest, it soon filled the prisons of Paris.
+As the elections to the Convention were close at hand, the Commune
+resolved to strike the public with terror by the slaughter
+of its prisoners. It found its opportunity in the progress of
+invasion. On the 19th Brunswick crossed the frontier. On the
+22nd Longwy surrendered. Verdun was invested and seemed
+likely to fall. On the 1st of September the Commune decreed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span>
+that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all able-bodied
+citizens convened in the Champs de Mars, and 60,000
+<span class="sidenote">The September massacres.</span>
+volunteers enrolled for the defence of the country.
+While this assembly was in progress gangs of assassins
+were sent to the prisons and began a butchery which
+lasted four days and consumed 1400 victims. The Commune
+addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France
+inviting them to follow the example. A number of state prisoners
+awaiting trial at Orleans were ordered to Paris and on the way
+were murdered at Versailles. The Assembly offered a feeble
+resistance to these crimes. Danton can hardly be acquitted of
+connivance at them. Roland hinted disapproval, but did not
+venture more. He with many other Girondins had been marked
+for slaughter in the original project.</p>
+
+<p>The elections to the Convention were by almost universal
+suffrage, but indifference or intimidation reduced the voters to a
+small number. Many who had sat in the National,
+and many more who had sat in the Legislative
+<span class="sidenote">The National Convention.</span>
+Assembly were returned. The Convention met on the
+20th of September. Like the previous assemblies,
+it did not fall into well-defined parties. The success of the
+Jacobins in overthrowing the monarchy had ended their union.
+Thenceforwards the name of Jacobin was confined to the smaller
+and more fanatical group, while the rest came to be known as
+the Girondins. The Jacobins, about 100 strong, formed the Left
+of the Convention, afterwards known from the raised benches on
+which they sat as the Mountain (<i>q.v.</i>). The Girondins, numbering
+perhaps 180, formed the Right. The rest of the House, nearly
+500 members, voted now on one side now on the other, until in
+the course of the Terror they fell under the Jacobin domination.
+This neutral mass is often termed the Plain, in allusion to its
+seats on the floor of the House. The Convention as a whole was
+Republican, if not on principle, from the feeling that no other
+<span class="sidenote">Abolition of the monarchy.</span>
+form of government could be established. It decreed
+the abolition of monarchy on the 21st of September.
+A committee was named to draft a new constitution,
+which was presented and decreed in the following June,
+but never took effect and was superseded by a third constitution
+in 1795. The actual government of France was by committees
+of the Convention, but some months passed before it could be
+fully organized.</p>
+
+<p>The inner history of the Convention was strange and terrible.
+It turned on the successive schisms in the ruling minority.
+Whichever side prevailed destroyed its adversaries
+only to divide afresh and renew the strife until the
+<span class="sidenote">Jacobins and Girondins.</span>
+victors were at length so reduced that their yoke was
+shaken off and the mass of the Convention, hitherto
+benumbed by fear, resumed its freedom and the government of
+France. The first and most memorable of these contests was
+the quarrel between Jacobin and Girondin. Both parties were
+republican and democratic; both wished to complete the Revolution;
+both were determined to maintain the integrity of France.
+But they differed in circumstances and temperament. Although
+the leaders on both sides were of the middle class, the Girondins
+represented the <i>bourgeoisie</i>, the Jacobins represented the populace.
+The Girondins desired a speedy return to law and order; the
+Jacobins thought that they could keep power only by violence.
+The Jacobins leant on the revolutionary commune and the mob
+of Paris; the Girondins leant on the thriving burghers of the
+provincial cities. Despite their smaller number the Jacobins were
+victors. They were the more resolute and unscrupulous. The
+Girondins numbered many orators, but not one man of action.
+The Jacobins controlled the parent club with its affiliated societies
+and the whole machinery of terror. The Girondins had no
+organized force at their disposal. The Jacobins perpetuated in
+a new form the old centralization of power to which France was
+accustomed. The Girondins addressed themselves to provincials
+who had lost the power of initiative. They were termed federalists
+by their enemies and accused, unjustly enough, of wishing
+to dissolve the national unity.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the first days of the Convention the feud broke out.
+The Girondins condemned the September massacres and dreaded
+the Parisian populace. Barbaroux accused Robespierre of aiming
+at a dictatorship, and Buzot demanded a guard recruited in the
+departments to protect the Convention. In October Louvet
+reiterated the charge against Robespierre, and Barbaroux called
+for the dissolution of the Commune of Paris. But the Girondins
+gained no tangible result from this wordy warfare. For a time
+the question how to dispose of the king diverted the thoughts of
+all parties. It was approached in a political, not in a judicial
+spirit. The Jacobins desired the death of Louis, partly because
+they hated kings and deemed him a traitor, partly because they
+wished to envenom the Revolution, defy Europe and compromise
+their more temperate colleagues. The Girondins wished to spare
+Louis, but were afraid of incurring the reproach of royalism.
+At this critical moment the discovery of the famous iron chest,
+containing papers which showed that many public men had
+intrigued with the court, was disastrous for Louis. Members of
+the Convention were anxious to be thought severe lest they should
+be thought corrupt. Robespierre frankly demanded that Louis
+as a public enemy should be put to death without form of trial.
+The majority shrank from such open injustice and decreed on
+the 3rd of December that Louis should be tried by the Convention.</p>
+
+<p>A committee of twenty-one was chosen to frame the indictment
+against Louis, and on the 11th of December he was brought to
+the bar for the first time to hear the charges read.
+The most essential might be summed up in the statement
+<span class="sidenote">Trial and execution of Louis XVI.</span>
+that he had plotted against the Constitution and
+against the safety of the kingdom. On the 26th Louis
+appeared at the bar a second time, and the trial began. The
+advocates of Louis could plead that all his actions down to the
+dissolution of the National Assembly came within the amnesty
+then granted, and that the Constitution had proclaimed his
+person inviolable, while enacting for certain offences the penalty
+of deposition which he had already undergone. Such arguments
+were not likely to weigh with such a tribunal. The
+Mountain called for immediate sentence of death; the Girondins
+desired an appeal to the people of France. The galleries of the
+Convention were packed with adherents of the Jacobins, whose
+fury, not confined to words, struck terror into all who might
+incline towards mercy. In Paris unmistakable signs announced
+a new insurrection, to be followed perhaps by new massacres.
+On the question whether Louis was guilty none ventured to give
+a negative vote. The motion for an appeal to the people was
+rejected by 424 votes to 283. The penalty of death was adopted
+by 361 votes against 360 in favour of other penalties or of postponing
+at least the execution of the sentence. On the 21st of
+January 1793 Louis was beheaded in the Place de la Révolution,
+now the Place de la Concorde.</p>
+
+<p>Between the deposition and the death of Louis the war had
+run a surprising course. Accompanied by King Frederick
+William, Brunswick had entered France with 80,000
+men, of whom more than half were Prussians, the
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Valmy.</span>
+best soldiers in Europe. The disorder of France was
+such that many expected a triumphal march to Paris. But the
+Allies had opened the campaign late; they moved slowly;
+the weather broke, and sickness began to waste their ranks.
+Dumouriez succeeded in rousing the spirit of the French; he
+occupied the defiles of the forest of Argonne, thus causing the
+enemy to lose many valuable days, and when at last they turned
+his position, he retreated without loss. At Valmy on the 20th
+of September the two armies came in contact. The affair was
+only a cannonade, but the French stood firm and the advance of
+the Allies was stayed. Brunswick had no heart for his work;
+the king was ill satisfied with the Austrians, and both were alarmed
+by the ravages of disease among the soldiers. Within ten days
+after the affair of Valmy they began their retreat. Dumouriez,
+who still hoped to detach Prussia from Austria, left them unmolested.
+When the enemy had quitted France, he invaded
+Hainaut and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes on the 6th of
+November. In Belgium a large party regarded the French as
+deliverers. Dumouriez entered Brussels without further resistance,
+and was soon master of the whole country. Elsewhere
+the French were equally successful. With a slight force Custine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span>
+assailed the electorate of Mainz. The common people were
+friendly, and he had no trouble in occupying the country as far
+as the Rhine. The king of Sardinia having shown a hostile
+temper, Montesquiou made an easy conquest of Savoy. At the
+close of 1792 the relative position of France and her enemies
+had been reversed. It was seen that the French were still able
+to wage war, and that the revolutionary spirit had permeated
+the adjoining countries, while the old governments of Europe,
+jealous of one another and uncertain of the loyalty of their
+subjects, were ill qualified for resistance.</p>
+
+<p>Intoxicated with these victories, the Convention abandoned
+itself to the fervour of propaganda and conquest. The river
+Scheldt had been closed to commerce by various treaties to which
+England and Holland, neutral powers, were parties. Without a
+pretence of negotiation the French government declared on the
+16th of November that the Scheldt was thenceforwards open.
+On the 19th a decree of the Convention offered the aid of France
+to all nations which were striving after freedom&mdash;in other words,
+to the malcontents in every neighbouring state. Not long
+afterwards the Convention annexed Savoy, with the consent,
+it should be added, of many Savoyards. On the 15th of
+December the Convention decreed that all peoples freed by its
+assistance should carry out a revolution like that which had
+been made in France on pain of being treated as enemies.
+Towards Great Britain the executive council and the Convention
+behaved with singular folly. There, in spite of a growing antipathy
+to the Revolution, Pitt earnestly desired to maintain peace.
+The conquest of the Netherlands and the symptoms of a wish to
+annex that country made his task most difficult. But the French
+<span class="sidenote">The first coalition against France.</span>
+government underrated the strength of Great Britain,
+imagining that all Englishmen who desired parliamentary
+reform desired revolution, and that a few
+democratic societies represented the nation. When
+Monge announced the intention of attacking Great Britain on
+behalf of the English republicans, the British government and
+nation were thoroughly alarmed and roused; and when the
+news of the execution of Louis XVI. was received, Chauvelin,
+the French envoy, was ordered to quit England. France declared
+war against England and Holland on the 1st of February and
+soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793
+the Empire, the kings of Portugal and Naples and the grand-duke
+of Tuscany declared war against France. Thus was formed
+the first coalition.</p>
+
+<p>France was not prepared to encounter so many enemies.
+Administrative confusion had been heightened by the triumph of
+the Jacobins. Servan was succeeded as minister of war by Pache
+who was incapable and dishonest. The army of Dumouriez was
+left in such want that it dwindled rapidly. The commissioners
+of the Convention plundered the Netherlands with so little
+remorse that the people became bitterly hostile. The attempt to
+enforce a revolution of the French sort on the Catholic and conservative
+Belgians drove them to fury. By every unfair means
+the commissioners extorted the semblance of a popular vote in
+favour of incorporation, and France annexed the Netherlands.
+This was the last outrage. When a new Austrian army under the
+prince of Coburg entered the country, Dumouriez, who had
+invaded Holland, was unable to defend Belgium. On the 18th
+of March he was defeated at Neerwinden, and a few days later he
+was driven back to the frontier. Alike on public and personal
+grounds Dumouriez was the enemy of the government. Trusting
+in his influence over the army he resolved to lead it against the
+Convention, and, in order to secure his rear, he negotiated with
+the enemy. But he could make no impression on his soldiers, and
+deserted to the Austrians. Events followed a similar course in
+the Rhine valley. There also the French wore out the goodwill
+at first shown to them. They summoned a convention and
+obtained a vote for incorporation with France. But they were
+unable to hold their ground on the approach of a Prussian army.
+By April they had lost the country with the exception of Mainz,
+which was invested. France thus lay open to invasion from the
+east and the north. The Convention decreed a levy of 300,000
+men.</p>
+
+<p>About the same time began the first formidable uprising
+against the Revolution, the War of La Vendée, the region lying
+to the south of the lower Loire and facing the Atlantic.
+Its inhabitants differed in many ways from the mass
+<span class="sidenote">Rising in La Vendée.</span>
+of the nation. Living far from large towns and busy
+routes of commerce, they remained primitive in all their
+thoughts and ways. The peasants had always been on friendly
+terms with the gentry, and the agrarian changes made by the
+Revolution had not been appreciated so highly as elsewhere.
+The people were ardent Catholics, who venerated the nonjuring
+clergy and resented the measures taken against them. But
+they remained passive until the enforcement of the decree for
+the levy of 300,000 men. Caring little for the Convention and
+knowing nothing of events on the northern or eastern frontier,
+the peasants were determined not to serve and preferred to fight
+the Republic at home. When once they had taken up arms
+they found gentlemen to lead and priests to exhort, and their
+rebellion became Royalist and Catholic. The chiefs were drawn
+from widely different classes. If Bonchamps and La Roche-jacquelin
+were nobles, Stofflet was a gamekeeper and Cathelineau
+a mason. As the country was favourable to guerilla warfare, and
+the government could not spare regular troops from the frontiers,
+the rebels were usually successful, and by the end of May had
+almost expelled the Republicans from La Vendée.</p>
+
+<p>Danger without and within prompted the Convention to
+strengthen the executive authority. That the executive and
+legislative powers ought to be absolutely separate
+had been an axiom throughout the Revolution.
+<span class="sidenote">The Committee of Public Safety.</span>
+Ministers had always been excluded from a seat in the
+legislature. But the Assemblies were suspicious of
+the executive and bent on absorbing the government. They
+had nominated committees of their own members to control
+every branch of public affairs. These committees, while reducing
+the ministers to impotence, were themselves clumsy and ineffectual.
+It may be said that since the first meeting of the
+states-general the executive authority had been paralysed in
+France. The Convention in theory maintained the separation
+of powers. Even Danton had been forced to resign office when
+he was elected a member. But unity of government was restored
+by the formation of a central committee. In January the first
+Committee of General Defence was formed of members of the
+committees for the several departments of state. Too large and
+too much divided for strenuous labour, it was reduced in April to
+nine members and re-named the Committee of Public Safety.
+It deliberated in secret and had authority over the ministers;
+it was entrusted with the whole of the national defence and empowered
+to use all the resources of the state, and it quickly
+became the supreme power in the republic. Under it the ministers
+were no more than head clerks. About the same time were
+instituted the deputies on mission in the provinces, who could
+overrule any local authority, and who corresponded regularly
+with the Committee. France thus returned under new forms to
+its traditional government: a despotic authority in Paris with
+all-powerful agents in the provinces. Against disaffection the
+government was armed with formidable weapons: the Committee
+of General Security and the Revolutionary Tribunal.
+The Committee of General Security, first established in October
+1792, was several times remodelled. In September 1793 the
+Convention decreed that its members should be nominated by
+the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee of General
+Security had unlimited powers for the prevention or discovery
+of crime against the state. The Revolutionary Tribunal was
+decreed on the 10th of March. It was an extraordinary Court,
+destined to try all offences against the Revolution without appeal.
+The jury, which received wages, voted openly, so that condemnation
+was almost certain. The director of the jury or public
+prosecutor was Fouquier Tinville. The first condemnation took
+place on the 11th of April.</p>
+
+<p>Enmity between Girondin and Jacobin grew fiercer as the
+perils of the Republic increased. Danton strove to unite all
+partisans of the Revolution in defence of the country; but
+the Girondins, detesting his character and fearing his ambition,
+<span class="sidenote">Fall of the Girondins.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span>
+rejected all advances. The Commune of Paris and the journalists
+who were its mouthpieces, Hébert and Marat, aimed frankly
+at destroying the Girondins. In April the Girondins
+carried a decree that Marat should be sent before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal for incendiary writings, but
+his acquittal showed that a Jacobin leader was above the law.
+In May they proposed that the Commune of Paris should be
+dissolved, and that the <i>suppléants</i>, the persons elected to fill
+vacancies occurring in the Convention, should assemble at
+Bourges, where they would be safe from that violence which
+might be applied to the Convention itself. Barère, who was
+rising into notice by the skill with which he trimmed between
+parties, opposed this motion, and carried a decree appointing a
+Committee of Twelve to watch over the safety of the Convention.
+Then the Commune named as commandant of the National
+Guard, Hanriot, a man concerned in the September massacres.
+It raised an insurrection on the 31st of May. On Barère&rsquo;s proposal
+the Convention stooped to dissolving the Committee of
+Twelve. The Commune, which had hoped for the arrest of the
+Girondin leaders, was not satisfied. It undertook a new and
+more formidable outbreak on the 2nd of June. Enclosed by
+Hanriot&rsquo;s troops and thoroughly cowed, the Convention decreed
+the arrest of the Committee of Twelve and of twenty-two
+principal Girondins. They were put under confinement in their
+own houses. Thus the Jacobins became all-powerful.</p>
+
+<p>A tremor of revolt ran through the cities of the south which
+chafed under the despotism of the Parisian mob. These cities
+had their own grievances. The Jacobin clubs menaced
+the lives and properties of all who were guilty of wealth
+<span class="sidenote">Revolt of the provinces.</span>
+or of moderate opinions, while the representatives on
+mission deposed the municipal authorities and placed
+their own creatures in power. At the end of April the citizens of
+Marseilles closed the Jacobin club, put its chiefs on their trial
+and drove out the representatives on mission. In May Lyons
+rose. The Jacobin municipality was overturned, and Challier,
+their fiercest demagogue, was arrested. In June the citizens of
+Bordeaux declared that they would not acknowledge the
+authority of the Convention until the imprisoned deputies
+were set free. In July Toulon rebelled. But in the north
+the appeals of such Girondins as escaped from Paris were of no
+avail. Even the southern uprising proved far less dangerous
+than might have been expected. The peasants, who had
+gained more by the Revolution than any other class, held
+aloof from the citizens. The citizens lacked the qualities
+necessary for the successful conduct of civil war. Bordeaux
+surrendered almost without waiting to be summoned. Marseilles
+was taken in August and treated with great cruelty. Lyons,
+where the Royalists were strong, defended itself with courage,
+for the trial and execution of Challier made the townsmen
+hopeless of pardon. Toulon, also largely Royalist, invited the
+English and Spanish admirals, Hood and Langara, who occupied
+the port and garrisoned the town. At the same time the Vendean
+War continued formidable. In June the insurgents took the important
+town of Saumur, although they failed in an attempt upon
+Nantes. At the end of July the Republicans were still unable
+to make any impression upon the revolted territory.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in the summer of 1793 France seemed to be falling to
+pieces. It was saved by the imbecility and disunion of the
+hostile powers. In the north the French army after
+the treason of Dumouriez could only attempt to cover
+<span class="sidenote">Disunion of the allied powers.</span>
+the frontier. The Austrians were joined by British,
+Dutch and Prussian forces. Had the Allies pushed
+straight upon Paris, they might have ended the war. But the
+desire of each ally to make conquests on his own account led
+them to spend time and strength in sieges. When Condé and
+Valenciennes had been taken, the British went off to assail
+Dunkirk and the Prussians retired into Luxemburg. In the east
+the Prussians and Austrians took Mainz at the end of July,
+allowing the garrison to depart on condition of not serving
+against the Allies for a year. Then they invaded Alsace, but their
+mutual jealousy prevented them from going farther. Thus the
+summer passed away without any decisive achievement of the
+coalition. Meanwhile the Committee of Public Safety, inspired
+by Danton, strove to rebuild the French administrative system.
+In July the Committee was renewed and Danton fell out; but
+soon afterwards it was reinforced by two officers, Carnot, who
+undertook the organization of the army, and Prieur of the
+Côte d&rsquo;Or, who undertook its equipment. Administrators of the
+first rank, these men renovated the warlike power of France, and
+enabled her to deal those crushing blows which broke up the
+coalition.</p>
+
+<p>The Royalist and Girondin insurrections and the critical
+aspect of the war favoured the establishment of what is known
+as the reign of terror. Terrorism had prevailed more
+or less since the beginning of the Revolution, but it was
+<span class="sidenote">The reign of terror.</span>
+the work of those who desired to rule, not of the
+nominal rulers. It had been lawless and rebellious. It ended by
+becoming legal and official. While Danton kept power Terrorism
+remained imperfect, for Danton, although unscrupulous, did not
+love cruelty and kept in view a return to normal government.
+But soon after Danton had ceased to be a member of the Committee
+of Public Safety Robespierre was elected, and now became
+the most powerful man in France. Robespierre was an acrid
+fanatic, and unlike Danton, who only cared to secure the practical
+results of the Revolution, he had a moral and religious ideal
+which he intended to force on the nation. All who rejected his
+ideal were corrupt; all who resented his ascendancy were
+traitors. The death of Marat, who was stabbed by Charlotte
+Corday (<i>q.v.</i>) to avenge the Girondins, gave yet another pretext
+for terrible measures of repression. In Paris the armed ruffians
+who had long preyed upon respectable citizens were organized
+as a revolutionary army, and other revolutionary armies were
+established in the provinces. Two new laws placed almost
+everybody at the mercy of the government. The Law of the
+Maximum, passed on the 17th of September, fixed the price of
+food and made it capital to ask for more. The Law of Suspects,
+passed at the same time, declared suspect every person who was
+of noble birth, or had held office before the Revolution, or had any
+connexion with an <i>émigré</i>, or could not produce a card of <i>civisme</i>
+granted by the local authority, which had full discretion to refuse.
+Any suspect might be arrested and imprisoned until the peace
+or sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal. An earlier law had
+established in every commune an elective committee of surveillance.
+These bodies, better known as revolutionary committees,
+were charged with the enforcement of the Law of Suspects.
+On the 10th of October the new constitution was suspended
+and the government declared revolutionary until the peace.</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of those in power was shown by the massacres
+which followed on the surrender of Lyons in that month. In
+Paris the slaughter of distinguished victims began with
+the trial of Marie Antoinette, who was guillotined on
+<span class="sidenote">Execution of the queen.</span>
+the 16th. Twenty-one Girondin deputies were next
+brought to the bar and, with the exception of Valazé
+who stabbed himself, were beheaded on the last day of October,
+Madame Roland and other Girondins of note suffered later. In
+November the duke of Orleans, who had styled himself Philippe
+Égalité, had sat in the Convention, and had voted for the king&rsquo;s
+death, went to the scaffold. Bailly, Barnave and many others of
+note followed before the end of the year. As the bloody work
+went on the pretence of trial became more and more hollow,
+the chance of acquittal fainter and fainter. The Revolutionary
+Tribunal was a mere instrument of state. Knowing the slight
+foundation of its power the government deliberately sought to
+destroy all whose birth, political connexions or past career
+might mark them out as leaders of opposition. At the same time
+it took care to show that none was so obscure or so impotent as to
+be safe when its policy was to destroy.</p>
+
+<p>The disastrous effects of the Terror were heightened by the
+financial mismanagement of the Jacobins. Assignats were issued
+with such reckless profusion that the total for the three years of
+the Convention has been estimated at 7250 millions of francs.
+Enormous depreciation ensued and, although penalties rising
+to death itself were denounced against all who should refuse
+to take them at par, they fell to little more than 1% of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span>
+nominal value. What were known as revolutionary taxes were
+imposed at discretion by the representatives on mission and the
+local authorities. A forced loan of 1000 millions was exacted from
+those citizens who were reputed to be prosperous. Immense
+supplies of all kinds were requisitioned for the armies, and were
+sometimes allowed to rot unused. Anarchy and state interference
+having combined to check the trade in necessaries, the government
+undertook to feed the people, and spent huge sums,
+especially on bread for the starving inhabitants of Paris. As
+no regular budget was attempted, as accounts were not kept,
+and as audit was unknown, the opportunities for fraud and
+embezzlement were endless. Even when due allowance has been
+made for the financial disorder which the Convention inherited
+from previous assemblies, and for the war which it had to wage
+against a formidable alliance, it cannot be acquitted of reckless
+and wasteful maladministration.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the disorder of the time, the mass of new
+laws produced by the Convention was extraordinary. A new
+system of weights and measures, a new currency, a
+new chronological era (that of the Republic), and a new
+<span class="sidenote">Revolutionary legislation. The new calendar.</span>
+calendar were introduced (see the section <i>Republican
+Calendar</i> below). A new and elaborate system of
+education was decreed. Two drafts of a complete
+civil code were made and, although neither was enacted,
+particular changes of great moment were decreed. Many of the
+new laws were stamped with the passions of the time. Such
+were the laws which suppressed all the remaining bodies corporate,
+even the academies, and which extinguished all manorial
+rights without any indemnity to the owners. Such too were the
+laws which took away the power of testation, placed natural
+children upon an absolute equality with legitimate, and gave a
+boundless freedom of divorce. It would be absurd, however, to
+dismiss all the legislative work of the Convention as merely
+partisan or eccentric. Much of it was enlightened and skilful,
+the product of the best minds in the assembly. To compete for
+power or even to express an opinion on public affairs was dangerous,
+and wholly to refrain from attendance might be construed
+as disaffection. Able men who wished to be useful without
+hazarding their lives took refuge in the committees where new
+laws were drafted and discussed. The result of their labours
+was often decreed as a matter of course. Whether the decree
+would be carried into effect was always uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>The ruling faction was still divided against itself. The
+Commune of Paris, which had overthrown the Girondins, was
+jealous of the Committee of Public Safety, which meant to be
+supreme. Robespierre, the leading member of the committee,
+abhorred the chiefs of the Commune, not merely because they
+conflicted with his ambition but from difference of character.
+He was orderly and temperate, they were gross and debauched;
+he was a deist, they were atheists. In November the Commune
+fitted up Notre Dame as a temple of Reason, selected an opera
+girl to impersonate the goddess, and with profane ceremony
+installed her in the choir. All the churches in Paris were closed.
+Danton, when he felt power slipping from his hands, had retired
+from public business to his native town of Arcis-sur-Aube. When
+he became aware of the feud between Robespierre and the
+Commune, he conceived the hope of limiting the Terror and
+guiding the Revolution into a sane course. He returned to
+Paris and joined with Robespierre in carrying the law of 14
+Frimaire (December 4), which gave the Committee of Public
+Safety absolute control over all municipal authorities. He became
+the advocate of mercy, and his friend Camille Desmoulins
+pleaded for the same cause in the <i>Vieux Cordelier</i>. Then the
+<span class="sidenote">Overthrow of the Paris Commune. Fall of the Dantonists.</span>
+oppressed nation took courage and began to demand
+pardon for the innocent and even justice upon
+murderers. A sharp contest ensued between the
+Dantonists and the Commune, Robespierre inclining
+now to this side, now to that, for he was really a friend
+to neither. His friend St Just, a younger and fiercer
+man, resolved to destroy both. Hébert and his
+followers in despair planned a new insurrection, but they were
+deserted by Hanriot, their military chief. Their doom was thus
+fixed. Twenty leaders of the Commune were arrested on the
+17th of March 1794 and guillotined a week later. It was then
+Danton&rsquo;s turn. He had several warnings, but either through
+over-confidence or weariness of life he scorned to fly. On the
+30th he was arrested along with his friends Desmoulins, Delacroix,
+Philippeaux and Westermann. St Just read to the
+Convention a report on their case pre-eminent even in that day
+for its shameless disregard of truth, nay, of plausibility. Before
+the Revolutionary Tribunal Danton defended himself with such
+energy that St Just took means to have him silenced. Danton
+and his friends were executed on the 5th of April.</p>
+
+<p>For a moment the conflict of parties seemed at an end. None
+could presume to challenge the authority of the Committee of
+Public Safety, and in the committee none disputed the
+leadership of Robespierre. Robespierre was at last
+<span class="sidenote">Supremacy of Robespierre.</span>
+free to establish the republic of virtue. On the 7th
+of May he persuaded the Convention to decree that the
+French people acknowledged the existence of a Supreme Being
+and the immortality of the soul. On the 4th of June he was
+elected president of the Convention, and from that time forward
+he appeared to be dictator of France. On the 8th the festival
+of the Supreme Being was solemnized, Robespierre acting as
+pontiff amid the outward deference and secret jeers of his colleagues.
+But Robespierre knew what a gulf parted him from
+almost all his countrymen. He knew that he could be safe only
+by keeping power and powerful only by making the Terror more
+stringent. Two days after the festival his friend Couthon
+presented the crowning law of the Terror, known as the Law
+of 22 Prairial. As the Revolutionary Tribunal was said to be
+paralysed by forms and delays, this law abolished the defence of
+prisoners by counsel and the examination of witnesses. Thenceforward
+the impressions of judges and jurors were to decide the
+fate of the accused. For all offences the penalty was to be death.
+The leave of the Convention was no longer required for the arrest
+of a member. In spite of some murmurs even this law was
+adopted. Its effect was fearful. The Revolutionary Tribunal
+had hitherto pronounced 1200 death sentences. In the next
+six weeks it pronounced 1400. With Robespierre&rsquo;s approval
+St Just sketched at this time the plan of an ideal society in which
+every man should have just enough land to maintain him; in
+which domestic life should be regulated by law and all children
+over seven years should be educated by the state. Pending
+this regeneration of society St Just advised the rule of a dictator.</p>
+
+<p>The growing ferocity of the Terror appeared more hideous as the
+dangers threatening the government receded. The surrender of
+Toulon in December 1793 closed the south of France to
+foreign enemies. The war in La Vendée turned against
+<span class="sidenote">The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.</span>
+the insurgents from the time when the veteran garrison
+of Mainz came to reinforce the Republican army.
+After a severe defeat at Cholet on the 16th of October
+the Royalists determined to cross the Loire and raise
+Brittany and Anjou, where the Chouans, or Royalist partisans,
+were already stirring. They failed in an attempt on the little
+seaport of Granville and in another upon Angers. In December
+they were defeated with immense loss at Le Mans and at Savenay.
+The rebellion would probably have died out but for the measures
+of the new Republican general Turreau, who wasted La Vendée so
+horribly with his &ldquo;infernal columns&rdquo; that he drove the peasants
+to take up arms once more. Yet Turreau&rsquo;s crimes were almost
+surpassed by Carrier, the representative on mission at Nantes,
+who, finding the guillotine too slow in the destruction of his
+prisoners, adopted the plan of drowning them wholesale. In
+the autumn of 1793 the war against the coalition took a turn
+favourable to France. The energy of Danton, the organizing
+skill of Carnot, and the high spirit of the French nation, resolute
+at all costs to avoid dismemberment, had well employed the
+respite given by the sluggishness of the Allies. In Flanders
+the English were defeated at Hondschoote (September 8) and
+the Austrians at Wattignies (October 15). In the east Hoche
+routed the Austrians at Weissenburg and forced them to recross
+the Rhine before the end of 1793. The summer of 1794 saw France
+victorious on all her frontiers. Jourdan won the battle of Fleurus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span>
+(June 25), which decided the fate of the Belgian provinces.
+The Prussians were driven out of the eastern departments.
+Against the Spaniards and the Sardinians the French were also
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances government by terror could not
+endure. Robespierre was not a man of action; he knew not
+how to form or lead a party; he lived not with his fellows but
+with his own thoughts and ambitions. He was hated and feared
+by most of the oligarchy. They laughed at his religion, resented
+his puritanism, and felt themselves in daily peril. His only
+loyal friends in the Committee of Public Safety, Couthon and St
+Just, were themselves unpopular. Robespierre professed consideration
+for the deputies of the Plain, who were glad to buy
+safety by conforming to his will; but he could not reckon on
+their help in time of danger. By degrees a coalition against
+Robespierre was formed in the Mountain. It included old
+followers of Danton like Taillen, independent Jacobins like
+Cambon, some of the worst Terrorists like Fouché, and such a
+consummate time-server as Barère. In the course of July its
+influence began to be felt. When St Just proposed Robespierre
+to the committees as dictator, he found no response. On the
+8th Thermidor (26th of July) Robespierre addressed the Convention,
+deploring the invectives against himself and the Revolutionary
+Tribunal and demanding the purification of the committees
+and the punishment of traitors. His enemies took the
+speech as a declaration of war and thwarted a proposal that it
+should be circulated in the departments. Robespierre felt his
+ascendancy totter. He repeated his speech with more success to
+the Jacobin Club. His friends determined to strike, and Hanriot
+ordered the National Guards to hold themselves in readiness.
+Robespierre&rsquo;s enemies called on the Committee of Public Safety
+<span class="sidenote">Fall of Robespierre. The 9th Thermidor.</span>
+to arrest the traitors, but the committee was divided.
+On the morning of the 9th Thermidor St Just was beginning
+to speak in the Convention when Tallien cut him
+short. Robespierre and all who tried to speak in his
+behalf were shouted down. The Plain was deaf to Robespierre&rsquo;s
+appeal. Finally the Convention decreed the arrest of
+Robespierre, of his brother Augustin, of Couthon and of St Just.
+But the Commune and the Jacobin Club were on the alert. They
+sounded the tocsin, mustered their partisans, and released the
+prisoners. The Convention outlawed Robespierre and his friends
+and sent out commissioners to rally the citizens. It named Barras,
+a deputy who had served in the royal army, to lead its forces.
+Had Robespierre possessed Danton&rsquo;s energy, the result might
+have been doubtful. He did nothing himself and benumbed
+his followers. Without an effort Barras captured the Hôtel de
+Ville. Robespierre, whose jaw had been shattered by a pistol
+shot, was left in agony for the night. On the next morning he
+was beheaded along with his brother, Couthon, St Just, Hanriot
+and seventeen more of his adherents. On the day after seventy-one
+members of the Commune followed them to the scaffold.
+Such was the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (27th of July
+1794) which ended the Reign of Terror.</p>
+
+<p>In a period of fifteen months, it has been calculated, about
+17,000 persons had been executed in France under form of law.
+The number of those who were shot, drowned or otherwise
+massacred without the pretence of a trial can never be accurately
+known, but must be reckoned far greater. The number of persons
+arrested and imprisoned reached hundreds of thousands, of whom
+many died in their crowded and filthy jails. The names on the
+list of <i>émigrés</i> at the close of the Terror were about 150,000.
+Of these a small proportion had borne arms against their country.
+The rest were either harmless fugitives from destruction or had
+never quitted France and had been placed on the list simply in
+order that they might incur the penalties of emigration. Every
+one of this multitude was liable to instant death if found in
+French territory. Their relatives were subjected to various
+pains and penalties. All the property of those condemned to
+death and of <i>émigrés</i> was confiscated. The carnage of the Terror
+spread far beyond the clergy and the nobility, beyond even the
+middle class, for peasants and artisans were among the victims.
+It spread far beyond those who could conspire or rebel, for
+bedridden old men and women and young boys and girls were
+often sacrificed. It made most havoc in the flower of the nation,
+since every kind of eminence marked men for death. By imbuing
+Frenchmen with such a mutual hatred as nothing but the arm
+of despotic power could control the Reign of Terror rendered
+political liberty impossible for many years. The rule of the
+Terrorists made inevitable the reign of Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Robespierre had consequences unforeseen by his
+destroyers. Long kept mute by fear, the mass of the nation
+found a voice and demanded a total change of government.
+When once the reaction against Jacobin
+<span class="sidenote">Reaction after the Terror.</span>
+tyranny had begun, it was impossible to halt. Great
+numbers of prisoners were set at liberty. The Commune
+of Paris was abolished and the office of commandant
+of the National Guard was suppressed. The Revolutionary
+Tribunal was reorganized, and thenceforwards condemnations
+were rare. The Committees of Public Safety and General
+Security were remodelled, in virtue of a law that one-fourth
+of their number should retire at the end of every month and not
+be re-eligible until another month had elapsed. Somewhat
+later the Convention declared itself to be the only centre of
+authority, and executive business was parcelled out among
+sixteen committees. Most of the representatives on mission
+were recalled, and many office-holders were displaced. The
+trial of 130 prisoners sent up from Nantes led to so many terrible
+disclosures that public feeling turned still more fiercely against
+the Jacobins; Carrier himself was condemned and executed;
+and in November the Jacobin Club was closed. In December
+73 members of the Convention who had been imprisoned for
+protesting against the violence done to the Girondins on the
+2nd of June 1793 were allowed to resume their seats, and gave
+a decisive majority to the anti-Jacobins. Soon afterwards
+the law of the Maximum was repealed. A decree was passed
+in February 1795 severing the connexion of church and state
+and allowing general freedom of worship. At the beginning of
+March those Girondin deputies who survived came back to their
+places in the Convention.</p>
+
+<p>But the return to normal life after the Jacobin domination
+was not destined to be smooth or continuous. Beside the
+remnant of Terrorists, such as Billaud Varennes and
+Collot d&rsquo;Herbois, who had joined in the revolt against
+<span class="sidenote">Parties in the Assembly after Thermidor.</span>
+Robespierre, there were in the Convention at that time
+three principal factions. The so-called Independents,
+such as Barras and Merlin of Douai, who were all
+Jacobins, but had stood aloof from the internal conflicts of the
+party, hated Royalism as much as ever and desired the continuance
+of the war which was essential to their power. The Thermidorians,
+the immediate agents in Robespierre&rsquo;s overthrow, such as
+Tallien, had loudly professed Jacobinism, but wanted to make
+their peace with the nation. They sought for an understanding
+with the Girondins and Feuillants, and some went so far as
+to correspond with the exiled princes. Lastly, those members
+who had never been Jacobins wanted a speedy return to legal
+government at home and therefore wished for peace abroad.
+While bent on preserving the civil equality introduced by the
+Revolution, many of these men were indifferent as between
+constitutional monarchy and a republic. The government,
+mainly Thermidorian, trimmed between Moderates and Independents,
+and for this reason its actions were often inconsistent.</p>
+
+<p>The Jacobins were strong enough to carry a decree for keeping
+the anniversary of the execution of Louis XVI. as a national
+festival. They could count on the populace, because
+work was still scarce, food was still dear, and a multitude
+<span class="sidenote">Progress of the reaction.</span>
+of Parisians knew not where to find bread. A
+committee having recommended the indictment of
+Collot d&rsquo;Herbois and three other Terrorists, there ensued the
+rising of the 12th Germinal (April 1). The mob forced their way
+into the hall of the Convention and remained there until the
+National Guards of the wealthy quarters drove them out. By
+a decree of the Convention the four accused persons were deported
+to Cayenne, a new mode of dealing with political offenders
+almost as effective as the guillotine, while less apt to excite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span>
+compassion. The National Guard was reorganized so as to
+exclude the lowest class. The property of persons executed
+since the 10th of March 1793 was restored to their families.
+The signs of reaction daily became more unmistakable. Worshippers
+crowded to the churches; the <i>émigrés</i> returned by
+thousands; and Anti-Jacobin outbreaks, followed by massacre,
+took place in the south. The despair of the Jacobins produced
+a second rising in Paris on the 1st Prairial (May 20). Again
+the mob invaded the Convention, murdered a deputy named
+Féraud who attempted to shield the president, and set his head
+on a pike. The ultra-Jacobin members took possession and
+embodied their wishes in decrees. Again the hall was cleared
+by the National Guards, but order was restored in Paris only by
+employing regular troops, a new precedent in the history of the
+Revolution. Paris was disarmed, and several leaders of the
+insurrection were sentenced to death. The Revolutionary
+Tribunal was suppressed. Toleration was proclaimed for all
+priests who would declare their obedience to the laws of the state.
+Royalists began to count upon the restoration of young Louis
+the Dauphin, otherwise Louis XVII.; but his health had been
+ruined by persevering cruelty, and he died on the 10th of June.</p>
+
+<p>The Thermidorian government also endeavoured to pacify
+the rebels of the west. Its best adviser, Hoche, recommended
+an amnesty and the assurance of religious freedom.
+On these terms peace was made with the Vendéans
+<span class="sidenote">Progress of the war.</span>
+at La Jaunaie in February and with the Chouans at
+La Mabilais in April. Some of the Vendean leaders persevered
+in resistance until May, and even after their submission the peace
+was ill observed, for the Royalists hearkened to the solicitations
+of the princes and their advisers. In the hope of rekindling the
+civil war a body of <i>émigrés</i> sailed under cover of the British
+fleet and landed on the peninsula of Quiberon. They were
+presently hemmed in by Hoche, and all who could not make
+their escape to the ships were forced to surrender at discretion
+(July 20). Nearly 700 were executed by court-martial. Yet
+the spirit of revolt lingered in the west and broke out time after
+time. Against the coalition the Republic was gloriously successful.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>.) In the summer of 1794
+the French invaded Spain at both ends of the Pyrenees, and at
+the close of the year they made good their footing in Catalonia
+and Navarre. By the beginning of 1795 the Rhine frontier had
+been won. Against the king of Sardinia alone they accomplished
+little. At sea the French had sustained a severe defeat
+from Lord Howe, and several of their colonies had been taken
+by the British. But Great Britain, when the Netherlands were
+lost, could do little for her allies. Even before the close of 1794
+the king of Prussia retired from any active part in the war, and
+on the 5th of April 1795 he concluded with France the treaty
+of Basel, which recognized her occupation of the left bank of the
+Rhine. The new democratic government which the French
+had established in Holland purchased peace by surrendering
+Dutch territory to the south of that river. A treaty of peace
+between France and Spain followed in July. The grand duke
+of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The
+coalition thus fell into ruin and France occupied a more commanding
+position than in the proudest days of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p>But this greatness was unsure so long as France remained
+without a stable government. A constitutional committee was
+named in April. It resolved that the constitution
+of 1793 was impracticable and proceeded to frame
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution of the year III. The Directory.</span>
+a new one. The draft was submitted to the Convention
+in June. In its final shape the constitution established
+a parliamentary system of two houses: a Council of
+Five Hundred and a Council of Ancients, 250 in number.
+Members of the Five Hundred were to be at least thirty years
+of age, members of the Ancients at least forty. The system of
+indirect election was maintained but universal suffrage was
+abandoned. A moderate qualification was required for electors
+in the first degree, a higher one for electors in the second degree.</p>
+
+<p>When the 750 persons necessary had been elected they were
+to choose the Ancients out of their own body. A legislature was
+to last for three years, and one-third of the members were to be
+renewed every year. The Ancients had a suspensory veto, but
+no initiative in legislation. The executive was to consist of five
+directors chosen by the Ancients out of a list elected by the
+Five Hundred. One director was to retire every year. The
+directors were aided by ministers for the various departments
+of State. These ministers did not form a council and had no
+general powers of government. Provision was made for the
+stringent control of all local authorities by the central government.
+Since the separation of powers was still deemed axiomatic,
+the directors had no voice in legislation or taxation, nor could
+directors or ministers sit in either house. Freedom of religion,
+freedom of the press, and freedom of labour were guaranteed.
+Armed assemblies and even public meetings of political societies
+were forbidden. Petitions were to be tendered only by individuals
+or through the public authorities. The constitution was not,
+however, allowed free play from the beginning. The Convention
+was so unpopular that, if its members had retired into private life,
+they would not have been safe and their work might have been
+undone. It was therefore decreed that two-thirds of the first
+legislature must be chosen out of the Convention.</p>
+
+<p>When the constitution was submitted to the primary
+assemblies, most electors held aloof, 1,050,000 voting for and only
+5,000 voting against it. On the 23rd of September it
+was declared to be law. Then all the parties which
+<span class="sidenote">Insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire.</span>
+resented the limit upon freedom of election combined
+to rise in Paris. The government entrusted its defence
+to Barras; but its true man of action was young General
+Bonaparte, who could dispose of a few thousand regular troops
+and a powerful artillery. The Parisians were ill-equipped and
+ill-led, and on the 13th of Vendémiaire (October 5) their insurrection
+was quelled almost without loss to the victors. No
+further resistance was possible. The Convention dissolved itself
+on the 26th of October.</p>
+
+<p>The feeling of the nation was clearly shown in the elections.
+Among those who had sat in the Convention the anti-Jacobins
+were generally preferred. A leader of the old Right
+was sometimes chosen by many departments at once.
+<span class="sidenote">Balance of parties in the new legislature.</span>
+Owing to this circumstance, 104 places reserved to
+members of the Convention were left unfilled. When
+the persons elected met they had no choice but to co-opt
+the 104 from the Left of the Convention. The new one-third
+were, as a rule, enemies of the Jacobins, but not of the Revolution.
+Many had been members of the Constituent or of the Legislative
+Assembly. When the new legislature was complete, the Jacobins
+had a majority, although a weak one. After the Council of the
+Ancients had been chosen by lot, it remained to name the
+directors. For its own security the Left resolved that all five
+must be old members of the Convention and regicides. The persons
+chosen were Rewbell, Barras, La Révellière Lépeaux, Carnot
+and Letourneur. Rewbell was an able, although unscrupulous,
+man of action, Barras a dissolute and shameless adventurer,
+La Révellière Lépeaux the chief of a new sect, the Theophilanthropists,
+and therefore a bitter foe to other religions, especially
+the Catholic. Severe integrity and memorable public services
+raised Carnot far above his colleagues, but he was not a statesman
+and was hampered by his past. Letourneur, a harmless
+insignificant person, was his admirer and follower. The division
+in the legislature was reproduced in the Directory. Rewbell,
+Barras and La Révellière Lépeaux had a full measure of the Jacobin
+spirit; Carnot and Letourneur favoured a more temperate policy.</p>
+
+<p>With the establishment of the Directory the Revolution might
+seem closed. The nation only desired rest and the healing of its
+many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis
+XVIII. and the <i>ancien régime</i> and those who would
+<span class="sidenote">Character of the Directory.</span>
+have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant
+in number. The possibility of foreign interference
+had vanished with the failure of the coalition. Nevertheless the
+four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government
+and chronic disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence
+or goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of
+self-preservation which had led the members of the Convention
+to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span>
+the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance. As
+the majority of Frenchmen wanted to be rid of them, they could
+achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. They
+habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when
+the elections went against them, appealed to the sword. They
+resolved to prolong the war as the best expedient for prolonging
+their power. They were thus driven to rely upon the armies,
+which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic in
+temper. Other reasons influenced them in this direction. The
+finances had been so thoroughly ruined that the government
+could not have met its expenses without the plunder and the
+tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies
+would return home and the directors would have to face the
+exasperation of the rank and file who had lost their livelihood,
+as well as the ambition of generals who could in a moment brush
+them aside. Barras and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt
+themselves and screened corruption in others. The patronage
+of the directors was ill bestowed, and the general maladministration
+heightened their unpopularity.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="correction" title="amended from contitutional">constitutional</span> party in the legislature desired a toleration
+of the nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives
+of the <i>émigrés</i>, and some merciful discrimination toward
+the <i>émigrés</i> themselves. The directors baffled all such
+<span class="sidenote">Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte.</span>
+endeavours. On the other hand, the socialist conspiracy
+of Babeuf was easily quelled (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babeuf,
+François N.</a></span>). Little was done to improve the
+finances, and the <i>assignats</i> continued to fall in value. But the
+Directory was sustained by the military successes of the year
+1796. Hoche again pacified La Vendée. Bonaparte&rsquo;s victories in
+Italy more than compensated for the reverses of Jourdan and
+Moreau in Germany. The king of Sardinia made peace in May,
+ceding Nice and Savoy to the Republic and consenting to receive
+French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses. By the treaty
+of San Ildefonso, concluded in August, Spain became the ally of
+France. In October Naples made peace. In 1797 Bonaparte
+finished the conquest of northern Italy and forced Austria to
+make the treaty of Campo Formio (October), whereby the
+emperor ceded Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands to the
+Republic in exchange for Venice and undertook to urge upon the
+Diet the surrender of the lands beyond the Rhine. Notwithstanding
+the victory of Cape St Vincent, England was brought
+into such extreme peril by the mutinies in the fleet that she
+offered to acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands
+and to restore the French colonies. The selfishness of the three
+directors threw away this golden opportunity. In March and
+April the election of a new third of the Councils had been held.
+It gave a majority to the constitutional party. Among the
+directors the lot fell on Letourneur to retire, and he was succeeded
+by Barthélemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself with
+Carnot. The political disabilities imposed upon the relatives
+of <i>émigrés</i> were repealed. Priests who would declare their
+submission to the Republic were restored to their rights as
+citizens. It seemed likely that peace would be made and that
+moderate men would gain power.</p>
+
+<p>Barras, Rewbell and La Révellière-Lépeaux then sought help
+from the armies. Although Royalists formed but a petty
+fraction of the majority, they raised the alarm that
+it was seeking to restore monarchy and undo the work
+<span class="sidenote">Coup d&rsquo;état of the 18th Fructidor.</span>
+of the Revolution. Hoche, then in command of the
+army of the Sambre and Meuse, visited Paris and sent
+troops. Bonaparte sent General Augereau, who executed the
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 18th Fructidor (September 4). The councils
+were purged, the elections in forty-nine departments were cancelled,
+and many deputies and other men of note were arrested.
+Some of them, including Barthélemy, were deported to Cayenne.
+Carnot made good his escape. The two vacant places in the
+Directory were filled by Merlin of Douai and François of Neufchâteau.
+Then the government frankly returned to Jacobin
+methods. The law against the relatives of <i>émigrés</i> was reenacted,
+and military tribunals were established to condemn
+<i>émigrés</i> who should return to France. The nonjuring priests were
+again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent to Cayenne
+or imprisoned in the hulks of Ré and Oleron. La Révellière Lépeaux
+seized the opportunity to propagate his religion. Many churches
+were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The government
+strained its power to secure the recognition of the <i>décadi</i> as the
+day of public worship and the non-observance of Sunday.
+Liberty of the press ceased. Newspapers were confiscated and
+journalists were deported wholesale. It was proposed to banish
+from France all members of the old <i>noblesse</i>. Although the
+proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be foreigners
+and were forced to obtain naturalization if they would enjoy
+the rights of other citizens. A formal bankruptcy of the state, the
+cancelling of two-thirds of the interest on the public debt,
+crowned the misgovernment of this disastrous time.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1798 not only a new third of the legislature had
+to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution
+of Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had
+been rendered helpless, and the mass of the electors were indifferent.
+But among the Jacobins themselves there had arisen
+an extreme party hostile to the directors. With the support of
+many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it
+bade fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies could
+take their seats the directors forced through the councils the
+law of the 22nd Floréal (May 11), annulling or perverting the
+elections in thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies
+by name. Even this <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> did not secure harmony between
+the executive and the legislature. In the councils the directors
+were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment.
+The retirement of François of Neufchâteau and the choice of
+Treilhard as his successor made no difference in the position
+of the Directory.</p>
+
+<p>While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were
+doubly bound to husband the national strength and practise
+moderation towards other states. Since December 1797 a congress
+had been sitting at Rastadt to regulate the future of
+Germany. That it should be brought to a successful conclusion
+was of the utmost import for France. But the directors were
+driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad. Bonaparte
+was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were
+anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris; they therefore
+sanctioned the expedition to Egypt which deprived the Republic
+of its best army and most renowned captain. Coveting the
+treasures of Bern, they sent Brune to invade Switzerland and
+remodel its constitution; in revenge for the murder of General
+Duphot, they sent Berthier to invade the papal states and erect
+the Roman Republic; they occupied and virtually annexed
+Piedmont. In all these countries they organized such an effective
+pillage that the French became universally hateful. As the
+armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded
+conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of conscription
+was passed in the summer of 1798. The attempt to enforce
+it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments.
+The priests were made responsible and some eight thousand were
+condemned in a mass to deportation, although much the greater
+part escaped by the goodwill of the people. Few soldiers were
+obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak
+as it was tyrannical.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances Nelson&rsquo;s victory of Aboukir (1st
+of August), which gave the British full command of the Mediterranean
+and secluded Bonaparte in Egypt, was the signal
+for a second coalition. Naples, Austria, Russia and
+<span class="sidenote">The second coalition.</span>
+Turkey joined Great Britain against France. Ferdinand
+of Naples, rashly taking the offensive before his allies
+were ready, was defeated and forced to seek a refuge in Sicily.
+In January 1799 the French occupied Naples and set up the
+Parthenopean republic. But the consequent dispersion of their
+weak forces only exposed them to greater peril. At home the
+Directory was in a most critical position. In the elections of
+April 1799 a large number of Jacobins gained seats. A little
+later Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his place with a
+man of ability and influence. The choice fell upon Sieyès, who
+had kept aloof from office and retained not only his immeasurable
+self-conceit but the respect of the public. Sieyès felt that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span>
+the Directory was bankrupt of reputation, and he intended to be
+far more than a mere member of a board. He hoped to concentrate
+power in his own hands, to bridle the Jacobins, and to remodel
+the constitution. With the help of Barras he proceeded to rid
+himself of the other directors. An irregularity having been
+discovered in Treilhard&rsquo;s election, he retired, and his place was
+taken by Gohier. Merlin of Douai and La Révellière Lépeaux
+were driven to resign in June. They were succeeded by Moulin
+and Ducos. The three new directors were so insignificant that
+they could give no trouble, but for the same reason they were of
+little service.</p>
+
+<p>Such a government was ill fitted to cope with the dangers then
+gathering round France. The directors having resolved on the
+offensive in Germany, the French crossed the Rhine
+early in March, but were defeated by the archduke
+<span class="sidenote">French reverses. The Directory discredited.</span>
+Charles at Stockach on the 25th. The congress at Rastadt,
+which had sat for fifteen months without doing
+anything, broke up in April and the French envoys
+were murdered by Austrian hussars. In Italy the allies took the
+offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly Russian under the
+command of Suvárov. After defeating Moreau at Cassano on
+the 27th of April, he occupied Milan and Turin. The republics
+established by the French in Italy were overthrown, and the
+French army retreating from Naples was defeated by Suvárov
+on the Trebbia. Thus threatened with invasion on her German
+and Italian frontiers, France was disabled by anarchy within.
+The finances were in the last distress; the anti-religious policy
+of the government kept many departments on the verge of revolt;
+and commerce was almost suspended by the decay of roads and
+the increase of bandits. There was no real political freedom,
+yet none of the ease or security which enlightened despotism
+can bestow. The Terrorists lifted their heads in the Council of
+Five Hundred. A Law of Hostages, which was really a new Law
+of Suspects, and a progressive income tax showed the temper of
+the majority. The Jacobin Club was reopened and became
+once more the focus of disorder. The Jacobin press renewed the
+licence of Hébert and Marat. Never since the outbreak of
+the Revolution had the public temper been so gloomy and
+desponding.</p>
+
+<p>In this extremity Sieyès chose as minister of police the old
+Terrorist Fouché, who best understood how to deal with his
+brethren. Fouché closed the Jacobin Club and deported a
+number of journalists. But like his predecessors Sieyès felt
+that for the revolution which he meditated he must have the
+help of a soldier. As his man of action he chose General Joubert,
+one of the most distinguished among French officers. Joubert
+was sent to restore the fortune of the war in Italy. At Novi on
+the 15th of August he encountered Suvárov. He was killed
+at the outset of the battle and his men were defeated. After
+this disaster the French held scarcely anything south of the Alps
+save Genoa. The Russian and Austrian governments then
+agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to invade
+France from the east. At the same time Holland was assailed
+by the joint forces of Great Britain and Russia. But the second
+coalition, like the first, was doomed to failure by the narrow
+views and conflicting interests of its members. The invasion
+of Switzerland was baffled by want of concert between Austrians
+and Russians and by Masséna&rsquo;s victory at Zürich on the 25th
+and 26th of September. In October the British and the Russians
+were forced to evacuate Holland. All immediate danger to
+France was ended, but the issue of the war was still in suspense.
+The directors had been forced to recall Bonaparte from Egypt.
+He anticipated their order and on the 9th of October landed at
+Fréjus.</p>
+
+<p>Dazzled by his victories in the East the public forgot that the
+Egyptian expedition was ending in calamity. It received him
+with an ardour which convinced Sieyès that he was
+the indispensable soldier. Bonaparte was ready to act,
+<span class="sidenote">Coup d&rsquo;état of the 18th Brumaire.</span>
+but at his own time and for his own ends. Since the
+close of the Convention affairs at home and abroad
+had been tending more and more surely to the establishment
+of a military dictatorship. Feeling his powers equal to such an
+office he only hesitated about the means of attainment. At first
+he thought of becoming a director; finally he decided upon a
+partnership with Sieyès. They resolved to end the actual government
+by a fresh <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>. Means were to be taken for removing
+the councils from Paris to St Cloud, where pressure could more
+easily be applied. Then the councils would be induced to
+decree a provisional government by three consuls and the
+appointment of a commission to revise the constitution. The
+pretext for this irregular proceeding was to be a vast Jacobin
+conspiracy. Perhaps the gravest obstacles were to be expected
+from the army. Of the generals, some, like Jourdan, were honest
+republicans; others, like Bernadotte, believed themselves
+capable of governing France. With perfect subtlety Bonaparte
+worked on the feelings of all and kept his own intentions
+secret.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 18th Brumaire (November 9) the Ancients,
+to whom that power belonged, decreed the transference of the
+councils to St Cloud. Of the directors, Sieyès and his friend
+Ducos had arranged to resign; Barras was cajoled and bribed
+into resigning; Gohier and Moulins, who were intractable, found
+themselves imprisoned in the Luxemburg palace and helpless.
+So far all had gone well. But when the councils met at St Cloud
+on the following day, the majority of the Five Hundred showed
+themselves bent on resistance, and even the Ancients gave
+signs of wavering. When Bonaparte addressed the Ancients,
+he lost his self-possession and made a deplorable figure. When
+he appeared among the Five Hundred, they fell upon him with
+such fury that he was hardly rescued by his officers. A motion
+to outlaw him was only baffled by the audacity of the president,
+his brother Lucien. At length driven to undisguised violence, he
+sent in his grenadiers, who turned out the deputies. Then the
+Ancients passed a decree which adjourned the Councils for three
+months, appointed Bonaparte, Sieyès and Ducos provisional
+consuls, and named the Legislative Commission. Some tractable
+members of the Five Hundred were afterwards swept up and
+served to give these measures the confirmation of their House.
+Thus the Directory and the Councils came to their unlamented
+end. A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the 18th
+Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the
+French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than
+to be wisely and firmly governed.</p>
+
+<p>Although the French Revolution seemed to contemporaries
+a total break in the history of France, it was really far otherwise.
+Its results were momentous and durable in proportion
+as they were the outcome of causes which had been
+<span class="sidenote">General estimate of the Revolution.</span>
+working long. In France there had been no historic
+preparation for political freedom. The desire for such
+freedom was in the main confined to the upper classes. During
+the Revolution it was constantly baffled. No Assembly after
+the states-general was freely elected and none deliberated in
+freedom. After the Revolution Bonaparte established a monarchy
+even more absolute than the monarchy of Louis XIV. But
+the desire for uniformity, for equality and for what may be
+termed civil liberty was the growth of ages, had been in many
+respects nurtured by the action of the crown and its ministers,
+and had become intense and general. Accordingly it determined
+the principal results of the Revolution. Uniformity of laws
+and institutions was enforced throughout France. The legal
+privileges formerly distinguishing different classes were suppressed.
+An obsolete and burthensome agrarian system was
+abolished. A number of large estates belonging to the crown, the
+clergy and the nobles were broken up and sold at nominal
+prices to men of the middle or lower class. The new jurisprudence
+encouraged the multiplication of small properties. The new
+fiscal system taxed men according to their means and raised
+no obstacle to commerce within the national boundaries. Every
+calling and profession was made free to all French citizens, and
+in the public service the principle of an open career for talent
+was adopted. Religious disabilities vanished, and there was
+well-nigh complete liberty of thought. It was because Napoleon
+gave a practical form to these achievements of the Revolution
+and ensured the public order necessary to their continuance that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span>
+the majority of Frenchmen endured so long the fearful sacrifices
+which his policy exacted.</p>
+
+<p>That a revolution largely inspired by generous and humane
+feeling should have issued in such havoc and such crimes is a
+paradox which astounded spectators and still perplexes the
+historian. Something in the cruelty of the French Revolution
+may be ascribed to national character. From the time when
+Burgundians and Armagnacs strove for dominion down to the
+last insurrection of Paris, civil discord in France has always been
+cruel. More, however, was due to the total dissolution of society
+which followed the meeting of the states-general. In the course
+of the Revolution we can discover no well-organized party, no
+governing mind. Mirabeau had the stuff of a great statesman,
+and Danton was capable of statesmanship. But these men were
+not followed or obeyed save by accident or for a moment. Those
+who seemed to govern were usually the sport of chance, often
+the victims of their colleagues. Neither Royalists nor Feuillants
+nor Girondins had the instinct of government. In the chaotic
+state of France all ferocious and destructive passions found ample
+scope. The same conditions explain the triumph of the Jacobins.
+Devoid of wisdom and virtue in the highest sense, they at least
+understood how power might be seized and kept. The Reign
+of Terror was the expedient of a party which knew its weakness
+and unpopularity. It was not necessary either to secure the
+lasting benefits of the Revolution or to save France from dismemberment;
+for nine Frenchmen out of ten were agreed on
+both of these points and were ready to lay down their lives for
+the national cause.</p>
+
+<p>In the history of the French Revolution the influence which
+it exerted upon the surrounding countries demands peculiar
+attention. The French professed to act upon principles of
+universal authority, and from an early date they began to seek
+converts outside their own limits. The effect was slight upon
+England, which had already secured most of the reforms desired
+by the French, and upon Spain, where the bulk of the people
+were entirely submissive to church and king. But in the Netherlands,
+in western Germany and in northern Italy, countries which
+had attained a degree of civilization resembling that of France,
+where the middle and lower classes had grievances and aspirations
+not very different from those of the French, the effect was profound.
+Fear of revolution at home was one of the motives
+which led continental sovereigns to attack revolution in France.
+Their incoherent efforts only confirmed the Jacobin supremacy.
+Wherever the victorious French extended their dominion, they
+remodelled institutions in the French manner. Their sway
+proved so oppressive that the very classes which had welcomed
+them with most fervour soon came to long for their expulsion.
+But revolutionary ideas kept their charm. Under Napoleon the
+essential part of the changes made by the Republic was preserved
+in these countries also. Moreover the effacement of old
+boundaries, the overthrow of ancestral governments, and the
+invocation, however hollow, of the sovereignty of the people,
+awoke national feeling which had slumbered long and prepared
+the struggle for national union and independence in the 19th
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>, sections <i>History</i> and <i>Law and Institutions</i>.
+For the leading figures in the Revolution see their biographies under
+separate headings. Particular phases, facts, and institutions of
+the period are also separately dealt with, <i>e.g.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assignats</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Convention,
+The National</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jacobins</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The MS. authorities for the history of the
+French Revolution are exceedingly copious. The largest collection
+is in the Archives Nationales in Paris, but an immense number of
+documents are to be found in other collections in Paris and the
+provinces. The printed materials are so abundant and varied that
+any brief notice of them must be imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of France and the state of public opinion at the
+beginning of the Revolution may be studied in the printed collections
+of <i>Cahiers</i>. The <i>Cahiers</i> were the statements of grievances drawn
+up for the guidance of deputies to the States-General by those who
+had elected them. In every <i>bailliage</i> and <i>sénéchaussée</i> each estate
+drew up its own cahier and the cahiers of the Third Estate were condensed
+from separate cahiers drawn up by each parish in the district.
+Thus the cahiers of the Third Estate number many thousands, the
+greater part of which have not yet been printed. Among the collections
+printed we may mention <i>Les Élections et les cahiers de Paris
+en 1789</i>, by C. L. Chassin (4 vols., Paris, 1888); <i>Cahiers de plaintes et
+doléances des paroisses de la province de Maine</i>, by A. Bellée and
+V. Duchemin (4 vols., Le Mans, 1881-1893); <i>Cahiers de doléances
+de 1789 dans le département du Pas-de-Calais</i>, by H. Loriquet (2 vols.,
+Arras, 1891); <i>Cahiers des paroisses et communautés du bailliage
+d&rsquo;Autun</i>, by A. Charmasse (Autun, 1895). New collections are
+printed from time to time. A more general collection of cahiers
+than any above named is given in vols. i.-vi. of the <i>Archives parlementaires</i>.
+The cahiers must not be read in a spirit of absolute faith,
+as they were influenced by certain models circulated at the time of
+the elections and by popular excitement, but they remain an authority
+of the utmost value and a mine of information as to old France.
+Reference should also be made to the works of travellers who visited
+France at the outbreak of the Revolution. Among these Arthur
+Young&rsquo;s <i>Travels in France during the years 1787, 1788 and 1789</i> (2
+vols., Bury St Edmunds, 1792-1794) are peculiarly instructive.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of the Assemblies during the Revolution a main
+authority is their <i>Procès verbaux</i> or Journals; those of the Constituent
+Assembly in 75 vols., those of the Legislative Assembly in
+16 vols.; those of the Convention in 74 vols., and those of the
+Councils under the Directory in 99 vols. See also the <i>Archives parlementaires</i>
+edited by J. Mavidal and E. Laurent (Paris, 1867, and
+the following years); the <i>Histoire parlementaire de la Révolution</i>,
+by P. J. B. Buchez and P. C. Roux (Paris, 1838), and the <i>Histoire
+de la Révolution par deux amis de la liberté</i> (Paris, 1792-1803).</p>
+
+<p>The newspapers, of which a few have been mentioned in the text,
+were numerous. They are useful chiefly as illustrating the ideas and
+passions of the time, for they give comparatively little information
+as to facts and that little is peculiarly inaccurate. The ablest of
+the Royalist journals was Mallet du Pan&rsquo;s <i>Mercure de France</i>.
+Pamphlets of the Revolution period number many thousands.
+Such pamphlets as Mounier&rsquo;s <i>Nouvelles Observations sur les États-Généraux
+de France</i> and Sieyès&rsquo;s <i>Qu&rsquo;est-ce que le Tiers État</i> had a
+notable influence on opinion. The richest collections of Revolution
+pamphlets are in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris and in the
+British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The contemporary memoirs, &amp;c., already published are numerous
+and fresh ones are always coming forth. A few of the best known
+and most useful are, for the Constituent Assembly, the memoirs of
+Bailly, of Ferrières, of Malouet. The <i>Correspondence of Mirabeau
+with the Count de la Marck</i>, edited by Bacourt (3 vols., Paris, 1851),
+is especially valuable. Dumont&rsquo;s <i>Recollections of Mirabeau</i> and
+the <i>Diary and Letters of Gouverneur Morris</i> give the impressions of
+foreigners with peculiar advantages for observing. For the Legislative
+Assembly and the Convention the memoirs of Madame
+Roland, of Bertrand de Molleville, of Barbaroux, of Buzot, of Louvet,
+of Dumouriez are instructive. For the Directory the memoirs of
+Barras, of La Révellière Lépeaux and of Thibaudeau deserve mention.
+The memoirs of Lafayette are useful. Those of Talleyrand are
+singularly barren, the result, no doubt, of deliberate suppression.
+The memoirs of the marquise de La Rochejacquelein are important for
+the war of La Vendée. The most notable Jacobins have seldom left
+memoirs, but the works of Robespierre and St Just enable us to form
+a clearer conception of the authors. The correspondence of the
+count of Mercy-Argenteau, the imperial ambassador, with Joseph II.
+and Kaunitz, and the correspondence of Mallet du Pan with the court
+of Vienna, are also instructive. But the contemporary literature of
+the French Revolution requires to be read in an unusually critical
+spirit. At no other historical crisis have passions been more fiercely
+excited; at none have shameless disregard of truth and blind
+credulity been more common.</p>
+
+<p>Among later works based on these original materials the first
+place belongs to general histories. In French Louis Blanc&rsquo;s <i>Histoire
+de la Révolution</i> (12 vols., Paris, 1847-1862), and Michelet&rsquo;s <i>Histoire
+de la Révolution Française</i> (9 vols., Paris, 1847-1853), are the most
+elaborate of the older works. Michelet&rsquo;s book is marked by great
+eloquence and power. In H. Taine&rsquo;s <i>Origines de la France contemporaine</i>
+(Paris, 1876-1894) three volumes are devoted to the Revolution.
+They show exceptional talent and industry, but their value
+is impaired by the spirit of system and by strong prepossessions.
+F. A. M. Mignet&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la Révolution Française</i> (2 vols., Paris,
+1861), short and devoid of literary charm, has the merits of learning
+and judgment and is still useful. F. A. Aulard&rsquo;s <i>Histoire politique
+de la Révolution Française</i> (Paris, 1901) is a most valuable précis of
+political history, based on deep knowledge and lucidly set forth,
+although not free from bias. The volume on the Revolution in
+Lavisse and Rambaud&rsquo;s <i>Histoire générale de l&rsquo;Europe</i> (Paris, 1896)
+is the work of distinguished scholars using the latest information.
+In English, general histories of the Revolution are few. Carlyle&rsquo;s
+famous work, published in 1837, is more of a prose epic than a
+history, omitting all detail which would not heighten the imaginative
+effect and tinged by all the favourite ideas of the author. Some
+fifty years later H. M. Stephens published the first (1886) and second
+(1892) volumes of a <i>History of the French Revolution</i>. They are
+marked by solid learning and contain much information. Volume
+viii. of the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, published in 1904, contains a
+general survey of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The most notable German work is H. von Sybel&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der
+Revolutionszeit</i> (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1853-1879). It is strongest in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span>
+those carts which relate to international affairs and foreign policy.
+There is an English translation.</p>
+
+<p>None of the general histories of the Revolution above named is
+really satisfactory. The immense mass of material has not yet been
+thoroughly sifted; and the passions of that age still disturb the
+judgment of the historian. More successful have been the attempts
+to treat particular aspects of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign relations of France during the Revolution have been
+most ably unravelled by A. Sorel in <i>L&rsquo;Europe et la Révolution Française</i>
+(8 vols., Paris, 1885-1904) carrying the story down to the
+settlement of Vienna. Five volumes cover the years 1789-1799.</p>
+
+<p>The financial history of the Revolution has been traced by C.
+Gomel, <i>Histoire financière de l&rsquo;Assemblée Constituante</i> (2 vols., Paris,
+1897), and R. Stourm, <i>Les Finances de l&rsquo;Ancien Régime et de la
+Révolution</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1885).</p>
+
+<p>The relations of Church and State are sketched in E. Pressensé&rsquo;s
+<i>L&rsquo;Église et la Révolution Française</i> (Paris, 1889).</p>
+
+<p>The general legislation of the period has been discussed by Ph.
+Sagnac, <i>La Législation civile de la Révolution Française</i> (Paris, 1898).
+The best work upon the social life of the period is the <i>Histoire de
+la société française sous la Révolution</i>, by E. and J. de Goncourt
+(Paris, 1889). For military history see A. Duruy, <i>L&rsquo;Armée royale
+en 1789</i> (Paris, 1888); E. de Hauterive, <i>L&rsquo;Armée sous la Révolution,
+1789-1794</i> (Paris, 1894); A. Chuquet, <i>Les Guerres de la Révolution</i>
+(Paris, 1886, &amp;c.). See also the memoirs and biographies of the
+distinguished soldiers of the Republic and Empire, too numerous
+for citation here.</p>
+
+<p>Modern lives of the principal actors in the Revolution are numerous.
+Among the most important are <i>Mémoires de Mirabeau</i>, by
+L. de Montigny (Paris, 1834); <i>Les Mirabeau</i>, by L. de Loménie
+(Paris, 1889-1891); H. L. de Lanzac de Laborie&rsquo;s <i>Jean Joseph
+Mounier</i> (Paris, 1889); B. Mallet&rsquo;s <i>Mallet du Pan and the French
+Revolution</i> (London, 1902); Robinet&rsquo;s <i>Danton</i> (Paris, 1889);
+Hamel&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de Robespierre</i> (Paris, 1865-1867) and <i>Histoire de
+St-Just</i> (2 vols., Brussels, 1860); A. Bigeon, <i>Sieyès</i> (Paris, 1893);
+<i>Memoirs of Carnot</i>, by his son (2 vols., Paris, 1861-1864).</p>
+
+<p>For fuller information see M. Tourneux, <i>Les Sources bibliographiques
+de l&rsquo;histoire de la Révolution Française</i> (Paris, 1898, etc.),
+and <i>Bibliographie de l&rsquo;histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution</i> (Paris,
+1890, etc.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. C. M.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>French Republican Calendar.</i>&mdash;Among the changes made
+during the Revolution was the substitution of a new calendar,
+usually called the revolutionary or republican calendar, for the
+prevailing Gregorian system. Something of the sort had been
+suggested in 1785 by a certain Riboud, and a definite scheme
+had been promulgated by Pierre Sylvain Maréchal (1750-1803)
+in his <i>Almanach des honnêtes gens</i> (1788). The objects which
+the advocates of a new calendar had in view were to strike a
+blow at the clergy and to divorce all calculations of time from
+the Christian associations with which they were loaded, in short,
+to abolish the Christian year; and enthusiasts were already
+speaking of &ldquo;the first year of liberty&rdquo; and &ldquo;the first year of the
+republic&rdquo; when the national convention took up the matter in
+1793. The business of drawing up the new calendar was entrusted
+to the president of the committee of public instruction,
+Charles Gilbert Romme (1750-1795), who was aided in the work
+by the mathematicians Gaspard Monge and Joseph Louis
+Lagrange, the poet Fabre d&rsquo;Églantine and others. The result
+of their labours was submitted to the convention in September;
+it was accepted, and the new calendar became law on the 5th
+of October 1793. The new arrangement was regarded as beginning
+on the 22nd of September 1792, this day being chosen
+because on it the republic was proclaimed and because it was
+in this year the day of the autumnal equinox.</p>
+
+<p>By the new calendar the year of 365 days was divided into
+twelve months of thirty days each, every month being divided
+into three periods of ten days, each of which were called <i>décades</i>,
+and the tenth, or last, day of each decade being a day of rest.
+It was also proposed to divide the day on the decimal system,
+but this arrangement was found to be highly inconvenient and
+it was never put into practice. Five days of the 365 still remained
+to be dealt with, and these were set aside for national
+festivals and holidays and were called <i>Sans-culottides</i>. They
+were to fall at the end of the year, <i>i.e.</i> on the five days between
+the 17th and the 21st of September inclusive, and were called
+the festivals of virtue, of genius, of labour, of opinion and of
+rewards. A similar course was adopted with regard to the
+extra day which occurred once in every four years, but the first
+of these was to fall in the year III., <i>i.e.</i> in 1795, and not in 1796,
+the leap year in the Gregorian calendar. This day was set apart
+for the festival of the Revolution and was to be the last of the
+<i>Sans-culottides</i>. Each period of four years was to be called a
+<i>Franciade</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="3"><span class="sc">An II.</span><br />1793-1794.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An III.</span><br />1794-1795.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An IV.</span><br />1795-1796.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An V.</span><br />1796-1797.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An VI.</span><br />1797-1798.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An VII.</span><br />1798-1799.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An VIII.</span><br />1799-1800.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An IX.</span><br />1800-1801.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Vendémiaire</td> <td class="tcl">22 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1793</td> <td class="tcl">22 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1794</td> <td class="tcl">23 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcl">22 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1796</td> <td class="tcl">22 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1797</td> <td class="tcl">22 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1798</td> <td class="tcl">23 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1799</td> <td class="tcl">23 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Brumaire</td> <td class="tcl">22 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Oct.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Frimaire</td> <td class="tcl">21 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Nov.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Nivôse</td> <td class="tcl">21 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Déc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Pluviôse</td> <td class="tcl">20 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1794</td> <td class="tcl">20 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcl">21 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1796</td> <td class="tcl">20 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1797</td> <td class="tcl">20 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1798</td> <td class="tcl">20 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1799</td> <td class="tcl">21 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcl">21 Janv.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Ventôse</td> <td class="tcl">19 Févr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Févr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Févr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Févr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Fév.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Fév.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl"> 20 Fév.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Fév.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Germinal</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Floréal</td> <td class="tcl">20 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Avr.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Prairial</td> <td class="tcl">20 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Messidor</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Thermidor</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">19 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juil.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1 Fructidor</td> <td class="tcl bb">18 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">18 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">18 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">18 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">18 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">18 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">19 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">19 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 <span class="f80">Sans-culottides</span></td> <td class="tcl">17 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1794</td> <td class="tcl">17 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcl">17 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1796</td> <td class="tcl">17 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1797</td> <td class="tcl">17 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1798</td> <td class="tcl">17 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1799</td> <td class="tcl">18 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcl">18 Sept.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">6 &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl bb">22&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl bb">22&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="3"><span class="sc">An X.</span><br />1801-1802.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An XI.</span><br />1802-1803.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An XII.</span><br />1803-1804.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An XIII.</span><br />1804-1805.</td>
+<td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"><span class="sc">An XIV.</span><br />1805.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Vendémiaire</td> <td class="tcl">23 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td> <td class="tcl">23 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1802</td> <td class="tcl">24 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcl">23 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1804</td> <td class="tcl">23 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1805</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Brumaire</td> <td class="tcl">23 Octobre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Octobre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">24 Octobre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Octobre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Octobre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Frimaire</td> <td class="tcl">22 Novembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Novembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Novembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Novembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Novembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Nivôse</td> <td class="tcl">22 Décembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Décembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">23 Décembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Décembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Décembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Pluviôse</td> <td class="tcl">21 Janvier</td> <td class="tcc rb">1802</td> <td class="tcl">21 Janvier</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcl">22 Janvier</td> <td class="tcc rb">1804</td> <td class="tcl">21 Janvier</td> <td class="tcc rb">1805</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Ventôse</td> <td class="tcl">20 Février</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Février</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Février</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Février</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Germinal</td> <td class="tcl">22 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">22 Mars</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Floréal</td> <td class="tcl">21 Avril</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Avril</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Avril</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Avril</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Prairial</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">21 Mai</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Messidor</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juin</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Thermidor</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juillet</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juillet</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juillet</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">20 Juillet</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1 Fructidor</td> <td class="tcl bb">19 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">19 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">19 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl bb">19 Août</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 Sans-culottides</td> <td class="tcl">18 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1802</td> <td class="tcl">18 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcl">18 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1804</td> <td class="tcl">18 Septembre</td> <td class="tcc rb">1805</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">6 &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl bb">23 &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Some discussion took place about the nomenclature of the
+new divisions of time. Eventually this work was entrusted to
+Fabre d&rsquo;Églantine, who gave to each month a name taken from
+some seasonal event therein. Beginning with the new year on
+the 22nd of September the autumn months were <i>Vendémiaire</i>,
+the month of vintage, <i>Brumaire</i>, the months of fog, and <i>Frimaire</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span>
+the month of frost. The winter months were <i>Nivôse</i>, the
+snowy, <i>Pluviôse</i>, the rainy, and <i>Ventôse</i>, the windy month; then
+followed the spring months, <i>Germinal</i>, the month of buds,
+<i>Floréal</i>, the month of flowers, and <i>Prairial</i>, the month of meadows;
+and lastly the summer months, <i>Messidor</i>, the month of reaping,
+<i>Thermidor</i>, the month of heat, and <i>Fructidor</i>, the month of fruit.
+To the days Fabre d&rsquo;Églantine gave names which retained the
+idea of their numerical order, calling them Primedi, Duodi, &amp;c.,
+the last day of the ten, the day of rest, being named Décadi.
+The new order was soon in force in France and the new method
+was employed in all public documents, but it did not last many
+years. In September 1805 it was decided to restore the Gregorian
+calendar, and the republican one was officially discontinued
+on the 1st of January 1806.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It will easily be seen that the connecting link between the old and
+the new calendars is very slight indeed and that the expression of
+a date in one calendar in terms of the other is a matter of some difficulty.
+A simple method of doing this, however, is afforded by the
+table on the preceding page, which is taken from the article by J.
+Dubourdieu in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Robespierre was executed on 10 Thermidor An II., <i>i.e.</i> the
+28th of July 1794. The insurrection of 12 Germinal An III. took
+place on the 1st of April 1795. The famous 18 Brumaire An VIII.
+fell on the 9th of November 1799, and the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 18 Fructidor
+An V. on the 4th of September 1797.</p>
+
+<p>For a complete concordance of the Gregorian and the republican
+calendars see Stokvis, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;histoire</i>, tome iii. (Leiden, 1889);
+also G. Villain, &ldquo;Le Calendrier républicain,&rdquo; in <i>La Révolution
+Française</i> for 1884-1885.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1792-1800), the general
+name for the first part of the series of French wars which went on
+continuously, except for some local and temporary cessations
+of hostilities, from the declaration of war against Britain in 1792
+to the final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815. The most important
+of these cessations&mdash;viz. the peace of 1801-1803&mdash;closes the
+&ldquo;Revolutionary&rdquo; and opens the &ldquo;Napoleonic&rdquo; era of land
+warfare, for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular
+War</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>. The naval history of the period
+is divided somewhat differently; the first period, treated below,
+is 1792-1799; for the second, 1799-1815, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic
+Campaigns</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>France declared war on Austria on the 20th of April 1792.
+But Prussia and other powers had allied themselves with Austria
+in view of war, and it was against a coalition and not a single
+power that France found herself pitted, at the moment when the
+&ldquo;emigration,&rdquo; the ferment of the Revolution, and want of
+material and of funds had thoroughly disorganized her army.
+The first engagements were singularly disgraceful. Near Lille
+the French soldiers fled at sight of the Austrian outposts, crying
+<i>Nous sommes trahis</i>, and murdered their general (April 29).
+The commanders-in-chief of the armies that were formed became
+one after another &ldquo;suspects&rdquo;; and before a serious action had
+been fought, the three armies of Rochambeau, Lafayette and
+Lückner had resolved themselves into two commanded by
+Dumouriez and Kellermann. Thus the disciplined soldiers of the
+Allies had apparently good reason to consider the campaign
+before them a military promenade. On the Rhine, a combined
+army of Prussians, Austrians, Hessians and <i>émigrés</i> under the
+duke of Brunswick was formed for the invasion of France, flanked
+by two smaller armies on its right and left, all three being under
+the supreme command of the king of Prussia. In the Netherlands
+the Austrians were to besiege Lille, and in the south the Piedmontese
+also took the field. The first step, taken against
+Brunswick&rsquo;s advice, was the issue (July 25) of a proclamation
+which, couched in terms in the last degree offensive to the French
+nation, generated the spirit that was afterwards to find expression
+in the &ldquo;armed nation&rdquo; of 1793-4, and sealed the fate
+of Louis XVI. The duke, who was a model sovereign in his own
+principality, sympathized with the constitutional side of the
+Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success
+of the enterprise. After completing its preparations in the
+leisurely manner of the previous generation, his army crossed
+the French frontier on the 19th of August. Longwy was easily
+captured; and the Allies slowly marched on to Verdun, which
+was more indefensible even than Longwy. The commandant,
+Colonel Beaurepaire, shot himself in despair, and the place
+surrendered on the 3rd of September. Brunswick now began his
+march on Paris and approached the defiles of the Argonne.
+But Dumouriez, who had been training his raw troops at
+Valenciennes in constant small engagements, with the purpose
+of invading Belgium, now threw himself into the Argonne by a
+rapid and daring flank march, almost under the eyes of the
+Prussian advanced guard, and barred the Paris road, summoning
+Kellermann to his assistance from Metz. The latter moved but
+slowly, and before he arrived the northern part of the line of
+defence had been forced. Dumouriez, undaunted, changed front
+so as to face north, with his right wing on the Argonne and his
+left stretching towards Châlons, and in this position Kellermann
+joined him at St Menehould on the 19th of September.</p>
+
+<p>Brunswick meanwhile had passed the northern defiles and had
+then swung round to cut off Dumouriez from Châlons. At the
+moment when the Prussian man&oelig;uvre was nearly
+completed, Kellermann, commanding in Dumouriez&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Valmy.</span>
+momentary absence, advanced his left wing and took up a position
+between St Menehould and Valmy. The result was the
+world-renowned Cannonade of Valmy (September 20, 1792).
+Kellermann&rsquo;s infantry, nearly all regulars, stood steady. The
+French artillery justified its reputation as the best in Europe,
+and eventually, with no more than a half-hearted infantry
+attack, the duke broke off the action and retired. This trivial
+engagement was the turning-point of the campaign and a landmark
+in the world&rsquo;s history. Ten days later, without firing
+another shot, the invading army began its retreat. Dumouriez&rsquo;s
+pursuit was not seriously pressed; he occupied himself chiefly
+with a series of subtle and curious negotiations which, with the
+general advance of the French troops, brought about the complete
+withdrawal of the enemy from the soil of France.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the French forces in the south had driven back
+the Piedmontese and had conquered Savoy and Nice. Another
+French success was the daring expedition into Germany
+made by Custine from Alsace. Custine captured Mainz
+<span class="sidenote">Jemappes.</span>
+itself on the 21st of October and penetrated as far as Frankfurt.
+In the north the Austrian siege of Lille had completely failed,
+and Dumouriez now resumed his interrupted scheme for the
+invasion of the Netherlands. His forward movement, made as
+it was late in the season, surprised the Austrians, and he disposed
+of enormously superior forces. On the 6th of November he won
+the first great victory of the war at Jemappes near Mons and, this
+time advancing boldly, he overran the whole country from Namur
+to Antwerp within a month.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the prelude of what is called the &ldquo;Great War&rdquo; in
+England and the &ldquo;Épopée&rdquo; in France. Before going further
+it is necessary to summarize the special features of the French
+army&mdash;in leadership, discipline, tactics, organization and movement&mdash;which
+made these campaigns the archetype of modern
+warfare.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At the outbreak of the Revolution the French army, like other
+armies in Europe, was a &ldquo;voluntary&rdquo; long-service army, augmented
+to some extent in war by drafts of militia.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first problems that the Constituent Assembly took
+upon itself to solve was the nationalization of this strictly royal and
+professional force, and as early as October 1789 the word
+&ldquo;Conscription&rdquo; was heard in its debates. But it was
+<span class="sidenote">The French army, 1792-1796.</span>
+decreed nevertheless that free enlistment alone befitted
+a free people, and the regular army was left unaltered
+in form. However, a National Guard came into existence side by
+side with it, and the history of French army organization in the
+next few years is the history of the fusion of these two elements.
+The first step, as regards the regular army, was the abolition of
+proprietary rights, the serial numbering of regiments throughout
+the Army, and the disbandment of the <i>Maison du roi</i>. The
+next was the promotion of deserving soldiers to fill the numerous
+vacancies caused by the emigration. Along with these, however,
+there came to the surface many incompetent leaders, favourites in
+the political clubs of Paris, &amp;c., and the old strict discipline became
+impossible owing to the frequent intervention of the civil authorities
+in matters affecting it, the denunciation of generals, and especially
+the wild words and wild behaviour of &ldquo;Volunteer&rdquo; (embodied
+national guard) battalions.</p>
+
+<p>When war came, it was soon found that the regulars had fallen
+too low in numbers and that the national guard demanded too high
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span>
+pay, to admit of developing the expected field strength. Arms,
+discipline, training alike were wanting to the new levies, and the
+repulse of Brunswick was effected by man&oelig;uvring and fighting on
+the old lines and chiefly with the old army. The cry of <i>La patrie
+en danger</i>, after giving, at the crisis, the highest moral support to
+the troops in the front, dwindled away after victory, and the French
+government contented itself with the half-measures that had,
+apparently, sufficed to avert the peril. More, when the armies went
+into winter quarters, the Volunteers claimed leave of absence and
+went home.</p>
+
+<p>But in the spring of 1793, confronted by a far more serious peril,
+the government took strong measures. Universal liability was
+asserted, and passed into law. Yet even now whole classes obtained
+exemption and the right of substitution as usual forced the burden
+of service on the poorer classes, so that of the 100,000 men called
+on for the regular army and 200,000 for the Volunteers, only some
+180,000 were actually raised. Desertion, generally regarded as the
+curse of professional armies, became a conspicuous vice of the
+defenders of the Republic, except at moments when a supreme crisis
+called forth supreme devotion&mdash;moments which naturally were
+more or less prolonged in proportion to the gravity of the situation.
+Thus, while it almost disappeared in the great effort of 1793-1794,
+when the armies sustained bloody reverses in distant wars of conquest,
+as in 1799, it promptly rose again to an alarming height.</p>
+
+<p>While this unsatisfactory general levy was being made, defeats,
+defections and invasion in earnest came in rapid succession, and to
+deal with the almost desperate emergency, the ruthless
+Committee of Public Safety sprang into existence. &ldquo;The
+<span class="sidenote">Universal service of the &ldquo;Amalgam.&rdquo;</span>
+levy is to be universal. Unmarried citizens and widowers
+without children of ages from 18 to 25 are to be called up
+first,&rdquo; and 450,000 recruits were immediately obtained by
+this single act. The complete amalgamation of the regular
+and volunteer units was decided upon. The white uniforms of the line
+gave place to the blue of the National Guard in all arms and services.
+The titles of officers were changed, and in fact every relic of the old
+régime, save the inherited solidity of the old regular battalions, was
+swept away. This rough combination of line and volunteers therefore&mdash;for
+the &ldquo;Amalgam&rdquo; was not officially begun until 1794&mdash;must be
+understood when we refer to the French army of Hondschoote
+or of Wattignies. It contained, by reason of its universality and also
+because men were better off in the army than out of it&mdash;if they stayed
+at home they went in daily fear of denunciation and the guillotine&mdash;the
+best elements of the French nation. To some extent at any rate
+the political <i>arrivistes</i> had been weeded out, and though the informer,
+here as elsewhere, struck unseen blows, the mass of the army gradually
+evolved its true leaders and obeyed them. It was, therefore, an army
+of individual citizen-soldiers of the best type, welded by the enemy&rsquo;s
+fire, and conscious of its own solidarity in the midst of the Revolutionary
+chaos.</p>
+
+<p>After 1794 the system underwent but little radical change until
+the end of the Revolutionary period. Its regiments grew in military
+value month by month and attained their highest level in the great
+campaign of 1796. In 1795 the French forces (now all styled
+National Guard) consisted of 531,000 men, of whom 323,000 were
+infantry (100 3-battalion demi-brigades), 97,000 light infantry
+(30 demi-brigades), 29,000 artillery, 20,000 engineers and 59,000
+cavalry. This novel army developed novel fighting methods,
+above all in the infantry. This arm had just received a new drill-book,
+as the result of a prolonged controversy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infantry</a></span>)
+between the advocates of &ldquo;lines&rdquo; and &ldquo;columns,&rdquo; and this drill-book,
+while retaining the principle of the line, set controversy at rest by
+admitting battalion columns of attack, and movements at the
+&ldquo;quick&rdquo; (100-120 paces to the minute) instead of at the &ldquo;slow&rdquo;
+march (76). On these two prescriptions, ignoring the rest, the practical
+troop leaders built up the new tactics little by little, and almost unconsciously.
+The process of evolution cannot be stated exactly, for
+the officers learned to use and even to invent now one form, now
+another, according to ground and circumstances. But the main
+stream of progress is easily distinguishable.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier battles were fought more or less according to the drill-book,
+partly in line for fire action, partly in column for the bayonet
+attack. But line movements required the most accurate
+drill, and what was attainable after years of practice
+<span class="sidenote">Tactics.</span>
+with regulars moving at the slow march was wholly impossible
+for new levies moving at 120 paces to the minute. When, therefore,
+the line marched off, it broke up into a shapeless swarm of individual
+firers. This was the form, if form it can be called, of the tactics of
+1793&mdash;&ldquo;horde-tactics,&rdquo; as they have quite justly been called&mdash;and
+a few such experiences as that of Hondschoote sufficed to suggest the
+need of a remedy. This was found in keeping as many troops as
+possible out of the firing line. From 1794 onwards the latter becomes
+thinner and thinner, and instead of the drill-book form, with half the
+army firing in line (practically in hordes) and the other half in support
+in columns, we find the rear lines becoming more and more important
+and numerous, till at last the fire of the leading line (skirmishers)
+becomes insignificant, and the decision rests with the bayonets
+of the closed masses in rear. Indeed, the latter often used mixed
+line and column formations, which enabled them not only to charge,
+but to fire close-order volleys&mdash;absolutely regardless of the skirmishers
+in front. In other words, the bravest and coolest marksmen were let
+loose to do what damage they could, and the rest, massed in close
+order, were kept under the control of their officers and only exposed
+to the dissolving influence of the fight when the moment arrived to
+deliver, whether by fire or by shock, the decisive blow.</p>
+
+<p>The cavalry underwent little change in its organization and tactics,
+which remained as in the drill-books founded on Frederick&rsquo;s practice.
+But except in the case of the hussars, who were chiefly
+<span class="sidenote">Cavalry. Artillery. Engineers.</span>
+Alsatians, it was thoroughly disorganized by the emigration
+or execution of the nobles who had officered it, and
+for long it was incapable of facing the hostile squadrons
+in the open. Still, its elements were good, it was fairly well trained,
+and mounted, and not overwhelmed with national guard drafts, and
+like the other arms it duly evolved and obeyed new leaders.</p>
+
+<p>In artillery matters this period, 1792-1796, marks an important
+progress, due above all to Gribeauval (<i>q.v.</i>) and the two du Teils,
+Jean Pierre (1722-1794) and Jean (1733-1820) who were Napoleon&rsquo;s
+instructors. The change was chiefly in organization and equipment&mdash;the
+great tactical development of the arm was not to come until
+the time of the <i>Grande Armée</i>&mdash;and may be summarized as the
+transition from battalion guns and reserve artillery to batteries of
+&ldquo;horse and field.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The engineers, like the artillery, were a technical and non-noble
+corps. They escaped, therefore, most of the troubles of the Revolution&mdash;indeed
+the artillery and engineer officers, Napoleon and Carnot
+amongst them, were conspicuous in the political regeneration of
+France&mdash;and the engineers carried on with little change the traditions
+of Vauban and Cormontaingne (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span>).
+Both these corps were, after the Revolution as before it, the best in
+Europe, other armies admitting their superiority and following their
+precepts.</p>
+
+<p>In all this the army naturally outgrew its old &ldquo;linear&rdquo; organization.
+Temporary divisions, called for by momentary necessities,
+placed under selected generals and released from the detailed supervision
+of the commander-in-chief, soon became, though in an irregular
+and haphazard fashion, permanent organisms, and by 1796 the
+divisional system had become practically universal. The next step,
+as the armies became fewer and larger, was the temporary grouping
+of divisions; this too in turn became permanent, and bequeathed
+to the military world of to-day both the army corps and the capable,
+self-reliant and enterprising subordinate generals, for whom the
+old linear organization had no room.</p>
+
+<p>This subdivision of forces was intimately connected with the
+general method of making war adopted by the &ldquo;New French,&rdquo;
+as their enemies called them. What astonished the Allies most
+of all was the number and the velocity of the Republicans.
+<span class="sidenote">The starting point of modern warfare.</span>
+These improvised armies had in fact nothing to
+delay them. Tents were unprocurable for want of money,
+untransportable for want of the enormous number of
+wagons that would have been required, and also unnecessary,
+for the discomfort that would have caused wholesale
+desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of
+1793-1794. Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could not
+be carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar with
+&ldquo;living on the country.&rdquo; Thus 1793 saw the birth of the modern
+system of war&mdash;rapidity of movement, full development of national
+strength, bivouacs and requisitions, and force, as against cautious
+man&oelig;uvring, small professional armies, tents and full rations, and
+chicane. The first represented the decision-compelling spirit, the
+second the spirit of risking little to gain a little. Above all, the
+decision-compelling spirit was reinforced by the presence of the
+emissaries of the Committee of Public Safety, the &ldquo;representatives
+on mission&rdquo; who practically controlled the guillotine. There were
+civil officials with the armies of the Allies too, but their chief function
+was not to infuse desperate energy into the military operations, but
+to see that the troops did not maltreat civilians. Such were the
+fundamental principles of the &ldquo;New French&rdquo; method of warfare,
+from which the warfare of to-day descends in the direct line.
+But it was only after a painful period of trial and error, of waste
+and misdirection, that it became possible for the French army to
+have evolved Napoleon, and for Napoleon to evolve the principles and
+methods of war that conformed to and profited to the utmost by
+the new conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Those campaigns and battles of this army which are described in
+detail in the present article have been selected, some on account of
+their historical importance&mdash;as producing great results; others from
+their military interest&mdash;as typifying and illustrating the nature of
+the revolution undergone by the art of war in these heroic years.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Campaigns in the Netherlands</p>
+
+<p>The year 1793 opened disastrously for the Republic. As a
+consequence of Jemappes and Valmy, France had taken the
+offensive both in Belgium, which had been overrun by
+Dumouriez&rsquo;s army, and in the Rhine countries, where Custine
+had preached the new gospel to the sentimental and half-discontented
+Hessians and Mainzers. But the execution of
+Louis XVI. raised up a host of new and determined enemies.
+England, Holland, Austria, Prussia, Spain and Sardinia promptly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span>
+formed the First Coalition. England poured out money in profusion
+to pay and equip her Allies&rsquo; land armies, and herself began
+the great struggle for the command of the sea (see <i>Naval Operations</i>,
+below).</p>
+
+<p>In the Low Countries, while Dumouriez was beginning his
+proposed invasion of Holland, Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg,
+the new Austrian commander on the Lower Rhine,
+advanced with 42,000 men from the region of Cologne,
+<span class="sidenote">Neerwinden.</span>
+and drove in the various detachments that Dumouriez
+had posted to cover his right. The French general thereupon
+abandoned his advance into Holland, and, with what forces he
+could gather, turned towards the Meuse. The two armies met
+at Neerwinden (<i>q.v.</i>) on the 18th of March 1793. Dumouriez
+had only a few thousand men more than his opponent, instead
+of the enormous superiority he had had at Jemappes. Thus the
+enveloping attack could not be repeated, and in a battle on equal
+fronts the old generalship and the old armies had the advantage.
+Dumouriez was thoroughly defeated, the house of cards collapsed,
+and the whole of the French forces retreated in confusion to the
+strong line of border fortresses, created by Louis XIV. and
+Vauban.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Dumouriez, witnessing the failure of his political
+schemes, declared against the Republic, and after a vain attempt
+to induce his own army to follow his example, fled (April 5) into
+the Austrian lines. The leaderless Republicans streamed back
+to Valenciennes. There, however, they found a general. Picot
+(comte de) Dampierre was a regimental officer of the old army,
+who, in spite of his vanity and extravagance, possessed real
+loyalty to the new order of things, and brilliant personal courage.
+At the darkest hour he seized the reins without orders and without
+reference to seniority, and began to reconstruct the force and
+the spirit of the shattered army by wise administration and
+dithyrambic proclamations. Moreover, he withdrew it well
+behind Valenciennes out of reach of a second reverse. The
+region of Dunkirk and Cassel, the camp of La Madeleine near
+Lille, and Bouchain were made the rallying points of the various
+groups, the principal army being at the last-named. But the
+blow of Neerwinden had struck deep, and the army was for long
+incapable of service, what with the general distrust, the misconduct
+of the newer battalions, and the discontent of the old
+white-coated regiments that were left ragged and shoeless to
+the profit of the &ldquo;patriot&rdquo; corps. &ldquo;Beware of giving horses
+to the &lsquo;Hussars of Liberty,&rsquo;&rdquo; wrote Carnot, &ldquo;all these new
+corps are abominable.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>France was in fact defenceless, and the opportunity existed
+for the military promenade to Paris that the allied statesmen had
+imagined in 1792. But Coburg now ceased to be a purely
+Austrian commander, for one by one allied contingents, with
+instructions that varied with the political aims of the various
+governments, began to arrive. Moreover, he had his own views
+as to the political situation, fearing especially to be the cause of
+the queen&rsquo;s death as Brunswick had been of the king&rsquo;s, and
+negotiated for a settlement. The story of these negotiations
+should be read in Chuquet&rsquo;s <i>Valenciennes</i>&mdash;it gives the key to
+many mysteries of the campaign and shows that though the
+revolutionary spirit had already passed all understanding,
+enlightened men such as Coburg and his chief-of-staff Mack
+sympathized with its first efforts and thought the constitution
+of 1791 a gain to humanity. &ldquo;If you come to Paris you will
+find 80,000 patriots ready to die,&rdquo; said the French negotiators.
+&ldquo;The patriots could not resist the Austrian regulars,&rdquo; replied
+Coburg, &ldquo;but I do not propose to go to Paris. I desire to see
+a stable government, with a chief, king or other, with whom
+we can treat.&rdquo; Soon, however, these personal negotiations
+<span class="sidenote">Assembly of the Allies.</span>
+were stopped by the emperor, and the idea of restoring
+order in France became little more than a pretext
+for a general intrigue amongst the confederate powers,
+each seeking to aggrandize itself at France&rsquo;s expense.
+&ldquo;If you wish to deal with the French,&rdquo; observed Dumouriez
+ironically to Coburg, &ldquo;talk &lsquo;constitution.&rsquo; You may beat them
+but you cannot subdue them.&rdquo; And their subjugation was
+becoming less and less possible as the days went on and men
+talked of the partition of France as a question of the moment
+like the partition of Poland&mdash;a pretension that even the émigrés
+resented.</p>
+
+<p>Coburg&rsquo;s plan of campaign was limited to the objects acceptable
+to all the Allies alike. He aimed at the conquest of a first-class
+fortress&mdash;Lille or Valenciennes&mdash;and chiefly for this reason.
+War meant to the burgher of Germany and the Netherlands a
+special form of <i>haute politique</i> with which it was neither his
+business nor his inclination to meddle. He had no more compunction,
+therefore, in selling his worst goods at the best price
+to the army commissaries than in doing so to his ordinary
+customers. It followed that, owing to the distance between
+Vienna and Valenciennes, and the exorbitant prices charged by
+carters and horse-owners, a mere concentration of Austrian
+troops at the latter place cost as much as a campaign, and the
+transport expenses rose to such a figure that Coburg&rsquo;s first duty
+was to find a strong place to serve as a market for the country-side
+and a depot for the supplies purchased, and to have it as
+near as possible to the front to save the hire of vehicles. As for
+the other governments which Coburg served as best he could,
+the object of the war was material concessions, and it would be
+easy to negotiate for the cession of Dunkirk and Valenciennes
+when the British and Austrian colours already waved there.
+The Allies, therefore, instead of following up their advantage over
+the French field army and driving forward on the open Paris
+road, set their faces westward, intending to capture Valenciennes,
+Le Quesnoy, Dunkirk and Lille one after the other.</p>
+
+<p>Dampierre meanwhile grew less confident as responsibility
+settled upon his shoulders. Quite unable to believe that Coburg
+would bury himself in a maze of rivers and fortresses
+when he could scatter the French army to the winds
+<span class="sidenote">Dampierre at Valenciennes.</span>
+by a direct advance, he was disquieted and puzzled
+by the Austrian investment of Condé. This was
+followed by skirmishes around Valenciennes, so unfavourable
+to the French that their officers felt it would be madness to
+venture far beyond the support of the fortress guns. But the
+representatives on mission ordered Dampierre, who was reorganizing
+his army at Bouchain, to advance and occupy Famars
+camp, east of Valenciennes, and soon afterwards, disregarding
+his protests, bade him relieve Condé at all costs. His skill,
+though not commensurate with his personal courage and devotion,
+sufficed to give him the idea of attacking Coburg on the right
+bank of the Scheldt while Clerfayt, with the corps covering the
+siege of Condé, was on the left, and then to turn against Clerfayt&mdash;in
+fact, to operate on interior lines&mdash;but it was far from being
+adequate to the task of beating either with the disheartened
+forces he commanded. On the 1st of May, while Clerfayt was
+held in check by a very vigorous demonstration, Coburg&rsquo;s
+positions west of Quiévrain were attacked by Dampierre himself.
+The French won some local successes by force of numbers and
+surprise, but the Allies recovered themselves, thanks chiefly to
+the address and skill of Colonel Mack, and drove the Republicans
+in disorder to their entrenchments. Dampierre&rsquo;s discouragement
+now became desperation, and, urged on by the representatives
+(who, be it said, had exposed their own lives freely enough in
+the action), he attacked Clerfayt on the 8th at Raismes. The
+troops fought far better in the woods and hamlets west of the
+Scheldt than they had done in the plains to the east. But in
+the heat of the action Dampierre, becoming again the brilliant
+soldier that he had been before responsibility stifled him, risked
+and lost his life in leading a storming party, and his men retired
+sullenly, though this time in good order, to Valenciennes. Two
+days later the French gave up the open field and retired into
+Valenciennes. Dampierre&rsquo;s remains were by a vote of the
+Convention ordered to be deposited in the Panthéon. But he
+was a &ldquo;ci-devant&rdquo; noble, the demagogues denounced him as a
+traitor, and the only honour finally paid to the man who had
+tided over the weeks of greatest danger was the placing of his
+bust, in the strange company of those of Brutus and Marat, in
+the chamber of deputies.</p>
+
+<p>Another pause followed, Coburg awaiting the British contingent
+under the duke of York, and the Republicans endeavouring to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span>
+assimilate the reinforcements of conscripts, for the most part
+&ldquo;undesirables,&rdquo; who now arrived. Mutiny and denunciations
+augmented the confusion in the French camp. Plan of campaign
+there was none, save a resolution to stay at Valenciennes in the
+hope of finding an opportunity of relieving Condé and to create
+diversions elsewhere by expeditions from Dunkirk, Lille and
+Sedan. These of course came to nothing, and before they had
+even started, Coburg, resuming the offensive, had stormed the
+lines of Famars (May 24), whereupon the French army retired
+to Bouchain, leaving not only Condé<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> but also Valenciennes to
+resist as best they could. The central point of the new positions
+about Bouchain was called Caesar&rsquo;s Camp. Here, surrounded
+by streams and marshes, the French generals thought that their
+troops were secure from the rush of the dreaded Austrian cavalry,
+and Mack himself shared their opinion.</p>
+
+<p>Custine now took command of the abjectly dispirited army,
+the fourth change of command within two months. His first
+task was to institute a severe discipline, and his prestige was so
+great that his mere threat of death sentences for offenders produced
+the desired effect. As to operations, he wished for a
+concentration of all possible forces from other parts of the frontier
+towards Valenciennes, even if necessary at the cost of sacrificing
+his own conquest of Mainz. But after he had induced the government
+to assent to this, the generals of the numerous other armies
+refused to give up their troops, and on the 17th of June the idea
+was abandoned in view of the growing seriousness of the Vendéan
+insurrection (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vendée</a></span>). Custine, therefore, could do no more
+than continue the work of reorganization. Military operations
+were few. Coburg, who had all this time succeeded in remaining
+concentrated, now found himself compelled to extend leftwards
+towards Flanders,<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> for Custine had infused some energy into the
+scattered groups of the Republicans in the region of Douai,
+Lille and Dunkirk&mdash;and during this respite the Paris Jacobins
+sent to the guillotine both Custine and his successor La Marlière
+before July was ended. Both were &ldquo;ci-devant&rdquo; nobles and, so
+far as is ascertainable, neither was guilty of anything worse than
+attempts to make his orders respected by, and himself popular
+with, the soldiers. By this time, owing to the innumerable
+denunciations and arrests, the confusion in the Army of the North
+was at its height, and no further attempt was made either to
+relieve Valenciennes and Condé, or to press forward from Lille
+and Dunkirk. Condé, starved out as Coburg desired, capitulated
+on the 10th of June, and the Austrians, who had done their work
+as soldiers, but were filled with pity for their suffering and
+distracted enemies, marched in with food for the women and
+children. Valenciennes, under the energetic General Ferrand,
+<span class="sidenote">Fall of Valenciennes.</span>
+held out bravely until the fire of the Allies became
+intolerable, and then the civil population began to
+plot treachery, and to wear the Bourbon cockade in
+the open street. Ferrand and the representatives
+with him found themselves obliged to surrender to the duke of
+York, who commanded the siege corps, on the 28th of July,
+after rejecting the first draft of a capitulation sent in by the
+duke and threatening to continue the defence to the bitter end.
+Impossible as this was known to be&mdash;for Valenciennes seemed
+to have become a royalist town&mdash;Ferrand&rsquo;s soldierly bearing
+carried the day, and honourable terms were arranged. The
+duke even offered to assist the garrison in repressing disorder.
+Shortly after this the wreck of the field army was forced to
+evacuate Caesar&rsquo;s Camp after an unimportant action (Aug. 7-8)
+and retired on Arras. By this they gave up the direct defence
+of the Paris road, but placed themselves in a &ldquo;flank position&rdquo;
+relatively to it, and secured to themselves the resources and
+reinforcements available in the region of Dunkirk-Lille.
+Bouchain and Cambrai, Landrecies and Le Quesnoy, were left
+to their own garrisons.</p>
+
+<p>With this ended the second episode of the amazing campaign
+of 1793. Military operations were few and spasmodic, on the
+one side because the Allied statesmen were less concerned with
+the nebulous common object of restoring order in France than
+with their several schemes of aggrandisement, on the other
+owing to the almost incredible confusion of France under the
+régime of Danton and Marat. The third episode shows little
+or no change in the force and direction of the allied efforts, but
+a very great change in France. Thoroughly roused by disaster
+and now dominated by the furious and bloodthirsty energy of
+the terrorists, the French people and armies at last set before
+themselves clear and definite objects to be pursued at all costs.</p>
+
+<p>Jean Nicolas Houchard, the next officer appointed to command,
+had been a heavy cavalry trooper in the Seven Years&rsquo; War. His
+face bore the scars of wounds received at Minden, and
+his bravery, his stature, his bold and fierce manner,
+<span class="sidenote">Houchard.</span>
+his want of education, seemed to all to betoken the ideal sans-culotte
+general. But he was nevertheless incapable of leading
+an army, and knowing this, carefully conformed to the advice
+of his staff officers Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the latter of
+whom, an exceptionally capable officer, had been Custine&rsquo;s chief
+of staff and was consequently under suspicion. At one moment,
+indeed, operations had to be suspended altogether because his
+papers were seized by the civil authorities, and amongst them
+were all the confidential memoranda and maps required for
+the business of headquarters. It was the darkest hour. The
+Vendéans, the people of Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon, were in
+open and hitherto successful revolt. Valenciennes had fallen
+and Coburg&rsquo;s hussar parties pressed forward into the Somme
+valley. Again the Allies had the decision of the war in their
+own hands. Coburg, indeed, was still afraid, on Marie Antoinette&rsquo;s
+account, of forcing the Republicans to extremities, and on
+military grounds too he thought an advance on Paris hazardous.
+But, hazardous or not, it would have been attempted but for
+the English. The duke of York had definite orders from his
+government to capture Dunkirk&mdash;at present a nest of corsairs
+which interfered with the Channel trade, and in the future, it
+was hoped, a second Gibraltar&mdash;and after the fall of Valenciennes
+and the capture of Caesar&rsquo;s Camp the English and Hanoverians
+marched away, via Tournai and Ypres, to besiege the coast
+fortress. Thereupon the king of Prussia in turn called off his
+contingent for operations on the middle Rhine. Holland, too,
+though she maintained her contingent in face of Lille (where
+it covered Flanders), was not disposed to send it to join the
+imperialists in an adventure in the heart of France. Coburg,
+therefore, was brought to a complete standstill, and the scene
+of the decision was shifted to the district between Lille and the
+coast.</p>
+
+<p>Thither came Carnot, the engineer officer who was in charge
+of military affairs In the Committee of Public Safety and is
+known to history as the &ldquo;Organizer of Victory.&rdquo; His views of
+the strategy to be pursued indicate either a purely geographical
+idea of war, which does not square with his later principles and
+practice, or, as is far more likely, a profound disbelief in the
+capacity of the Army of the North, as it then stood, to fight a
+battle, and they went no further than to recommend an inroad
+into Flanders on the ground that no enemy would be encountered
+there. This, however, in the event developed into an operation
+of almost decisive importance, for at the moment of its inception
+the duke of York was already on the march. Fighting <i>en route</i>
+a very severe but successful action (Lincelles, Aug. 18) with the
+French troops encamped near Lille, the Anglo-Hanoverians
+entered the district&mdash;densely intersected with canals and
+morasses&mdash;around Dunkirk and Bergues on the 21st and 22nd.
+On the right, by way of Furnes, the British moved towards
+Dunkirk and invested the east front of the weak fortress, while
+on the left the Hanoverian field marshal v. Freytag moved via
+Poperinghe on Bergues. The French had a chain of outposts
+between Furnes and Bergues, but Freytag attacked them
+resolutely, and the defenders, except a brave handful who stood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span>
+to cross bayonets, fled in all directions. The east front of
+Bergues was invested on the 23rd, and Freytag spread out his
+<span class="sidenote">Dunkirk.</span>
+forces to cover the duke of York&rsquo;s attack on Dunkirk,
+his right being opposite Bergues and his centre at
+Bambeke, while his left covered the space between Roosbrugge
+and Ypres with a cordon of posts. Houchard was in despair
+at the bad conduct of his troops. But one young general,
+Jourdan, anticipating Houchard&rsquo;s orders, had already brought
+a strong force from Lille to Cassel, whence he incessantly harried
+Freytag&rsquo;s posts. Carnot encouraged the garrisons of Dunkirk
+and Bergues, and caused the sluices to be opened. The <i>moral</i>
+of the defenders rose rapidly. Houchard prepared to bring up
+every available man of the Army of the North, and only waited
+to make up his mind as to the direction in which his attack should
+be made. The Allies themselves recognized the extreme danger
+of their position. It was cut in half by the Great Morass, stretches
+of which extended even to Furnes. Neither Dunkirk nor
+Bergues could be completely invested owing to the inundations,
+and Freytag sent a message to King George III. to the effect
+that if Dunkirk did not surrender in a few days the expedition
+would be a complete failure.</p>
+
+<p>As for the French, they could hardly believe their good fortune.
+Generals, staff officers and representatives on mission alike were
+eager for a swift and crushing offensive. &ldquo;&rsquo;Attack&rsquo; and &lsquo;attack
+in mass&rsquo; became the shibboleth and the catch-phrase of the
+camps&rdquo; (Chuquet), and fortresses and armies on other parts of
+the frontier were imperiously called upon to supply large drafts
+for the Army of the North. Gay-Vernon&rsquo;s strategical instinct
+found expression in a wide-ranging movement designed to secure
+the absolute annihilation of the duke of York&rsquo;s forces. Beginning
+with an attack on the Dutch posts north and east of Lille, the
+army was then to press forward towards Furnes, the left wing
+holding Freytag&rsquo;s left wing in check, and the right swinging
+inwards and across the line of retreat of both allied corps. At
+that moment all men were daring, and the scheme was adopted
+with enthusiasm. On the 28th of August, consequently, the
+Dutch posts were attacked and driven away by the mobile
+forces at Lille, aided by parts of the main army from Arras.
+But even before they had fired their last shot the Republicans
+dispersed to plunder and compromised their success. Houchard
+and Gay-Vernon began to fear that their army would not emerge
+successfully from the supreme test they were about to impose
+on it, and from this moment the scheme of destroying the
+English began to give way to the simpler and safer idea of
+relieving Dunkirk. The place was so ill-equipped that after a
+few days&rsquo; siege it was <i>in extremis</i>, and the political importance of
+its preservation led not merely the civilian representatives, but
+even Carnot, to implore Houchard to put an end to the crisis at
+once. On the 30th, Cassel, instead of Ypres, was designated as
+the point of concentration for the &ldquo;mass of attack.&rdquo; This
+surprised the representatives and Carnot as much as it surprised
+the subordinate generals, all of whom thought that there would
+still be time to make the détour through Ypres and to cut off
+the Allies&rsquo; retreat before Dunkirk fell. But Houchard and Gay-Vernon
+were no longer under any illusions as to the man&oelig;uvring
+power of their forces, and the government agents wisely left
+them to execute their own plans. Thirty-seven thousand men
+were left to watch Coburg and to secure Arras and Douai, and
+the rest, 50,000 strong, assembled at Cassel. Everything was in
+Houchard&rsquo;s favour could he but overcome the indiscipline of his
+own army. The duke of York was more dangerous in appearance
+than in reality&mdash;as the result must infallibly have shown had
+Houchard and Gay-Vernon possessed the courage to execute the
+original plan&mdash;and Freytag&rsquo;s covering army extended in a line
+of disconnected posts from Bergues to Ypres.</p>
+
+<p>Against the left and centre of this feeble cordon 40,000 men
+advanced in many columns on the 6th of September. A confused
+outpost fight, in which the various assailing columns
+dissolved into excited swarms, ended, long after
+<span class="sidenote">Hondschoote.</span>
+nightfall, in the orderly withdrawal of the various
+allied posts to Hondschoote. The French generals were occupied
+the whole of next day in sorting out their troops, who had not
+only completely wasted their strength against mere outposts,
+but had actually consumed their rations and used up their
+ammunition. On the 8th, the assailants, having more or less
+recovered themselves, advanced again. They found Wallmoden
+(who had succeeded Freytag, disabled on the 6th) entrenched on
+either side of the village of Hondschoote, the right resting on the
+great morass and the left on the village of Leysele. Here was
+the opportunity for the &ldquo;attack in mass&rdquo; that had been so freely
+discussed; but Houchard was now concerned more with the
+relief of Dunkirk than with the defeat of the enemy. He sent
+away one division to Dunkirk, another to Bergues, and a third
+towards Ypres, and left himself only some 20,000 men for the
+battle. But Wallmoden had only 13,000&mdash;so great was the disproportion
+between end and means in this ill-designed enterprise
+against Dunkirk.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:608px" src="images/img175.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">Redrawn from a map in Fortescue&rsquo;s <i>History of the British Army</i>, by permission
+of Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Houchard despatched a column, guided by his staff officer
+Berthelmy, to turn the Hanoverians&rsquo; left, but this column lost
+its way in the dense country about Loo. The centre waited
+motionless under the fire of the allied guns near Hondschoote.
+In vain the representative Delbrel implored the general to order
+the advance. Houchard was obstinate, and ere long the natural
+result followed. Though Delbrel posted himself in front of the
+line, conspicuous by his white horse and tricoloured sash and
+plume, to steady the men, the bravest left the ranks and skirmished
+forward from bush to bush, and the rest sought cover.
+Then the allied commander ordered forward one regiment of
+Hessians, and these, advancing at a ceremonial slow march,
+and firing steady rolling volleys, scattered the Republicans before
+them. At this crisis Houchard uttered the fatal word &ldquo;retreat,&rdquo;
+but Delbrel overwhelmed him with reproaches and stung him into
+renewed activity. He hurried away to urge forward the right
+wing while Jourdan rallied the centre and led it into the fight
+again. Once more Jourdan awaited in vain the order to advance,
+and once more the troops broke. But at last the exasperated
+Delbrel rose to the occasion. &ldquo;You fear the responsibility,&rdquo;
+he cried to Jourdan; &ldquo;well, I assume it. My authority overrides
+the general&rsquo;s and I give you the formal order to attack at once!&rdquo;
+Then, gently, as if to soften a rebuke, he continued, &ldquo;You have
+forced me to speak as a superior; now I will be your aide-de-camp,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span>
+and at once hurried off to bring up the reserves and to
+despatch cavalry to collect the fugitives. This incident, amongst
+many, serves to show that the representatives on mission were
+no mere savage marplots, as is too generally assumed. They
+were often wise and able men, brave and fearless of responsibility
+in camp and in action. Jourdan led on the reserves, and the
+men fighting in the bushes on either side of the road heard their
+drums to right and left. Jourdan fell wounded, but Delbrel
+headed a wild irregular bayonet charge which checked the
+Hanoverians, and Houchard himself, in his true place as a
+cavalry leader, came up with 500 fresh sabres and flung himself
+on the Allies. The Hanoverians, magnificently disciplined
+troops that they were, soon re-formed after the shock, but by
+this time the fugitives collected by Delbrel&rsquo;s troopers, reanimated
+by new hopes of victory, were returning to the front in hundreds,
+and a last assault on Hondschoote met with complete success.</p>
+
+<p>Hondschoote was a psychological victory. Materially, it
+was no more than the crushing of an obstinate rearguard at
+enormous expense to the assailants, for the duke of York was able
+to withdraw while there was still time. Houchard had indeed
+called back the division he had sent to Bergues, and despatched
+it by Loo against the enemy&rsquo;s rear, but the movement was undertaken
+too late in the day to be useful. The struggle was
+practically a front to front battle, numbers and enthusiasm on
+the one side, discipline, position and steadiness on the other.
+Hence, though its strategical result was merely to compel the
+duke of York to give up an enterprise that he should never
+have undertaken, Hondschoote established the fact that the
+&ldquo;New French&rdquo; were determined to win, at any cost and by sheer
+weight and energy. It was long before they were able to meet
+equal numbers with confidence, and still longer before they could
+freely oppose a small corps to a larger one. But the nightmare
+of defeats and surrenders was dispelled.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Houchard on the course of the operations
+had been sometimes null, sometimes detrimental, and only
+occasionally good. The plan and its execution were the work
+of Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the victory itself was Jourdan&rsquo;s
+and, above all, Delbrel&rsquo;s. To these errors, forgiven to a victor,
+Houchard added the crowning offence of failure, in the reaction
+after the battle, to pursue his advantage. His enemies in Paris
+became more and more powerful as the campaign continued.</p>
+
+<p>Having missed the great opportunity of crushing the English,
+Houchard turned his attention to the Dutch posts about Menin.
+As far as the Allies were concerned Hondschoote was
+a mere reverse, not a disaster, and was counterbalanced
+<span class="sidenote">Menin.</span>
+in Coburg&rsquo;s eyes by his own capture of Le Quesnoy
+(Sept. 11). The proximity of the main body of the French to
+Menin induced him to order Beaulieu&rsquo;s corps (hitherto at
+Cysoing and linking the Dutch posts with the central group)
+to join the prince of Orange there, and to ask the duke
+of York to do the same. But this last meant negotiation, and
+before anything was settled Houchard, with the army from
+Hondschoote and a contingent from Lille, had attacked the
+prince at Menin and destroyed his corps (Sept. 12-13).</p>
+
+<p>After this engagement, which, though it was won by immensely
+superior forces, was if not an important at any rate a complete
+victory, Houchard went still farther inland&mdash;leaving detachments
+to observe York and replacing them by troops from the various
+camps as he passed along the cordon&mdash;in the hope of dealing
+with Beaulieu as he had dealt with the Dutch, and even of
+relieving Le Quesnoy. But in all this he failed. He had expected
+to meet Beaulieu near Cysoing, but the Austrian general
+had long before gone northward to assist the prince of Orange.
+Thus Houchard missed his target. Worse still, one of his protective
+detachments chanced to meet Beaulieu near Courtrai on the
+15th, and was not only defeated but driven in rout from Menin.
+Lastly, Coburg had already captured Le Quesnoy, and had also
+repulsed a straggling attack of the Landrecies, Bouchain and other
+French garrisons on the positions of his covering army (12th).<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Houchard&rsquo;s offensive died away completely, and he halted
+his army (45,000 strong excluding detachments) at Gaverelle,
+half-way between Douai and Arras, hoping thereby to succour
+Bouchain, Cambrai or Arras, whichever should prove to be
+Coburg&rsquo;s next objective. After standing still for several days,
+a prey to all the conflicting rumours that reached his ears, he
+came to the conclusion that Coburg was about to join the duke
+of York in a second siege of Dunkirk, and began to close on his
+left. But his conclusion was entirely wrong. The Allies were
+closing on <i>their</i> left inland to attack Maubeuge. Coburg drew in
+Beaulieu, and even persuaded the Dutch to assist, the duke of
+York undertaking for the moment to watch the whole of the
+Flanders cordon from the sea to Tournai. But this concentration
+of force was merely nominal, for each contingent worked
+in the interests of its own masters, and, above all, the siege
+that was the object of the concentration was calculated to last
+four weeks, <i>i.e.</i> gave the French four weeks unimpeded liberty
+of action.</p>
+
+<p>Houchard was now denounced and brought captive to Paris.
+Placed upon his trial, he offered a calm and reasoned defence of
+his conduct, but when the intolerable word &ldquo;coward&rdquo; was hurled
+at him by one of his judges he wept with rage, pointing to the
+scars of his many wounds, and then, his spirit broken, sank into
+a lethargic indifference, in which he remained to the end. He was
+guillotined on the 16th of November 1793.</p>
+
+<p>After Houchard&rsquo;s arrest, Jourdan accepted the command,
+though with many misgivings, for the higher ranks were filled
+by officers with even less experience than he had himself, equipment
+and clothing was wanting, and, perhaps more important
+still, the new levies, instead of filling up the depleted ranks of
+the line, were assembled in undisciplined and half-armed hordes
+at various frontier camps, under elected officers who had for the
+most part never undergone the least training. The field states
+showed a total of 104,000 men, of whom less than a third formed
+the operative army. But an enthusiasm equal to that of
+Hondschoote, and similarly demanding a plain, urgent and
+recognizable objective, animated it, and although Jourdan and
+Carnot (who was with him at Gaverelle, where the army had
+now reassembled) began to study the general strategic situation,
+the Committee brought them back to realities by ordering them
+to relieve Maubeuge at all costs.</p>
+
+<p>The Allies disposed in all of 66,000 men around the threatened
+fortress, but 26,000 of these were actually employed in the
+siege, and the remainder, forming the covering army,
+extended in an enormous semicircle of posts facing
+<span class="sidenote">Wattignies.</span>
+west, south and east. Thus the Republicans, as before,
+had two men to one at the point of contact (44,000 against 21,000),
+but so formidable was the discipline and steadiness of man&oelig;uvre
+of the old armies that the chances were considered as no more than
+&ldquo;rather in favour&rdquo; of the French. Not that these chances
+were seriously weighed before engaging. The generals might
+squander their energies in the council chamber on plans of sieges
+and expeditions, but in the field they were glad enough to seize
+the opportunity of a battle which they were not skilful enough
+to compel. It took place on the 15th and 16th of October, and
+though the allied right and centre held their ground, on their left
+the plateau of Wattignies (<i>q.v.</i>), from which the battle derives its
+name, was stormed on the second day, Carnot, Jourdan and the
+representatives leading the columns in person. Coburg indeed
+retired in unbroken order, added to which the Maubeuge garrison
+had failed to co-operate with their rescuers by a sortie,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and the
+duke of York had hurried up with all the men he could spare
+from the Flanders cordon. But the Dutch generals refused to
+advance beyond the Sambre, and Coburg broke up the siege of
+Maubeuge and retired whence he had come, while Jourdan, so
+far from pressing forward, was anxiously awaiting a counter-attack,
+and entrenching himself with all possible energy. So
+ended the episode of Wattignies, which, alike in its general
+outline and in its details, gives a perfect picture of the character,
+at once intense and spasmodic, of the &ldquo;New French&rdquo; warfare
+in the days of the Terror.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>To complete the story of &rsquo;93 it remains to sketch, very briefly,
+the principal events on the eastern and southern frontiers of France.
+These present, in the main, no special features, and all that it is
+necessary to retain of them is the fact of their existence. What this
+multiplication of their tasks meant to the Committee of Public Safety
+and to Carnot in particular it is impossible to realize. It was not
+merely on the Sambre and the Scheldt, nor against one army of
+heterogeneous allies that the Republic had to fight for life, but against
+Prussians and Hessians on the Rhine, Sardinians in the Alps,
+Spaniards in the Pyrenees, and also (one might say, indeed, above all)
+against Frenchmen in Vendée, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon.</p>
+
+<p>On the Rhine, the advance of a Prussian-Hessian army, 63,000
+strong, rapidly drove back Custine from the Main into the valleys of
+the Saar and the Lauter. An Austrian corps under Wurmser soon
+afterwards invaded Alsace. Here, as on the northern frontier, there
+was a long period of trial and error, of denunciations and indiscipline,
+and of wholly trivial fighting, before the Republicans recovered
+themselves. But in the end the ragged enthusiasts found their true
+leader in Lazare Hoche, and, though defeated by Brunswick at
+Pirmasens and Kaiserslautern, they managed to develop almost
+their full strength against Wurmser in Alsace. On the 26th of December
+the latter, who had already undergone a series of partial reverses,
+was driven by main force from the lines of Weissenburg, after which
+Hoche advanced into the Palatinate and delivered Landau, and
+Pichegru moved on to recapture Mainz, which had surrendered
+in July. On the Spanish frontier both sides indulged in a fruitless
+war of posts in broken ground. The Italian campaign of 1793,
+equally unprofitable, will be referred to below. Far more serious than
+either was the insurrection of Vendée (<i>q.v.</i>) and the counter-revolution
+in the south of France, the principal incidents of which were the
+terrible sieges of Lyons and Toulon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For 1794 Carnot planned a general advance of all the northern
+armies, that of the North (Pichegru) from Dunkirk-Cassel by
+Ypres and Oudenarde on Brussels, the minor Army
+of the Ardennes to Charleroi, and the Army of the
+<span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1794.</span>
+Moselle (Jourdan) to Liége, while between Charleroi
+and Lille demonstrations were to be made against the hostile
+centre. He counted upon little as regards the two armies near
+the Meuse, but hoped to force on a decisive battle by the
+advance of the left wing towards Ypres. Coburg, on the other
+side, intended, if not forced to develop his strength on the Ypres
+side, to make his main effort against the French centre about
+Landrecies. This produced the siege of Landrecies, which need
+not concern us, a forward movement of the French to Menin
+and Courtrai which resulted in the battles of Tourcoing and
+Tournai, and the campaign of Fleurus, which, almost fortuitously,
+produced the long-sought decision.</p>
+
+<p>The first crisis was brought about by the advance of the left
+wing of the Army of the North, under Souham, to Menin-Courtrai.
+This advance placed Souham in the midst of the enemy&rsquo;s right
+wing, and at last stimulated the Allies into adopting the plan
+that Mack had advocated, in season and out of season, since
+before Neerwinden&mdash;that of <i>annihilating the enemy&rsquo;s army</i>.
+This vigorous purpose, and the leading part in its execution
+played by the duke of York and the British contingent, give
+these operations, to Englishmen at any rate, a living interest
+which is entirely lacking in, say, the sieges of Le Quesnoy and
+Landrecies. On the other side, the &ldquo;New French&rdquo; armies and
+their leaders, without losing the energy of 1793, had emerged from
+confusion and inexperience, and the powers of the new army
+and the new system had begun to mature. Thus it was a fair
+trial of strength between the old way and the new.</p>
+
+<p>In the second week of May the left wing of the Army of the
+North&mdash;the centre was towards Landrecies, and the right,
+fused in the Army of the Ardennes, towards Charleroi&mdash;found
+itself interposed at Menin-Courtrai-Lille between two hostile
+masses, the main body of the allied right wing about Tournai
+and a secondary corps at Thielt. Common-sense, therefore,
+dictated a converging attack for the Allies and a series of rapid
+radial blows for the French. In the allied camp common-sense
+had first to prevail over routine, and the emperor&rsquo;s first orders
+were for a raid of the Thielt corps towards Ypres, which his
+advisers hoped would of itself cause the French to decamp.
+But the duke of York formed a very different plan, and Feldzeugmeister
+Clerfayt, in command at Thielt, agreed to co-operate.
+Their proposal was to surround the French on the Lys
+with their two corps, and by the 15th the emperor had decided to
+use larger forces with the same object.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:516px; height:776px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img177.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">On that day Coburg himself, with 6000 men under Feldzeugmeister
+Kinsky from the central (Landrecies) group, entered
+Tournai and took up the general command, while
+another reinforcement under the archduke Charles
+<span class="sidenote">Mack&rsquo;s &ldquo;annihilation plan.&rdquo;</span>
+marched towards Orchies. Orders were promptly issued
+for a general offensive. Clerfayt&rsquo;s corps was to be
+between Rousselaer and Menin on the 16th, and the next day to force
+its way across the Lys at Werwick and connect with the main
+army. The main army was to advance in four columns. The first
+three, under the duke of York, were to move off, at daylight on the
+17th, by Dottignies, Leers and Lannoy respectively to the line
+Mouscron-Tourcoing-Mouveaux. The fourth and fifth under
+Kinsky and the archduke Charles were to defeat the French
+corps on the upper Marque, and then, leaving Lille on their left
+and guaranteeing themselves by a cordon system against being
+cut off from Tournai (either by the troops just defeated or by the
+Lille garrison), to march rapidly forward towards Werwick,
+getting touch on their right with the duke of York and on their
+left with Clerfayt, and thus completing the investing circle
+around Souham&rsquo;s and Moreau&rsquo;s isolated divisions. Speed was
+enjoined on all. Picked volunteers to clear away the enemy&rsquo;s
+skirmishers, and pioneers to make good difficult places on the
+roads, were to precede the heads of the columns. Then came
+at the head of the main body the artillery with an infantry
+escort. All this might have been designed by the Japanese for
+the attack of some well-defined Russian position in the war of
+1904. Outpost and skirmisher resistance was to be overpowered
+the instant it was offered, and the attack on the closed bodies
+of the enemy was to be initiated by a heavy artillery fire at the
+earliest possible moment. But in 1904 the Russians stood still,
+which was the last thing that the Revolutionary armies of 1794
+would or could do. Mack&rsquo;s well-considered and carefully balanced
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span>
+combinations failed, and doubtless helped to create the legend
+of his incapacity, which finds no support either in the opinion
+of Coburg, the representative of the old school, or in that of
+Scharnhorst, the founder of the new.</p>
+
+<p>Souham, who commanded in the temporary absence of Pichegru,
+had formed his own plan. Finding himself with the major
+part of his forces between York and Clerfayt, he had decided
+to impose upon the former by means of a covering detachment,
+and to fall upon Clerfayt near Rousselaer with the bulk
+of his forces. This plan, based as it was on a sound calculation
+of time, space, strength and endurance, merits close consideration,
+for it contains more than a trace of the essential principles of
+modern strategy, yet with one vital difference, that whereas,
+in the present case, the factor of the enemy&rsquo;s independent will
+wrecked the scheme, Napoleon would have guaranteed to himself,
+before and during its development, the power of executing it
+in spite of the enemy. The appearance of fresh allied troops
+(Kinsky) on his right front at once modified these general
+arrangements. Divining Coburg&rsquo;s intentions from the arrival
+of the enemy near Pont-à-Marque and at Lannoy, he ordered
+Bonnaud (Lille group, 27,000) to leave enough troops on the upper
+Marque to amuse the enemy&rsquo;s leftmost columns, and with every
+man he had left beyond this absolute minimum to attack the left
+flank of the columns moving towards Tourcoing, which his weak
+centre (12,000 men at Tourcoing, Mouscron and Roubaix) was
+to stop by frontal defence. No rôle was as yet assigned to the
+principal mass (50,000 under Moreau) about Courtrai.
+Vandamme&rsquo;s brigade was to extend along the Lys from Menin to
+Werwick and beyond, to deny as long as possible the passage to
+Clerfayt.</p>
+
+<p>This second plan failed like the first, because the enemy&rsquo;s
+counter-will was not controlled. All along the line Coburg&rsquo;s
+advance compelled the French to fight as they were without any
+redistribution. But the French were sufficiently elastic to adapt
+themselves readily to unforeseen conditions, and on Coburg&rsquo;s
+side too the unexpected happened. When Clerfayt appeared
+on the Lys above Menin, he found Werwick held. This was an
+accident, for the battalion there was on its way to Menin,
+and Vandamme, who had not yet received his new orders, was
+still far away. But the battalion fought boldly, Clerfayt sent
+for his pontoons, and ere they arrived Vandamme&rsquo;s leading
+troops managed to come up on the other side. Thus it was not
+till 1 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 18th that the first Austrian battalions passed
+the Lys.</p>
+
+<p>On the front of the main allied group the &ldquo;annihilation
+plan&rdquo; was crippled at the outset by the tardiness of the archduke&rsquo;s
+(fifth or left) column. On this the smooth working of the
+whole scheme depended, for Coburg considered that he must
+<i>defeat</i> Bonnaud before carrying out his intended envelopment
+of the Menin-Courtrai group (the idea of &ldquo;binding&rdquo; the enemy
+by a detachment while the main scheme proceeded had not yet
+arisen). The allied general, indeed, on discovering the backwardness
+of the archduke, went so far as to order all the other
+columns to begin by swerving southward against Bonnaud, but
+these were already too deeply committed to the original plan
+to execute any new variation.</p>
+
+<p>The rightmost column (Hanoverians) under von dem Bussche
+moved on Mouscron, overpowering the fragmentary, if energetic,
+resistance of the French advanced posts. Next on the left,
+Lieutenant Field Marshal Otto moved by Leers and Watrelos,
+driving away a French post at Lis (near Lannoy) on his left flank,
+and entered Tourcoing. But meantime a French brigade had
+driven von dem Bussche away from Mouscron, so that Otto felt
+compelled to keep troops at Leers and Watrelos to protect his
+rear, which seriously weakened his hold on Tourcoing. The
+third column, led by the duke of York, advanced from Templeuve
+on Lannoy, at the same time securing its left by expelling the
+French from Willems. Lannoy was stormed by the British
+Guards under Sir R. Abercromby with such vigour that the
+cavalry which had been sent round the village to cut off the
+French retreat had no time to get into position. Beyond Lannoy,
+the French resistance, still disjointed, became more obstinate as
+the ground favoured it more, and the duke called up the Austrians
+from Willems to turn the right of the French position at Roubaix
+by way of a small valley. Once again, however, the Guards dislodged
+the enemy before the turning movement had taken effect.
+A third French position now appeared, at Mouvaux, and this
+seemed so formidable that the duke halted to rest his now
+weary men. The emperor himself, however, ordered the advance
+to be resumed, and Mouvaux too was carried by Abercromby.
+It was now nightfall, and the duke having attained his objective
+point prepared to hold it against a counter attack.</p>
+
+<p>Kinsky meanwhile with the fourth column had made feints
+opposite Pont-à-Tressin, and had forced the passage of the Marque
+near Bouvines with his main body. But Bonnaud gave ground
+so slowly that up to 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> Kinsky had only progressed a few
+hundred paces from his crossing point. The fifth column, which
+was behind time on the 16th, did not arrive at Orchies till dawn
+on the 17th, and had to halt there for rest and food. Thence,
+moving across country in fighting formation, the archduke
+made his way to Pont-à-Marque. But he was unable to do more,
+before calling a halt, than deploy his troops on the other side of
+the stream.</p>
+
+<p>So closed the first day&rsquo;s operations. The &ldquo;annihilation plan&rdquo;
+had already undergone a serious check. The archduke and
+Kinsky, instead of being ready for the second part of their task,
+had scarcely completed the first, and the same could be said of
+Clerfayt, while von dem Bussche had definitively failed. Only
+the duke of York and Otto had done their share in the centre,
+and they now stood at Tourcoing and Mouvaux isolated in the
+midst of the enemy&rsquo;s main body, with no hope of support from
+the other columns and no more than a chance of meeting Clerfayt.
+Coburg&rsquo;s entire force was, without deducting losses, no more
+than 53,000 for a front of 18 m., and only half of the enemy&rsquo;s
+available 80,000 men had as yet been engaged. Mack sent a
+staff officer, at 1 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, to implore the archduke to come up to
+Lannoy at once, but the young prince was asleep and his suite
+refused to wake him.</p>
+
+<p>Matters did not, of course, present themselves in this light at
+Souham&rsquo;s headquarters, where the generals met in an informal
+council. The project of flinging Bonnaud&rsquo;s corps against the
+flank of the duke of York had not received even a beginning of
+execution, and the outposts, reinforced though they were from
+the main group, had everywhere been driven in. All the subordinate
+leaders, moreover (except Bonnaud), sent in the most
+despondent reports. &ldquo;Councils of war never fight&rdquo; is an old
+maxim, justified in ninety-nine cases in a hundred. But this
+council determined to do so, and with all possible vigour. The
+scheme was practically that which Coburg&rsquo;s first threat had
+produced and his first brusque advance had inhibited. Vandamme
+was to hold Clerfayt, the garrison of Lille and a few
+outlying corps to occupy the archduke and Kinsky, and in the
+centre Moreau and Bonnaud, with 40,000 effectives, were to
+attack the Tourcoing-Mouvaux position in front and flank at
+dawn with all possible energy.</p>
+
+<p>The first shots were fired on the Lys, where, it will be remembered,
+Clerfayt&rsquo;s infantry had effected its crossing in the
+night. Vandamme, who was to defend the river, had
+in the evening assembled his troops (fatigued by a
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Tourcoing.</span>
+long march) near Menin instead of pushing on at once.
+Thus only one of his battalions had taken part in the defence
+of Werwick on the 17th, and the remainder were by this chance
+massed on the flank of Clerfayt&rsquo;s subsequent line of advance.
+Vandamme used his advantage well. He attacked, with perhaps
+12,000 men against 21,000, the head and the middle of Clerfayt&rsquo;s
+columns as they moved on Lincelles. Clerfayt stopped at once,
+turned upon him and drove him towards Roncq and Menin.
+Still, fighting in succession, rallying and fighting again,
+Vandamme&rsquo;s regiments managed to spin out time and to
+commit Clerfayt deeper and deeper to a false direction till it was
+too late in the day to influence the battle elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>V. dem Bussche&rsquo;s column at Dottignies, shaken by the blow
+it had received the day before, did nothing, and actually retreated
+to the Scheldt. On the other flank, Kinsky and the archduke
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span>
+Charles practically remained inactive despite repeated orders
+to proceed to Lannoy, Kinsky waiting for the archduke, and the
+latter using up his time and forces in elaborating a protective
+cordon all around his left and rear. Both alleged that &ldquo;the troops
+were tired,&rdquo; but there was a stronger motive. It was felt that
+Belgium was about to be handed over to France as the price
+of peace, and the generals did not see the force of wasting
+soldiers on a lost cause. There remained the two centre columns,
+Otto&rsquo;s and the duke of York&rsquo;s. The orders of the emperor to
+the duke were that he should advance to establish communication
+with Clerfayt at Lincelles. Having thus cut off the French
+Courtrai group, he was to initiate a general advance to crush it,
+in which all the allied columns would take part, Clerfayt, York
+and Otto in front, von dem Bussche on the right flank and the
+archduke and Kinsky in support. These airy schemes were
+destroyed at dawn on the 18th. Macdonald&rsquo;s brigade carried
+Tourcoing at the first rush, though Otto&rsquo;s guns and the volleys
+of the infantry checked its further progress. Malbrancq&rsquo;s
+brigade swarmed around the duke of York&rsquo;s entrenchments at
+Mouvaux, while Bonnaud&rsquo;s mass from the side of Lille passed
+the Marque and lapped round the flanks of the British posts at
+Roubaix and Lannoy. The duke had used up his reserves in
+assisting Otto, and by 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the positions of Roubaix, Lannoy
+and Mouvaux were isolated from each other. But the Allies
+fought magnificently, and by now the Republicans were in
+confusion, excited to the highest pitch and therefore extremely
+sensitive to waves of enthusiasm or panic; and at this moment
+Clerfayt was nearing success, and Vandamme fighting almost
+back to back with Malbrancq. Otto was able to retire gradually,
+though with heavy losses, to Leers, before Macdonald&rsquo;s left
+column was able to storm Watrelos, or Daendels&rsquo; brigade, still
+farther towards the Scheldt, could reach his rear. The resistance
+of the Austrians gave breathing space to the English, who held
+on to their positions till about 11.30, attacked again and again
+by Bonnaud, and then, not without confusion, retired to join
+Otto at Leers.</p>
+
+<p>With the retreat of the two sorely tried columns and the
+suspension of Clerfayt&rsquo;s attack between Lincelles and Roncq,
+the battle of Tourcoing ended. It was a victory of which the
+young French generals had reason to be proud. The main
+attack was vigorously conducted, and the two-to-one numerical
+superiority which the French possessed at the decisive point
+is the best testimony at once to Souham&rsquo;s generalship and to
+Vandamme&rsquo;s bravery. As for the Allies, those of them who took
+part in the battle at all, generals and soldiers, covered themselves
+with glory, but the inaction of two-thirds of Coburg&rsquo;s army was
+the bankruptcy declaration of the old strategical system. The
+Allies lost, on this day, about 4000 killed and wounded and 1500
+prisoners besides 60 guns. The French loss, which was probably
+heavier, is not known. The duke of York defeated, Souham
+at once turned his attention to Clerfayt, against whom he directed
+all the forces he could gather after a day&rsquo;s &ldquo;horde-tactics.&rdquo; The
+Austrian commander, however, withdrew over the river unharmed.
+On the 19th he was at Rousselaer and Ingelminster, 9
+or 10 m. north of Courtrai, while Coburg&rsquo;s forces assembled and
+encamped in a strong position some 3 m. west and north-west of
+Tournai, the Hanoverians remaining out in advance of the right
+on the Espierre.</p>
+
+<p>Souham&rsquo;s victory, thanks to his geographical position, had
+merely given him air. The Allies, except for the loss of some
+5500 men, were in no way worse off. The plan had failed, but
+the army as a whole had not been defeated, while the troops of
+the duke of York and Otto were far too well disciplined not to
+take their defeat as &ldquo;all in the day&rsquo;s work.&rdquo; Souham was still
+on the Lys and midway between the two allied masses, able to
+strike each in turn or liable to be crushed between them in proportion
+as the opposing generals calculated time, space and
+endurance accurately. Souham, therefore, as early as the 19th,
+had decided that until Clerfayt had been pushed back to his
+old positions near Thielt he could not deal with the main body
+of the Allies on the side of Tournai, and he had left Bonnaud
+to hold the latter while he concentrated most of his forces
+towards Courtrai. This move had the desired effect, for Clerfayt
+retired without a contest, and on the 21st of May Souham issued
+his orders for an advance on Coburg&rsquo;s army, which, as he knew,
+had meantime been reinforced. Vandamme alone was left to
+face Clerfayt, and this time with outposts far out, at Ingelminster
+and Roosebeke, so as to ensure his chief, not a few hours&rsquo;, but
+two or three days&rsquo; freedom from interference.</p>
+
+<p>Pichegru now returned and took up the supreme command,
+Souham remaining in charge of his own and Moreau&rsquo;s divisions.
+On the extreme right, from Pont-à-Tressin, only
+demonstrations were to be made; the centre, between
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Tournai.</span>
+Baisieux and Estaimbourg, was to be the scene of the
+holding attack of Bonnaud&rsquo;s command, while Souham, in considerably
+greater density, delivered the decisive attack on the
+allied right by St Leger and Warcoing. At Helchin a brigade was
+to guard the outer flank of the assailants against a movement by
+the Hanoverians and to keep open communication with Courtrai
+in case of attack from the direction of Oudenarde. The details of
+the allied position were insufficiently known owing to the multiplicity
+of their advanced posts and the intricate and densely cultivated
+nature of the ground. The battle of Tournai opened in
+the early morning of the 22nd and was long and desperately
+contested. The demonstration on the French extreme right
+was soon recognized by the defenders to be negligible, and the
+allied left wing thereupon closed on the centre. There Bonnaud
+attacked with vigour, forcing back the various advanced posts,
+especially on the left, where he dislodged the Allies from Nechin.
+The defenders of Templeuve then fell back, and the attacking
+swarms&mdash;a dissolved line of battle&mdash;fringed the brook beyond
+Templeuve, on the other side of which was the Allies&rsquo; main
+position, and even for a moment seized Blandain. Meanwhile
+the French at Nechin, in concert with the main attack, pressed
+on towards Ramegnies.</p>
+
+<p>Macdonald&rsquo;s and other brigades had forced the Espierre
+rivulet and driven von dem Bussche&rsquo;s Hanoverians partly over
+the Scheldt (they had a pontoon bridge), partly southward.
+The main front of the Allies was defined by the brook that flows
+between Templeuve and Blandain, then between Ramegnies
+and Pont-à-Chin and empties into the Scheldt near the last-named
+hamlet. On this front till close on nightfall a fierce battle raged.
+Pichegru&rsquo;s main attack was still by his left, and Pont-à-Chin was
+taken and retaken by French, Austrians, British and Hanoverians
+in turn. Between Blandain and Pont-à-Chin Bonnaud&rsquo;s troops
+more than once entered the line of defence. But the attack was
+definitively broken off at nightfall and the Republicans withdrew
+slowly towards Lannoy and Leers. They had for the first time
+in a fiercely contested &ldquo;soldier&rsquo;s battle&rdquo; measured their strength,
+regiment for regiment, against the Allies, and failed, but by so
+narrow a margin that henceforward the Army of the North
+realized its own strength and solidity. The Army of the Revolution,
+already superior in numbers and imbued with the decision-compelling
+spirit, had at last achieved self-confidence.</p>
+
+<p>But the actual decision was destined by a curious process of
+evolution to be given by Jourdan&rsquo;s far-distant Army of the
+Moselle, to which we now turn.</p>
+
+<p>The Army of the Moselle had been ordered to assemble a striking
+force on its left wing, without prejudicing the rest of its cordon
+in Lorraine, and with this striking force to operate towards
+Liége and Namur. Its first movement on Arlon, in April, was
+repulsed by a small Austrian corps under Beaulieu that guarded
+this region. But in the beginning of May the advance was
+resumed though the troops were ill-equipped and ill-fed, and
+requisitions had reduced the civil population to semi-starvation
+and sullen hostility. We quote Jourdan&rsquo;s instructions to his
+advanced guard, not merely as evidence of the trivial purpose
+of the march as originally planned, but still more as an illustration
+of the driving power that made the troops march at all, and of
+the new method of marching and subsisting them.</p>
+
+<p>Its commander was &ldquo;to keep in mind the purpose of cutting
+the communications between Luxemburg and Namur, and was
+therefore to throw out strong bodies against the enemy daily and
+at different points, to parry the enemy&rsquo;s movements by rapid
+<span class="sidenote">Jourdan&rsquo;s movement on Liége.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span>
+marches, to prevent any transfer of troops to Belgium, and lastly
+to seek an occasion for giving battle, for cutting off his convoys
+and for seizing his magazines.&rdquo; So much for the
+purpose. The method of achieving it is defined as
+follows. &ldquo;General Hatry, in order to attain the object
+of these instructions, will have with him the minimum
+of wagons. He is to live at the expense of the enemy as much
+as possible, and to send back into the interior of the Republic
+whatever may be useful to it; he will maintain his communications
+with Longwy, report every movement to me, and when
+necessary to the Committee of Public Safety and to the minister
+of war, maintain order and discipline, and firmly oppose every
+sort of pillage.&rdquo; How the last of these instructions was to be
+reconciled with the rest, Hatry was not informed. In fact, it
+was ignored. &ldquo;I am far from believing,&rdquo; wrote the representative
+on mission Gillet, &ldquo;that we ought to adopt the principles
+of philanthropy with which we began the war.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At the moment when, on these terms, Jourdan&rsquo;s advance was
+resumed, the general situation east of the Scheldt was as follows:
+The Allies&rsquo; centre under Coburg had captured Landrecies, and
+now (May 4) lay around that place, about 65,000 strong, while
+the left under Kaunitz (27,000) was somewhat north of Maubeuge,
+with detachments south of the Sambre as far as the Meuse.
+Beyond these again were the detachment of Beaulieu (8000)
+near Arlon, and another, 9000 strong, around Trier. On the side
+of the French, the Army of the Moselle (41,000 effectives) was
+in cordon between Saargemünd and Longwy; the Army of the
+Ardennes (22,000) between Beaumont and Givet; of the Army
+of the North, the right wing (38,000) in the area Beaumont&mdash;Maubeuge
+and the centre (24,000) about Guise. In the aggregate
+the allied field armies numbered 139,000 men, those of the
+French 203,000. Tactically the disproportion was sufficient to
+give the latter the victory, if, strategically, it could be made
+effective at a given time and place. But the French had mobility
+as a remedy for over-extension, and though their close massing
+on the extreme flanks left no more than equal forces opposite
+Coburg in the centre, the latter felt unable either to go forward
+or to close to one flank when on his right the storm was brewing
+at Menin and Tournai, and on his left Kaunitz reported the
+gathering of important masses of the French around Beaumont.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the initiative passed over to the French, but they missed
+their opportunity, as Coburg had missed his in 1793. Pichegru&rsquo;s
+right was ordered to march on Mons, and his left to master the
+navigation of the Scheldt so as to reduce the Allies to wagon-drawn
+supplies&mdash;the latter an objective dear to the 18th-century
+general; while Jourdan&rsquo;s task, as we know, was to conquer the
+Liége or Namur country without unduly stripping the cordon on
+the Saar and the Moselle. Jourdan&rsquo;s orders and original purpose
+were to get Beaulieu out of his way by the usual strategical
+tricks, and to march through the Ardennes as rapidly as possible,
+living on what supplies he could pick up from the enemy or the
+inhabitants. But he had scarcely started when Beaulieu made
+his existence felt by attacking a French post at Bouillon. Thereupon
+Jourdan made the active enemy, instead of Namur, his
+first object.</p>
+
+<p>The movement of the operative portion of the Army of the
+Moselle began on the 21st of May from Longwy through Arlon
+towards Neufchâteau. Irregular fighting, sometimes with the
+Austrians, sometimes with the bitterly hostile inhabitants,
+marked its progress. Beaulieu was nowhere forced into a battle.
+But fortune was on Jourdan&rsquo;s side. The Austrians were a detachment
+of Coburg&rsquo;s army, not an independent force, and when
+threatened they retired towards Ciney, drawing Jourdan after
+them in the very direction in which he desired to go. On the
+28th the French, after a vain detour made in the hope of forcing
+Beaulieu to fight&mdash;&ldquo;les esclaves n&rsquo;osent pas se mesurer avec
+des hommes libres,&rdquo; wrote Jourdan in disgust,&mdash;reached Ciney,
+and there heard that the enemy had fallen back to a strongly
+entrenched position on the east bank of the Meuse near Namur.
+Jourdan was preparing to attack them there, when considerations
+of quite another kind intervened to change his direction, and
+thereby to produce the drama of Charleroi and Fleurus&mdash;which
+military historians have asserted to be the foreseen result of the
+initial plan.</p>
+
+<p>The method of &ldquo;living on the country&rdquo; had failed lamentably
+in the Ardennes, and Jourdan, though he had spoken of changing
+his line of supply from Arlon to Carignan, then to Mézières and
+so on as his march progressed, was still actually living from hand
+to mouth on the convoys that arrived intermittently from his
+original base. When he sought to take what he needed from the
+towns on the Meuse, he infringed on the preserves of the Army
+of the Ardennes.<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> The advance, therefore, came for the moment
+to a standstill, while Beaulieu, solicitous for the safety of Charleroi&mdash;in
+which fortress he had a magazine&mdash;called up the outlying
+troops left behind on the Moselle to rejoin him by way of Bastogne.
+At the same moment (29th) Jourdan received new orders from
+Paris&mdash;(<i>a</i>) to take Dinant and Charleroi and to clear the country
+between the Meuse and the Sambre, and (<i>b</i>) to attack Namur,
+either by assault or by regular siege. In the latter case the bulk
+of the forces were to form a covering army beyond the place,
+to demonstrate towards Nivelles, Louvain and Liége, and to
+serve at need as a support to the right flank of the Ardennes
+Army. From these orders and from the action of the enemy
+the campaign at last took a definite shape.</p>
+
+<p>When the Army of the Moselle passed over to the left bank
+of the Meuse, it was greeted by the distant roar of guns towards
+Charleroi and by news that the Army of the Ardennes,
+which had already twice been defeated by Kaunitz,
+<span class="sidenote">Charleroi.</span>
+was for the third time deeply and unsuccessfully engaged beyond
+the Sambre. The resumption of the march again complicated
+the supply question, and it was only slowly that the army
+advanced towards Charleroi, sweeping the country before it
+and extending its right towards Namur. But at last on the 3rd
+of June the concentration of parts of three armies on the Sambre
+was effected. Jourdan took command of the united force (Army
+of the Sambre and Meuse) with a strong hand, the 40,000 new-comers
+inspired fresh courage in the beaten Ardennes troops, and
+in the sudden dominating enthusiasm of the moment pillaging
+and straggling almost ceased. Troops that had secured bread
+shared it with less fortunate comrades, and even the Liégois
+peasantry made free gifts of supplies. &ldquo;We must believe,&rdquo; says
+the French general staff of to-day, &ldquo;that the idea symbolized
+by the Tricolour, around which marched ever these sansculottes,
+shoeless and hungry, unchained a mysterious force that preceded
+our columns and aided the achievement of military success.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Friction, however, arose between Jourdan and the generals
+of the Ardennes Army, to whom the representatives thought
+it well to give a separate mission. This detachment of 18,000
+men was followed by another, of 16,000, to keep touch with
+Maubeuge. Deducting another 6000 for the siege of Charleroi,
+when this should be made, the covering army destined to fight
+the Imperialists dwindled to 55,000 out of 96,000 effectives.
+Even now, we see, the objective was not primarily the enemy&rsquo;s
+army. The Republican leaders desired to strike out beyond
+the Sambre, and as a preliminary to capture Charleroi. They
+would not, however, risk the loss of their connexion with Maubeuge
+before attaining the new foothold.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Tourcoing and Tournai had at last convinced
+Coburg that Pichegru was his most threatening opponent, and
+he had therefore, though with many misgivings, decided to
+move towards his right, leaving the prince of Orange with not
+more than 45,000 men on the side of Maubeuge-Charleroi-Namur.</p>
+
+<p>Jourdan crossed the Sambre on the 12th of June, practically
+unopposed. Charleroi was rapidly invested and the covering
+army extended in a semicircular position. For the fourth
+time the Allies counter-attacked successfully, and after a severe
+struggle the French had to abandon their positions and their
+siege works and to recross the Sambre (June 16). But the army
+was not beaten. On the contrary, it was only desirous of having
+its revenge for a stroke of ill-fortune, due, the soldiers said, to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span>
+the fog and to the want of ammunition. The fierce threats of
+St Just (who had joined the army) to <i>faire tomber les têtes</i>
+if more energy were not shown were unnecessary, and within
+two days the army was advancing again. On the 18th Jourdan&rsquo;s
+columns recrossed the river and extended around Charleroi
+in the same positions as before. This time, having in view the
+weariness of his troops and their heavy losses on the 16th, the
+prince of Orange allowed the siege to proceed. His reasons for
+so doing furnish an excellent illustration of the different ideas
+and capacities of a professional army and a &ldquo;nation in arms.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Imperial troops,&rdquo; wrote General Alvintzi, &ldquo;are very
+fatigued. We have fought nine times since the 10th of May,
+we have bivouacked constantly, and made forced marches.
+Further, we are short of officers.&rdquo; All this, it need hardly be
+pointed out, applied equally to the French.</p>
+
+<p>Charleroi, garrisoned by less than 3000 men, was intimidated
+into surrender (25th) when the third parallel was barely established.
+Thus the object of the first operations was achieved.
+As to the next neither Jourdan nor the representatives seem to
+have had anything further in view than the capture of more
+fortresses. But within twenty-four hours events had decided
+for them.</p>
+
+<p>Coburg had quickly abandoned his intention of closing on
+his right wing, and (after the usual difficulties with his Allies
+on that side) had withdrawn 12,000 Austrians from the centre
+of his cordon opposite Pichegru, and made forced marches to
+join the prince of Orange. On the 24th of June he had collected
+52,000 men at various points round Charleroi, and on the 25th
+he set out to relieve the little fortress. But he was in complete
+ignorance of the state of affairs at Charleroi. Signal guns were
+fired, but the woods drowned even the roar of the siege batteries,
+and at last a party under Lieutenant Radetzky made its way
+through the covering army and discovered that the place had
+fallen. The party was destroyed on its return, but Radetzky
+was reserved for greater things. He managed, though twice
+wounded, to rejoin Coburg with his bad news in the midst of
+the battle of Fleurus.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th Jourdan&rsquo;s army (now some 73,000 strong) was still
+posted in a semicircle of entrenched posts, 20 m. in extent,
+round the captured town, pending the removal of the now unnecessary
+pontoon bridge at Marchiennes and the selection of
+a shorter line of defence.</p>
+
+<p>Coburg was still more widely extended. Inferior in numbers
+as he was, he proposed to attack on an equal front, and thus gave
+himself, for the attack of an entrenched position,
+an order of battle of three men to every two yards of
+<span class="sidenote">Fleurus.</span>
+front, all reserves included. The Allies were to attack in five
+columns, the prince of Orange from the west and north-west
+towards Trazegnies and Monceau wood, Quasdanovich from the
+north on Gosselies, Kaunitz from the north-east, the archduke
+Charles from the east through Fleurus, and finally Beaulieu
+towards Lambusart. The scheme was worked out in such minute
+detail and with so entire a disregard of the chance of unforeseen
+incidents, that once he had given the executive command to move,
+the Austrian general could do no more. If every detail worked
+out as planned, victory would be his; if accidents happened
+he could do nothing to redress them, and unless these righted
+themselves (which was improbable in the case of the stiffly
+organized old armies) he could only send round the order to break
+off the action and retreat.</p>
+
+<p>In these circumstances the battle of Fleurus is the sum rather
+than the product of the various fights that took place between
+each allied column and the French division that it met. The
+prince of Orange attacked at earliest dawn and gradually drove
+in the French left wing to Courcelles, Roux and Marchiennes,
+but somewhat after noon the French, under the direction for the
+most part of Kléber, began a series of counterstrokes which
+recovered the lost ground, and about 5, without waiting for
+Coburg&rsquo;s instructions, the prince retired north-westward off
+the battlefield. The French centre division, under Morlot, made
+a gradual fighting retreat on Gosselies, followed up by the
+Quasdanovich column and part of Kaunitz&rsquo;s force. No serious
+impression was made on the defenders, chiefly because the brook
+west of Mellet was a serious obstacle to the rigid order of the
+Allies and had to be bridged before their guns could be got over.
+Kaunitz&rsquo;s column and Championnet&rsquo;s division met on the battlefield
+of 1690. The French were gradually driven in from the
+outlying villages to their main position between Heppignies and
+Wangenies. Here the Allies, well led and taking every advantage
+of ground and momentary chances, had the best of it. They
+pressed the French hard, necessitated the intervention of such
+small reserves as Jourdan had available, and only gave way to the
+defenders&rsquo; counterstroke at the moment they received Coburg&rsquo;s
+orders for a general retreat.</p>
+
+<p>On the allied left wing the fighting was closer and more severe
+than at any point. Beaulieu on the extreme left advanced upon
+Velaine and the French positions in the woods to the south in
+several small groups of all arms. Here were the divisions of the
+Army of the Ardennes, markedly inferior in discipline and
+endurance to the rest, and only too mindful of their four previous
+reverses. For six hours, more or less, they resisted the oncoming
+Allies, but then, in spite of the example and the despairing
+appeals of their young general Marceau, they broke and fled,
+leaving Beaulieu free to combine with the archduke Charles,
+who carried Fleurus after obstinate fighting, and then pressed on
+towards Campinaire. Beaulieu took command of all the allied
+forces on this side about noon, and from then to 5 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> launched
+a series of terrible attacks on the French (Lefebvre&rsquo;s division,
+part of the general reserve, and the remnant of Marceau&rsquo;s troops)
+above Campinaire and Lambusart. The disciplined resolution
+of the imperial battalions, and the enthusiasm of the French
+Revolutionaries, were each at their height. The Austrians came
+on time after time over ground that was practically destitute of
+cover. Villages, farms and fields of corn caught fire. The French
+grew more and more excited&mdash;&ldquo;No retreat to-day!&rdquo; they called
+out to their leaders, and finally, clamouring to be led against the
+enemy, they had their wish. Lefebvre seized the psychological
+moment when the fourth attack of the Allies had failed, and
+(though he did not know it) the order to retreat had come from
+Coburg. The losses of the unit that delivered it were small,
+for the charge exactly responded to the moral conditions of the
+moment, but the proportion of killed to wounded (55 to 81) is
+good evidence of the intensity of the momentary conflict.</p>
+
+<p>So ended the battle. Coburg had by now learned definitely
+that Charleroi had surrendered, and while the issue of the battle
+was still doubtful&mdash;for though the prince of Orange was beaten,
+Beaulieu was in the full tide of success&mdash;he gave (towards 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>)
+the order for a general retreat. This was delivered to the various
+commanders between 4 and 5, and these, having their men in
+hand even in the heat of the engagement, were able to break off
+the battle without undue confusion. The French were far too
+exhausted to pursue them (they had lost twice as many men
+as the Allies), and their leader had practically no formed body
+at hand to follow up the victory, thanks to the extraordinary
+dissemination of the army.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Tourcoing, Tournay and Fleurus represent the maximum result
+achievable under the earlier Revolutionary system of making war,
+and show the men and the leaders at the highest point of combined
+steadiness and enthusiasm they ever reached&mdash;that is, as a &ldquo;Sansculotte&rdquo;
+army. Fleurus was also the last great victory of the
+French, in point of time, prior to the advent of Napoleon, and may
+therefore be considered as illustrating the general conditions of
+warfare at one of the most important points in its development.</p>
+
+<p>The sequel of these battles can be told in a few words. The Austrian
+government had, it is said, long ago decided to evacuate the Netherlands,
+and Coburg retired over the Meuse, practically unpursued,
+while the duke of York&rsquo;s forces fell back in good order, though
+pursued by Pichegru through Flanders. The English contingent
+embarked for home, the rest retired through Holland into Hanoverian
+territory, leaving the Dutch troops to surrender to the victors. The
+last phase of the pursuit reflected great glory on Pichegru, for it
+was conducted in midwinter through a country bare of supplies and
+densely intersected with dykes and meres. The crowning incident
+was the dramatic capture of the Dutch fleet, frozen in at the Texel,
+by a handful of hussars who rode over the ice and browbeat the crews
+of the well-armed battleships into surrender. It was many years
+before a prince of Orange ruled again in the United provinces, while
+the Austrian whitecoats never again mounted guard in Brussels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span></p>
+
+<p>The Rhine campaign of 1794, waged as before chiefly by the
+Prussians, was not of great importance. General v. Möllendorf won a
+victory at Kaiserslautern on the 23rd of May, but operations thereafter
+became spasmodic, and were soon complicated by Coburg&rsquo;s
+retreat over the Meuse. With this event the offensive of the Allies
+against the French Revolution came to an inglorious end. Poland
+now occupied the thoughts of European statesmen, and Austria began
+to draw her forces on to the east. England stopped the payment of
+subsidies, and Prussia made the Peace of Basel on the 5th of April
+1795. On the Spanish frontier the French under General Dugommier
+(who was killed in the last battle) were successful in almost every
+encounter, and Spain, too, made peace. Only the eternal enemies,
+France and Austria, were left face to face on the Rhine, and elsewhere,
+of all the Allies, Sardinia alone (see below under <i>Italian Campaigns</i>)
+continued the struggle in a half-hearted fashion.</p>
+
+<p>The operations of 1795 on the Rhine present no feature of the
+Revolutionary Wars that other and more interesting campaigns
+fail to show. Austria had two armies on foot under the general
+command of Clerfayt, one on the upper Rhine, the other south of
+the Main, while Mainz was held by an army of imperial contingents.
+The French, Jourdan on the lower; Pichegru on the upper Rhine,
+had as usual superior numbers at their disposal. Jourdan combined
+a demonstrative frontal attack on Neuwied with an advance in force
+via Düsseldorf, reunited his wings beyond the river near Neuwied,
+and drove back the Austrians in a series of small engagements to the
+Main, while Pichegru passed at Mannheim and advanced towards
+the Neckar. But ere long both were beaten, Jourdan at Höchst
+and Pichegru at Mannheim, and the investment of Mainz had to be
+abandoned. This was followed by the invasion of the Palatinate
+by Clerfayt and the retreat of Jourdan to the Moselle. The position
+was further compromised by secret negotiations between Pichegru
+and the enemy for the restoration of the Bourbons. The meditated
+treason came to light early in the following year, and the guilty
+commander disappeared into the obscure ranks of the royalist
+secret agents till finally brought to justice in 1804.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">The Campaign of 1796 in Germany</p>
+
+<p>The wonder of Europe now transferred itself from the drama
+of the French Revolution to the equally absorbing drama of a
+great war on the Rhine. &ldquo;Every day, for four terrible years,&rdquo;
+wrote a German pamphleteer early in 1796, &ldquo;has surpassed the
+one before it in grandeur and terror, and to-day surpasses all
+in dizzy sublimity.&rdquo; That a man&oelig;uvre on the Lahn should
+possess an interest to the peoples of Europe surpassing that of
+the Reign of Terror is indeed hardly imaginable, but there was a
+good reason for the tense expectancy that prevailed everywhere.
+France&rsquo;s policy was no longer defensive. She aimed at invading
+and &ldquo;revolutionizing&rdquo; the monarchies and principalities of old
+Europe, and to this end the campaign of 1796 was to be the great
+and conclusive effort. The &ldquo;liberation of the oppressed&rdquo; had
+its part in the decision, and the glory of freeing the serf easily
+merged itself in the glory of defeating the serf&rsquo;s masters. But
+a still more pressing motive for carrying the war into the enemy&rsquo;s
+country was the fact that France and the lands she had overrun
+could no longer subsist her armies. The Directory frankly told
+its generals, when they complained that their men were starving
+and ragged, that they would find plenty of subsistence beyond
+the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>On her part, Austria, no longer fettered by allied contingents
+nor by the expenses of a far distant campaign, could put forth
+more strength than on former campaigns, and as war came
+nearer home and the citizen saw himself threatened by &ldquo;revolutionizing&rdquo;
+and devastating armies, he ceased to hamper or
+to swindle the troops. Thus the duel took place on the grandest
+scale then known in the history of European armies. Apart
+from the secondary theatre of Italy, the area embraced in the
+struggle was a vast triangle extending from Düsseldorf to Basel
+and thence to Ratisbon, and Carnot sketched the outlines in
+accordance with the scale of the picture. He imagined nothing
+less than the union of the armies of the Rhine and the Riviera
+before the walls of Vienna. Its practicability cannot here be
+discussed, but it is worth contrasting the attitude of contemporaries
+and of later strategical theorists towards it. The
+former, with their empirical knowledge of war, merely thought
+it impracticable with the available means, but the latter have
+condemned it root and branch as &ldquo;an operation on exterior
+lines.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The scheme took shape only gradually. The first advance
+was made partly in search of food, partly to disengage the
+Palatinate, which Clerfayt had conquered in 1795. &ldquo;If you
+have reason to believe that you would find some supplies on
+the Lahn, hasten thither with the greater part of your forces,&rdquo;
+wrote the Directory to Jourdan (Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse,
+72,000) on the 29th of March. He was to move at once,
+before the Austrians could concentrate, and to pass the Rhine
+at Düsseldorf, thereby bringing back the centre of the
+<span class="sidenote">Jourdan and Moreau.</span>
+enemy over the river. He was, further, to take every
+advantage of their want of concentration to deliver
+blow after blow, and to do his utmost to break them
+up completely. A fortnight later Moreau (Army of the Rhine-and-Moselle,
+78,000) was ordered to take advantage of Jourdan&rsquo;s
+move, which would draw most of the Austrian forces to the
+Mainz region, to enter the Breisgau and Suabia. &ldquo;You will
+attack Austria at home, and capture her magazines. You will
+enter a new country, the resources of which, properly handled,
+should suffice for the needs of the Army of the Rhine-and-Moselle.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Jourdan, therefore, was to take upon himself the destruction
+of the enemy, Moreau the invasion of South Germany. The
+first object of both was to subsist their armies beyond the
+Rhine, the second to defeat the armies and terrorize the populations
+of the empire. Under these instructions the campaign
+opened. Jourdan crossed at Düsseldorf and reached the Lahn,
+but the enemy concentrated against him very swiftly and he
+had to retire over the river. Still, if he had not been able to
+&ldquo;break them up completely,&rdquo; he had at any rate drawn on
+himself the weight of the Austrian army, and enabled Moreau
+to cross at Strassburg without much difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The Austrians were now commanded by the archduke Charles,
+who, after all detachments had been made, disposed of some
+56,000 men. At first he employed the bulk of this force against
+Jourdan, but on hearing of Moreau&rsquo;s progress he returned to
+the Neckar country with 20,000 men, leaving Feldzeugmeister
+v. Wartensleben with 36,000 to observe Jourdan. In later
+years he admitted himself that his own force was far too small
+to deal with Moreau, who, he probably thought, would retire
+after a few man&oelig;uvres.</p>
+
+<p>But by now the two French generals were aiming at something
+more than alternate raids and feints. Carnot had set before
+them the ideal of a decisive battle as the great object.
+Jourdan was instructed, if the archduke turned on
+<span class="sidenote">The archduke&rsquo;s plan.</span>
+Moreau, to follow him up with all speed and to bring
+him to action. Moreau, too, was not retreating but
+advancing. The two armies, Moreau&rsquo;s and the archduke&rsquo;s, met
+in a straggling and indecisive battle at Malsch on the 9th of
+July, and soon afterwards Charles learned that Jourdan had
+recrossed the Rhine and was driving Wartensleben before him.
+He thereupon retired both armies from the Rhine valley into the
+interior, hoping that at least the French would detach large
+forces to besiege the river fortresses. Disappointed of this, and
+compelled to face a very grave situation, he resorted to an
+expedient which may be described in his own words: &ldquo;to
+retire both armies step by step without committing himself
+to a battle, and to seize the first opportunity to unite them so
+as to throw himself with superior or at least equal strength on
+one of the two hostile enemies.&rdquo; This is the ever-recurring idea
+of &ldquo;interior lines.&rdquo; It was not new, for Frederick the Great had
+used similar means in similar circumstances, as had Souham
+at Tourcoing and even Dampierre at Valenciennes. Nor was it
+differentiated, as were Napoleon&rsquo;s operations in this same year,
+by the deliberate use of a small containing force at one point
+to obtain relative superiority at another. A general of the 18th
+century did not believe in the efficacy of superior numbers&mdash;had
+not Frederick the Great disproved it?&mdash;and for him operations
+on &ldquo;interior lines&rdquo; were simply successive blows at successive
+targets, the efficacy of the blow in each case being dependent
+chiefly on his own personal qualities and skill as a general on
+the field of battle. In the present case the point to be observed
+is not the expedient, which was dictated by the circumstances,
+but the courage of the young general, who, unlike Wartensleben
+and the rest of his generals, unlike, too, Moreau and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span>
+Jourdan themselves, surmounted difficulties instead of lamenting
+them.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side, Carnot, of course, foresaw this possibility.
+He warned the generals not to allow the enemy to &ldquo;use his
+forces sometimes against one, sometimes against the other, as
+he did in the last campaign,&rdquo; and ordered them to go forward
+respectively into Franconia and into the country of the upper
+Neckar, with a view to seeking out and defeating the enemy&rsquo;s
+army. But the plan of operations soon grew bolder. Jourdan
+was informed on the 21st of July that if he reached the Regnitz
+without meeting the enemy, or if his arrival there forced the
+latter to retire rapidly to the Danube, he was not to hesitate to
+advance to Ratisbon and even to Passau if the disorganization
+of the enemy admitted it, but in these contingencies he was to
+detach a force into Bohemia to levy contributions. &ldquo;We presume
+that the enemy is too weak to offer a successful resistance
+and will have united his forces on the Danube; we hope that
+our two armies will act in unison to rout him completely. Each
+is, in any case, strong enough to attack by itself, and nothing
+is so pernicious as slowness in war.&rdquo; Evidently the fear that
+the two Austrian armies would unite against one of their assailants
+had now given place to something like disdain.</p>
+
+<p>This was due in all probability to the rapidity with which
+Moreau was driving the archduke before him. After a brief
+stand on the Neckar at Cannstadt, the Austrians, only 25,000
+strong, fell back to the Rauhe Alb, where they halted again,
+to cover their magazines at Ulm and Günzburg, towards the end
+of July. Wartensleben was similarly falling back before Jourdan,
+though the latter, starting considerably later than Moreau, had
+not advanced so far. The details of the successive positions
+occupied by Wartensleben need not be stated; all that concerns
+the general development of the campaign is the fact that the
+hitherto independent leader of the &ldquo;Lower Rhine Army&rdquo;
+resented the loss of his freedom of action, and besides lamentations
+opposed a dull passive resistance to all but the most formal
+orders of the prince. Many weeks passed before this was overcome
+sufficiently for his leader even to arrange for the contemplated
+combination, and in these weeks the archduke was being
+driven back day by day, and the German principalities were
+falling away one by one as the French advanced and preached
+the revolutionary formula. In such circumstances as these&mdash;the
+general facts, if not the causes, were patent enough&mdash;it was
+natural that the confident Paris strategists should think chiefly
+of the profits of their enterprise and ignore the fears of the generals
+at the front. But the latter were justified in one important
+respect; their operating armies had seriously diminished in
+numbers, Jourdan disposing of not more than 45,000 and Moreau
+of about 50,000. The archduke had now, owing to the arrival
+of a few detachments from the Black Forest and elsewhere, about
+34,000 men, Wartensleben almost exactly the same, and the
+former, for some reason which has never been fully explained
+but has its justification in psychological factors, suddenly turned
+<span class="sidenote">Neresheim.</span>
+and fought a long, severe and straggling battle above
+Neresheim (August 11). This did not, however, give
+him much respite, and on the 12th and 13th he retired over the
+Danube. At this date Wartensleben was about Amberg, almost
+as far away from the other army as he had been on the Rhine,
+owing to the necessity of retreating round instead of through the
+principality of Bayreuth, which was a Prussian possession and
+could therefore make its neutrality respected.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto Charles had intended to unite his armies on the
+Danube against Moreau. His later choice of Jourdan&rsquo;s army as
+the objective of his combination grew out of circumstances and
+in particular out of the brilliant reconnaissance work of a cavalry
+brigadier of the Lower Rhine Army, Nauendorff. This general&rsquo;s
+reports&mdash;he was working in the country south and south-east
+of Nürnberg, Wartensleben being at Amberg&mdash;indicated first an
+advance of Jourdan&rsquo;s army from Forchheim through Nürnberg
+to the <i>south</i>, and induced the archduke, on the 12th, to begin a
+concentration of his own army towards Ingolstadt. This was a
+purely defensive measure, but Nauendorff reported on the 13th
+and 14th that the main columns of the French were swinging
+away to the east against Wartensleben&rsquo;s front and inner flank,
+and on the 14th he boldly suggested the idea that decided the
+campaign. &ldquo;If your Royal Highness will or can advance 12,000
+men against Jourdan&rsquo;s rear, he is lost. We could not have a
+better opportunity.&rdquo; When this message arrived at headquarters
+the archduke had already issued orders to the same
+effect. Lieutenant Field Marshal Count Latour, with 30,000
+men, was to keep Moreau occupied&mdash;another expedient of the
+moment, due to the very close pressure of Moreau&rsquo;s advance,
+and the failure of the attempt to put him out of action at
+Neresheim. The small remainder of the army, with a few
+detachments gathered <i>en route</i>, in all about 27,000 men, began
+to recross the Danube on the 14th, and slowly advanced north
+on a broad front, its leader being now sure that at some point
+on his line he would encounter the French, whether they were
+heading for Ratisbon or Amberg. Meanwhile, the Directory had,
+still acting on the theory of the archduke&rsquo;s weakness, ordered
+Moreau to combine the operations with those of Bonaparte in
+Italian Tirol, and Jourdan to turn both flanks of his immediate
+opponent, and thus to prevent his joining the archduke, as well
+as his retreat into Bohemia. And curiously enough it was this
+latter, and not Moreau&rsquo;s move, which suggested to the archduke
+that his chance had come. The chance was, in fact, one dear to
+the 18th century general, catching his opponent in the act of
+executing a man&oelig;uvre. So far from &ldquo;exterior lines&rdquo; being
+fatal to Jourdan, it was not until the French general began to
+operate against Wartensleben&rsquo;s <i>inner</i> flank that the archduke&rsquo;s
+opportunity came.</p>
+
+<p>The decisive events of the campaign can be described very
+briefly, the ideas that directed them having been made clear.
+The long thin line of the archduke wrapped itself round
+Jourdan&rsquo;s right flank near Amberg, while Wartensleben
+<span class="sidenote">Amberg and Würzburg.</span>
+fought him in front. The battle (August 24) was a
+series of engagements between the various columns that
+met; it was a repetition in fact of Fleurus, without the intensity
+of fighting spirit that redeems that battle from dulness. Success
+followed, not upon bravery or even tactics, but upon the pre-existing
+strategical conditions. At the end of the day the French
+retired, and next morning the archduke began another wide
+extension to his left, hoping to head them off. This consumed
+several days. In the course of it Jourdan attempted to take
+advantage of his opponent&rsquo;s dissemination to regain the direct
+road to Würzburg, but the attempt was defeated by an almost
+fortuitous combination of forces at the threatened point. More
+effective, indeed, than this indirect pursuit was the very active
+hostility of the peasantry, who had suffered in Jourdan&rsquo;s advance
+and retaliated so effectually during his retreat that the army
+became thoroughly demoralized, both by want of food and by
+the strain of incessant sniping. Defeated again at Würzburg on
+the 3rd of September, Jourdan continued his retreat to the Lahn,
+and finally withdrew the shattered army over the Rhine, partly
+by Düsseldorf, partly by Neuwied. In the last engagement
+on the Lahn the young and brilliant Marceau was mortally
+wounded. Far away in Bavaria, Moreau had meantime been
+driving Latour from one line of resistance to another. On receiving
+the news of Jourdan&rsquo;s reverses, however, he made a rapid
+and successful retreat to Strassburg, evading the prince&rsquo;s army,
+which had ascended the Rhine valley to head him off, in the nick
+of time.</p>
+
+<p>This celebrated campaign is pre-eminently strategical in its
+character, in that the positions and movements anterior to the
+battle preordained its issue. It raised the reputation of the archduke
+Charles to the highest point, and deservedly, for he wrested
+victory from the most desperate circumstances by the skilful
+and resolute employment of his one advantage. But this was
+only possible because Moreau and Jourdan were content to accept
+strategical failure without seeking to redress the balance by hard
+fighting. The great question of this campaign is, why did
+Moreau and Jourdan fail against inferior numbers, when in Italy
+Bonaparte with a similar army against a similar opponent won
+victory after victory against equal and superior forces? The
+answer will not be supplied by any theory of &ldquo;exterior and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span>
+interior lines.&rdquo; It lies far deeper. So far as it is possible to
+summarize it in one phrase, it lies in the fact that though the
+Directory meant this campaign to be the final word on the
+Revolutionary War, for the nation at large this final word had
+been said at Fleurus. The troops were still the nation; they no
+longer fought for a cause and for bare existence, and Moreau and
+Jourdan were too closely allied in ideas and sympathies with the
+misplaced citizen soldiers they commanded to be able to dominate
+their collective will. In default of a cause, however, soldiers
+will fight for a man, and this brings us by a natural sequence of
+ideas to the war in Italy.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">The War in Italy 1793-97</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto we have ignored the operations on the Italian
+frontier, partly because they were of minor importance and
+partly because the conditions out of which Napoleon&rsquo;s first
+campaign arose can be best considered in connexion with that
+campaign itself, from which indeed the previous operations
+derive such light as they possess. It has been mentioned that
+in 1792 the French overran Savoy and Nice. In 1793 the
+Sardinian army and a small auxiliary corps of Austrians waged
+a desultory mountain warfare against the Army of the Alps
+about Briançon and the Army of Italy on the Var. That furious
+offensive on the part of the French, which signalized the year 1793
+elsewhere, was made impossible here by the counter-revolution
+in the cities of the Midi.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794, when this had been crushed, the intention of the French
+government was to take the offensive against the Austro-Sardinians.
+The first operation was to be the capture of Oneglia.
+The concentration of large forces in the lower Rhone valley had
+naturally infringed upon the areas told off for the provisioning of
+the Armies of the Alps (Kellermann) and of Italy (Dumerbion);
+indeed, the sullen population could hardly be induced to feed the
+troops suppressing the revolt, still less the distant frontier
+armies. Thus the only source of supply was the Riviera of
+Genoa: &ldquo;Our connexion with this district is imperilled by the
+corsairs of Oneglia (a Sardinian town) owing to the cessation of
+our operations afloat. The army is living from hand to mouth,&rdquo;
+wrote the younger Robespierre in September 1793. Vessels
+bearing supplies from Genoa could not avoid the corsairs by
+taking the open sea, for there the British fleet was supreme.
+Carnot therefore ordered the Army of Italy to capture Oneglia,
+and 21,000 men (the rest of the 67,000 effectives were held back
+for coast defence) began operations in April. The French left
+moved against the enemy&rsquo;s positions on the main road over the
+Col di Tenda, the centre towards Ponte di Nava, and the right
+<span class="sidenote">Saorgio.</span>
+along the Riviera. All met with success, thanks to
+Masséna&rsquo;s bold handling of the centre column. Not
+only was Oneglia captured, but also the Col di Tenda. Napoleon
+Bonaparte served in these affairs on the headquarter staff.
+Meantime the Army of the Alps had possessed itself of the Little
+St Bernard and Mont Cenis, and the Republicans were now
+masters of several routes into Piedmont (May). But the Alpine
+roads merely led to fortresses, and both Carnot and Bonaparte&mdash;Napoleon
+had by now captivated the younger Robespierre and
+become the leading spirit in Dumerbion&rsquo;s army&mdash;considered
+that the Army of the Alps should be weakened to the profit of
+the Army of Italy, and that the time had come to disregard the
+feeble neutrality of Genoa, and to advance over the Col di Tenda.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon&rsquo;s first suggestion for a rapid condensation of the
+French cordon, and an irresistible blow on the centre of the Allies
+by Tenda-Coni,<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> came to nothing owing to the waste
+of time in negotiations between the generals and the
+<span class="sidenote">Napoleon in 1794.</span>
+distant Committee, and meanwhile new factors came
+into play. The capture of the pass of Argentera by the right wing
+of the Army of the Alps suggested that the main effort should be
+made against the barrier fortress of Demonte, but here again
+Napoleon proposed a concentration of effort on the primary and
+economy of force in the secondary objective. About the same
+time, in a memoir on the war in general, he laid down his most
+celebrated maxim: &ldquo;The principles of war are the same as those
+of a siege. Fire must be concentrated on one point, and as soon
+as the breach is made, the equilibrium is broken and the rest is
+nothing.&rdquo; In the domain of tactics he was and remains the
+principal exponent of the art of breaking the equilibrium, and
+already he imagined the solution of problems of policy and
+strategy on the same lines. &ldquo;Austria is the great enemy;
+Austria crushed, Germany, Spain, Italy fall of themselves. We
+must not disperse, but concentrate our attack.&rdquo; Napoleon
+argued that Austria could be effectively wounded by an offensive
+against Piedmont, and even more effectively by an ulterior
+advance from Italian soil into Germany. In pursuance of the
+single aim he asked for the appointment of a single commander-in-chief
+to hold sway from Bayonne to the Lake of Geneva, and
+for the rejection of all schemes for &ldquo;revolutionizing&rdquo; Italy till
+after the defeat of the arch-enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Operations, however, did not after all take either of these forms.
+The younger Robespierre perished with his brother in the <i>coup
+d&rsquo;état</i> of 9th Thermidor, the advance was suspended, and
+Bonaparte, amongst other leading spirits of the Army of Italy,
+was arrested and imprisoned. Profiting by this moment, Austria
+increased her auxiliary corps. An Austrian general took command
+of the whole of the allied forces, and pronounced a threat from
+the region of Cairo (where the Austrians took their place on the
+left wing of the combined army) towards the Riviera. The
+French, still dependent on Genoa for supplies, had to take the
+offensive at once to save themselves from starvation, and the
+result was the expedition of Dego, planned chiefly by Napoleon,
+who had been released from prison and was at headquarters,
+though unemployed. The movement began on the 17th of
+September; and although the Austrian general Colloredo
+repulsed an attack at Dego (Sept. 21) he retreated to Acqui,
+and the incipient offensive of the Allies ended abruptly.</p>
+
+<p>The first months of the winter of 1794-1795 were spent in
+re-equipping the troops, who stood in sore need after their rapid
+movements in the mountains. For the future operations, the
+enforced condensation of the army on its right wing with the
+object of protecting its line of supply to Genoa and the dangers of
+its cramped situation on the Riviera suggested a plan roughly
+resembling one already recommended by Napoleon, who had
+since the affair of Dego become convinced that the way into
+Italy was through the Apennines and not the Alps. The essence
+of this was to anticipate the enemy by a very early and rapid
+advance from Vado towards Carcare by the Ceva road, the only
+good road of which the French disposed and which they significantly
+called the <i>chemin de canon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The plan, however, came to nothing; the Committee, which
+now changed its personnel at fixed intervals, was in consequence
+wavering and non-committal, troops were withdrawn
+for a projected invasion of Corsica, and in November
+<span class="sidenote">Schérer and Kellermann.</span>
+1794 Dumerbion was replaced by Schérer, who
+assembled only 17,000 of his 54,000 effectives for field
+operations, and selected as his line of advance the Col di Tenda-Coni
+road. Schérer, besides being hostile to any suggestion
+emanating from Napoleon, was impressed with the apparent
+danger to his right wing concentrated in the narrow Riviera,
+which it was at this stage impossible to avert by a sudden and
+early assumption of the offensive. After a brief tenure Schérer
+was transferred to the Spanish frontier, but Kellermann, who now
+received command of the Army of Italy in addition to his own,
+took the same view as his predecessor&mdash;the view of the ordinary
+general. But not even the Schérer plan was put into execution,
+for spring had scarcely arrived when the prospect of renewed
+revolts in the south of France practically paralysed the army.</p>
+
+<p>This encouraged the enemy to deliver the blow that had so long
+been feared. The combined forces, under Devins,&mdash;the Sardinians,
+the Austrian auxiliary corps and the newly arrived
+Austrian main army,&mdash;advanced together and forced the French
+right wing to evacuate Vado and the Genoese littoral. But at
+this juncture the conclusion of peace with Spain released the
+Pyrenees armies, and Schérer returned to the Army of Italy at the
+head of reinforcements. He was faced with a difficult situation,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span>
+but he had the means wherewith to meet it, as Napoleon
+promptly pointed out. Up to this, Napoleon said, the French
+commanded the mountain crest, and therefore covered Savoy and
+Nice, and also Oneglia, Loano and Vado, the ports of the Riviera.
+But now that Vado was lost the breach was made. Genoa was
+cut off, and the south of France was the only remaining resource
+for the army commissariat. Vado must therefore be retaken and
+the line reopened to Genoa, and to do this it was essential first
+to close up the over-extended cordon&mdash;and with the greatest
+rapidity, lest the enemy, with the shorter line to move on, should
+gather at the point of contact before the French&mdash;and to advance
+on Vado. Further, knowing (as every one knew) that the king of
+Sardinia was not inclined to continue the struggle indefinitely, he
+predicted that this ruler would make peace once the French army
+had established itself in his dominions, and for this the way into
+the interior, he asserted, was the great road Savona-Ceva. But
+Napoleon&rsquo;s mind ranged beyond the immediate future. He
+calculated that once the French advanced the Austrians would
+seek to cover Lombardy, the Piedmontese Turin, and this separation,
+already morally accomplished, it was to be the French
+general&rsquo;s task to accentuate in fact. Next, Sardinia having been
+coerced into peace, the Army of Italy would expel the Austrians
+from Lombardy, and connect its operations with those of the
+French in South Germany by way of Tirol. The supply question,
+once the soldiers had gained the rich valley of the Po, would
+solve itself.</p>
+
+<p>This was the essence of the first of four memoranda on this
+subject prepared by Napoleon in his Paris office. The second
+indicated the means of coercing Sardinia&mdash;first the
+Austrians were to be driven or scared away towards
+<span class="sidenote">Loano.</span>
+Alessandria, then the French army would turn sharp to the left,
+driving the Sardinians eastward and north-eastward through
+Ceva, and this was to be the signal for the general invasion of
+Piedmont from all sides. In the third paper he framed an
+elaborate plan for the retaking of Vado, and in the fourth he
+summarized the contents of the other three. Having thus
+cleared his own mind as to the conditions and the solution
+of the problem, he did his best to secure the command for
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>The measures recommended by Napoleon were translated
+into a formal and detailed order to recapture Vado. To Napoleon
+the miserable condition of the Army of Italy was the most urgent
+incentive to prompt action. In Schérer&rsquo;s judgment, however, the
+army was unfit to take the field, and therefore <i>ex hypothesi</i> to
+attack Vado, without thorough reorganization, and it was only in
+November that the advance was finally made. It culminated,
+thanks once more to the resolute Masséna, in the victory of Loano
+(November 23-24). But Schérer thought more of the destitution
+of his own army than of the fruits of success, and contented
+himself with resuming possession of the Riviera.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Mentor whose suggestions and personality were
+equally repugnant to Schérer had undergone strange vicissitudes
+of fortune&mdash;dismissal from the headquarters&rsquo; staff, expulsion from
+the list of general officers, and then the &ldquo;whiff of grapeshot&rdquo;
+of 13th Vendémiaire, followed shortly by his marriage with
+Josephine, and his nomination to command the Army of Italy.
+These events had neither shaken his cold resolution nor disturbed
+his balance.</p>
+
+<p>The Army of Italy spent the winter of 1795-1796 as before in the
+narrow Riviera, while on the one side, just over the mountains,
+lay the Austro-Sardinians, and on the other, out of
+range of the coast batteries but ready to pounce on the
+<span class="sidenote">Napoleon in command.</span>
+supply ships, were the British frigates. On Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+left Kellermann, with no more than 18,000, maintained
+a string of posts between Lake Geneva and the Argentera as before.
+Of the Army of Italy, 7000 watched the Tenda road and 20,000
+men the coast-line. There remained for active operations some
+27,000 men, ragged, famished and suffering in every way in spite
+of their victory of Loano. The Sardinian and Austrian auxiliaries
+(Colli), 25,000 men, lay between Mondovi and Ceva, a force
+strung out in the Alpine valleys opposed Kellermann, and the
+main Austrian army (commanded by Beaulieu), in widely extended
+cantonments between Acqui and Milan, numbered 27,000 field
+troops. Thus the short-lived concentration of all the allied
+forces for the battle against Schérer had ended in a fresh separation.
+Austria was far more concerned with Poland than with the
+moribund French question, and committed as few of her troops as
+possible to this distant and secondary theatre of war. As for
+Piedmont, &ldquo;peace&rdquo; was almost the universal cry, even within
+the army. All this scarcely affected the regimental spirit and
+discipline of the Austrian squadrons and battalions, which had
+now recovered from the defeat of Loano. But they were important
+factors for the new general-in-chief on the Riviera, and
+formed the basis of his strategy.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon&rsquo;s first task was far more difficult than the writing of
+memoranda. He had to grasp the reins and to prepare his troops,
+morally and physically, for active work. It was not merely that a
+young general with many enemies, a political favourite of the
+moment, had been thrust upon the army. The army itself was
+in a pitiable condition. Whole companies with their officers went
+plundering in search of mere food, the horses had never received
+as much as half-rations for a year past, and even the generals
+were half-starved. Thousands of men were barefooted and
+hundreds were without arms. But in a few days he had secured
+an almost incredible ascendancy over the sullen, starved,
+half-clothed
+army.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Soldiers,&rdquo; he told them, &ldquo;you are famished and nearly naked.
+The government owes you much, but can do nothing for you.
+Your patience, your courage, do you honour, but give you no
+glory, no advantage. I will lead you into the most fertile plains
+of the world. There you will find great towns, rich provinces.
+There you will find honour, glory and riches. Soldiers of Italy,
+will you be wanting in courage?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such words go far, and little as he was able to supply material
+deficiencies&mdash;all he could do was to expel rascally contractors,
+sell a captured privateer for £5000 and borrow £2500 from
+Genoa&mdash;he cheerfully told the Directory on the 28th of March
+that &ldquo;the worst was over.&rdquo; He augmented his army of operations
+to about 40,000, at the expense of the coast divisions, and set on
+foot also two small cavalry divisions, mounted on the half-starved
+horses that had survived the winter. Then he announced that
+the army was ready and opened the campaign.</p>
+
+<p>The first plan, emanating from Paris, was that, after an
+expedition towards Genoa to assist in raising a loan there, the
+army should march against Beaulieu, previously neutralizing
+the Sardinians by the occupation of Ceva. When Beaulieu was
+beaten it was thought probable that the Piedmontese would enter
+into an alliance with the French against their former comrades.
+A second plan, however, authorized the general to begin by
+subduing the Piedmontese to the extent necessary to bring about
+peace and alliance, and on this Napoleon acted. If the present
+separation of the Allies continued, he proposed to overwhelm the
+Sardinians first, before the Austrians could assemble from winter
+quarters, and then to turn on Beaulieu. If, on the other hand, the
+Austrians, before he could strike his blow, united with Colli, he
+proposed to frighten them into separating again by moving on
+Acqui and Alessandria. Hence Carcare, where the road from
+Acqui joined the &ldquo;cannon-road,&rdquo; was the first objective of his
+march, and from there he could man&oelig;uvre and widen the breach
+between the allied armies. His scattered left wing would assist
+in the attack on the Sardinians as well as it could&mdash;for the
+immediate attack on the Austrians its co-operation would of
+course have been out of the question. In any case he grudged
+every week spent in administrative preparation. The delay due
+to this, as a matter of fact, allowed a new situation to develop.
+Beaulieu was himself the first to move, and he moved towards
+Genoa instead of towards his Allies. The gap between the two
+allied wings was thereby widened, but it was no longer possible
+for the French to use it, for their plan of destroying Colli <i>while
+Beaulieu was ineffective</i> had collapsed.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with the Genoese loan, and to facilitate the movement
+of supply convoys, a small French force had been pushed
+forward to Voltri. Bonaparte ordered it back as soon as he
+arrived at the front, but the alarm was given. The Austrians
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span>
+broke up from winter quarters at once, and rather than lose the
+food supplies at Voltri, Bonaparte actually reinforced Masséna
+at that place, and gave him orders to hold on as long as possible,
+cautioning him only to watch his left rear (Montenotte). But
+he did not abandon his purpose. Starting from the new conditions,
+he devised other means, as we shall see, for reducing
+Beaulieu to ineffectiveness. Meanwhile Beaulieu&rsquo;s plan of
+offensive operations, such as they were, developed. The French
+advance to Voltri had not only spurred him into activity, but
+convinced him that the bulk of the French army lay east of
+Savona. He therefore made Voltri the objective of a converging
+<span class="sidenote">Opening movements.</span>
+attack, not with the intention of destroying the French
+army but with that of &ldquo;cutting its communications
+with Genoa,&rdquo; and expelling it from &ldquo;the only place
+in the Riviera where there were sufficient ovens to
+bake its bread.&rdquo; (Beaulieu to the Aulic Council, 15 April.) The
+Sardinians and auxiliary Austrians were ordered to extend
+leftwards on Dego to close the gap that Beaulieu&rsquo;s advance on
+Genoa-Voltri opened up, which they did, though only half-heartedly
+and in small force, for, unlike Beaulieu, they knew
+that masses of the enemy were still in the western stretch of the
+Riviera. The rightmost of Beaulieu&rsquo;s own columns was on the
+road between Acqui and Savona with orders to seize Monte
+Legino as an advanced post, the others were to converge towards
+Voltri from the Genoa side and the mountain passes about
+Campofreddo and Sassello. The wings were therefore so far
+connected that Colli wrote to Beaulieu on this day &ldquo;the enemy
+will never dare to place himself between our two armies.&rdquo; The
+event belied the prediction, and the proposed minor operation
+against granaries and bakeries became the first act of a decisive
+campaign.</p>
+
+<p>On the night of the 9th of April the French were grouped
+as follows: brigades under Garnier and Macquard at the Finestre
+and Tenda passes, Sérurier&rsquo;s division and Rusca&rsquo;s brigade east
+of Garessio; Augereau&rsquo;s division about Loano, Meynier&rsquo;s at
+Finale, Laharpe&rsquo;s at Savona with an outpost on the Monte
+Legino, and Cervoni&rsquo;s brigade at Voltri. Masséna was in general
+charge of the last-named units. The cavalry was far in rear
+beyond Loano. Colli&rsquo;s army, excluding the troops in the valleys
+that led into Dauphiné, was around Coni and Mondovi-Ceva,
+the latter group connecting with Beaulieu by a detachment
+under Provera between Millesimo and Carcare. Of Beaulieu&rsquo;s
+army, Argenteau&rsquo;s division, still concentrating to the front
+in many small bodies, extended over the area Acqui-Dego-Sassello.
+Vukassovich&rsquo;s brigade was equally extended between
+Ovada and the mountain-crests above Voltri, and Pittoni&rsquo;s
+division was grouped around Gavi and the Bocchetta, the two
+last units being destined for the attack on Voltri. Farther to
+the rear was Sebottendorf&rsquo;s division around Alessandria-Tortona.</p>
+
+<p>On the afternoon of the 10th Beaulieu delivered his blow
+at Voltri, not, as he anticipated, against three-quarters of the
+French army, but against Cervoni&rsquo;s detachment. This, after a
+long irregular fight, slipped away in the night to Savona. Discovering
+his mistake next morning, Beaulieu sent back some
+of his battalions to join Argenteau. But there was no road
+by which they could do so save the détour through Acqui and
+Dego, and long before they arrived Argenteau&rsquo;s advance on
+Monte Legino had forced on the crisis. On the 11th (a day
+behind time), this general drove in the French outposts, but he
+soon came on three battalions under Colonel Rampon, who
+threw himself into some old earthworks that lay near, and said
+to his men, &ldquo;We must win or die here, my friends.&rdquo; His redoubt
+and his men stood the trial well, and when day broke on the
+12th Bonaparte was ready to deliver his first &ldquo;Napoleon-stroke.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The principle that guided him in the subsequent operations
+may be called &ldquo;superior numbers at the decisive point.&rdquo; Touch
+had been gained with the enemy all along the long line
+between the Tenda and Voltri, and he decided to
+<span class="sidenote">Montenotte.</span>
+concentrate swiftly upon the nearest enemy&mdash;Argenteau.
+Augereau&rsquo;s division, or such part of it as could march at once,
+was ordered to Mallare, picking up here and there on the way
+a few horsemen and guns. Masséna, with 9000 men, was to
+send two brigades in the direction of Carcare and Altare, and with
+the third to swing round Argenteau&rsquo;s right and to head for
+Montenotte village in his rear. Laharpe with 7000 (it had
+become clear that the enemy at Voltri would not pursue their
+advantage) was to join Rampon, leaving only Cervoni and two
+battalions in Savona. Sérurier and Rusca were to keep the
+Sardinians in front of them occupied. The far-distant brigades
+of Garnier and Macquard stood fast, but the cavalry drew
+eastward as quickly as its condition permitted. In rain and
+mist on the early morning of the 12th the French marched up
+from all quarters, while Argenteau&rsquo;s men waited in their cold
+bivouacs for light enough to resume their attack on Monte
+Legino. About 9 the mists cleared, and heavy fighting began,
+but Laharpe held the mountain, and the vigorous Masséna with
+his nearest brigade stormed forward against Argenteau&rsquo;s right.
+A few hours later, seeing Augereau&rsquo;s columns heading for their
+line of retreat, the Austrians retired, sharply pressed, on Dego.
+The threatened intervention of Provera was checked by
+Augereau&rsquo;s presence at Carcare.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:513px; height:500px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img186.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Montenotte was a brilliant victory, and one can imagine its
+effects on the but lately despondent soldiers of the Army of
+Italy, for all imagined that Beaulieu&rsquo;s main body had been
+defeated. This was far from being the case, however, and although
+the French spent the night of the battle at Cairo-Carcare-Montenotte,
+midway between the allied wings, only two-thirds of
+Argenteau&rsquo;s force, and none of the other divisions, had been
+beaten, and the heaviest fighting was to come. This became
+evident on the afternoon of the 13th, but meanwhile Bonaparte,
+eager to begin at once the subjugation of the Piedmontese (for
+which purpose he wanted to bring Sérurier and Rusca into play)
+sent only Laharpe&rsquo;s division and a few details of Masséna&rsquo;s,
+under the latter, towards Dego. These were to protect the
+main attack from interference by the forces that had been
+<span class="sidenote">Millesimo.</span>
+engaged at Montenotte (presumed to be Beaulieu&rsquo;s
+main body), the said main attack being delivered by
+Augereau&rsquo;s division, reinforced by most of Masséna&rsquo;s, on the
+positions held by Provera. The latter, only 1000 strong to
+Augereau&rsquo;s 9000, shut himself in the castle of Cossaria, which
+he defended <i>à la</i> Rampon against a series of furious assaults.
+Not until the morning of the 14th was his surrender secured,
+after his ammunition and food had been exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>Argenteau also won a day&rsquo;s respite on the 13th, for Laharpe
+did not join Masséna till late, and nothing took place opposite
+Dego but a little skirmishing. During the day Bonaparte saw
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span>
+for himself that he had overrated the effects of Montenotte.
+Beaulieu, on the other hand, underrated them, treating it as a
+mishap which was more than counterbalanced by his own
+success in &ldquo;cutting off the French from Genoa.&rdquo; He began to
+reconstruct his line on the front Dego-Sassello, trusting to
+Colli to harry the French until the Voltri troops had finished
+their détour through Acqui and rejoined Argenteau. This, of
+course, presumed that Argenteau&rsquo;s troops were intact and
+Colli&rsquo;s able to move, which was not the case with either. Not
+until the afternoon of the 14th did Beaulieu place a few extra
+battalions at Argenteau&rsquo;s disposal &ldquo;to be used only in case of
+extreme necessity,&rdquo; and order Vukassovich from the region
+of Sassello to &ldquo;make a diversion&rdquo; against the French right
+with <i>two</i> battalions.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Argenteau, already shaken, was exposed to destruction.
+On the 14th, after Provera&rsquo;s surrender, Masséna and Laharpe,
+reinforced until they had nearly a two-to-one superiority,
+stormed Dego and killed or captured 3000 of
+<span class="sidenote">Dego.</span>
+Argenteau&rsquo;s 5500 men, the remnant retreating in disorder to
+Acqui. But nothing was done towards the accomplishment of
+the purpose of destroying Colli on that day, save that Sérurier
+and Rusca began to close in to meet the main body between
+Ceva and Millesimo. Moreover, the victory at Dego had produced
+its usual results on the wild fighting swarms of the Republicans,
+who threw themselves like hungry wolves on the little town,
+without pursuing the beaten enemy or even placing a single
+outpost on the Acqui road. In this state, during the early
+hours of the 15th, Vukassovich&rsquo;s brigade,<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> marching up from
+Sassello, surprised them, and they broke and fled in an instant.
+The whole morning had to be spent in rallying them at Cairo,
+and Bonaparte had for the second time to postpone his union
+with Sérurier and Rusca, who meanwhile, isolated from one
+another and from the main army, were groping forward in the
+mountains. A fresh assault on Dego was ordered, and after
+very severe fighting, Masséna and Laharpe succeeded late in
+the evening in retaking it. Vukassovich lost heavily, but
+retired steadily and in order on Spigno. The killed and wounded
+numbered probably about 1000 French and 1500 Austrians,
+out of considerably less than 10,000 engaged on each side&mdash;a
+loss which contrasted very forcibly with those suffered in other
+battles of the Revolutionary Wars, and by teaching the Army
+of Italy to bear punishment, imbued it with self-confidence.
+But again success bred disorder, and there was a second orgy in
+the houses and streets of Dego which went on till late in the
+morning and paralysed the whole army.</p>
+
+<p>This was perhaps the crisis of the campaign. Even now it
+was not certain that the Austrians had been definitively pushed
+aside, while it was quite clear that Beaulieu&rsquo;s main body was
+intact and Colli was still more an unknown quantity. But
+Napoleon&rsquo;s intention remained the same, to attack the Piedmontese
+as quickly and as heavily as possible, Beaulieu being
+held in check by a containing force under Masséna and Laharpe.
+The remainder of the army, counting in now Rusca and Sérurier,
+was to move westward towards Ceva. This disposition, while
+it illustrates the Napoleonic principle of delivering a heavy
+blow on the selected target and warding off interference at other
+points, shows also the difficulty of rightly apportioning the
+available means between the offensive mass and the defensive
+system, for, as it turned out, Beaulieu was already sufficiently
+scared, and thought of nothing but self-defence on the line
+Acqui-Ovada-Bocchetta, while the French offensive mass was
+very weak compared with Colli&rsquo;s unbeaten and now fairly
+concentrated army about Ceva and Montezemolo.</p>
+
+<p>On the afternoon of the 16th the real advance was begun by
+Augereau&rsquo;s division, reinforced by other troops. Rusca joined
+Augereau towards evening, and Sérurier approached Ceva
+from the south. Colli&rsquo;s object was now to spin out time, and
+having repulsed a weak attack by Augereau, and feeling able
+to repeat these tactics on each successive spur of the Apennines,
+he retired in the night to a new position behind the Cursaglia.
+On the 17th, reassured by the absence of fighting on the Dego
+side, and by the news that no enemy remained at Sassello,
+Bonaparte released Masséna from Dego, leaving only Laharpe
+there, and brought him over towards the right of the main
+body, which thus on the evening of the 17th formed a long
+straggling line on both sides of Ceva, Sérurier on the left,
+écheloned forward, Augereau, Joubert and Rusca in the centre,
+and Masséna, partly as support, partly as flank guard, on
+Augereau&rsquo;s right rear. Sérurier had been bidden to extend
+well out and to strive to get contact with Masséna, <i>i.e.</i> to
+encircle the enemy. There was no longer any idea of waiting
+to besiege Ceva, although the artillery train had been ordered
+up from the Riviera by the &ldquo;cannon-road&rdquo; for eventual use
+there. Further, the line of supply, as an extra guarantee against
+interference, was changed from that of Savona-Carcare to that of
+Loano-Bardinetto. When this was accomplished, four clear days
+could be reckoned on with certainty in which to deal with Colli.</p>
+
+<p>The latter, still expecting the Austrians to advance to his
+assistance, had established his corps (not more than 12,000
+muskets in all) in the immensely strong positions
+of the Cursaglia, with a thin line of posts on his left
+<span class="sidenote">San Michele.</span>
+stretching towards Cherasco, whence he could communicate,
+by a roundabout way, with Acqui. Opposite this
+position the long straggling line of the French arrived, after
+many delays due to the weariness of the troops, on the 19th.
+A day of irregular fighting followed, everywhere to the advantage
+of the defenders. Napoleon, fighting against time, ordered a
+fresh attack on the 20th, and only desisted when it became
+evident that the army was exhausted, and, in particular, when
+Sérurier reported frankly that without bread the soldiers would
+not march. The delay thus imposed, however, enabled him to
+clear the &ldquo;cannon-road&rdquo; of all vehicles, and to bring up the
+Dego detachment to replace Masséna in the valley of the western
+Bormida, the latter coming in to the main army. Further,
+part at any rate of the convoy service was transferred still
+farther westward to the line Albenga-Garessio-Ceva. Nelson&rsquo;s
+fleet, that had so powerfully contributed to force the French
+inland, was becoming less and less innocuous. If leadership and
+force of character could overcome internal friction, all the
+success he had hoped for was now within the young commander&rsquo;s
+grasp.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-four thousand men, for the first time with a due
+proportion of cavalry and artillery, were now disposed along
+Colli&rsquo;s front and beyond his right flank. Colli, outnumbered
+by two to one and threatened with envelopment,
+<span class="sidenote">Mondovi.</span>
+decided once more to retreat, and the Republicans
+occupied the Cursaglia lines on the morning of the 21st without
+firing a shot. But Colli halted again at Vico, half-way to
+Mondovi (in order, it is said, to protect the evacuation of a
+small magazine he had there), and while he was in this unfavourable
+situation the pursuers came on with true Republican
+swiftness, lapped round his flanks and crushed him. A few
+days later (27th April), the armistice of Cherasco put an end
+to the campaign before the Austrians moved a single battalion
+to his assistance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The interest of the campaign being above all Napoleonic, its moral
+must be found by discovering the &ldquo;Napoleon touch&rdquo; that differentiated
+it from other Revolutionary campaigns. A great
+deal is common to all, on both sides. The Austrians
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Napoleon touch.&rdquo;</span>
+and Sardinians worked together at least as effectively as
+the Austrians, Prussians, British and Dutch in the Netherlands.
+Revolutionary energy was common to the Army of Italy and
+to the Army of the North. Why, therefore, when the war dragged on
+from one campaign to another in the great plains of the Meuse and
+Rhine countries, did Napoleon bring about so swift a decision in these
+cramped valleys? The answer is to be found partly in the exigencies
+of the supply service, but still more in Napoleon&rsquo;s own personality
+and the strategy born of it. The first, as we have seen, was at
+the end of its resources when Beaulieu placed himself across the
+Genoa road. Action of some sort was the plain alternative to
+starvation, and at this point Napoleon&rsquo;s personality intervened.
+He would have no quarter-rations on the Riviera, but plenty and to
+spare beyond the mountains. If there were many thousand soldiers
+who marched unarmed and shoeless in the ranks, it was towards &ldquo;the
+Promised Land&rdquo; that he led them. He looked always to the end, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span>
+met each day as if with full expectation of attaining it before sunset.
+Strategical conditions and &ldquo;new French&rdquo; methods of war did not
+save Bonaparte in the two crises&mdash;the Dego rout and the sullen halt
+of the army at San Michele&mdash;but the personality which made the
+soldiers, on the way to Montenotte, march barefoot past a wagon-load
+of new boots.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that Napoleon&rsquo;s strategy was the result of this personal
+magnetism. Later critics evolved from his success the theory
+of &ldquo;interior lines,&rdquo; and then accounted for it by applying the
+criterion they had evolved. Actually, the form in which the will to
+conquer found expression was in many important respects old.
+What, therefore, in the theory or its application was the product of
+Napoleon&rsquo;s own genius and will-power? A comparison with Souham&rsquo;s
+campaign of Tourcoing will enable us to answer this question. To
+begin with, Souham found himself midway between Coburg and Clerfayt
+almost by accident, and his utilization of the advantages of his
+position was an expedient for the given case. Napoleon, however,
+placed himself <i>deliberately</i> and by fighting his way thither, in an
+analogous situation at Carcare and Cairo. Military opinion of the
+time considered it dangerous, as indeed it was, for no theory can alter
+the fact that had not Napoleon made his men fight harder and march
+farther than usual, he would have been destroyed. The effective
+play of forces on interior lines depends on the two conditions that
+the outer enemies are not so near together as to give no time for the
+inner mass to defeat one before the arrival of the other, and that
+they are not so far apart that before one can be brought to action
+the other has inflicted serious damage elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Neither condition was fully met at any time in the Montenotte
+campaign. On the 11th Napoleon knew that the attack on Voltri
+had been made by a part only of the Austrian forces, yet he flung
+his own masses on Montenotte. On the 13th he thought that
+Beaulieu&rsquo;s main body was at Dego and Colli&rsquo;s at Millesimo, and on
+this assumption had to exact the most extraordinary efforts from
+Augereau&rsquo;s troops at Cossaria. On the 19th and 20th he tried to
+exclude the risks of the Austrians&rsquo; intervention, and with this the
+chances of a victory over them to follow his victory over Colli, by
+transferring the centre of gravity of his army to Ceva and Garessio,
+and fighting it out with Colli alone.</p>
+
+<p>It was not, in fact, to gain a position on interior lines&mdash;with respect
+to <i>two</i> opponents&mdash;that Napoleon pushed his army to Carcare.
+Before the campaign began he hoped by using the &ldquo;cannon-road&rdquo;
+to destroy the Piedmontese <i>before the Austrians were in existence
+at all</i> as an army. But on the news from Voltri and Monte Legino
+he swiftly &ldquo;concentrated fire, made the breach, and broke the
+equilibrium&rdquo; at the spot where the interests and forces of the two
+Allies converged and diverged. The hypothesis in the first case was
+that the Austrians were practically non-existent, and the whole
+object in the second was to breach the now connected front of the
+Allies (&ldquo;strategic penetration&rdquo;) and to cause them to break up into
+two separate systems. More, having made the breach, he had the
+choice (which he had not before) of attacking <i>either</i> the Austrians or
+the Sardinians, as every critic has pointed out. Indeed the Austrians
+offered by far the better target. But he neither wanted nor used
+the new alternative. His purpose was to crush Piedmont. &ldquo;My
+enemies saw too much at once,&rdquo; said Napoleon. Singleness of aim
+and of purpose, the product of clear thinking and of &ldquo;personality,&rdquo;
+was the foundation-stone of the new form of strategy.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of subduing the Sardinians, Napoleon found himself
+placed on interior lines between two hostile masses, and another new
+idea, that of &ldquo;relative superiority.&rdquo; reveals itself. Whereas Souham
+had been in superior force (90,000 against 70,000), Napoleon (40,000
+against 50,000) was not, and yet the Army of Italy was always placed
+in a position of relative superiority (at first about 3 to 2 and ultimately
+2 to 1) to the immediate antagonist. &ldquo;The essence of
+strategy,&rdquo; said Napoleon in 1797, &ldquo;is, with a weaker army, always
+to have more force at the crucial point than the enemy. But this
+art is taught neither by books nor by practice; it is a matter of
+tact.&rdquo; In this he expressed the result of his victories on his own
+mind rather than a preconceived formula which produced those
+victories. But the idea, though undefined, and the method of
+practice, though imperfectly worked out, were in his mind from the
+first. As soon as he had made the breach, he widened it by pushing
+out Masséna and Laharpe on the one hand and Augereau on the
+other. This is mere common sense. But immediately afterwards,
+though preparing to throw all available forces against Colli, he posted
+Masséna and Laharpe at Dego to guard, not like Vandamme on the
+Lys against a real and pressing enemy, but against a <i>possibility</i>,
+and he only diminished the strength and altered the position of this
+containing detachment in proportion as the Austrian danger
+dwindled. Later in his career he defined this offensive-defensive
+system as &ldquo;having all possible strength at the decisive point,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;being nowhere vulnerable,&rdquo; and the art of reconciling these
+two requirements, in each case as it arose, was always the principal
+secret of his generalship. At first his precautions (judged by events
+<span class="sidenote">Relative superiority.</span>
+and not by the probabilities of the moment) were excessive,
+and the offensive mass small. But the latter was handled
+by a general untroubled by multiple aims and anxieties,
+and if such self-confidence was equivalent to 10,000
+men on the battlefield, it was legitimate to detach 10,000 men to
+secure it. These 10,000 were posted 8 m. out on the dangerous
+flank, not almost back to back with the main body as Vandamme
+had been,<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> and although this distance was but little compared to
+those of his later campaigns, when he employed small armies for the
+same purpose, it sufficed in this difficult mountain country, where
+the covering force enjoyed the advantage of strong positions.
+Of course, if Colli had been better concentrated, or if Beaulieu had
+been more active, the calculated proportions between covering force
+and main body might have proved fallacious, and the system on
+which Napoleon&rsquo;s relative superiority rested might have broken
+down. But the point is that such a system, however rough its first
+model, had been imagined and put into practice.</p>
+
+<p>This was Napoleon&rsquo;s individual art of war, as raiding bakeries and
+cutting communications were Beaulieu&rsquo;s speciality. Napoleon made
+the art into a science, and in our own time, with modern conditions
+of effective, armament and communications, it is more than possible
+that Moreaus and Jourdans will prove able to practise it with success.
+But in the old conditions it required a Napoleon. &ldquo;Strategy,&rdquo; said
+Moltke, &ldquo;is a system of expedients.&rdquo; But it was the intense personal
+force, as well as the genius, of Napoleon that forged these expedients
+into a <i>system</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first phase of the campaign satisfactorily settled, Napoleon
+was free to turn his attention to the &ldquo;arch-enemy&rdquo; to whom he
+was now considerably superior in numbers (35,000 to 25,000).
+The day after the signature of the armistice of Cherasco he
+began preparing for a new advance and also for the rôle of
+arbiter of the destinies of Italy. Many whispers there were,
+even in his own army, as to the dangers of passing on without
+&ldquo;revolutionizing&rdquo; aristocratic Genoa and monarchical Piedmont,
+and of bringing Venice, the pope and the Italian princes into the
+field against the French. But Bonaparte, flushed with victory,
+and better informed than the malcontents of the real condition
+of Italy, never hesitated. His first object was to drive
+out Beaulieu, his second to push through Tirol, and his only
+serious restriction the chance that the armistice with Piedmont
+would not result in a definitive treaty. Beaulieu had fallen back
+into Lombardy, and now bordered the Po right and left of
+Valenza. To achieve further progress, Napoleon had first to
+cross that river, and the point and method of crossing was the
+immediate problem, a problem the more difficult as Napoleon
+had no bridge train and could only make use of such existing
+bridges as he could seize intact.<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> If he crossed above Valenza,
+he would be confronted by one river-line after another, on one
+of which at least Beaulieu would probably stand to fight. But
+quite apart from the immediate problem, Napoleon&rsquo;s intention
+was less to beat the Austrians than to dislodge them. He needed
+a foothold in Lombardy which would make him independent of,
+and even a menace to, Piedmont. If this were assured, he could
+for a few weeks entirely ignore his communications with France
+and strike out against Beaulieu, dethrone the king of Sardinia,
+or revolutionize Parma, Modena and the papal states according
+to circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Milan, therefore, was his objective, and Tortona-Piacenza his
+route thither. To give himself every chance, he had stipulated
+with the Piedmontese authorities for the right of
+passing at Valenza, and he had the satisfaction of
+<span class="sidenote">Piacenza.</span>
+seeing Beaulieu fall into the trap and concentrate opposite that
+part of the river. The French meantime had moved to the region
+Alessandria-Tortona. Thence on the 6th of May Bonaparte,
+with a picked body of troops, set out for a forced march on
+Piacenza, and that night the advanced guard was 30 m. on the
+way, at Castel San Giovanni, and Laharpe&rsquo;s and the cavalry
+divisions at Stradella, 10 m. behind them. Augereau was at
+Broni, Masséna at Sale and Sérurier near Valenza, the whole
+forming a rapidly extending fan, 50 m. from point to point.
+If the Piacenza detachment succeeded in crossing, the army was
+to follow rapidly in its track. If, on the other hand, Beaulieu fell
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span>
+back to oppose the advanced guard, the Valenza divisions would
+take advantage of his absence to cross there. In either case, be it
+observed, the Austrians were to be <i>evaded</i>, not brought to action.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 7th, the swift advanced guard under
+General Dallemagne crossed at Piacenza,<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and, hearing of this,
+Bonaparte ordered every division except Sérurier&rsquo;s thither with
+all possible speed. In the exultation of the moment he mocked
+at Beaulieu&rsquo;s incapacity, but the old Austrian was already on
+the alert. This game of man&oelig;uvres he understood; already
+one of his divisions had arrived in close proximity to Dallemagne
+and the others were marching eastward by all available roads.
+It was not until the 8th that the French, after a series of partial
+encounters, were securely established on the left bank of the Po,
+and Beaulieu had given up the idea of forcing their most advanced
+troops to accept battle at a disadvantage. The success of
+the French was due less to their plan than to their mobility,
+which enabled them first to pass the river before the Austrians
+(who had actually started a day in advance of them) put in an
+appearance, and afterwards to be in superior numbers at each
+point of contact. But the episode was destined after all to
+culminate in a great event, which Napoleon himself indicated
+as the turning-point of his life. &ldquo;Vendémiaire and even Montenotte
+did not make me think myself a superior being. It was
+after Lodi that the idea came to me.... That first kindled the
+spark of boundless ambition.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The idea of a battle having been given up, Beaulieu retired to
+the Adda, and most of his troops were safely beyond it before the
+French arrived near Lodi, but he felt it necessary to
+leave a strong rearguard on the river opposite that
+<span class="sidenote">Lodi.</span>
+place to cover the reassembly of his columns after their scattered
+march. On the afternoon of the 10th of May, Bonaparte, with
+Dallemagne, Masséna and Augereau, came up and seized the
+town. But 200 yds. of open ground had to be passed from the
+town gate to the bridge, and the bridge itself was another 250
+in length. A few hundred yards beyond it stood the Austrians,
+9000 strong with 14 guns. Napoleon brought up all his guns
+to prevent the enemy from destroying the bridge. Then sending
+all his cavalry to turn the enemy&rsquo;s right by a ford above the
+town, he waited two hours, employing the time in cannonading
+the Austrian lines, resting his advanced infantry and closing
+up Masséna&rsquo;s and Augereau&rsquo;s divisions. Finally he gave the
+order to Dallemagne&rsquo;s 4000 grenadiers, who were drawn up
+under cover of the town wall, to rush the bridge. As the column,
+not more than thirty men broad, made its appearance, it was
+met by the concentrated fire of the Austrian guns, and half
+way across the bridge it checked, but Bonaparte himself and
+Masséna rushed forward, the courage of the soldiers revived,
+and, while some jumped off the bridge and scrambled forward
+in the shallow water, the remainder stormed on, passed through
+the guns and drove back the infantry. This was, in bare outline,
+the astounding passage of the Bridge of Lodi. It was not till
+after the battle that Napoleon realized that only a rearguard
+was in front of him. When he launched his 4000 grenadiers
+he thought that on the other side there were four or five times
+that number of the enemy. No wonder, then, that after the
+event he recognized in himself the flash of genius, the courage
+to risk everything, and the &ldquo;tact&rdquo; which, independent of,
+and indeed contrary to all reasoned calculations, told him that
+the moment had come for &ldquo;breaking the equilibrium.&rdquo; Lodi
+was a tactical success in the highest sense, in that the principles
+of his tactics rested on psychology&mdash;on the &ldquo;sublime&rdquo; part
+of the art of war as Saxe had called it long ago. The spirit produced
+the form, and Lodi was the prototype of the Napoleonic
+battle&mdash;contact, man&oelig;uvre, preparation, and finally the well-timed,
+massed and unhesitating assault. The absence of strategical
+results mattered little. Many months elapsed before this
+bold assertion of superiority ceased to decide the battles of
+France and Austria.</p>
+
+<p>Next day, still under the vivid tactical impressions of the
+Bridge of Lodi, he postponed his occupation of the Milanese
+and set off in pursuit of Beaulieu, but the latter was
+now out of reach, and during the next few days the
+<span class="sidenote">Milan.</span>
+French divisions were installed at various points in the area
+Pavia-Milan-Pizzighetone, facing outwards in all dangerous
+directions, with a central reserve at Milan. Thus secured,
+Bonaparte turned his attention to political and military administration.
+This took the form of exacting from the neighbouring
+princes money, supplies and objects of art, and the once
+famished Army of Italy revelled in its opportunity. Now, however,
+the Directory, suspicious of the too successful and too
+sanguine young general, ordered him to turn over the command
+in Upper Italy to Kellermann, and to take an expeditionary
+corps himself into the heart of the Peninsula, there to preach
+the Republic and the overthrow of princes. Napoleon absolutely
+refused, and offered his resignation. In the end (partly by
+bribery) he prevailed, but the incident reawakened his desire
+to close with Beaulieu. This indeed he could now do with a
+free hand, since not only had the Milanese been effectively
+occupied, but also the treaty with Sardinia had been ratified.</p>
+
+<p>But no sooner had he resumed the advance than it was
+interrupted by a rising of the peasantry in his rear. The exactions
+of the French had in a few days generated sparks of discontent
+which it was easy for the priests and the nobles to fan
+into open flames. Milan and Pavia as well as the countryside
+broke into insurrection, and at the latter place the mob forced
+the French commandant to surrender. Bonaparte acted
+swiftly and ruthlessly. Bringing back a small portion of the
+army with him, he punished Milan on the 25th, sacked and
+burned Binasco on the 26th, and on the evening of the latter
+day, while his cavalry swept the open country, he broke his
+way into Pavia with 1500 men and beat down all resistance.
+Napoleon&rsquo;s cruelty was never purposeless. He deported several
+scores of hostages to France, executed most of the mob leaders,
+and shot the French officer who had surrendered. In addition,
+he gave his 1500 men three hours&rsquo; leave to pillage. Then, as
+swiftly as they had come, they returned to the army on the
+Oglio. From this river Napoleon advanced to the banks of the
+Mincio, where the remainder of the Italian campaign was fought
+out, both sides contemptuously disregarding Venetian neutrality.</p>
+
+<p>It centred on the fortress of Mantua, which Beaulieu, too weak
+to keep the field, and dislodged from the Mincio in the action of
+Borghetto (May 30), strongly garrisoned before retiring into
+Tirol. Beaulieu was soon afterwards replaced by Dagobert
+Siegmund, count von Wurmser (b. 1724), who brought considerable
+reinforcements from Germany.</p>
+
+<p>At this point, mindful of the narrow escape he had had of
+losing his command, Bonaparte thought it well to begin the
+resettlement of Italy. The scheme for co-operating with Moreau
+on the Danube was indefinitely postponed, and the Army of
+Italy (now reinforced from the Army of the Alps and counting
+42,000 effectives) was again disposed in a protective &ldquo;zone of
+man&oelig;uvre,&rdquo; with a strong central reserve. Over 8000 men,
+however, garrisoned the fortresses of Piedmont and Lombardy,
+and the effective blockade of Mantua and political expeditions
+into the heart of the Peninsula soon used up the whole of this
+reserve.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, no siege artillery was available until the Austrians
+in the citadel of Milan capitulated, and thus it was not till
+the 18th of July that the first parallel was begun. Almost at the
+same moment Wurmser began his advance from Trent with
+55,000 men to relieve Mantua.</p>
+
+<p>The protective system on which his attack would fall in the
+first instance was now as follows:&mdash;Augereau (6000) about
+Legnago, Despinoy (8000) south-east of Verona,
+Masséna (13,000) at Verona and Peschiera, with
+<span class="sidenote">Siege of Mantua.</span>
+outposts on the Monte Baldo and at La Corona,
+Sauret (4500) at Salo and Gavardo. Sérurier (12,000) was
+besieging Mantua, and the only central reserve was the cavalry
+(2000) under Kilmaine. The main road to Milan passed by
+Brescia. Sauret&rsquo;s brigade, therefore, was practically a detached
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span>
+post on the line of communication, and on the main defensive
+front less than 30,000 men were disposed at various points
+between La Corona and Legnago (30 m. apart), and at a distance
+of 15 to 20 m. from Mantua. The strength of such a disposition
+depended on the fighting power and handiness of the troops,
+who in each case would be called upon to act as a rearguard to
+gain time. Yet the lie of the country scarcely permitted a closer
+grouping, unless indeed Bonaparte fell back on the old-time
+device of a &ldquo;circumvallation,&rdquo; and shut himself up, with the
+supplies necessary for the calculated duration of the siege, in an
+impregnable ring of earthworks round Mantua. This, however,
+he could not have done even if he had wished, for the wave of
+revolt radiating from Milan had made accumulations of food
+impossible, and the lakes above and below the fortress, besides
+being extremely unhealthy, would have extended the perimeter
+of the circumvallation so greatly that the available forces would
+not suffice to man it. It was not in this, but in the absence of an
+important central reserve that Bonaparte&rsquo;s disposition is open to
+criticism, which indeed could impugn the scheme in its entirety,
+as overtaxing the available resources, more easily than it could
+attack its details.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:786px; height:571px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img190.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">If Bonaparte has occasionally been criticized for his defensive
+measures, Wurmser&rsquo;s attack procedure has received almost universal
+condemnation, as to the justice of which it may be pointed out<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a>
+that the object of the expedition was not to win a battle by falling
+on the disunited French with a well-concentrated army, but to overpower
+one, any one, of the corps covering the siege, and to press
+straight forward to the relief of Mantua, <i>i.e.</i> to the destruction of
+Bonaparte&rsquo;s batteries and the levelling of his trench work. The old
+principle that a battle was a grave event of doubtful issue was
+reinforced in the actual case by Beaulieu&rsquo;s late experiences of French
+élan, and as a temporary victory at one point would suffice for the
+purpose in hand, there was every incentive to multiply the points of
+contact. The soundness of Wurmser&rsquo;s plan was proved by the event.
+New ideas and new forces, undiscernible to a man of seventy-two
+years of age, obliterated his achievement by surpassing it, but such
+as it was&mdash;a limited use of force for a limited object&mdash;the venture
+undeniably succeeded.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Austrians formed three corps, one (Quasdanovich, 18,000
+men) marching round the west side of the Lake of Garda on
+Gavardo, Salo and the Brescia road, the second (under Wurmser,
+about 30,000) moving directly down the Adige, and the third
+(Davidovich, 6000) making a détour by the Brenta valley
+and heading for Verona by Vicenza.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th Quasdanovich attacked Sauret at Salo, drove
+him towards Desenzano, and pushed on to Gavardo and thence
+into Brescia. Wurmser expelled Masséna&rsquo;s advanced guard
+from La Corona, and captured in succession the Monte Baldo
+and Rivoli posts. The Brenta column approached Verona with
+little or no fighting. News of this column led Napoleon early in
+the day to close up Despinoy, Masséna and Kilmaine at Castelnuovo,
+and to order Augereau from Legnago to advance on
+Montebello (19 m. east of Verona) against Davidovich&rsquo;s left
+rear. But after these orders had been despatched came the news
+of Sauret&rsquo;s defeat, and this moment was one of the most anxious
+in Napoleon&rsquo;s career. He could not make up his mind to give up
+the siege of Mantua, but he hurried Augereau back to the Mincio,
+and sent order after order to the officers on the lines of communication
+to send all convoys by the Cremona instead of by the
+Brescia road. More, he had the baggage, the treasure and the
+sick set in motion at once for Marcaria, and wrote to Sérurier
+a despatch which included the
+words &ldquo;perhaps we shall recover
+ourselves ... but I must take
+serious measures for a retreat.&rdquo;
+On the 30th he wrote: &ldquo;The
+enemy have broken through our
+line in three places ... Sauret
+has evacuated Salo ... and the
+enemy has captured Brescia.
+You see that our communications
+with Milan and Verona are cut.&rdquo;
+The reports that came to him
+during the morning of the 30th
+enabled him to place the main
+body of the enemy opposite
+Masséna, and this, without in the
+least alleviating the gravity of
+the situation, helped to make his
+course less doubtful. Augereau
+was ordered to hold the line of
+the Molinella, in case Davidovich&rsquo;s
+attack, the least-known
+factor, should after all prove to
+be serious; Masséna to reconnoitre
+a road from Peschiera
+through Castiglione towards
+Orzinovi, and to stand fast at
+Castelnuovo opposite Wurmser
+as long as he could. Sauret
+and Despinoy were concentrated
+at Desenzano with orders on the 31st to clear the main line of
+retreat and to recapture Brescia. The Austrian movements were
+merely the continuation of those of the 29th. Quasdanovich
+wheeled inwards, his right finally resting on Montechiaro and
+his left on Salo. Wurmser drove back Masséna to the west side
+of the Mincio. Davidovich made a slight advance.</p>
+
+<p>In the late evening Bonaparte held a council of war at Roverbella.
+The proceedings of this council are unknown, but it at
+any rate enabled Napoleon to see clearly and to act.
+Hitherto he had been covering the siege of Mantua with
+<span class="sidenote">Relief of Mantua.</span>
+various detachments, the defeat of any one of which
+might be fatal to the enterprise. Thus, when he had lost his
+main line of retreat, he could assemble no more than 8000 men
+at Desenzano to win it back. Now, however, he made up his
+mind that the siege could not be continued, and bitter as the
+decision must have been, it gave him freedom. At this moment
+of crisis the instincts of the great captain came into play, and
+showed the way to a victory that would more than counterbalance
+the now inevitable failure. Sérurier was ordered to
+spike the 140 siege guns that had been so welcome a few days
+before, and, after sending part of his force to Augereau, to
+establish himself with the rest at Marcaria on the Cremona road.
+The field forces were to be used on interior lines. On the 31st
+Sauret, Despinoy, Augereau and Kilmaine advanced westward
+against Quasdanovich. The first two found the Austrians at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span>
+Salo and Lonato and drove them back, while with Augereau
+and the cavalry Bonaparte himself made a forced march on
+Brescia, never halting night or day till he reached the town and
+recovered his depots. Meantime Sérurier had retired (night
+of July 31), Masséna had gradually drawn in towards Lonato,
+and Wurmser&rsquo;s advanced guard triumphantly entered the
+fortress (August 1).</p>
+
+<p>The Austrian general now formed the plan of crushing
+Bonaparte between Quasdanovich and his own main body.
+But meantime Quasdanovich had evacuated Brescia under the
+threat of Bonaparte&rsquo;s advance and was now fighting a long
+irregular action with Despinoy and Sauret about Gavardo and
+Salo, and Bonaparte, having missed his expected target, had
+brought Augereau by another severe march back to Montechiaro
+on the Chiese. Masséna was now assembled between Lonato
+and Ponte San Marco, and Sérurier was retiring quietly on
+Marcaria. Wurmser&rsquo;s main body, weakened by the detachment
+sent to Mantua, crossed the Mincio about Valeggio and Goito
+on the 2nd, and penetrated as far as Castiglione, whence Masséna&rsquo;s
+rearguard was expelled. But a renewed advance of Quasdanovich,
+ordered by Wurmser, which drove Sauret and Despinoy
+<span class="sidenote">Lonato and Castiglione.</span>
+back on Brescia and Lonato, in the end only placed
+a strong detachment of the Austrians within striking
+distance of Masséna, who on the 3rd attacked it,
+front to front, and by sheer fighting destroyed it,
+while at the same time Augereau recaptured Castiglione from
+Wurmser. On the 4th Sauret and Despinoy pressed back
+Quasdanovich beyond Salo and Gavardo. One of the Austrian
+columns, finding itself isolated and unable to retreat with the
+others, turned back to break its way through to Wurmser, and
+was annihilated by Masséna in the neighbourhood of Lonato.
+On this day Augereau fought his way towards Solferino, and
+Wurmser, thinking rightly or wrongly that he could not now
+retire to the Mincio without a battle, drew up his whole force,
+close on 30,000 men, in the plain between Solferino and Medole.
+The finale may be described in very few words. Bonaparte,
+convinced that no more was to be feared from Quasdanovich,
+and seeing that Wurmser meant to fight, called in Despinoy&rsquo;s
+division to the main body and sent orders to Sérurier, then far
+distant on the Cremona road, to march against the left flank of
+the Austrians. On the 5th the battle of Castiglione was fought.
+Closely contested in the first hours of the frontal attack till
+Sérurier&rsquo;s arrival decided the day, it ended in the retreat of the
+Austrians over the Mincio and into Tirol whence they had
+come.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Thus the new way had failed to keep back Wurmser, and the
+old had failed to crush Napoleon. Each was the result of its own
+conditions. In former wars a commander threatened as Napoleon
+was, would have fallen back at once to the Adda, abandoning the
+siege in such good time that he would have been able to bring off his
+siege artillery. Instead of this Bonaparte hesitated long enough
+to lose it, which, according to accepted canons was a waste, and held
+his ground, which was, by the same rules, sheer madness. But
+Revolutionary discipline was not firm enough to stand a retreat.
+Once it turned back, the army would have streamed away to Milan
+and perhaps to the Alps (cf. 1799), and the only alternative to complete
+dissolution therefore was fighting.</p>
+
+<p>As to the manner of this fighting, even the principle of &ldquo;relative
+superiority&rdquo; failed him so long as he was endeavouring to cover
+the siege and again when his chief care was to protect his new line of
+retreat and to clear his old. In this period, viz. up to his return
+from Brescia on the 2nd of August, the only &ldquo;mass&rdquo; he collected
+delivered a blow in the air, while the covering detachments had to
+fight hard for bare existence. Once released from its trammels,
+the Napoleonic principle had fair play. He stood between Wurmser
+and Quasdanovich, ready to fight either or both. The latter was
+crushed, thanks to local superiority and the resolute leading of
+Masséna, but at Castiglione Wurmser actually outnumbered his
+opponent till the last of Napoleon&rsquo;s precautionary dispositions had
+been given up, and Sérurier brought back from the &ldquo;alternative line
+of retreat&rdquo; to the battlefield. The moral is, again, that it was not the
+mere fact of being on interior lines that gave Napoleon the victory,
+but his &ldquo;tact,&rdquo; his fine appreciation of the chances in his favour,
+measured in terms of time, space, attacking force and containing
+power. All these factors were greatly influenced by the ground, which
+favoured the swarms and columns of the French and deprived
+the brilliant Austrian cavalry of its power to act. But of far
+greater importance was the mobility that Napoleon&rsquo;s personal
+force imparted to the French. Napoleon himself rode five horses
+to death in three days, and Augereau&rsquo;s division marched from
+Roverbella to Brescia and back to Montechiaro, a total distance of
+nearly 50 m., in about thirty-six hours. This indeed was the foundation
+of his &ldquo;relative superiority,&rdquo; for every hour saved in the time
+of marching meant more freedom to destroy one corps before the
+rest could overwhelm the covering detachments and come to its
+assistance.</p>
+
+<p>Wurmser&rsquo;s plan for the relief of Mantua, suited to its purpose,
+succeeded. But when he made his objective the French field army,
+he had to take his own army as he found it, disposed for an altogether
+different purpose. A properly, combined attack of convergent
+columns framed <i>ab initio</i> by a good staff officer, such as Mack,
+might indeed have given good results. But the success of such a
+plan depends principally on the assailant&rsquo;s original possession of the
+initiative, and not on the chances of his being able to win it over to
+his own side when operations, as here, are already in progress.
+When the time came to improvise such a plan, the initiative had
+passed over to Napoleon, and the plan was foredoomed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By the end of the second week in August the blockade of
+Mantua had been resumed, without siege guns. But still under
+the impression of a great victory gained, Bonaparte was planning
+a long forward stride. He thought that by advancing past
+Mantua directly on Trieste and thence onwards to the Semmering
+he could impose a peace on the emperor. The Directory, however,
+which had by now focussed its attention on the German campaign,
+ordered him to pass through Tirol and to co-operate with
+Moreau, and this plan, Bonaparte, though protesting against an
+Alpine venture being made so late in the year, prepared to execute,
+drawing in reinforcements and collecting great quantities of
+supplies in boats on the Adige and Lake Garda. Wurmser was
+thought to have posted his main body near Trent, and to have
+detached one division to Bassano &ldquo;to cover Trieste.&rdquo;  The French
+advanced northward on the 2nd, in three disconnected columns
+(precisely as Wurmser had done in the reverse direction at the
+end of July)&mdash;Masséna (13,000) from Rivoli to Ala, Augereau
+(9000) from Verona by hill roads, keeping on his right rear,
+Vaubois (11,000) round the Lake of Garda by Riva and Torbole.
+Sahuguet&rsquo;s division (8000) remained before Mantua. The
+French divisions successfully combined and drove the enemy
+before them to Trent.</p>
+
+<p>There, however, they missed their target. Wurmser had already
+drawn over the bulk of his army (22,000) into the Val Sugana,
+whence, with the Bassano division as his advanced guard, he
+intended once more to relieve Mantua, while Davidovich with
+13,000 (excluding detachments) was to hold Tirol against any
+attempt of Bonaparte to join forces with Moreau.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Austria was preparing to hazard a second (as in the
+event she hazarded a third and a fourth) highly trained and
+expensive professional army in the struggle for the preservation
+of a fortress, and we must conclude that there were weighty
+reasons which actuated so notoriously cautious a body as the
+Council of War in making this unconditional venture. While
+Mantua stood, Napoleon, for all his energy and sanguineness,
+could not press forward into Friuli and Carniola, and immunity
+from a Republican visitation was above all else important for
+the Vienna statesmen, governing as they did more or less discontented
+and heterogeneous populations that had not felt the
+pressure of war for a century and more. The Austrians, so far
+as is known, desired no more than to hold their own. They no
+longer possessed the superiority of <i>moral</i> that guarantees victory
+to one side when both are materially equal. There was therefore
+nothing to be gained, commensurate with the risk involved, by
+fighting a battle in the open field. <i>In Italien siegt nicht die
+Kavallerie</i> was an old saying in the Austrian army, and therefore
+the Austrians could not hope to win a victory of the first magnitude.
+The only practicable alternative was to strengthen
+Mantua as opportunities offered themselves, and to prolong
+the passive resistance as much as possible. Napoleon&rsquo;s own
+practice in providing for secondary theatres of war was to
+economize forces and to delay a decision, and the fault of the
+Austrians, viewed from a purely military standpoint, was that
+they squandered, instead of economizing, their forces to gain
+time. If we neglect pure theory, and regard strategy as the
+handmaiden of statesmanship&mdash;which fundamentally it is&mdash;we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span>
+cannot condemn the Vienna authorities unless it be first proved
+that they grossly exaggerated the possible results of Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+threatened irruption. And if their capacity for judging the
+political situation be admitted, it naturally follows that their
+object was to preserve Mantua <i>at all costs</i>&mdash;which object Wurmser,
+though invariably defeated in action, did in fact accomplish.</p>
+
+<p>When Masséna entered Trent on the morning of the 5th of
+September, Napoleon became aware that the force in his front
+was a mere detachment, and news soon came in that
+Wurmser was in the Val Sugana about Primolano and
+<span class="sidenote">Bassano.</span>
+at Bassano. This move he supposed to be intended to cover
+Trieste, being influenced by his own hopes of advancing in that
+direction, and underestimating the importance, to the Austrians,
+of preserving Mantua. He therefore informed the Directory
+that he could not proceed with the Tirol scheme, and spent one
+more day in driving Davidovich well away from Trent. Then,
+leaving Vaubois to watch him, Napoleon marched Augereau and
+Masséna, with a rapidity he scarcely ever surpassed, into the
+Val Sugana. Wurmser&rsquo;s rearguard was attacked and defeated
+again and again, and Wurmser himself felt compelled to stand
+and fight, in the hope of checking the pursuit before going
+forward into the plains. Half his army had already reached
+Montebello on the Verona road, and with the rear half he posted
+himself at Bassano, where on the 8th he was attacked and
+defeated with heavy losses. Then began a strategic pursuit or
+general chase, and in this the mobility of the French should
+have finished the work so well begun by their tactics.</p>
+
+<p>But Napoleon directed the pursuers so as to cut off Wurmser
+from Trieste, not from Mantua. Masséna followed up the
+Austrians to Vicenza, while Augereau hurried towards Padua,
+and it was not until late on the 9th that Bonaparte realized that
+his opponent was heading for Mantua via Legnago. On the 10th
+Masséna crossed the Adige at Ronco, while Augereau from
+Padua reached Montagnara. Sahuguet from Mantua and
+Kilmaine from Verona joined forces at Castellaro on the 11th,
+with orders to interpose between Wurmser and the fortress.
+Wurmser meantime had halted for a day at Legnago, to restore
+order, and had then resumed his march. It was almost too late,
+for in the evening, after having to push aside the head of Masséna&rsquo;s
+column at Cerea, he had only reached Nogara, some miles short of
+Castellaro, and close upon his rear was Augereau, who reached
+Legnago that night. On the 12th, eluding Sahuguet by a detour
+to the southward, he reached Mantua, with all the columns of
+the French, weary as most of them were, in hot pursuit. After
+an attempt to keep the open field, defeated in a general action
+on the 15th, the relieving force was merged in the garrison, now
+some 28,000 in all. So ended the episode of Bassano, the most
+brilliant feature of which as usual was the marching power of
+the French infantry. This time it sufficed to redeem even
+strategical misconceptions and misdirections. Between the
+5th and the 11th, besides fighting three actions, Masséna had
+marched 100 m. and Augereau 114.</p>
+
+<p>Feldzeugmeister Alvintzi was now appointed to command a
+new army of relief. This time the mere distribution of the
+troops imposed a concentric advance of separate columns, for
+practically the whole of the fresh forces available were in Carniola,
+the Military Frontier, &amp;c., while Davidovich was still in Tirol.
+Alvintzi&rsquo;s intention was to assemble his new army (29,000) in
+Friuli, and to move on Bassano, which was to be occupied on
+the 4th of November. Meantime Davidovich (18,000) was to
+capture Trent, and the two columns were to connect by the Val
+Sugana. All being well, Alvintzi and Davidovich, still separate,
+were then to converge on the Adige between Verona and Legnago.
+Wurmser was to co-operate by vigorous sorties. At this time
+Napoleon&rsquo;s protective system was as follows: Kilmaine (9000)
+investing Mantua, Vaubois (10,000) at Trent, and Masséna
+(9000) at Bassano and Treviso, Augereau (9000) and Macquard
+(3000) at Verona and Villafranca constituting, for the first time
+in these operations, important mobile reserves. Hearing of
+Alvintzi&rsquo;s approach in good time, he meant first to drive back
+Davidovich, then with Augereau, Masséna, Macquard and 3000
+of Vaubois&rsquo;s force to fall upon Alvintzi, who, he calculated,
+would at this stage have reached Bassano, and finally to send
+back a large force through the Val Sugana to attack Davidovich.
+This plan practically failed.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of advancing, Vaubois was driven steadily backward.
+By the 6th, Davidovich had fought his way almost to Roveredo,
+and Alvintzi had reached Bassano and was there
+successfully repelling the attacks of Masséna and
+<span class="sidenote">Caldiero.</span>
+Augereau. That night Napoleon drew back to Vicenza. On
+the 7th Davidovich drove in Vaubois to Corona and Rivoli,
+and Alvintzi came within 5 m. of Vicenza. Napoleon watched
+carefully for an opportunity to strike out, and on the 8th massed
+his troops closely around the central point of Verona. On the
+9th, to give himself air, he ordered Masséna to join Vaubois,
+and to drive back Davidovich at all costs. But before this order
+was executed, reports came in to the effect that Davidovich
+had suspended his advance. The 10th and 11th were spent by
+both sides in relative inaction, the French waiting on events
+and opportunities, the Austrians resting after their prolonged
+exertions. Then, on the afternoon of the 11th, being informed
+that Alvintzi was approaching, Napoleon decided to attack him.
+On the 12th the advanced guard of Alvintzi&rsquo;s army was furiously
+assailed in the position of Caldiero. But the troops in rear came
+up rapidly, and by 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the French were defeated all along the
+line and in retreat on Verona. Napoleon&rsquo;s situation was now
+indeed precarious. He was on &ldquo;interior lines,&rdquo; it is true, but
+he had neither the force nor the space necessary for the delivery
+of rapid radial blows. Alvintzi was in superior numbers, as the
+battle of Caldiero had proved, and at any moment Davidovich,
+who had twice Vaubois&rsquo;s force, might advance to the attack of
+Rivoli. The reserves had proved insufficient, and Kilmaine
+had to be called up from Mantua, which was thus for the third
+time freed from the blockaders. Again the alternatives were
+retreat, in whatever order was possible to Republican armies,
+and beating the nearest enemy at any sacrifice. Napoleon chose
+the latter, though it was not until the evening of the 14th that
+he actually issued the fateful order.</p>
+
+<p>The Austrians, too, had selected the 15th as the date of their
+final advance on Verona, Davidovich from the north, Alvintzi
+via Zevio from the south. But Napoleon was no longer there;
+leaving Vaubois to hold Davidovich as best he might, and
+posting only 3000 men in Verona, he had collected the rest of
+his small army between Albaro and Ronco. His plan seems to
+have been to cross the Adige well in rear of the Austrians, to
+march north on to the Verona-Vicenza highway, and there,
+supplying himself from their convoys, to fight to the last. On
+the 15th he had written to the Directory, &ldquo;The weakness and
+the exhaustion of the army causes me to fear the worst. We are
+perhaps on the eve of losing Italy.&rdquo; In this extremity of danger
+the troops passed the Adige in three columns near Ronco and
+Albaredo, and marched forward along the dikes, with deep
+marshes and pools on either hand. If Napoleon&rsquo;s intention was
+to reach the dry open ground of S. Bonifacio in rear of the
+Austrians, it was not realized, for the Austrian army, instead of
+being at the gates of Verona, was still between Caldiero and
+S. Bonifacio, heading, as we know, for Zevio. Thus Alvintzi
+was able, easily and swiftly, to wheel to the south.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of Arcola almost defies description. The first day
+passed in a series of resultless encounters between the heads
+of the columns as they met on the dikes. In the
+evening Bonaparte withdrew over the Adige, expecting
+<span class="sidenote">Arcola.</span>
+at every moment to be summoned to Vaubois&rsquo;s aid. But Davidovich
+remained inactive, and on the 16th the French again crossed
+the river. Masséna from Ronco advanced on Porcile, driving
+the Austrians along the causeway thither, but on the side of
+Arcola, Alvintzi had deployed a considerable part of his forces
+on the edge of the marshes, within musket shot of the causeway
+by which Bonaparte and Augereau had to pass, along the
+Austrian front, to reach the bridge of Arcola. In these circumstances
+the second day&rsquo;s battle was more murderous and no
+more decisive than the first, and again the French retreated to
+Ronco. But Davidovich again stood still, and with incredible
+obstinacy Bonaparte ordered a third assault for the 17th, using
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span>
+indeed more tactical expedients than before, but calculating
+chiefly on the fighting powers of his men and on the exhaustion
+of the enemy. Masséna again advanced on Porcile, Robert&rsquo;s
+brigade on Arcola, but the rest, under Augereau, were to pass
+the Alpone near its confluence with the Adige, and joining various
+small bodies which passed the main stream lower down, to storm
+forward on dry ground to Arcola. The Austrians, however,
+themselves advanced from Arcola, overwhelmed Robert&rsquo;s
+brigade on the causeway and almost reached Ronco. This was
+perhaps the crisis of the battle, for Augereau&rsquo;s force was now
+on the other side of the stream, and Masséna, with his back
+to the new danger, was approaching Porcile. But the fire of a
+deployed regiment stopped the head of the Austrian column;
+Masséna, turning about, cut into its flank on the dike; and
+Augereau, gathering force, was approaching Arcola from the
+south. The bridge and the village were evacuated soon afterwards,
+and Masséna and Augereau began to extend in the plain
+beyond. But the Austrians still sullenly resisted. It was at
+this moment that Bonaparte secured victory by a mere ruse,
+but a ruse which would have been unprofitable and ridiculous
+had it not been based on his fine sense of the moral conditions.
+Both sides were nearly fought out, and he sent a few trumpeters
+to the rear of the Austrian army to sound the charge. They
+did so, and in a few minutes the Austrians were streaming back
+to S. Bonifacio. This ended the drama of Arcola, which more
+than any other episode of these wars, perhaps of any wars in
+modern history, centres on the personality of the hero. It is
+said that the French fought without spirit on the first day, and
+yet on the second and third Bonaparte had so thoroughly imbued
+them with his own will to conquer that in the end they prevailed
+over an enemy nearly twice their own strength.</p>
+
+<p>The climax was reached just in time, for on the 17th Vaubois
+was completely defeated at Rivoli and withdrew to Peschiera,
+leaving the Verona and Mantua roads completely open to
+Davidovich. But on the 19th Napoleon turned upon him, and
+combining the forces of Vaubois, Masséna and Augereau against
+him, drove him back to Trent. Meantime Alvintzi returned
+from Vicenza to San Bonifacio and Caldiero (November 21st),
+and Bonaparte at once stopped the pursuit of Davidovich. On
+the return of the French main body to Verona, Alvintzi finally
+withdrew, Wurmser, who had emerged from Mantua on the 23rd,
+was driven in again, and this epilogue of the great struggle
+came to a feeble end because neither side was now capable of
+prolonging the crisis.</p>
+
+<p>Alvintzi renewed his advance in January 1797 with all the
+forces that could be assembled for a last attempt to save Mantua.
+At this time 8000 men under Sérurier blockaded Mantua,
+Masséna (9000) was at Verona, Joubert (Vaubois&rsquo;s successor)
+at Rivoli with 10,000, Augereau at Legnago with 9000. In
+reserve were Rey&rsquo;s division (4000) between Brescia and Montechiaro,
+and Victor&rsquo;s brigade at Goito and Castelnuovo. On the
+other side, Alvintzi had 9000 men under Provera at Padua,
+6000 under Bayali&#269; at Bassano, and he himself with 28,000 men
+stood in the Tirol about Trent. This time he intended to make
+his principal effort on the Rivoli side. Provera was to capture
+Legnago on the 9th of January, and Bayali&#269; Verona on the 12th,
+while the main army was to deliver its blow against the Rivoli
+position on the 13th.</p>
+
+<p>The first marches of this scheme were duly carried out, and
+several days elapsed before Napoleon was able to discern the
+direction of the real attack. Augereau fell back,
+skirmishing a little, as Provera&rsquo;s and Bayali&#269;&rsquo;s advance
+<span class="sidenote">Rivoli.</span>
+developed. On the 11th, when the latter was nearing Verona,
+Alvintzi&rsquo;s leading troops appeared in front of the Rivoli position.
+On the 12th Bayali&#269; with a weak force (he had sent reinforcements
+to Alvintzi by the Val Pantena) made an unsuccessful
+attack on Verona, Provera, farther south, remaining inactive.
+On the 13th Napoleon, still in doubt, launched Masséna&rsquo;s division
+against Bayali&#269;, who was driven back to San Bonifacio; but
+at the same time definite news came from Joubert that Alvintzi&rsquo;s
+main army was in front of La Corona. From this point begins
+the decisive, though by no means the most intense or dramatic,
+struggle of the campaign. Once he felt sure of the situation
+Napoleon acted promptly. Joubert was ordered to hold on to
+Rivoli at all costs. Rey was brought up by a forced march to
+Castelnuovo, where Victor joined him, and ahead of them both
+Masséna was hurried on to Rivoli. Napoleon himself joined
+Joubert on the night of the 13th. There he saw the watch-fires
+of the enemy in a semicircle around him, for Alvintzi, thinking
+that he had only to deal with one division, had begun a widespread
+enveloping attack. The horns of this attack were as yet
+so far distant that Napoleon, instead of extending on an equal
+front, only spread out a few regiments to gain an hour or two
+and to keep the ground for Masséna and Rey, and on the morning
+of January 14th, with 10,000 men in hand against 26,000, he
+fell upon the central columns of the enemy as they advanced
+up the steep broken slopes of the foreground. The fighting was
+severe, but Bonaparte had the advantage. Masséna arrived at
+9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, and a little later the column of Quasdanovich, which had
+moved along the Adige and was now attempting to gain a foothold
+on the plateau in rear of Joubert, was crushed by the converging
+fire of Joubert&rsquo;s right brigade and by Masséna&rsquo;s guns, their rout
+being completed by the charge of a handful of cavalry under
+Lasalle. The right horn of Alvintzi&rsquo;s attack, when at last it
+swung in upon Napoleon&rsquo;s rear, was caught between Masséna
+and the advancing troops of Rey and annihilated, and even
+before this the dispirited Austrians were in full retreat. A last
+alarm, caused by the appearance of a French infantry regiment
+in their rear (this had crossed the lake in boats from Salo), completed
+their demoralization, and though less than 2000 had been
+killed and wounded, some 12,000 Austrian prisoners were left
+in the hands of the victors. Rivoli was indeed a moral triumph.
+After the ordeal of Arcola, the victory of the French was a foregone
+conclusion at each point of contact. Napoleon hesitated,
+or rather refrained from striking, so long as his information was
+incomplete, but he knew now from experience that his covering
+detachment, if well led, could not only hold its own without
+assistance until it had gained the necessary information, but
+could still give the rest of the army time to act upon it. Then,
+when the centre of gravity had been ascertained, the French
+divisions hurried thither, caught the enemy in the act of man&oelig;uvring
+and broke them up. And if that confidence in success
+which made all this possible needs a special illustration, it may
+be found in Napoleon&rsquo;s sending Murat&rsquo;s regiment over the lake
+to place a mere two thousand bayonets across the line of
+retreat of a whole army. Alvintzi&rsquo;s man&oelig;uvre was faulty
+neither strategically in the first instance nor tactically as
+regards the project of enveloping Joubert on the 14th. It
+failed because Joubert and his men were better soldiers than his
+own, and because a French division could move twice as fast as
+an Austrian, and from these two factors a new form of war was
+evolved, the essence of which was that, for a given time and in
+a given area, a small force of the French should engage and
+hold a much larger force of the enemy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The remaining operations can be very briefly summarized.
+Provera, still advancing on Mantua, joined hands there with Wurmser,
+and for a time held Sérurier at a disadvantage. But hearing of this,
+Napoleon sent back Masséna from the field of Rivoli, and that general,
+with Augereau and Sérurier, not only forced Wurmser to retire again
+into the fortress, but compelled Provera to lay down his arms. On
+the 2nd of February 1797, after a long and honourable defence,
+Mantua, and with it what was left of Wurmser&rsquo;s army, surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign of 1797, which ended the war of the First Coalition,
+was the brilliant sequel of these hard-won victories. Austria had
+decided to save Mantua at all costs, and had lost her armies in the
+attempt, a loss which was not compensated by the &ldquo;strategic&rdquo;
+victories of the archduke. Thus the Republican &ldquo;visitation&rdquo; of
+Carinthia and Carniola was one swift march&mdash;politically glorious,
+if dangerous from a purely military standpoint&mdash;of Napoleon&rsquo;s
+army to the Semmering. The archduke, who was called thither
+from Germany, could do no more than fight a few rearguard actions,
+and make threats against Napoleon&rsquo;s rear, which the latter, with his
+usual &ldquo;tact,&rdquo; ignored. On the Rhine, as in 1795 and 1796, the armies
+of the Sambre-and-Meuse (Hoche) and the Rhine-and-Moselle
+(Moreau) were opposed by the armies of the Lower Rhine (Werneck)
+and of the Upper Rhine (Latour). Moreau crossed the river near
+Strassburg and fought a series of minor actions. Hoche, like his
+predecessors, crossed at Düsseldorf and Neuwied and fought his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span>
+way to the Lahn, where for the last time in the history of these wars,
+there was an irregular widespread battle. But Hoche, in this his
+last campaign, displayed the brilliant energy of his first, and delivered
+the &ldquo;series of incessant blows&rdquo; that Carnot had urged upon Jourdan
+the year before. Werneck was driven with ever-increasing losses
+from the lower Lahn to Wetzlar and Giessen. Thence, pressed
+hard by the French left wing under Championnet, he retired on the
+<span class="sidenote">Leoben.</span>
+Nidda, only to find that Hoche&rsquo;s right had swung completely round
+him. Nothing but the news of the armistice of Leoben
+saved him from envelopment and surrender. This
+general armistice was signed by Bonaparte, on his own authority
+and to the intense chagrin of the Directory and of Hoche, on the
+18th of April, and was the basis of the peace of Campo Formio.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Napoleon in Egypt</p>
+
+<p>Within the scope of this article, yet far more important from its
+political and personal than from its general military interest, comes
+the expedition of Napoleon to Egypt and its sequel (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleon</a></span>, &amp;c.). A very brief summary must here suffice.
+Napoleon left Toulon on the 19th of May 1798, at the same time as
+his army (40,000 strong in 400 transports) embarked secretly at
+various ports. Nelson&rsquo;s fleet was completely evaded, and, capturing
+Malta <i>en route</i>, the armada reached the coast of Egypt on the 1st of
+July. The republicans stormed Alexandria on the 2nd. Between
+Embabeh and Gizeh, on the left bank of the Nile, 60,000 Mamelukes
+were defeated and scattered on the 21st (battle of the Pyramids),
+the French for the most part marching and fighting in the chequer
+of infantry squares that afterwards became the classical formation
+for desert warfare. While his lieutenants pursued the more important
+groups of the enemy, Napoleon entered Cairo in triumph, and proceeded
+to organize Egypt as a French protectorate. Meantime
+Nelson, though too late to head off the expedition, had annihilated
+the squadron of Admiral Brueys. This blow severed the army
+from the home country, and destroyed all hope of reinforcements.
+But to eject the French already in Egypt, military invasion of that
+country was necessary. The first attempts at this were made in
+September by the Turks as overlords of Egypt. Napoleon&mdash;after
+suppressing a revolt in Cairo&mdash;marched into Syria to meet them,
+and captured El Arish and Jaffa (at the latter place the prisoners,
+whom he could afford neither to feed, to release, nor to guard, were
+shot by his order). But he was brought to a standstill (March 17-May
+20) before the half-defensible fortifications of Acre, held by a Turkish
+garrison and animated by the leadership of Sir W. Sidney Smith
+(<i>q.v.</i>). In May, though meantime a Turkish relieving army had been
+severely beaten in the battle of Mount Tabor (April 16, 1799),
+Napoleon gave up his enterprise, and returned to Egypt, where he
+won a last victory in annihilating at Aboukir, with 6000 of his own
+men, a Turkish army 18,000 strong that had landed there (July 25,
+1799). With this crowning tactical success to set against the Syrian
+reverses, he handed over the command to Kléber and returned to
+France (August 22) to ride the storm in a new <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>, the &ldquo;18th
+Brumaire.&rdquo; Kléber, attacked by the English and Turks, concluded
+the convention of El Arish (January 27, 1800), whereby he secured
+free transport for the army back to France. But this convention
+was disavowed by the British government, and Kléber prepared to
+hold his ground. On the 20th of March 1800 he thoroughly defeated
+the Turkish army at Heliopolis and recovered Cairo, and French
+influence was once more in the ascendant in Egypt, when its director
+was murdered by a fanatic on the 14th of June, the day of Marengo.
+Kléber&rsquo;s successor, the incompetent Menou, fell an easy victim to the
+British expeditionary force under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801.
+The British forced their way ashore at Aboukir on the 8th of March.
+On the 21st, Abercromby won a decisive battle, and himself fell in the
+hour of victory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexandria</a></span>: <i>Battle of 1801</i>). His successor,
+General Hely Hutchinson, slowly followed up this advantage, and
+received the surrender of Cairo in July and of Alexandria in August,
+the débris of the French army being given free passage back to France.
+Meantime a mixed force of British and native troops from India,
+under Sir David Baird, had landed at Kosseir and marched across
+the desert to Cairo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">The War of the Second Coalition</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1798, while Napoleon&rsquo;s Egyptian expedition
+was in progress, and the Directory was endeavouring at home
+to reduce the importance and the predominance of the army
+and its leaders, the powers of Europe once more allied themselves,
+not now against the principles of the Republic, but against the
+treaty of Campo Formio. Russia, Austria, England, Turkey,
+Portugal, Naples and the Pope formed the Second Coalition. The
+war began with an advance into the Roman States by a worthless
+and ill-behaved Neapolitan army (commanded, much against
+his will, by Mack), which the French troops under Championnet
+destroyed with ease. Championnet then revolutionized Naples.
+After this unimportant prelude the curtain rose on a general
+European war. The Directory which now had at its command
+neither numbers nor enthusiasm, prepared as best it could to
+meet the storm. Four armies, numbering only 160,000, were
+set on foot, in Holland (Brune, 24,000); on the Upper Rhine
+(Jourdan, 46,000); in Switzerland, which had been militarily
+occupied in 1798 (Masséna, 30,000); and in upper Italy (Schérer,
+60,000). In addition there was Championnet&rsquo;s army, now
+commanded by Macdonald, in southern Italy. All these forces
+the Directory ordered, in January and February 1799, to assume
+the offensive.</p>
+
+<p>Jourdan, in the Constance and Schaffhausen region, had only
+40,000 men against the archduke Charles&rsquo;s 80,000, and was soon
+brought to a standstill and driven back on Stokach.
+The archduke had won these preliminary successes
+<span class="sidenote">Stokach.</span>
+with seven-eighths of his army acting as one concentrated mass.
+But as he had only encountered a portion of Jourdan&rsquo;s army, he
+became uneasy as to his flanks, checked his bold advance, and
+ordered a reconnaissance in force. This practically extended
+his army while Jourdan was closing his, and thus the French
+began the battle of Stokach (March 25) in superior numbers, and
+it was not until late in the day that the archduke brought up
+sufficient strength (60,000) to win a victory. This was a battle
+of the &ldquo;strategic&rdquo; type, a widespread straggling combat in
+which each side took fifteen hours to inflict a loss of 12%
+on the other, and which ended in Jourdan accepting defeat and
+drawing off, unpursued by the magnificent Austrian cavalry,
+though these counted five times as many sabres as the French.</p>
+
+<p>The French secondary army in Switzerland was in the hands
+of the bold and active Masséna. The forces of both sides in the
+Alpine region were, from a military point of view, mere flank
+guards to the main armies on the Rhine and the Adige. But
+unrest, amounting to civil war, among the Swiss and Grison
+peoples tempted both governments to give these flank guards
+considerable strength.<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The Austrians in the Vorarlberg and Grisons were under
+Hotze, who had 13,000 men at Bregenz, and 7000 commanded
+by Auffenberg around Chur, with, between them,
+5000 men at Feldkirch and a post of 1000 in the strong
+<span class="sidenote">Masséna in Switzerland.</span>
+position of the Luziensteig near Mayenfeld. Masséna&rsquo;s
+available force was about 20,000, and he used almost
+the whole of it against Auffenberg. The Rhine was crossed
+by his principal column near Mayenfeld, and the Luziensteig
+stormed (March 6), while a second column from the Zürich side
+descended upon Disentis and captured its defenders. In three
+days, thanks to Masséna&rsquo;s energy and the ardent attacking spirit
+of his men, Auffenberg&rsquo;s division was broken up, Oudinot
+meanwhile holding off Hotze by a hard-fought combat at
+Feldkirch (March 7). But a second attack on Feldkirch made
+on the 23rd by Masséna with 15,000 men was repulsed and the
+advance of his left wing came to a standstill.</p>
+
+<p>Behind Auffenberg and Hotze was Bellegarde in Tirol with
+some 47,000 men. Most of these were stationed north of Innsbruck
+and Landeck, probably as a sort of strategic reserve to
+the archduke. The rest, with the assistance of the Tirolese
+themselves, were to ward off irruptions from Italy. Here the
+French offensive was entrusted to two columns, one from
+Masséna&rsquo;s command under Lecourbe, the other from the Army
+of Italy under Dessolle. Simultaneously with Masséna,
+Lecourbe marched from Bellinzona with 10,000 men, by the
+San Bernadino pass into the Splügen valley, and thence over the
+Julier pass into the upper Engadine. A small Austrian force
+under Major-General Loudon attacked him near Zernetz, but
+was after three days of rapid man&oelig;uvres and bold tactics driven
+back to Martinsbrück, with considerable losses, especially in
+prisoners. But ere long the country people flew to arms, and
+Lecourbe found himself between two fires, the levies occupying
+Zernetz and Loudon&rsquo;s regulars Martinsbrück. But though he
+had only some 5000 of his original force left, he was not disconcerted,
+and, by driving back the levies into the high valleys
+whence they had come, and constantly threatening Loudon,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span>
+he was able to maintain himself and to wait for Dessolles. The
+latter, moving up the Valtelline, by now fought his way to the
+Stelvio pass, but beyond it the defile of Tauffers (S.W. of Glurns)
+was entrenched by Loudon, who thus occupied a position
+midway between the two French columns, while his irregulars
+beset all the passes and ways giving access to the Vintschgau and
+the lower Engadine. In this situation the French should have
+been destroyed in detail. But as usual their speed and dash gave
+them the advantage in every man&oelig;uvre and at every point of
+contact.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th Lecourbe and Dessolles attacked Loudon at
+Nauders in the Engadine and Tauffers in the Vintschgau respectively.
+At Nauders the French passed round
+the flanks of the defence by scrambling along the high
+<span class="sidenote">Lecourbe and Dessolles in Tirol.</span>
+mountain crests adjacent, while at Tauffers the
+assailants, only 4500 strong, descended into a deep
+ravine, debouched unnoticed in the Austrians&rsquo; rear, and captured
+6000 men and 16 guns. The Austrian leader with a couple of
+companies made his way through Glurns to Nauders, and there,
+finding himself headed off by Lecourbe, he took to the mountains.
+His corps, like Auffenberg&rsquo;s, was annihilated.</p>
+
+<p>This ended the French general offensive. Jourdan had been
+defeated by the archduke and forced or induced to retire over the
+Rhine. Masséna was at a standstill before the strong position
+of Feldkirch, and the Austrians of Hotze were still massed at
+Bregenz, but the Grisons were revolutionized, two strong bodies
+of Austrians numbering in all about 20,000 men had been
+destroyed, and Lecourbe and Dessolles had advanced far into
+Tirol. A pause followed. The Austrians in the mountains needed
+time to concentrate and to recover from their astonishment.
+The archduke fell ill, and the Vienna war council forbade his
+army to advance lest Tirol should be &ldquo;uncovered,&rdquo; though
+Bellegarde and Hotze still disposed of numbers equal to those
+of Masséna and Lecourbe. Masséna succeeded Jourdan in general
+command on the French side and promptly collected all available
+forces of both armies in the hilly non-Alpine country between
+Basel, Zürich and Schaffhausen, thereby directly barring the
+roads into France (Berne-Neuchâtel-Pontarlier and Basel-Besançon)
+which the Austrians appeared to desire to conquer.
+The protection of Alsace and the Vosges was left to the fortresses.
+There was no suggestion, it would appear, that the Rhine between
+Basel and Schaffhausen was a flank position sufficient of itself
+to bar Alsace to the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>It is now time to turn to events in Italy, where the Coalition
+intended to put forth its principal efforts. At the beginning of
+March the French had 80,000 men in Upper Italy and some 35,000
+in the heart of the Peninsula, the latter engaged chiefly in supporting
+newly-founded republics. Of the former, 53,000 formed
+the field army on the Mincio under Schérer. The Austrians,
+commanded by Kray, numbered in all 84,000, but detachments
+reduced this figure to 67,000, of whom, moreover, 15,000 had not
+yet arrived when operations began. They were to be joined by a
+Russian contingent under the celebrated Suvárov, who was to
+command the whole on arrival, and whose extraordinary personality
+gives the campaign its special interest. Kray himself was
+a resolute soldier, and when the French, obeying the general order
+to advance, crossed the Adige, he defeated them in a severely
+fought battle at Magnano near Verona (March 5), the French
+losing 4000 killed and wounded and 4500 taken, out of 41,000. The
+Austrians lost some 3800 killed and wounded and 1500 prisoners,
+out of 46,000 engaged. The war, however, was undertaken not
+to annihilate, but to evict the French, and, probably under orders
+from Vienna, Kray allowed the beaten enemy to depart.</p>
+
+<p>Suvárov appeared with 17,000 Russians on the 4th of April.
+His first step was to set Russian officers to teach the Austrian
+troops&mdash;whose feelings can be imagined&mdash;how to
+attack with the bayonet, his next to order the whole
+<span class="sidenote">Suvárov.</span>
+army forward. The Allies broke camp on the 17th, 18th and
+19th of April, and on the 20th, after a forced march of close on
+30 m., they passed the Chiese. Brescia had a French garrison, but
+Suvárov soon cowed it into surrender by threats of a massacre,
+which no one doubted that he would carry into execution.
+At the same time, dissatisfied with the marching of the Austrian
+infantry, he sent the following characteristic reproof to their
+commander: &ldquo;The march was in the service of the Kaiser.
+Fair weather is for my lady&rsquo;s chamber, for dandies, for sluggards.
+He who dares to cavil against his high duty (<i>der Grosssprecher
+wider den hohen Dienst</i>) is, as an egoist, instantly to vacate his
+command. Whoever is in bad health can stay behind. The
+so-called reasoners (<i>raisonneurs</i>) do no army any good....&rdquo;
+One day later, under this unrelenting pressure, the advanced
+posts of the Allies reached Cremona and the main body the
+Oglio. The pace became slower in the following days, as many
+bridges had to be made, and meanwhile Moreau, Schérer&rsquo;s
+successor, prepared with a mere 20,000 men to defend Lodi,
+Cassano and Lecco on the Adda. On the 26th the Russian hero
+attacked him all along the line. The moral supremacy had
+passed over to the Allies. Melas, under Suvárov&rsquo;s stern orders,
+flung his battalions regardless of losses against the strong position
+of Cassano. The story of 1796 repeated itself with the rôles
+reversed. The passage was carried, and the French rearguard
+under Sérurier was surrounded and captured by an inferior corps
+of Austrians. The Austrians (the Russians at Lecco were hardly
+engaged) lost 6000 men, but they took 7000 prisoners, and in
+all Moreau&rsquo;s little army lost half its numbers and retreated in
+many disconnected bodies to the Ticino, and thence to Alessandria.
+Everywhere the Italians turned against the French, mindful of
+the exactions of their commissaries. The strange Cossack
+cavalry that western Europe had never yet seen entered Milan
+on the 29th of April, eleven days after passing the Mincio, and
+next day the city received with enthusiasm the old field marshal,
+whose exploits against the Turks had long invested him with a
+halo of romance and legend. Here, for the moment, his offensive
+culminated. He desired to pass into Switzerland and to unite
+his own, the archduke&rsquo;s, Hotze&rsquo;s and Bellegarde&rsquo;s armies in one
+powerful mass. But the emperor would not permit the execution
+of this scheme until all the fortresses held by the enemy in
+Upper Italy should have been captured. In any case, Macdonald&rsquo;s
+army in southern Italy, cut off from France by the
+rapidity of Suvárov&rsquo;s onslaught, and now returning with all
+speed to join Moreau by force or evasion, had still to be dealt
+with.</p>
+
+<p>Suvárov&rsquo;s mobile army, originally 90,000 strong, had now
+dwindled, by reason of losses and detachments for sieges, to
+half that number, and serious differences arose between the
+Vienna government and himself. If he offended the pride
+of the Austrian army, he was at least respected as a leader who
+gave it victories, but in Vienna he was regarded as a madman
+who had to be kept within bounds. But at last, when he was
+becoming thoroughly exasperated by this treatment, Macdonald
+came within striking distance and the active campaign recommenced.
+In the second week of June, Moreau, who had
+retired into the Apennines about Gavi, advanced with the intention
+of drawing upon himself troops that would otherwise
+have been employed against Macdonald. He succeeded, for
+Suvárov with his usual rapidity collected 40,000 men at Alessandria,
+only to learn that Macdonald with 35,000 men was
+coming up on the Parma road. When this news arrived, Macdonald
+had already engaged an Austrian detachment at Modena
+and driven it back, and Suvárov found himself between Moreau
+and Macdonald with barely enough men under his hand to
+enable him to play the game of &ldquo;interior lines.&rdquo; But at the
+crisis the rough energetic warrior who despised &ldquo;raisonneurs,&rdquo;
+displayed generalship of the first order, and taking in hand all his
+scattered detachments, he man&oelig;uvred them in the Napoleonic
+fashion.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th Macdonald was calculated to be between Modena,
+Reggio and Carpi, but his destination was uncertain. Would he
+continue to hug the Apennines to join Moreau, or
+would he strike out northwards against Kray, who
+<span class="sidenote">The Trebbia.</span>
+with 20,000 men was besieging Mantua? From
+Alessandria it is four marches to Piacenza and nine to Mantua,
+while from Reggio these places are four and two marches
+respectively. Piacenza, therefore, was the crucial point if
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span>
+Macdonald continued westward, while, in the other case, nothing
+could save Kray but the energetic conduct of Hohenzollern&rsquo;s
+detachment, which was posted near Reggio. This latter, however,
+was soon forced over the Po, and Ott, advancing from Cremona
+to join it, found himself sharply pressed in turn. The field marshal
+had hoped that Ott and Hohenzollern together would be able to
+win him time to assemble at Parma, where he could bring on a
+battle whichever way the French took. But on receipt of Ott&rsquo;s
+report he was convinced that Macdonald had chosen the western
+route, and ordering Ott to delay the French as long as possible by
+stubborn rearguard actions and to put a garrison into Piacenza
+under a general who was to hold out &ldquo;on peril of his life and
+honour,&rdquo; he collected what forces were ready to move and
+hurried towards Piacenza, the rest being left to watch Moreau.
+He arrived just in time. When after three forced marches the
+main body (only 26,000 strong) reached Castel San Giovanni,
+Ott had been driven out of Piacenza, but the two joined forces
+safely. Both Suvárov and Macdonald spent the 17th in closing
+up and deploying for battle. The respective forces were Allies
+30,000, French 35,000. Suvárov believed the enemy to be
+only 26,000 strong, and chiefly raw Italian regiments, but his
+temperament would not have allowed him to stand still even
+had he known his inferiority. He had already issued one of his
+peculiar battle-orders, which began with the words, &ldquo;The
+hostile army will be taken prisoners&rdquo; and continued with
+directions to the Cossacks to spare the surrendered enemy.
+But Macdonald too was full of energy, and believed still that he
+could annihilate Ott before the field marshal&rsquo;s arrival. Thus
+the battle of the Trebbia (June 17-19) was fought by both sides
+in the spirit of the offensive. It was one of the severest struggles
+in the Republican wars, and it ended in Macdonald&rsquo;s retreat
+with a loss of 15,000 men&mdash;probably 6000 in the battle and
+9000 killed and prisoners when and after the equilibrium was
+broken&mdash;for Suvárov, unlike other generals, had the necessary
+surplus of energy after all the demands made upon him by a
+great battle, to order and to direct an effective pursuit. The
+Allies lost about 7000. Macdonald retreated to Parma and
+Modena, harassed by the peasantry, and finally recrossed the
+Apennines and made his way to Genoa. The battle of the
+Trebbia is one of the most clearly-defined examples in military
+history of the result of moral force&mdash;it was a matter not merely
+of energetic leading on the battlefield, but far more of educating
+the troops beforehand to meet the strain, of ingraining in the
+soldier the determination to win at all costs. &ldquo;It was not,&rdquo;
+says Clausewitz, &ldquo;a case of losing the key of the position, of
+turning a flank or breaking a centre, of a mistimed cavalry charge
+or a lost battery ... it is a pure trial of strength and expense of
+force, and victory is the sinking of the balance, if ever so slightly,
+in favour of one side. And we mean not merely physical, but
+even more moral forces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>To return now to the Alpine region, where the French offensive
+had culminated at the end of March. Their defeated left was
+behind the Rhine in the northern part of Switzerland, the half-victorious
+centre athwart the Rhine between Mayenfeld and
+Chur, and their wholly victorious right far within Tirol between
+Glurns, Nauders and Landeck. But neither the centre nor the
+right could maintain itself. The forward impulse given by
+Suvárov spread along the whole Austrian front from left to right.
+Dessolles&rsquo; column (now under Loison) was forced back to
+Chiavenna. Bellegarde drove Lecourbe from position to position
+towards the Rhine during April. There Lecourbe added to the
+remnant of his expeditionary column the outlying bodies of
+Masséna&rsquo;s right wing, but even so he had only 8000 men against
+Bellegarde&rsquo;s 17,000, and he was now exposed to the attack of
+Hotze&rsquo;s 25,000 as well. The Luziensteig fell to Hotze and Chur to
+Bellegarde, but the defenders managed to escape from the
+converging Austrian columns into the valley of the Reuss.
+Having thus reconquered all the lost ground and forced the
+French into the interior of Switzerland, Bellegarde and Hotze
+parted company, the former marching with the greater part of his
+forces to join Suvárov, the latter moving to his right to reinforce
+the archduke. Only a chain of posts was left in the Rhine
+Valley between Disentis and Feldkirch. The archduke&rsquo;s operations
+now recommenced.</p>
+
+<p>Charles and Hotze stood, about the 15th of May, at opposite
+ends of the lake of Constance. The two together numbered about
+88,000 men, but both had sent away numerous detachments to the
+flanks, and the main bodies dwindled to 35,000 for the archduke
+and 20,000 for Hotze. Masséna, with 45,000 men in all, retired
+slowly from the Rhine to the Thur. The archduke crossed the
+Rhine at Stein, Hotze at Balzers, and each then cautiously felt his
+way towards the other. Their active opponent attempted to
+take advantage of their separation, and an irregular fight took
+place in the Thur valley (May 25), but Masséna, finding Hotze
+close on his right flank, retired without attempting to force a
+decision. On the 27th, having joined forces, the Austrians
+dislodged Masséna from his new position on the Töss without
+difficulty, and this process was repeated from time to time in the
+<span class="sidenote">Action of Zürich.</span>
+next few days, until at last Masséna halted in the
+position he had prepared for defence at Zürich. He
+had still but 25,000 of his 45,000 men in hand, for he
+maintained numerous small detachments on his right, behind the
+Zürcher See and the Wallen See, and on his left towards Basel.
+These 25,000 occupied an entrenched position 5 m. in length;
+against which the Austrians, detaching as usual many posts to
+protect their flanks and rear, deployed only 42,000 men, of whom
+8000 were sent on a wide turning movement and 8000 held in
+reserve 4 m. in rear of the battlefield. Thus the frontal attack
+was made with forces not much greater than those of the defence
+and it failed accordingly (June 4). But Masséna, fearing perhaps
+to strain the loyalty of the Swiss to their French-made constitution
+by exposing their town to assault and sack, retired on the 5th.</p>
+
+<p>He did not fall back far, for his outposts still bordered the
+Limmat and the Linth, while his main body stood in the valley of
+the Aar between Baden and Lucerne. The archduke pressed
+Masséna as little as he had pressed Jourdan after Stokach
+(though in this case he had less to gain by pursuit), and awaited
+the arrival of a second Russian army, 30,000 strong, under
+Korsákov, before resuming the advance, meantime throwing out
+covering detachments towards Basel, where Masséna had a
+division. Thus for two months operations, elsewhere than in
+Italy, were at a standstill, while Masséna drew in reinforcements
+and organized the fractions of his forces in Alsace as a skeleton
+army, and the Austrians distributed arms to the peasantry of
+South Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In the end, under pressure from Paris, it was Masséna who
+resumed active movements. Towards the middle of August,
+Lecourbe, who formed a loose right wing of the French army in
+the Reuss valley, was reinforced to a strength of 25,000 men, and
+pounced upon the extended left wing of the enemy, which had
+stretched itself, to keep pace with Suvárov, as far westward as the
+St Gothard. The movement began on the 14th, and in two days
+the Austrians were driven back from the St Gothard and the
+Furka to the line of the Linth, with the loss of 8000 men and many
+guns. At the same time an attempt to take advantage of
+Masséna&rsquo;s momentary weakness by forcing the Aar at Döttingen
+near its mouth failed completely (August 16-17). Only 200
+men guarded the point of passage, but the Austrian engineers
+had neglected to make a proper examination of the river, and
+unlike the French, the Austrian generals had no authority to
+waste their expensive battalions in forcing the passage in boats.
+No one regarded this war as a struggle for existence, and no one
+but Suvárov possessed the iron strength of character to send
+thousands of men to death for the realization of a diplomatic
+success&mdash;for ordinary men, the object of the Coalition was to
+upset the treaty of Campo Formio. This was the end of the
+archduke&rsquo;s campaign in Switzerland. Though he would have
+preferred to continue it, the Vienna government desired him to
+return to Germany. An Anglo-Russian expedition was about to
+land in Holland,<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a> and the French were assembling fresh forces on
+the Rhine, and, with the double object of preventing an invasion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span>
+South Germany and of inducing the French to augment their
+forces in Alsace at the expense of those in Holland, the archduke
+left affairs in Switzerland to Hotze and Korsákov, and marched
+away with 35,000 men to join the detachment of Sztarray
+(20,000) that he had placed in the Black Forest before entering
+Switzerland. His new campaign never rose above the level of a
+war of posts and of man&oelig;uvres about Mannheim and Philippsburg.
+In the latter stage of it Lecourbe commanded the French
+and obtained a slight advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Suvárov&rsquo;s last exploit in Italy coincided in time, but in no other
+respect, with the skirmish at Döttingen. Returning swiftly from
+the battlefield of the Trebbia, he began to drive back Moreau to
+the Riviera. At this point Joubert succeeded to the command
+on the French side, and against the advice of his generals, gave
+battle. Equally against the advice of his own subordinates, the
+field marshal accepted it, and won his last great victory at Novi
+on the 13th of August, Joubert being killed. This was followed
+by another rapid march against a new French &ldquo;Army of the Alps&rdquo;
+(Championnet) which had entered Italy by way of the Mont
+Cenis. But immediately after this he left all further operations in
+Italy to Melas with 60,000 men and himself with the Russians and
+an Austrian corps marched away, via Varese, for the St Gothard
+to combine operations against Masséna with Hotze and Korsákov.
+It was with a heavy heart that he left the scene of his battles, in
+which the force of his personality had carried the old-fashioned
+&ldquo;linear&rdquo; armies for the last time to complete victory. In the
+early summer he had himself suggested, eagerly and almost
+angrily, the concentration of his own and the archduke&rsquo;s armies
+in Switzerland with a view, not to conquering that country, but
+to forcing Jourdan and Masséna into a grand decisive battle.
+But, as we have seen, the Vienna government would not release
+him until the last Italian fortress had been reoccupied, and
+when finally he received the order that a little while before he had
+so ardently desired, it was too late. The archduke had already
+left Switzerland, and he was committed to a resultless warfare in
+the high mountains, with an army which was a mere detachment
+<span class="sidenote">Suvárov ordered to Switzerland.</span>
+and in the hope of co-operating with two other detachments
+far away on the other side of Switzerland. As
+for the reasons which led to the issue of such an order,
+it can only be said that the bad feeling known to exist
+between the Austrians and Russians induced England to recommend,
+as the first essential of further operations, the separate
+concentration of the troops of each nationality under their own
+generals. Still stranger was the reason which induced the tsar to
+give his consent. It was alleged that the Russians would be
+healthier in Switzerland than the men of the southern plains!
+From such premises as these the Allied diplomats evolved a new
+plan of campaign, by which the Anglo-Russians under the duke of
+York were to reconquer Holland and Belgium, the Archduke
+Charles to operate on the Middle Rhine, Suvárov in Switzerland
+and Melas in Piedmont&mdash;a plan destitute of every merit but that
+of simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>It is often said that it is the duty of a commander to resign
+rather than undertake an operation which he believes to be faulty.
+So, however, Suvárov did not understand it. In the simplicity
+of his loyalty to the formal order of his sovereign he prepared to
+carry out his instructions to the letter. Masséna&rsquo;s command
+(77,000 men) was distributed, at the beginning of September,
+along an enormous S, from the Simplon, through the St Gothard
+and Glarus, and along the Linth, the Züricher See and the
+Limmat to Basel. Opposite the lower point of this S, Suvárov
+(28,000) was about to advance. Hotze&rsquo;s corps (25,000 Austrians),
+extending from Utznach by Chur to Disentis, formed a thin line
+roughly parallel to the lower curve of the S, Korsákov&rsquo;s Russians
+(30,000) were opposite the centre at Zürich, while Nauendorff
+with a small Austrian corps at Waldshut faced the extreme upper
+point. Thus the only completely safe way in which Suvárov
+could reach the Zürich region was by skirting the lower curve of
+the S, under protection of Hotze. But this detour would be
+long and painful, and the ardent old man preferred to cross the
+mountains once for all at the St Gothard, and to follow the valley
+of the Reuss to Altdorf and Schwyz&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> to strike vertically
+upward to the centre of the S&mdash;and to force his way through the
+French cordon to Zürich, and if events, so far as concerned his
+own corps, belied his optimism, they at any rate justified his
+choice of the shortest route. For, aware of the danger gathering
+in his rear, Masséna gathered up all his forces within reach
+towards his centre, leaving Lecourbe to defend the St Gothard
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Zürich.</span>
+and the Reuss valley and Soult on the Linth. On the 24th he
+forced the passage of the Limmat at Dietikon. On the
+25th, in the second battle of Zürich, he completely
+routed Korsákov, who lost 8000 killed and wounded,
+large numbers of prisoners and 100 guns. All along the line the
+Allies fell back, one corps after another, at the moment when
+Suvárov was approaching the foot of the St Gothard.</p>
+
+<p>On the 21st the field marshal&rsquo;s headquarters were at Bellinzona,
+where he made the final preparations. Expecting to be four days
+<i>en route</i> before he could reach the nearest friendly
+magazine, he took his trains with him, which inevitably
+<span class="sidenote">Suvárov in the Alps.</span>
+augmented the difficulties of the expedition. On the
+24th Airolo was taken, but when the far greater task of
+storming the pass itself presented itself before them, even the
+stolid Russians were terrified, and only the passionate protests
+of the old man, who reproached his &ldquo;children&rdquo; with deserting
+their father in his extremity, induced them to face the danger.
+At last after twelve hours&rsquo; fighting, the summit was reached.
+The same evening Suvárov pushed on to Hospenthal, while a
+flanking column from Disentis made its way towards Amsteg
+over the Crispalt. Lecourbe was threatened in rear and pressed
+in front, and his engineers, to hold off the Disentis column, had
+broken the Devil&rsquo;s Bridge. Discovering this, he left the road,
+threw his guns into the river and made his way by fords and
+water-meadows to Göschenen, where by a furious attack he
+cleared the Disentis troops off his line of retreat. His rearguard
+meantime held the ruined Devil&rsquo;s Bridge. This point and the
+tunnel leading to it, called the Urner Loch, the Russians attempted
+to force, with the most terrible losses, battalion after battalion
+crowding into the tunnel and pushing the foremost ranks into
+the chasm left by the broken bridge. But at last a ford was
+discovered and the bridge, cleared by a turning movement,
+was repaired. More broken bridges lay beyond, but at last
+Suvárov joined the Disentis column near Göschenen. When
+Altdorf was reached, however, Suvárov found not only Lecourbe
+in a threatening position, but an entire absence of boats on the
+Lake of the Four Cantons. It was impossible (in those days the
+Axenstrasse did not exist) to take an army along the precipitous
+eastern shore, and thus passing through one trial after another,
+each more severe than the last, the Russians, men and horses
+and pack animals in an interminable single file, ventured on the
+path leading over the Kinzig pass into the Muotta Thal. The
+passage lasted three days, the leading troops losing men and
+horses over the precipices, the rearguard from the fire of the
+enemy, now in pursuit. And at last, on arrival in the Muotta
+Thal, the field marshal received definite information that
+Korsákov&rsquo;s army was no longer in existence. Yet even so it was
+long before he could make up his mind to retreat, and the pursuers
+gathered on all sides. Fighting, sometimes severe, and never
+altogether ceasing, went on day after day as the Allied column,
+now reduced to 15,000 men, struggled on over one pass after
+another, but at last it reached Ilanz on the Vorder Rhine (October
+8). The Archduke Charles meanwhile had, on hearing of the
+disaster of Zürich, brought over a corps from the Neckar, and
+for some time negotiations were made for a fresh combined
+operation against Masséna. But these came to nothing, for the
+archduke and Suvárov could not agree, either as to their own relations
+or as to the plan to be pursued. Practically, Suvárov&rsquo;s
+retreat from Altdorf to Ilanz closed the campaign. It was his
+last active service, and formed a gloomy but grand climax to the
+career of the greatest soldier who ever wore the Russian uniform.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Marengo and Hohenlinden</p>
+
+<p>The disasters of 1799 sealed the fate of the Directory, and
+placed Bonaparte, who returned from Egypt with the prestige
+of a recent victory, in his natural place as civil and military
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span>
+head of France. In the course of the campaign the field strength
+of the French had been gradually augmented, and in spite of
+losses now numbered 227,000 at the front. These were divided
+into the Army of Batavia, Brune (25,000), the Army of the
+Rhine, Moreau (146,000), the Army of Italy, Masséna (56,000),
+and, in addition, there were some 100,000 in garrisons and depots
+in France.</p>
+
+<p>Most of these field armies were in a miserable condition owing
+to the losses and fatigues of the last campaign. The treasury
+was empty and credit exhausted, and worse still&mdash;for spirit and
+enthusiasm, as in 1794, would have remedied material deficiencies&mdash;the
+conscripts obtained under Jourdan&rsquo;s law of 1798
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conscription</a></span>) came to their regiments most unwillingly.
+Most of them, indeed, deserted on the way to join the colours.
+A large draft sent to the Army of Italy arrived with 310 men
+instead of 10,250, and after a few such experiences, the First
+Consul decided that the untrained men were to be assembled in
+the fortresses of the interior and afterwards sent to the active
+battalions in numerous small drafts, which they could more
+easily assimilate. Besides accomplishing the immense task of
+reorganizing existing forces, he created new ones, including
+the Consular Guard, and carried out at this moment of crisis
+two such far-reaching reforms as the replacement of the civilian
+drivers of the artillery by soldiers, and of the hired teams by
+horses belonging to the state, and the permanent grouping of
+divisions in army corps.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the 25th of January 1800 the First Consul provided
+for the assembly of all available forces in the interior in an
+&ldquo;Army of Reserve.&rdquo; He reserved to himself the
+command of this army,<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a> which gradually came into
+<span class="sidenote">The Army of Reserve.</span>
+being as the pacification of Vendée and the return of
+some of Brune&rsquo;s troops from Holland set free the necessary
+nucleus troops. The conscription law was stringently reenforced,
+and impassioned calls were made for volunteers (the
+latter, be it said, did not produce five hundred useful men).
+The district of Dijon, partly as being central with respect to the
+Rhine and Italian Armies, partly as being convenient for supply
+purposes, was selected as the zone of assembly. Chabran&rsquo;s
+division was formed from some depleted corps of the Army of
+Italy and from the depots of those in Egypt. Chambarlhac&rsquo;s,
+chiefly of young soldiers, lost 5% of its numbers on the way to
+Dijon from desertion&mdash;a loss which appeared slight and even
+satisfactory after the wholesale <i>débandade</i> of the winter months.
+Lechi&rsquo;s Italian legion was newly formed from Italian refugees.
+Boudet&rsquo;s division was originally assembled from some of the
+southern garrison towns, but the units composing it were frequently
+changed up to the beginning of May. The cavalry was
+deficient in saddles, and many of its units were new formations.
+The Consular Guard of course was a <i>corps d&rsquo;élite</i>, and this and
+two and a half infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade coming
+from the veteran &ldquo;Army of the West&rdquo; formed the real backbone
+of the army. Most of the newer units were not even
+armed till they had left Dijon for the front.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the first constitution of the Army of Reserve. We
+can scarcely imagine one which required more accurate and
+detailed staff work to assemble it&mdash;correspondence with the
+district commanders, with the adjutant-generals of the various
+armies, and orders to the civil authorities on the lines of march,
+to the troops themselves and to the arsenals and magazines.
+No one but Napoleon, even aided by a Berthier, could have
+achieved so great a task in six weeks, and the great captain,
+himself doing the work that nowadays is apportioned amongst
+a crowd of administrative staff officers, still found time to
+administer France&rsquo;s affairs at home and abroad, and to think
+out a general plan of campaign that embraced Moreau&rsquo;s, Masséna&rsquo;s
+and his own armies.</p>
+
+<p>The Army of the Rhine, by far the strongest and best equipped,
+lay on the upper Rhine. The small and worn-out Army of Italy
+was watching the Alps and the Apennines from Mont Blanc to
+Genoa. Between them Switzerland, secured by the victory of
+Zürich, offered a starting-point for a turning movement on
+either side&mdash;this year the advantage of the flank position was
+recognized and acted upon. The Army of Reserve was assembling
+around Dijon, within 200 m. of either theatre of war. The
+general plan was that the Army of Reserve should march through
+Switzerland to close on the right wing of the Army of the Rhine.
+Thus supported to whatever degree might prove to be necessary,
+Moreau was to force the passage of the Rhine about Schaffhausen,
+to push back the Austrians rapidly beyond the Lech, and then,
+if they took the offensive in turn, to hold them in check for
+ten or twelve days. During this period of guaranteed freedom
+the decisive movement was to be made. The Army of Reserve,
+augmented by one large corps of the Army of the Rhine, was to
+descend by the Splügen (alternatively by the St Gothard and
+even by Tirol) into the plains of Lombardy. Magazines were
+to be established at Zürich and Lucerne (not at Chur, lest the
+plan should become obvious from the beginning), and all likely
+routes reconnoitred in advance. The Army of Italy was at first
+to maintain a strict defensive, then to occupy the Austrians
+until the entry of the Reserve Army into Italy was assured, and
+finally to man&oelig;uvre to join it.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:518px; height:634px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img198.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Moreau, however, owing to want of horses for his pontoon
+train and also because of the character of the Rhine above
+Basel, preferred to cross below that place, especially as in Alsace
+there were considerably greater supply facilities than in a country
+which had already been fought over and stripped bare. With
+the greatest reluctance Bonaparte let him have his way, and
+giving up the idea of using the Splügen and the St Gothard, began
+to turn his attention to the more westerly passes, the St Bernard
+and the Simplon. It was not merely Moreau&rsquo;s scruples that led
+to this essential modification in the scheme. At the beginning
+of April the enemy took the offensive against Masséna. On the
+8th Melas&rsquo;s right wing dislodged the French from the Mont
+Cenis, and most of the troops that had then reached Dijon were
+shifted southward to be ready for emergencies. By the 25th
+Berthier reported that Masséna was seriously attacked and that
+he might have to be supported by the shortest route. Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+resolution was already taken. He waited no longer for Moreau
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span>
+(who indeed so far from volunteering assistance, actually demanded
+it for himself). Convinced from the paucity of news that Masséna&rsquo;s
+army was closely pressed and probably severed from France,
+and feeling also that the Austrians were deeply committed
+to their struggle with the Army of Italy, he told Berthier to
+march with 40,000 men at once by way of the St Bernard unless
+otherwise advised. Berthier protested that he had only 25,000
+effectives, and the equipment and armament was still far from
+complete&mdash;as indeed it remained to the end&mdash;but the troops
+marched, though their very means of existence were precarious
+from the time of leaving Geneva to the time of reaching Milan,
+for nothing could extort supplies and money from the sullen
+Swiss.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of May the First Consul learned of the
+serious plight of the Army of Italy. Masséna with his right
+wing was shut up in Genoa, Suchet with the left wing
+driven back to the Var. Meanwhile Moreau had won
+<span class="sidenote">Napoleon&rsquo;s plan of campaign.</span>
+a preliminary victory at Stokach, and the Army of
+Reserve had begun its movement to Geneva. With
+these data the plan of campaign took a clear shape at last&mdash;Masséna
+to resist as long as possible; Suchet to resume the
+offensive, if he could do so, towards Turin; the Army of Reserve
+to pass the Alps and to debouch into Piedmont by Aosta; the
+Army of the Rhine to send a strong force into Italy by the St
+Gothard. The First Consul left Paris on the 6th of May.
+Berthier went forward to Geneva, and still farther on the route
+magazines were established at Villeneuve and St-Pierre.
+Gradually, and with immense efforts, the leading troops of the
+long column<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a> were passed over the St Bernard, drawing their
+artillery on sledges, on the 15th and succeeding days. Driving
+away small posts of the Austrian army, the advance guard
+entered Aosta on the 16th and Châtillon on the 18th and the
+alarm was given. Melas, committed as he was to his Riviera
+campaign, began to look to his right rear, but he was far from
+suspecting the seriousness of his opponent&rsquo;s purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Infinitely more dangerous for the French than the small
+detachment that Melas opposed to them, or even the actual
+crossing of the pass, was the unexpected stopping
+power of the little fort of Bard. The advanced guard
+<span class="sidenote">Bard.</span>
+of the French appeared before it on the 19th, and after three
+wasted days the infantry managed to find a difficult mountain
+by-way and to pass round the obstacle. Ivrea was occupied
+on the 23rd, and Napoleon hoped to assemble the whole army
+there by the 27th. But except for a few guns that with infinite
+precautions were smuggled one by one through the streets of
+Bard, the whole of the artillery, as well as a detachment (under
+Chabran) to besiege the fort, had to be left behind. Bard surrendered
+on the 2nd of June, having delayed the infantry of
+the French army for four days and the artillery for a fortnight.</p>
+
+<p>The military situation in the last week of May, as it presented
+itself to the First Consul at Ivrea, was this. The Army of Italy
+under Masséna was closely besieged in Genoa, where provisions
+were running short, and the population so hostile that the French
+general placed his field artillery to sweep the streets. But
+Masséna was no ordinary general, and the First Consul knew
+that while Masséna lived the garrison would resist to the last
+extremity. Suchet was defending Nice and the Var by vigorous
+minor operations. The Army of Reserve, the centre of which
+had reached at Ivrea the edge of the Italian plains, consisted
+of four weak army corps under Victor, Duhesme, Lannes and
+Murat. There were still to be added to this small army of 34,000
+effectives, Turreau&rsquo;s division, which had passed over the Mont
+Cenis and was now in the valley of the Dora Riparia, Moncey&rsquo;s
+corps of the Army of the Rhine, which had at last been extorted
+from Moreau and was due to pass the St Gothard before the end
+of May, Chabran&rsquo;s division left to besiege Bard, and a small
+force under Béthencourt, which was to cross the Simplon and
+to descend by Arona (this place proved in the event a second
+Bard and immobilized Béthencourt until after the decisive
+battle). Thus it was only the simplest part of Napoleon&rsquo;s task
+to concentrate half of his army at Ivrea, and he had yet to bring
+in the rest. The problem was to reconcile the necessity for time,
+which he wanted to ensure the maximum force being brought
+over the Alps, with the necessity for haste, in view of the impending
+fall of Genoa and the probability that once this conquest
+was achieved, Melas would bring back his 100,000 men into the
+Milanese to deal with the Army of Reserve. As early as the 14th
+of May he had informed Moncey that from Ivrea the Army of
+Reserve would move on Milan. On the 25th of May, in response
+to Berthier&rsquo;s request for guidance, the First Consul ordered
+Lannes (advanced guard) to push out on the Turin road, &ldquo;in
+order to deceive the enemy and to obtain news of Turreau,&rdquo;
+and Duhesme&rsquo;s and Murat&rsquo;s corps to proceed along the Milan
+road. On the 27th, after Lannes had on the 26th defeated an
+Austrian column near Chivasso, the main body was already
+advancing on Vercelli.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Very few of Napoleon&rsquo;s acts of generalship have been more
+criticized than this resolution to march on Milan, which abandoned
+Genoa to its fate and gave Melas a week&rsquo;s leisure to
+assemble his scattered forces. The account of his motives
+<span class="sidenote">The march to Milan.</span>
+he dictated at St Helena (<i>Nap. Correspondence</i>, v. 30,
+pp. 375-377), in itself an unconvincing appeal to the rules of strategy
+as laid down by the theorists&mdash;which rules his own practice throughout
+transcended&mdash;gives, when closely examined, some at least of the
+necessary clues. He says in effect that by advancing directly on
+Turin he would have &ldquo;risked a battle against equal forces without
+an assured line of retreat, Bard being still uncaptured.&rdquo; It is indeed
+strange to find Napoleon shrinking before <i>equal</i> forces of the enemy,
+even if we admit without comment that it was more difficult to pass
+Bard the second time than the first. The only incentive to go
+towards Turin was the chance of partial victories over the disconnected
+Austrian corps that would be met in that direction, and this he
+deliberately set aside. Having done so, for reasons that will appear
+in the sequel, he could only defend it by saying in effect that he might
+have been defeated&mdash;which was true, but not the Napoleonic principle
+of war. Of the alternatives, one was to hasten to Genoa; this in
+Napoleon&rsquo;s eyes would have been playing the enemy&rsquo;s game, for they
+would have concentrated at Alessandria, facing west &ldquo;in their
+natural position.&rdquo; It is equally obvious that thus the enemy would
+have played <i>his</i> game, supposing that this was to relieve Genoa, and
+the implication is that it was not. The third course, which Napoleon
+took, and in this memorandum defended, gave his army the enemy&rsquo;s
+depots at Milan, of which it unquestionably stood in sore need, and
+the reinforcement of Moncey&rsquo;s 15,000 men from the Rhine, while at
+the same time Moncey&rsquo;s route offered an &ldquo;assured line of retreat&rdquo;
+by the Simplon<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a> and the St Gothard. He would in fact make for
+himself there a &ldquo;natural position&rdquo; without forfeiting the advantage
+of being in Melas&rsquo;s rear. Once possessed of Milan, Napoleon says,
+he could have engaged Melas with a light heart and with confidence
+in the greatest possible results of a victory, whether the Austrians
+sought to force their way back to the east by the right or the left
+bank of the Po, and he adds that if the French passed on and concentrated
+south of the Po there would be no danger to the Milan-St
+Gothard line of retreat, as this was secured by the rivers Ticino
+and Sesia. In this last, as we shall see, he is shielding an undeniable
+mistake, but considering for the moment only the movement to
+Milan, we are justified in assuming that his object was not the relief
+of Genoa, but the most thorough defeat of Melas&rsquo;s field army, to
+which end, putting all sentiment aside, he treated the hard-pressed
+Masséna as a &ldquo;containing force&rdquo; to keep Melas occupied during the
+strategical deployment of the Army of Reserve. In the beginning
+he had told Masséna that he would &ldquo;disengage&rdquo; him, even if he
+had to go as far east as Trent to find a way into Italy. From the
+first, then, no direct relief was intended, and when, on hearing bad
+news from the Riviera, he altered his route to the more westerly
+passes, it was probably because he felt that Masséna&rsquo;s containing
+power was almost exhausted, and that the passage and reassembly
+of the Reserve Army must be brought about in the minimum time
+and by the shortest way. But the object was still the defeat of
+Melas, and for this, as the Austrians possessed an enormous numerical
+superiority, the assembly of all forces, including Moncey&rsquo;s, was
+indispensable. One essential condition of this was that the points
+of passage used should be out of reach of the enemy. The more
+westerly the passes chosen, the more dangerous was the whole
+operation&mdash;in fact the Mont Cenis column never reached him at all&mdash;and
+though his expressed objections to the St Bernard line seem,
+as we have said, to be written after the event, to disarm his critics,
+there is no doubt that at the time he disliked it. It was a <i>pis aller</i>
+forced upon him by Moreau&rsquo;s delay and Masséna&rsquo;s extremity, and
+from the moment at which he arrived at Milan he did, as a fact,
+abandon it altogether in favour of the St Gothard. Lastly, so strongly
+was he impressed with the necessity of completing the deployment
+of all his forces, that though he found the Austrians on the Turin
+side much scattered and could justifiably expect a series of rapid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span>
+partial victories, Napoleon let them go, and devoted his whole
+energy to creating for himself a &ldquo;natural&rdquo; position about Milan.
+If he sinned, at any rate he sinned handsomely, and except that he
+went to Milan by Vercelli instead of by Lausanne and Domodossola<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
+(on the safe side of the mountains), his march is logistically beyond
+cavil.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Napoleon&rsquo;s immediate purpose, then, was to reassemble the
+Army of Reserve in a zone of man&oelig;uvre about Milan. This
+was carried out in the first days of June. Lannes at Chivasso
+stood ready to ward off a flank attack until the main army had
+filed past on the Vercelli road, then leaving a small force to combine
+with Turreau (whose column had not been able to advance
+into the plain) in demonstrations towards Turin, he moved off,
+still acting as right flank guard to the army, in the direction of
+Pavia. The main body meanwhile, headed by Murat, advanced
+on Milan by way of Vercelli and Magenta, forcing the passage of
+the Ticino on the 31st of May at Turbigo and Buffalora. On the
+same day the other divisions closed up to the Ticino,<a name="fa19a" id="fa19a" href="#ft19a"><span class="sp">19</span></a> and faithful
+to his principles Napoleon had an examination made of the
+little fortress of Novara, intending to occupy it as a <i>place du
+moment</i> to help in securing his zone of man&oelig;uvre. On the morning
+of the 2nd of June Murat occupied Milan, and in the evening
+of the same day the headquarters entered the great city, the
+Austrian detachment under Vukassovich (the flying right wing
+of Melas&rsquo;s general cordon system in Piedmont) retiring to the
+Adda. Duhesme&rsquo;s corps forced that river at Lodi, and pressed
+on with orders to organize Crema and if possible Orzinovi as
+temporary fortresses. Lechi&rsquo;s Italians were sent towards
+Bergamo and Brescia. Lannes meantime had passed Vercelli,
+and on the evening of the 2nd his cavalry reached Pavia, where,
+as at Milan, immense stores of food, equipment and warlike
+stores were seized.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon was now safe in his &ldquo;natural&rdquo; position, and barred
+one of the two main lines of retreat open to the Austrians. But
+his ambitions went further, and he intended to cross the Po and to
+establish himself on the other likewise, thus establishing across
+the plain a complete barrage between Melas and Mantua. Here
+his end outranged his means, as we shall see. But he gave himself
+every chance that rapidity could afford him, and the moment that
+some sort of a &ldquo;zone of man&oelig;uvre&rdquo; had been secured between
+the Ticino and the Oglio, he pushed on his main body&mdash;or rather
+what was left after the protective system had been provided for&mdash;to
+the Po. He would not wait even for his guns, which had at
+last emerged from the Bard defile and were ordered to come to
+Milan by a safe and circuitous route along the foot of the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>At this point the action of the enemy began to make itself
+felt. Melas had not gained the successes that he had expected
+in Piedmont and on the Riviera, thanks to Masséna&rsquo;s
+obstinacy and to Suchet&rsquo;s brilliant defence of the Var.
+<span class="sidenote">Melas&rsquo;s movements.</span>
+These operations had led him very far afield, and the
+protection of his over-long line of communications had
+caused him to weaken his large army by throwing off many
+detachments to watch the Alpine valleys on his right rear.
+One of these successfully opposed Turreau in the valley of the
+Dora Riparia, but another had been severely handled by Lannes
+at Chivasso, and a third (Vukassovich) found itself, as we know,
+directly in the path of the French as they moved from Ivrea to
+Milan, and was driven far to the eastward. He was further
+handicapped by the necessity of supporting Ott before Genoa
+and Elsnitz on the Var, and hearing of Lannes&rsquo;s bold advance on
+Chivasso and of the presence of a French column with artillery
+(Turreau) west of Turin, he assumed that the latter represented
+the main body of the Army of Reserve&mdash;in so far indeed as he
+believed in the existence of that army at all.<a name="fa20a" id="fa20a" href="#ft20a"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Next, when
+Lannes moved away towards Pavia, Melas thought for a moment
+that fate had delivered his enemy into his hands, and began to
+collect such troops as were at hand at Turin with a view to cutting
+off the retreat of the French on Ivrea while Vukassovich held
+them in front. It was only when news came of Moncey&rsquo;s arrival
+in Italy and of Vukassovich&rsquo;s fighting retreat on Brescia that the
+magnitude and purpose of the French column that had penetrated
+by Ivrea became evident. Melas promptly decided to give up
+his western enterprises, and to concentrate at Alessandria,
+preparatory to breaking his way through the network of small
+columns&mdash;as the disseminated Army of Reserve still appeared
+to be&mdash;which threatened to bar his retreat. But orders circulated
+so slowly that he had to wait in Turin till the 8th of June for
+Elsnitz, whose retreat was, moreover, sharply followed up and
+made exceedingly costly by the enterprising Suchet. Ott, too,
+in spite of orders to give up the siege of Genoa at once and to
+march with all speed to hold the Alessandria-Piacenza road,
+waited two days to secure the prize, and agreed (June 4) to allow
+Masséna&rsquo;s army to go free and to join Suchet. And lastly, the
+cavalry of O&rsquo;Reilly, sent on ahead from Alessandria to the
+Stradella defile, reached that point only to encounter the French.
+The barrage was complete, and it remained for Melas to break
+it with the mass that he was assembling, with all these misfortunes
+and delays, about Alessandria. His chances of doing so were
+anything but desperate.</p>
+
+<p>On the 5th of June Murat, with his own corps and part of
+Duhesme&rsquo;s, had moved on Piacenza, and stormed the bridge-head
+there. Duhesme with one of his divisions pushed out on Crema
+and Orzinovi and also towards Pizzighetone. Moncey&rsquo;s leading
+regiments approached Milan, and Berthier thereupon sent on
+Victor&rsquo;s corps to support Murat and Lannes. Meantime the half
+abandoned line of operations, Ivrea-Vercelli, was briskly attacked
+by the Austrians, who had still detachments on the side of Turin,
+waiting for Elsnitz to rejoin, and the French artillery train was
+once more checked. On the 6th Lannes from Pavia, crossing the
+Po at San Cipriano, encountered and defeated a large force,
+(O&rsquo;Reilly&rsquo;s column), and barred the Alessandria-Parma main
+road. Opposite Piacenza Murat had to spend the day in gathering
+material for his passage, as the pontoon bridge had been cut
+by the retreating garrison of the bridge-head. On the eastern
+border of the &ldquo;zone of man&oelig;uvre&rdquo; Duhesme&rsquo;s various columns
+moved out towards Brescia and Cremona, pushing back Vukassovich.
+Meantime the last divisions of the Army of Reserve (two
+of Moncey&rsquo;s excepted) were hurried towards Lannes&rsquo;s point of
+passage, as Murat had not yet secured Piacenza. On the 7th,
+while Duhesme continued to push back Vukassovich and seized
+Cremona, Murat at last captured Piacenza, finding there immense
+magazines. Meantime the army, division by division, passed
+over, slowly owing to a sudden flood, near Belgiojoso, and
+Lannes&rsquo;s advanced guard was ordered to open communication
+with Murat along the main road Stradella-Piacenza. &ldquo;Moments
+are precious&rdquo; said the First Consul. He was aware that Elsnitz
+was retreating before Suchet, that Melas had left Turin for
+Alessandria, and that heavy forces of the enemy were at or east
+of Tortona. He knew, too, that Murat had been engaged with
+certain regiments recently before Genoa and (wrongly) assumed
+O&rsquo;Reilly&rsquo;s column, beaten by Lannes at San Cipriano, to have
+come from the same quarter. Whether this meant the deliverance
+or the surrender of Genoa he did not yet know, but it was certain
+that Masséna&rsquo;s holding action was over, and that Melas was
+gathering up his forces to recover his communications. Hence
+Napoleon&rsquo;s great object was concentration. &ldquo;Twenty thousand
+men at Stradella,&rdquo; in his own words, was the goal of his efforts,
+and with the accomplishment of this purpose the campaign enters
+on a new phase.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of June, Lannes&rsquo;s corps was across, Victor following
+as quickly as the flood would allow. Murat was at Piacenza,
+but the road between Lannes and Murat was not known to
+be clear, and the First Consul made the establishment of the
+<span class="sidenote">Napoleon&rsquo;s dispositions.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span>
+connexion, and the construction of a third point of passage midway
+between the other two, the principal objects of the day&rsquo;s
+work. The army now being disseminated between the
+Alps, the Apennines, the Ticino and the Chiese, it
+was of vital importance to connect up the various
+parts into a well-balanced system. But the Napoleon
+of 1800 solved the problem that lay at the root of his
+strategy, &ldquo;concentrate, but be vulnerable nowhere,&rdquo; in a way
+that compares unfavourably indeed with the methods of the
+Napoleon of 1806. Duhesme was still absent at Cremona.
+Lechi was far away in the Brescia country, Béthencourt detained
+at Arona. Moncey with about 15,000 men had to cover
+an area of 40 m. square around Milan, which constituted the
+original zone of man&oelig;uvre, and if Melas chose to break through
+the flimsy cordon of outposts on this side (the risk of which was
+the motive for detaching Moncey at all) instead of at the Stradella,
+it would take Moncey two days to concentrate his force on any
+battlefield within the area named, and even then he would be
+outnumbered by two to one. As for the main body at the
+Stradella, its position was wisely chosen, for the ground was too
+cramped for the deployment of the superior force that Melas
+might bring up, but the strategy that set before itself as an
+object 20,000 men at the decisive point out of 50,000 available,
+is, to say the least, imperfect. The most serious feature in all this
+was the injudicious order to Lannes to send forward his advanced
+guard, and to attack whatever enemy he met with on the road to
+Voghera. The First Consul, in fact, calculated that Melas could
+not assemble 20,000 men at Alessandria before the 12th of
+June, and he told Lannes that if he met the Austrians towards
+Voghera, they could not be more than 10,000 strong. A later
+order betrays some anxiety as to the exactitude of these assumptions,
+warns Lannes not to let himself be surprised, indicates his
+line of retreat, and, instead of ordering him to advance on Voghera,
+authorizes him to attack any corps that presented itself at
+Stradella. But all this came too late. Acting on the earlier
+order Lannes fought the battle of Montebello on the 9th. This
+<span class="sidenote">Montebello.</span>
+was a very severe running fight, beginning east of
+Casteggio and ending at Montebello, in which the
+French drove the Austrians from several successive
+positions, and which culminated in a savage fight at close
+quarters about Montebello itself. The singular feature of the
+battle is the disproportion between the losses on either side&mdash;French,
+500 out of 12,000 engaged; Austrians, 2100 killed
+and wounded and 2100 prisoners out of 14,000. These figures
+are most conclusive evidence of the intensity of the French
+military spirit in those days. One of the two divisions (Watrin&rsquo;s)
+was indeed a veteran organization, but the other, Chambarlhac&rsquo;s,
+was formed of young troops and was the same that, in the march
+to Dijon, had congratulated itself that only 5% of its men had
+deserted. On the other side the soldiers fought for &ldquo;the honour of
+their arms&rdquo;&mdash;not even with the courage of despair, for they were
+ignorant of the &ldquo;strategic barrage&rdquo; set in front of them by
+Napoleon, and the loss of their communications had not as yet
+lessened their daily rations by an ounce.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Napoleon had issued orders for the main body to
+stand fast, and for the detachments to take up their definitive
+covering positions. Duhesme&rsquo;s corps was directed, from its
+eastern foray, to Piacenza, to join the main body. Moncey was
+to provide for the defence of the Ticino line, Lechi to
+form a &ldquo;flying camp&rdquo; in the region of Orzinovi-Brescia and
+Cremona, and another mixed brigade was to control the Austrians
+in Pizzighetone and in the citadel of Piacenza. On the other
+side of the Po, between Piacenza and Montebello, was the main
+body (Lannes, Murat and part of Victor&rsquo;s and Duhesme&rsquo;s corps),
+and a flank guard was stationed near Pavia, with orders to keep
+on the right of the army as it advanced (this is the first and only
+hint of any intention to go westward) and to fall back fighting
+should Melas come on by the left bank. One division was to be
+always a day&rsquo;s march behind the army on the right bank, and
+a flotilla was to ascend the Po, to facilitate the speedy reinforcement
+of the flank guard. Farther to the north was a small
+column on the road Milan-Vercelli. All the protective troops,
+except the division of the main body detailed as an eventual
+support for the flank guard, was to be found by Moncey&rsquo;s corps
+(which had besides to watch the Austrians in the citadel of Milan)
+and Chabran&rsquo;s and Lechi&rsquo;s weak commands. On this same day
+Bonaparte tells the Minister of War, Carnot, that Moncey has
+only brought half the expected reinforcements and that half of
+these are unreliable. As to the result of the impending contest
+Napoleon counts greatly upon the union of 18,000 men under
+Masséna and Suchet to crush Melas against the &ldquo;strategic
+barrage&rdquo; of the Army of Reserve, by one or other bank of the
+Po, and he seems equally confident of the result in either case.
+If Genoa had held out three days more, he says, it would have
+been easy to count the number of Melas&rsquo;s men who escaped.
+The exact significance of this last notion is difficult to establish,
+and all that could be written about it would be merely conjectural.
+But it is interesting to note that, without admitting it, Napoleon
+felt that his &ldquo;barrage&rdquo; might not stand before the flood. The
+details of the orders of the 9th to the main body (written before
+the news of Montebello arrived at headquarters) tend to the
+closest possible concentration of the main body towards
+Casteggio, in view of a decisive battle on the 12th or 13th.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:497px; height:443px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img201.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">But another idea had begun to form itself in his mind. Still
+believing that Melas would attack him on the Stradella side,
+and hastening his preparations to meet this, he began to allow
+for the contingency of Melas giving up or failing in his
+<span class="sidenote">Napoleon&rsquo;s advance.</span>
+attempt to re-establish his communication with the
+Mantovese, and retiring on Genoa, which was now
+in his hands and could be provisioned and reinforced by sea.
+On the 10th Napoleon ordered reserve ammunition to be sent
+from Pavia, giving Serravalle, which is south of Novi, as its
+probable destination. But this was surmise, and of the facts
+he knew nothing. Would the enemy move east on the Stradella,
+north-east on the Ticino or south on Genoa? Such reports as
+were available indicated no important movements whatever,
+which happened to be true, but could hardly appear so to the
+French headquarters. On the 11th, though he thereby forfeited
+the reinforcements coming up from Duhesme&rsquo;s corps at Cremona,
+Napoleon ordered the main body to advance to the Scrivia.
+Lapoype&rsquo;s division (the right flank guard), which was observing
+the Austrian posts towards Casale, was called to the south bank
+of the Po, the zone around Milan was stripped so bare of troops
+that there was no escort for the prisoners taken at Montebello,
+while information sent by Chabran (now moving up from Ivrea)
+as to the construction of bridges at Casale (this was a feint made
+by Melas on the 10th) passed unheeded. The crisis was at hand,
+and, clutching at the reports collected by Lapoype as to the
+quietude of the Austrians toward Valenza and Casale, Bonaparte
+and Berthier strained every nerve to bring up more men to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span>
+Voghera side in the hope of preventing the prey from slipping
+away to Genoa.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th, consequently, the army (the <i>ordre de bataille</i> of
+which had been considerably modified on the 11th) moved to
+the Scrivia, Lannes halting at Castelnuovo, Desaix (who had
+just joined the army from Egypt) at Pontecurone, Victor at
+Tortona with Murat&rsquo;s cavalry in front towards Alessandria.
+Lapoype&rsquo;s division, from the left bank of the Po, was marching in
+all haste to join Desaix. Moncey, Duhesme, Lechi and Chabran
+were absent. The latter represented almost exactly half of
+Berthier&rsquo;s command (30,000 out of 58,000), and even the concentration
+of 28,000 men on the Scrivia had only been obtained
+by practically giving up the &ldquo;barrage&rdquo; on the left bank of the
+Po. Even now the enemy showed nothing but a rearguard,
+and the old questions reappeared in a new and acute form.
+Was Melas still in Alessandria? Was he marching on Valenza
+and Casale to cross the Po? or to Acqui against Suchet, or to
+Genoa to base himself on the British fleet? As to the first,
+why had he given up his chances of fighting on one of the few
+cavalry battlegrounds in north Italy&mdash;the plain of Marengo&mdash;since
+he could not stay in Alessandria for any indefinite time?
+The second question had been answered in the negative by
+Lapoype, but his latest information was thirty-six hours old.
+As for the other questions, no answer whatever was forthcoming,
+and the only course open was to postpone decisive measures
+and to send forward the cavalry, supported by infantry, to gain
+information.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th, therefore, Murat, Lannes and Victor advanced
+into the plain of Marengo, traversed it without difficulty and
+carrying the villages held by the Austrian rearguard,
+established themselves for the night within a mile of
+<span class="sidenote">Marengo.</span>
+the fortress. But meanwhile Napoleon, informed we may suppose
+of their progress, had taken a step that was fraught with the
+gravest consequences. He had, as we know, no intention of
+forcing on a decision until his reconnaissance produced the
+information on which to base it, and he had therefore kept back
+three divisions under Desaix at Pontecurone. But as the day
+wore on without incident, he began to fear that the reconnaissance
+would be profitless, and unwilling to give Melas any further
+start, he sent out these divisions right and left to find and to
+hold the enemy, whichever way the latter had gone. At noon
+Desaix with one division was despatched southward to Rivalta
+to head off Melas from Genoa and at 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 14th,<a name="fa21a" id="fa21a" href="#ft21a"><span class="sp">21</span></a> Lapoype
+was sent back over the Po to hold the Austrians should they
+be advancing from Valenza towards the Ticino. Thus there
+remained in hand only 21,000 men when at last, in the forenoon
+of the 14th the whole of Melas&rsquo;s army, more than 40,000 strong,
+moved out of Alessandria, not southward nor northward, but
+due west into the plain of Marengo (<i>q.v.</i>). The extraordinary
+battle that followed is described elsewhere. The outline of
+it is simple enough. The Austrians advanced slowly and in the
+face of the most resolute opposition, until their attack had
+gathered weight, and at last they were carrying all before them,
+when Desaix returned from beyond Rivalta and initiated a
+series of counterstrokes. These were brilliantly successful,
+and gave the French not only local victory but the supreme
+self-confidence that, next day, enabled them to extort from
+Melas an agreement to evacuate all Lombardy as far as the
+Mincio. And though in this way the chief prize, Melas&rsquo;s army,
+escaped after all, Marengo was the birthday of the First
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>One more blow, however, was required before the Second
+Coalition collapsed, and it was delivered by Moreau. We have
+seen that he had crossed the upper Rhine and defeated Kray
+at Stokach. This was followed by other partial victories, and
+Kray then retired to Ulm, where he reassembled his forces,
+hitherto scattered in a long weak line from the Neckar to Schaffhausen.
+Moreau continued his advance, extending his forces
+up to and over the Danube below Ulm, and winning several
+combats, of which the most important was that of Höchstädt,
+fought on the famous battlegrounds of 1703 and 1704, and
+memorable for the death of La Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne, the &ldquo;First
+Grenadier of France&rdquo; (June 19). Finding himself in danger of
+envelopment, Kray now retired, swiftly and skilfully, across the
+front of the advancing French, and reached Ingolstadt in safety.
+Thence he retreated over the Inn, Moreau following him to the
+edge of that river, and an armistice put an end for the moment
+to further operations.</p>
+
+<p>This not resulting in a treaty of peace, the war was resumed
+both in Italy and in Germany. The Army of Reserve and the
+Army of Italy, after being fused into one, under Masséna&rsquo;s
+command, were divided again into a fighting army under Brune,
+who opposed the Austrians (Bellegarde) on the Mincio, and a
+political army under Murat, which re-established French influence
+in the Peninsula. The former, extending on a wide front as
+usual, won a few strategical successes without tactical victory,
+the only incidents of which worth recording are the gallant
+fight of Dupont&rsquo;s division, which had become isolated during a
+man&oelig;uvre, at Pozzolo on the Mincio (December 25) and the
+descent of a corps under Macdonald from the Grisons by way of
+the Splügen, an achievement far surpassing Napoleon&rsquo;s and
+even Suvárov&rsquo;s exploits, in that it was made after the winter
+snows had set in.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the war for a moment reached the sublime.
+Kray had been displaced in command by the young archduke
+John, who ordered the denunciation of the armistice
+and a general advance. His plan, or that of his
+<span class="sidenote">Hohenlinden.</span>
+advisers, was to cross the lower Inn, out of reach of
+Moreau&rsquo;s principal mass, and then to swing round the French
+flank until a complete chain was drawn across their rear. But
+during the development of the man&oelig;uvre, Moreau also moved,
+and by rapid marching made good the time he had lost in concentrating
+his over-dispersed forces. The weather was appalling,
+snow and rain succeeding one another until the roads were
+almost impassable. On the 2nd of December the Austrians
+were brought to a standstill, but the inherent mobility of the
+Revolutionary armies enabled them to surmount all difficulties,
+and thanks to the respite afforded him by the archduke&rsquo;s halt,
+Moreau was able to see clearly into the enemy&rsquo;s plans and
+dispositions. On the 3rd of December, while the Austrians in
+many disconnected columns were struggling through the dark
+and muddy forest paths about Hohenlinden, Moreau struck
+the decisive blow. While Ney and Grouchy held fast the head
+of the Austrian main column at Hohenlinden, Richepanse&rsquo;s
+corps was directed on its left flank. In the forest Richepanse
+unexpectedly met a subsidiary Austrian column which actually
+cut his column in two. But profiting by the momentary confusion
+he drew off that part of his forces which had passed
+beyond the point of contact and continued his march, striking
+the flank of the archduke&rsquo;s main column, most of which had not
+succeeded in deploying opposite Ney, at the village of Mattempost.
+First the baggage train and then the artillery park fell into his
+hands, and lastly he reached the rear of the troops engaged
+opposite Hohenlinden, whereupon the Austrian main body
+practically dissolved. The rear of Richepanse&rsquo;s corps, after
+disengaging itself from the Austrian column it had met in the
+earlier part of the day, arrived at Mattempost in time to head off
+thousands of fugitives who had escaped from the carnage at
+Hohenlinden. The other columns of the unfortunate army
+were first checked and then driven back by the French divisions
+they met, which, moving more swiftly and fighting better in the
+broken ground and the woods, were able to combine two brigades
+against one wherever a fight developed. On this disastrous
+day the Austrians lost 20,000 men, 12,000 of them being prisoners,
+and 90 guns.</p>
+
+<p>Marengo and Hohenlinden decided the war of the Second
+Coalition as Rivoli had decided that of the First, and the Revolutionary
+Wars came to an end with the armistice of Steyer
+(December 25, 1800) and the treaty of Lunéville (February 9,
+1801). But only the first act of the great drama was accomplished.
+After a short respite Europe entered upon the
+Napoleonic Wars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;By far the most important modern works are
+A. Chuquet&rsquo;s <i>Guerres de la Révolution</i> (11 monographs forming together
+a complete history of the campaigns of 1792-93), and the
+publications of the French General Staff. The latter appear first,
+as a rule, in the official &ldquo;Revue d&rsquo;histoire&rdquo; and are then republished
+in separate volumes, of which every year adds to the number. V.
+Dupuis&rsquo; <i>L&rsquo;Armée du nord 1793</i>; Coutanceau&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Armée du nord
+1794</i>; J. Colin&rsquo;s <i>Éducation militaire de Napoléon</i> and <i>Campagne de
+1793 en Alsace</i>; and C. de Cugnac&rsquo;s <i>Campagne de l&rsquo;armée de réserve
+1800</i> may be specially named. Among other works of importance
+the principal are C. von B(inder)-K(rieglstein), <i>Geist und Stoff im
+Kriege</i> (Vienna, 1896); E. Gachot&rsquo;s works on Masséna&rsquo;s career
+(containing invaluable evidence though written in a somewhat
+rhetorical style); Ritter von Angeli, <i>Erzherzog Karl</i> (Vienna, 1896);
+F. N. Maude, <i>Evolution of Modern Strategy</i>; G. A. Furse, <i>Marengo
+and Hohenlinden</i>; C. von Clausewitz, <i>Feldzug 1796 in Italien</i> and
+<i>Feldzug 1799</i> (French translations); H. Bonnal, <i>De Rosbach à Ulm</i>;
+Krebs and Moris, <i>Campagnes dans les Alpes</i> (Paris, 1891-1895);
+Yorck von Wartenburg, <i>Napoleon als Feldherr</i> (English and French
+translations); F. Bouvier, <i>Bonaparte en Italie 1796</i>; Kuhl, <i>Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+erster Feldzug</i>; J. W. Fortescue, <i>Hist. of the British Army</i>,
+vol. iv.; G. D. v. Scharnhorst, <i>Ursache des Glücks der Franzosen
+1793-1794</i> (reprinted in A. Weiss&rsquo;s <i>Short German Military Readings</i>,
+London, 1892); E. D&rsquo;Hauterive, <i>L&rsquo;Armée sous la Révolution</i>;
+C. Rousset, <i>Les Volontaires</i>; Max Jähns, <i>Das französische Heer</i>;
+Shadwell, <i>Mountain Warfare</i>; works of Colonel Camon (<i>Guerre
+Napoléonienne</i>, &amp;c.); Austrian War Office, Krieg gegen die franz.
+Revolution 1792-1797 (Vienna, 1905); Archduke Charles, <i>Grundsätze
+der Strategie</i> (1796 campaign in Germany), and <i>Gesch. des Feldzuges
+1799 in Deutschl. und der Schweiz</i>; v. Zeissberg, <i>Erzherzog Karl</i>;
+the old history called <i>Victoires et conquêtes des Français</i> (27 volumes,
+Paris, 1817-1825); M. Hartmann, <i>Anteil der Russen am Feldzug
+1799 in der Schweiz</i> (Zürich, 1892); Danélewski-Miliutin, <i>Der
+Krieg Russlands gegen Frankreich unter Paul I.</i> (Munich, 1858);
+German General Staff, &ldquo;Napoleons Feldzug 1796-1797&rdquo; (Suppl.
+<i>Mil. Wochenblatt</i>, 1889), and <i>Pirmasens und Kaiserslautern</i> (&ldquo;Kriegsgesch.
+Einzelschriften,&rdquo; 1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Naval Operations</p>
+
+<p>The naval side of the wars arising out of the French Revolution
+was marked by unity, and even by simplicity. France had but
+one serious enemy, Great Britain, and Great Britain had but
+one purpose, to beat down France. Other states were drawn
+into the strife, but it was as the allies, the enemies and at times
+the victims, of the two dominating powers. The field of battle
+was the whole expanse of the ocean and the landlocked seas.
+The weapons, the methods and the results were the same. When
+a general survey of the whole struggle is taken, its unity is
+manifest. The Revolution produced a profound alteration in the
+government of France, but none in the final purposes of its
+policy. To secure for France its so-called &ldquo;natural limits&rdquo;&mdash;the
+Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees and the ocean; to protect
+both flanks by reducing Holland on the north and Spain on the
+south to submission; to confirm the mighty power thus constituted,
+by the subjugation of Great Britain, were the objects
+of the Republic and of Napoleon, as they had been of Louis XIV.
+The naval war, like the war on land, is here considered in the
+first of its two phases&mdash;the Revolutionary (1792-99). (For the
+Napoleonic phase (1800-15), see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The Revolutionary war began in April 1792. In the September
+of that year Admiral Truguet sailed from Toulon to co-operate
+with the French troops operating against the Austrians and
+their allies in northern Italy. In December Latouche Tréville
+was sent with another squadron to cow the Bourbon rulers of
+Naples. The extreme feebleness of their opponents alone saved
+the French from disaster. Mutinies, which began within ten
+days of the storming of the Bastille (14th of July 1789), had
+disorganized their navy, and the effects of these disorders
+continued to be felt so long as the war lasted. In February
+1793 war broke out with Great Britain and Holland. In March
+Spain was added to the list of the powers against which France
+declared war. Her resources at sea were wholly inadequate
+to meet the coalition she had provoked. The Convention did
+indeed order that fifty-two ships of the line should be commissioned
+in the Channel, but it was not able in fact to do more
+than send out a few diminutive and ill-appointed squadrons,
+manned by mutinous crews, which kept close to the coast. The
+British navy was in excellent order, but the many calls made
+on it for the protection of world-wide commerce and colonial
+possessions caused the operations in the Channel to be somewhat
+languid. Lord Howe cruised in search of the enemy without
+being able to bring them to action. The severe blockade which
+in the later stages of the war kept the British fleet permanently
+outside of Brest was not enforced in the earlier stages. Lord
+Howe preferred to save his fleet from the wear and tear of
+perpetual cruising by maintaining his headquarters at St Helens,
+and keeping watch on the French ports by frigates. The French
+thus secured a freedom of movement which in the course of
+1794 enabled them to cover the arrival of a great convoy laden
+with food from America (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">First of June, Battle of</a></span>). This
+great effort was followed by a long period of languor. Its internal
+defects compelled the French fleet in the Channel to play a very
+poor part till the last days of 1796. Squadrons were indeed sent
+a short way to sea, but their inefficiency was conspicuously
+displayed when, on the 17th of June 1795, a much superior
+number of their line of battle ships failed to do any harm to the
+small force of Cornwallis, and when on the 22nd of the same
+month they fled in disorder before Lord Bridport at the Isle de
+Groix.</p>
+
+<p>Operations of a more decisive character had in the meantime
+taken place both in the Mediterranean and in the West Indies.
+In April 1793 the first detachment of a British fleet, which was
+finally raised to a strength of 21 sail of the line, under the command
+of Lord Hood, sailed for the Mediterranean. By August
+the admiral was off Toulon, acting in combination with a Spanish
+naval force. France was torn by the contentions of Jacobins
+and Girondins, and its dissensions led to the surrender of the
+great arsenal to the British admiral and his Spanish colleague
+Don Juan de Lángara, on the 27th of August. The allies were
+joined later by a contingent from Naples. But the military
+forces were insufficient to hold the land defences against the
+army collected to expel them. High ground commanding the
+anchorage was occupied by the besieging force, and on the 18th
+of December 1793 the allies retired. They carried away or
+destroyed thirty-three French vessels, of which thirteen were of
+the line. But partly through the inefficiency and partly through
+the ill-will of the Spaniards, who were indisposed to cripple the
+French, whom they considered as their only possible allies against
+Great Britain, the destruction was not so complete as had been
+intended. Twenty-five ships, of which eighteen were of the line,
+were left to serve as the nucleus of an active fleet in later years.
+Fourteen thousand of the inhabitants fled with the allies to
+escape the vengeance of the victorious Jacobins. Their sufferings,
+and the ferocious massacre perpetrated on those who
+remained behind by the conquerors, form one of the blackest
+pages of the French Revolution. The Spanish fleet took no
+further part in the war. Lord Hood now turned to the occupation
+of Corsica, where the intervention of the British fleet was
+invited by the patriotic party headed by Pascual Paoli. The
+French ships left at Toulon were refitted and came to sea in the
+spring of 1794, but Admiral Martin who commanded them did
+not feel justified in giving battle, and his sorties were mere
+demonstrations. From the 25th of January 1794 till November
+1796 the British fleet in the Mediterranean was mainly occupied
+in and about Corsica, securing the island, watching Toulon
+and co-operating with the allied Austrians and Piedmontese
+in northern Italy. It did much to hamper the coastwise communications
+of the French. But neither Lord Hood, who went
+home at the end of 1794, nor his indolent successor Hotham,
+was able to deliver an effective blow at the Toulon squadron.
+The second of these officers fought two confused actions with
+Admiral Martin in the Gulf of Lyons on the 16th of March and
+the 12th of July 1795, but though three French ships were cut
+off and captured, the baffling winds and the placid disposition
+of Hotham united to prevent decisive results. A new spirit was
+introduced into the command of the British fleet when Sir
+John Jervis, afterwards Earl Saint Vincent, succeeded Hotham
+in November 1795.</p>
+
+<p>Jervis came to the Mediterranean with a high reputation,
+which had been much enhanced by his recent command in the
+West Indies. In every war with France it was the natural policy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span>
+of the British government to seize on its enemy&rsquo;s colonial
+possessions, not only because of their intrinsic value, but because
+they were the headquarters of active privateers. The occupation
+of the little fishing stations of St Pierre and Miquelon (14th May
+1793) and of Pondicherry in the East Indies (23rd Aug. 1793)
+were almost formal measures taken at the beginning of every
+war. But the French West Indian islands possessed intrinsic
+strength which rendered their occupation a service of difficulty
+and hazard. In 1793 they were torn by dissensions, the result
+of the revolution in the mother country. Tobago was occupied
+in April, and the French part of the great island of San Domingo
+was partially thrown into British hands by the Creoles, who
+were threatened by their insurgent slaves. During 1794 a
+lively series of operations, in which there were some marked
+alternations of fortune, took place in and about Martinique and
+Guadaloupe. The British squadron, and the contingent of
+troops it carried, after a first repulse, occupied them both in
+March and April, together with Santa Lucia. A vigorous
+counter-attack was carried out by the Terrorist Victor Hugues
+with ability and ferocity. Guadaloupe and Santa Lucia were
+recovered in August. Yet on the whole the British government
+was successful in its policy of destroying the French naval power
+in distant seas. The seaborne commerce of the Republic was
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The naval supremacy of Great Britain was limited, and was
+for a time menaced, in consequence of the advance of the French
+armies on land. The invasion of Holland in 1794 led to the
+downfall of the house of Orange, and the establishment of the
+Batavian Republic. War with Great Britain under French
+dictation followed in January 1795. In that year a British
+expedition under the command of Admiral Keith Elphinstone
+(afterwards Lord Keith) occupied the Dutch colony at the Cape
+(August-September) and their trading station in Malacca. The
+British colonial empire was again extended, and the command
+of the sea by its fleet confirmed. But the necessity to maintain
+a blockading force in the German Ocean imposed a fresh strain
+on its naval resources, and the hostility of Holland closed a most
+important route to British commerce in Europe. In 1795
+Spain made peace with France at Basel, and in September 1796
+re-entered the war as her ally. The Spanish navy was most
+inefficient, but it required to be watched and therefore increased
+the heavy strain on the British fleet. At the same time the rapid
+advance of the French arms in Italy began to close the ports of
+the peninsula to Great Britain. Its ships were for a time withdrawn
+from the Mediterranean. Poor as it was in quality, the
+Spanish fleet was numerous. It was able to facilitate the movements
+of French squadrons sent to harass British commerce
+in the Atlantic, and a concentration of forces became necessary.</p>
+
+<p>It was the more important because the cherished French scheme
+for an attack on the heart of the British empire began to take
+shape. While Spain occupied one part of the British fleet to the
+south, and Holland another in the north, a French expedition,
+which was to have been aided by a Dutch expedition from the
+Texel, was prepared at Brest. The Dutch were confined to
+harbour by the vigilant blockade of Admiral Duncan, afterwards
+Lord Camperdown. But in December 1796 a French fleet commanded
+by Admiral Morard de Galle, <span class="correction" title="amended from carying">carrying</span> 13,000 troops
+under General Hoche, was allowed to sail from Brest for Ireland,
+by the slack management of the blockade under Admiral Colpoys.
+Being ill-fitted, ill-manned and exposed to constant bad weather
+the French ships were scattered. Some reached their destination,
+Bantry Bay, only to be driven out again by north-easterly gales.
+The expedition finally returned after much suffering, and in
+fragments, to Brest. Yet the year 1797 was one of extreme
+trial to Great Britain. The victory of Sir John Jervis over the
+Spaniards near Cape Saint Vincent on the 14th of February
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saint Vincent, Battle of</a></span>) disposed of the Spanish fleet.
+In the autumn of the year the Dutch, having put to sea, were
+defeated at Camperdown by Admiral Duncan on the 11th of
+October. Admiral Duncan had the more numerous force,
+sixteen ships to fifteen, and they were on the average heavier.
+Attacking from windward he broke through the enemy&rsquo;s line
+and concentrated on his rear and centre. Eight line of battleships
+and two frigates were taken, but the good gunnery and
+steady resistance of the Dutch made the victory costly. Between
+these two battles the British fleet was for a time menaced
+in its very existence by a succession of mutinies, the result of
+much neglect of the undoubted grievances of the sailors. The
+victory of Camperdown, completing what the victory of Cape
+Saint Vincent had begun, seemed to put Great Britain beyond fear
+of invasion. But the government of the Republic was intent
+on renewing the attempt. The successes of Napoleon at the head
+of the army of Italy had reduced Austria to sign the peace of
+Campo Formio, on the 17th of October 1797, and he was appointed
+commander of the new army of invasion. It was still thought
+necessary to maintain the bulk of the British fleet in European
+waters, within call in the ocean. The Mediterranean was left
+free to the French, whose squadrons cruised in the Levant,
+where the Republic had become possessed of the Ionian Islands
+by the plunder of Venice. The absence of a British force in the
+Mediterranean offered to the government of the French Republic
+an alternative to an invasion of Great Britain or Ireland, which
+promised to be less hazardous and equally effective. It was
+induced largely by the persuasion of Napoleon himself, and the
+wish of the politicians who were very willing to see him employed
+at a distance. The expedition to Egypt under his command
+sailed on the 19th of May 1798, having for its immediate
+purpose the occupation of the Nile valley, and for its ultimate
+aim an attack on Great Britain &ldquo;from behind&rdquo; in India (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nile, Battle of the</a></span>). The British fleet re-entered the
+Mediterranean to pursue and baffle Napoleon. The destruction
+of the French squadron at the anchorage of Aboukir on the
+1st of August gave it the complete command of the sea. A
+second invasion of Ireland on a smaller scale was attempted
+and to some extent carried out, while the great attack by Egypt
+was in progress. One French squadron of four frigates carrying
+1150 soldiers under General Humbert succeeded in sailing from
+Rochefort on the 6th of August. On the 22nd Humbert was
+landed at Killala Bay, but after making a vigorous raid he was
+compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck on the 8th of September.
+Eight days after his surrender, another French squadron of one
+sail of the line and eight frigates carrying 3000 troops, sailed
+from Brest under Commodore Bompart to support Humbert.
+It was watched and pursued by frigates, and on the 12th of
+October was overtaken and destroyed by a superior British
+force commanded by Sir John Borlase Warren, near Tory Island.</p>
+
+<p>From the close of 1798 till the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 18th Brumaire
+(9th November) 1799, which established Napoleon as First
+Consul and master of France, the French navy had only one
+object&mdash;to reinforce and relieve the army cut off in Egypt by the
+battle of the Nile. The relief of the French garrison in Malta
+was a subordinate part of the main purpose. But the supremacy
+of the British navy was by this time so firmly founded that
+neither Egypt nor Malta could be reached except by small ships
+which ran the blockade. On the 25th of April, Admiral Bruix
+did indeed leave Brest, after baffling the blockading fleet of
+Lord Bridport, which was sent on a wild-goose chase to the south
+of Ireland by means of a despatch sent out to be captured and to
+deceive. Admiral Bruix succeeded in reaching Toulon, and his
+presence in the Mediterranean caused some disturbance. But,
+though his twenty-five sail of the line formed the best-manned
+fleet which the French had sent to sea during the war, and though
+he escaped being brought to battle, he did not venture to steer
+for the eastern Mediterranean. On the 13th of August he was
+back at Brest, bringing with him a Spanish squadron carried
+off as a hostage for the fidelity of the government at Madrid to
+its disastrous alliance with France. On the day on which Bruix
+re-entered Brest, the 13th of August 1799, a combined Russian
+and British expedition sailed from the Downs to attack the
+French army of occupation in the Batavian Republic. The
+military operations were unsuccessful, and terminated in the
+withdrawal of the allies. But the naval part was well executed.
+Vice-admiral Mitchell forced the entrance to the Texel, and on
+the 30th of August received the surrender of the remainder of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span>
+Dutch fleet&mdash;thirteen vessels in the Nieuwe Diep&mdash;the sailors
+having refused to fight for the republic. In spite of the failure on
+land, the expedition did much to confirm the naval supremacy
+of Great Britain by the entire suppression of the most seamanlike
+of the forces opposed to it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Authorities.&mdash;Chevalier, <i>Histoire de la marine française sous
+la première République</i> (Paris, 1886); James&rsquo;s <i>Naval History</i> (London,
+1837); Captain Mahan, <i>Influence of Sea Power upon the French
+Revolution and the Empire</i> (London, 1892). The French schemes of
+invasion are exhaustively dealt with in Captain E. Desbrière&rsquo;s
+<i>Projets et tentatives de débarquements aux Îles Britanniques</i> (Paris,
+1900, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the following operations see map in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spanish Succession War</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Coburg refrained from a regular siege of Condé. He wished to
+gain possession of the fortress in a defensible state, intending to use
+it as his own depot later in the year. He therefore reduced it by
+famine. During the siege of Valenciennes the Allies appear to have
+been supplied from Mons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Henceforth to the end of 1794 both armies were more or less
+&ldquo;in cordon,&rdquo; the cordon possessing greater or less density at any
+particular moment or place, according to the immediate intentions
+of the respective commanders and the general military situation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In the course of this the column from Bouchain, 4500 strong, was
+caught in the open at Avesnes-le-Sec by 5 squadrons of the allied
+cavalry and literally annihilated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> One of the generals at Maubeuge, Chancel, was guillotined.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Each of the fifteen armies on foot had been allotted certain
+departments as supply areas, Jourdan&rsquo;s being of course far away in
+Lorraine.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Liguria was not at this period thought of, even by Napoleon,
+as anything more than a supply area.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Vukassovich had received Beaulieu&rsquo;s order to demonstrate with
+two battalions, and also appeals for help from Argenteau. He
+therefore brought most of his troops with him.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> We have seen that after Tourcoing, taught by experience,
+Souham posted Vandamme&rsquo;s covering force 14 or 15 m. out. But
+Napoleon&rsquo;s disposition was in advance of experience.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The proposed alliance with the Sardinians came to nothing.
+The kings of Sardinia had always made their alliance with either
+Austria or France conditional on cessions of conquered territory.
+But, according to Thiers, the Directory only desired to conquer
+the Milanese to restore it to Austria in return for the definitive
+cession of the Austrian Netherlands. If this be so, Napoleon&rsquo;s
+proclamations of &ldquo;freedom for Italy&rdquo; were, if not a mere political
+expedient, at any rate no more than an expression of his own desires
+which he was not powerful enough to enforce.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> On entering the territory of the duke of Parma Bonaparte
+imposed, besides other contributions, the surrender of twenty
+famous pictures, and thus began a practice which for many years
+enriched the Louvre and only ceased with the capture of Paris
+in 1814.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See C. von B.-K., <i>Geist und Stoff</i>, pp. 449-451.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The assumption by later critics (Clausewitz even included)
+that the &ldquo;flank position&rdquo; held by these forces relatively to the
+main armies in Italy and Germany was their <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i> is unsupported
+by contemporary evidence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> For this expedition, which was repulsed by Brune in the battle
+of Castricum, see Fortescue&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the British Army</i>, vol. iv., and
+Sachot&rsquo;s <i>Brune en Hollande</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> He afterwards appointed Berthier to command the Army of
+Reserve, but himself accompanied it and directed it, using Berthier
+as chief of staff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Only one division of the main body used the Little St Bernard.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> When he made his decision he was unaware that Béthencourt
+had been held up at Arona.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> This may be accounted for by the fact that Napoleon&rsquo;s mind
+was not yet definitively made up when his advanced guard had already
+begun to climb the St Bernard (12th). Napoleon&rsquo;s instructions for
+Moncey were written on the 14th. The magazines, too, had to be
+provided and placed before it was known whether Moreau&rsquo;s detachment
+would be forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19a" id="ft19a" href="#fa19a"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Six guns had by now passed Fort Bard and four of these were with
+Murat and Duhesme, two with Lannes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20a" id="ft20a" href="#fa20a"><span class="fn">20</span></a> It is supposed that the foreign spies at Dijon sent word to their
+various employers that the Army was a bogy. In fact a great part
+of it never entered Dijon at all, and the troops reviewed there by
+Bonaparte were only conscripts and details. By the time that the
+veteran divisions from the west and Paris arrived, either the spies
+had been ejected or their news was sent off too late to be of use.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21a" id="ft21a" href="#fa21a"><span class="fn">21</span></a> On the strength of a report, false as it turned out, that the
+Austrian rearguard had broken the bridges of the Bormida.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRENCH WEST AFRICA<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (<i>L&rsquo;Afrique occidentale française</i>),
+the common designation of the following colonies of France:&mdash;(1)
+Senegal, (2) Upper Senegal and Niger, (3) Guinea, (4) the
+Ivory Coast, (5) Dahomey; of the territory of Mauretania, and
+of a large portion of the Sahara. The area is estimated at nearly
+2,000,000 sq. m., of which more than half is Saharan territory.
+The countries thus grouped under the common designation
+French West Africa comprise the greater part of the continent
+west of the Niger delta (which is British territory) and south of the
+tropic of Cancer. It embraces the upper and middle course of
+the Niger, the whole of the basin of the Senegal and the south-western
+part of the Sahara. Its most northern point on the coast
+is Cape Blanco, and it includes Cape Verde, the most westerly
+point of Africa. Along the Guinea coast the French possessions
+are separated from one another by colonies of Great Britain and
+other powers, but in the interior they unite not only with one
+another but with the hinterlands of Algeria and the French
+Congo.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:599px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img204.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img204a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">In physical characteristics French West Africa presents three
+types: (1) a dense forest region succeeding a narrow coast belt
+greatly broken by lagoons; (2) moderately elevated and fertile
+plateaus, generally below 2000 ft., such as the region enclosed
+in the great bend of the Niger; (3) north of the Senegal and Niger,
+the desert lands forming part of the Sahara (<i>q.v.</i>). The most
+elevated districts are Futa Jallon, whence rise the Senegal,
+Gambia and Niger, and Gon&mdash;both massifs along the south-western
+edge of the plateau lands, containing heights of 5000
+to 6000 ft. or more. Among the chief towns are Timbuktu and
+Jenné on the Niger, Porto Novo in Dahomey, and St Louis and
+Dakar in Senegal, Dakar being an important naval and commercial
+port. The inhabitants are for the most part typical
+Negroes, with in Senegal and in the Sahara an admixture of
+Berber and Arab tribes. In the upper Senegal and Futa Jallon
+large numbers of the inhabitants are Fula. The total population
+of French West Africa is estimated at about 13,000,000. The
+European inhabitants number about 12,000.</p>
+
+<p>The French possessions in West Africa have grown by the
+extension inland of coast colonies, each having an independent
+origin. They were first brought under one general government
+in 1895, when they were placed under the supervision of the
+governor of Senegal, whose title was altered to meet the new
+situation. Between that date and 1905 various changes in the
+areas and administrations of the different colonies were made,
+involving the disappearance of the protectorates and military
+territories known as French Sudan and dependent on Senegal.
+These were partly absorbed in the coast colonies, whilst the central
+portion became the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. At
+the same time the central government was freed from the direct
+administration of the Senegal and Niger countries (Decrees of
+Oct. 1902 and Oct. 1904). Over the whole of French West
+Africa is a governor-general, whose headquarters are at Dakar.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+He is assisted by a government council, composed of high
+functionaries, including the lieutenant-governors of all colonies
+under his control. The central government, like all other French
+colonial administrations, is responsible, not to the colonists, but
+to the home government, and its constitution is alterable at
+will by presidential decree save in matters on which the chambers
+have expressly legislated. To it is confided financial control
+over the colonies, responsibility for the public debt, the direction
+of the departments of education and agriculture, and the carrying
+out of works of general utility. It alone communicates with
+the home authorities. Its expenses are met by the duties levied
+on goods and vessels entering and leaving any port of French
+West Africa. It may make advances to the colonies under its
+care, and may, in case of need, demand from them contributions
+to the central exchequer. The administration of justice is
+centralized and uniform for all French West Africa. The court
+of appeal sits at Dakar. There is also a uniform system of land
+registration adopted in 1906 and based on that in force in
+Australia. Subject to the limitations indicated the five colonies
+enjoy autonomy. The territory of Mauretania is administered
+by a civil commissioner under the direct control of the governor-general.
+The colony of Senegal is represented in the French
+parliament by one deputy.</p>
+
+<p>Since the changes in administration effected in 1895 the commerce
+of French West Africa has shown a steady growth, the
+volume of external trade increasing in the ten years 1895-1904
+from £3,151,094 to £6,238,091. In 1907 the value of the trade
+was £7,097,000; of this 53% was with France. Apart from
+military expenditure, about £600,000 a year, which is borne by
+France, French West Africa is self-supporting. The general
+budget for 1906 balanced at £1,356,000. There is a public debt
+of some £11,000,000, mainly incurred for works of general utility.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Guinea</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ivory Coast</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dahomey</a></span>. For
+Anglo-French boundaries east of the Niger see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sahara</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>.
+For the constitutional connexion between the colonies and France
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>Colonies</i>. An account of the economic situation of the
+colonies is given by G. François in <i>Le Gouvernement général de
+l&rsquo;Afrique occidentale française</i> (Paris, 1908). Consult also the annual
+<i>Report on the Trade, Agriculture, &amp;c. of French West Africa</i> issued by
+the British foreign office. A map of French West Africa by A.
+Meunier and E. Barralier (6 sheets on the scale 1:2,000,000) was
+published in Paris, 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The organization of the new government was largely the work of
+E. N. Roume (b. 1858), governor-general 1902-1907, an able and
+energetic official, formerly director of Asian affairs at the colonial
+ministry.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRENTANI,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed
+an independent community on the east coast of Italy. They
+entered the Roman alliance after their capital, Frentrum, was
+taken by the Romans in 305 or 304 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Livy ix. 16. 45). This
+town either changed its name or perished some time after the
+middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when it was issuing coins of its
+own with an Oscan legend. The town Larinum, which belonged
+to the same people (Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> iii. 103), became latinized
+before 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, as its coins of that epoch bear a legend&mdash;LARINOR(VM)&mdash;which
+cannot reasonably be treated as anything
+but Latin. Several Oscan inscriptions survive from the
+neighbourhood of Vasto (anc. <i>Histonium</i>), which was in the
+Frentane area.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On the forms of the name, and for further details see R. S. Conway,
+<i>Italic Dialects</i>, p. 206 ff and p. 212: for the coins id. No. 195-196.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREPPEL, CHARLES ÉMILE<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1827-1891), French bishop and
+politician, was born at Oberehnheim (Obernai), Alsace, on the 1st
+of June 1827. He was ordained priest in 1849 and for a short
+time taught history at the seminary of Strassburg, where he had
+previously received his clerical training. In 1854 he was appointed
+professor of theology at the Sorbonne, and became
+known as a successful preacher. He went to Rome in 1869, at
+the instance of Pius IX., to assist in the steps preparatory to the
+promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. He was consecrated
+bishop of Angers in 1870. During the Franco-German
+war Freppel organized a body of priests to minister to the French
+prisoners in Germany, and penned an eloquent protest to the
+emperor William I. against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine.
+In 1880 he was elected deputy for Brest and continued to
+represent it until his death. Being the only priest in the Chamber
+of Deputies since the death of Dupanloup, he became the chief
+parliamentary champion of the Church, and, though no orator,
+was a frequent speaker. On all ecclesiastical affairs Freppel
+voted with the Royalist and Catholic party, yet on questions in
+which French colonial prestige was involved, such as the expedition
+to Tunis, Tong-King, Madagascar (1881, 1883-85), he
+supported the government of the day. He always remained a
+staunch Royalist and went so far as to oppose Leo XIII.&rsquo;s policy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span>
+of conciliating the Republic. He died at Angers on the 12th of
+December 1891. Freppel&rsquo;s historical and theological works
+form 30 vols., the best known of which are: <i>Les Pères apostoliques
+et leur époque</i> (1859); <i>Les Apologistes chrétiens au II<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>
+(2 vols., 1860); <i>Saint Irénée et l&rsquo;éloquence chrétienne dans la Gaule
+aux deux premiers siècles</i> (1861); <i>Tertullien</i> (2 vols., 1863);
+<i>Saint Cyprien et l&rsquo;Église d&rsquo;Afrique</i> (1864); <i>Clément d&rsquo;Alexandrie</i>
+(1865); <i>Origène</i> (2 vols., 1867).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are interesting lives by E. Cornut (Paris, 1893) and F.
+Charpentier (Angers, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1815-1884),
+British administrator, born at Clydach in Brecknockshire, on
+the 29th of March 1815, was the son of Edward Frere, a member
+of an old east county family, and a nephew of John Hookham
+Frere, of <i>Anti-Jacobin</i> and <i>Aristophanes</i> fame. After leaving
+Haileybury, Bartle Frere was appointed a writer in the Bombay
+civil service in 1834, and went out to India by way of Egypt,
+crossing the Red Sea in an open boat from Kosseir to Mokha,
+and sailing thence to Bombay in an Arab dhow. Having passed
+his examination in the native languages, he was appointed
+assistant collector at Poona in 1835. There he did valuable
+work and was in 1842 chosen as private secretary to Sir George
+Arthur, governor of Bombay. Two years later he became
+political resident at the court of the rajah of Satara, where he
+did much to benefit the country by the development of its communications.
+On the rajah&rsquo;s death in 1848 he administered the
+province both before and after its formal annexation in 1849.
+In 1850 he was appointed chief commissioner of Sind, and took
+ample advantage of the opportunities afforded him of developing
+the province. He pensioned off the dispossessed amirs, improved
+the harbour at Karachi, where he also established municipal
+buildings, a museum and barracks, instituted fairs, multiplied
+roads, canals and schools.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to India in 1857 after a well-earned rest, Frere
+was greeted at Karachi with news of the mutiny. His rule had
+been so successful that he felt he could answer for the internal
+peace of his province. He therefore sent his only European
+regiment to Multan, thus securing that strong fortress against
+the rebels, and sent further detachments to aid Sir John Lawrence
+in the Punjab. The 178 British soldiers who remained in Sind
+proved sufficient to extinguish such insignificant outbreaks
+as occurred. His services were fully recognized by the Indian
+authorities, and he received the thanks of both houses of
+parliament and was made K.C.B. He became a member of the
+viceroy&rsquo;s council in 1859, and was especially serviceable in
+financial matters. In 1862 he was appointed governor of
+Bombay, where he effected great improvements, such as the
+demolition of the old ramparts, and the erection of handsome
+public offices upon a portion of the space, the inauguration of
+the university buildings and the improvement of the harbour.
+He established the Deccan College at Poona, as well as a college
+for instructing natives in civil engineering. The prosperity&mdash;due
+to the American Civil War&mdash;which rendered these developments
+possible brought in its train a speculative mania, which
+led eventually to the disastrous failure of the Bombay Bank
+(1866), an affair in which, from neglecting to exercise such means
+of control as he possessed, Frere incurred severe and not wholly
+undeserved censure. In 1867 he returned to England, was made
+G.C.S.I., and received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge;
+he was also appointed a member of the Indian council.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872 he was sent by the foreign office to Zanzibar to
+negotiate a treaty with the sultan, Seyyid Burghash, for the
+suppression of the slave traffic. In 1875 he accompanied the
+prince of Wales to Egypt and India. The tour was beyond
+expectation successful, and to Frere, from Queen Victoria
+downwards, came acknowledgments of the service he had
+rendered in piloting the expedition. He was asked by Lord
+Beaconsfield to choose between being made a baronet or G.C.B.
+He chose the former, but the queen bestowed both honours
+upon him. But the greatest service that Frere undertook on
+behalf of his country was to be attempted not in Asia, but in
+Africa. Sir Bartle landed at Cape Town as high commissioner
+of South Africa on the 31st of March 1877. He had been chosen
+by Lord Carnarvon in the previous October as the statesman
+most capable of carrying his scheme of confederation into effect,
+and within two years it was hoped that he would be the first
+governor of the South African Dominion. He went out in
+harmony with the aims and enthusiasm of his chief, &ldquo;hoping to
+crown by one great constructive effort the work of a bright and
+noble life.&rdquo; In this hope he was disappointed. As he stated
+at the close of his high commissionership, a great mistake seemed
+to have been made in trying to hasten what could only result
+from natural growth, and the state of South Africa during Frere&rsquo;s
+tenure of office was inimical to such growth.</p>
+
+<p>Discord or a policy of blind drifting seemed to be the alternatives
+presented to Frere upon his arrival at the Cape. He
+chose the former as the less dangerous, and the first year of
+his sway was marked by a Kaffir war on the one hand and by a
+rupture with the Cape (Molteno-Merriman) ministry on the
+other. The Transkei Kaffirs were subjugated early in 1878 by
+General Thesiger (the 2nd Lord Chelmsford) and a small force
+of regular and colonial troops. The constitutional difficulty
+was solved by Frere dismissing his obstructive cabinet and
+entrusting the formation of a ministry to Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Gordon Sprigg. Frere emerged successfully from a year of crisis,
+but the advantage was more than counterbalanced by the
+resignation of Lord Carnarvon early in 1878, at a time when
+Frere required the steadiest and most unflinching support. He
+had reached the conclusion that there was a widespread insurgent
+spirit pervading the natives, which had its focus and strength
+in the celibate military organization of Cetywayo and in the
+prestige which impunity for the outrages he had committed
+had gained for the Zulu king in the native mind. That organization
+and that evil prestige must be put an end to, if possible
+by moral pressure, but otherwise by force. Frere reiterated
+these views to the colonial office, where they found a general
+acceptance. When, however, Frere undertook the responsibility
+of forwarding, in December 1878, an ultimatum to Cetywayo,
+the home government abruptly discovered that a native war
+in South Africa was inopportune and raised difficulties about
+reinforcements. Having entrusted to Lord Chelmsford the
+enforcement of the British demands, Frere&rsquo;s immediate responsibility
+ceased. On the 11th of January 1879 the British troops
+crossed the Tugela, and fourteen days later the disaster of Isandhlwana
+was reported; and Frere, attacked and censured in the
+House of Commons, was but feebly defended by the government.
+Lord Beaconsfield, it appears, supported Frere; the majority
+of the cabinet were inclined to recall him. The result was the
+unsatisfactory compromise by which he was censured and begged
+to stay on. Frere wrote an elaborate justification of his conduct,
+which was adversely commented on by the colonial secretary
+(Sir Michael Hicks Beach), who &ldquo;did not see why Frere should
+take notice of attacks; and as to the war, all African wars had
+been unpopular.&rdquo; Frere&rsquo;s rejoinder was that no other sufficient
+answer had been made to his critics, and that he wished to place
+one on record. &ldquo;Few may now agree with my view as to the
+necessity of the suppression of the Zulu rebellion. Few, I fear,
+in this generation. But unless my countrymen are much changed,
+they will some day do me justice. I shall not leave a name to be
+permanently dishonoured.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Zulu trouble and the disaffection that was brewing in
+the Transvaal reacted upon each other in the most disastrous
+manner. Frere had borne no part in the actual annexation of
+the Transvaal, which was announced by Sir Theophilus Shepstone
+a few days after the high commissioner&rsquo;s arrival at Cape Town.
+The delay in giving the country a constitution afforded a pretext
+for agitation to the malcontent Boers, a rapidly increasing
+minority, while the reverse at Isandhlwana had lowered British
+prestige. Owing to the Kaffir and Zulu wars Sir Bartle had
+hitherto been unable to give his undivided attention to the state
+of things in the Transvaal. In April 1879 he was at last able to
+visit that province, and the conviction was forced upon him
+that the government had been unsatisfactory in many ways.
+The country was very unsettled. A large camp, numbering
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span>
+4000 disaffected Boers, had been formed near Pretoria, and
+they were terrorizing the country. Frere visited them unarmed
+and practically alone. Even yet all might have been well, for
+he won the Boers&rsquo; respect and liking. On the condition that the
+Boers dispersed, Frere undertook to present their complaints
+to the British government, and to urge the fulfilment of the
+promises that had been made to them. They parted with mutual
+good feeling, and the Boers did eventually disperse&mdash;on the very
+day upon which Frere received the telegram announcing the
+government&rsquo;s censure. He returned to Cape Town, and his
+journey back was in the nature of a triumph. But bad news
+awaited him at Government House&mdash;on the 1st of June 1879 the
+prince imperial had met his death in Zululand&mdash;and a few hours
+later Frere heard that the government of the Transvaal and
+Natal, together with the high commissionership in the eastern
+part of South Africa, had been transferred from him to Sir
+Garnet Wolseley.</p>
+
+<p>When Gladstone&rsquo;s ministry came into office in the spring of
+1880, Lord Kimberley had no intention of recalling Frere. In
+June, however, a section of the Liberal party memorialized
+Gladstone to remove him, and the prime minister weakly complied
+(1st August 1880). Upon his return Frere replied to the
+charges relating to his conduct respecting Afghanistan as well as
+South Africa, previously preferred in Gladstone&rsquo;s Midlothian
+speeches, and was preparing a fuller vindication when he died
+at Wimbledon from the effect of a severe chill on the 29th of May
+1884. He was buried in St Paul&rsquo;s, and in 1888 a statue of Frere
+upon the Thames embankment was unveiled by the prince of
+Wales. Frere edited the works of his uncle, Hookham Frere,
+and the popular story-book, <i>Old Deccan Days</i>, written by his
+daughter, Mary Frere. He was three times president of the
+Royal Asiatic Society.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life and Correspondence</i>, by John Martineau, was published
+in 1895. For the South African anti-confederation view, see P. A.
+Molteno&rsquo;s <i>Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno</i> (2 vols., London
+1900). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>: <i>History</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1769-1846), English diplomatist
+and author, was born in London on the 21st of May 1769. His
+father, John Frere, a gentleman of a good Suffolk family, had been
+educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and would have been
+senior wrangler in 1763 but for the redoubtable competition of
+Paley; his mother, daughter of John Hookham, a rich London
+merchant, was a lady of no small culture, accustomed to amuse
+her leisure with verse-writing. His father&rsquo;s sister Eleanor, who
+married Sir John Fenn (1739-1794), the learned editor of the
+<i>Paston Letters</i>, wrote various educational works for children
+under the pseudonyms &ldquo;Mrs Lovechild&rdquo; and &ldquo;Mrs Teachwell.&rdquo;
+Young Frere was sent to Eton in 1785, and there began an
+intimacy with Canning which greatly affected his after life.
+From Eton he went to his father&rsquo;s college at Cambridge, and
+graduated B.A. in 1792 and M.A. in 1795. He entered public
+service in the foreign office under Lord Grenville, and sat from
+1796 to 1802 as member of parliament for the close borough of
+West Looe in Cornwall.</p>
+
+<p>From his boyhood he had been a warm admirer of Pitt, and
+along with Canning he entered heart and soul into the defence
+of his government, and contributed freely to the pages of the
+<i>Anti-Jacobin</i>, edited by Gifford. He contributed, in collaboration
+with Canning, &ldquo;The Loves of the Triangles,&rdquo; a clever
+parody of Darwin&rsquo;s &ldquo;Loves of the Plants,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Needy Knife-Grinder&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;The Rovers.&rdquo; On Canning&rsquo;s removal to the
+board of trade in 1799 he succeeded him as under-secretary of
+state; in October 1800 he was appointed envoy extraordinary
+and plenipotentiary to Lisbon; and in September 1802 he was
+transferred to Madrid, where he remained for two years. He was
+recalled on account of a personal disagreement he had with the
+duke of Alcudia, but the ministry showed its approval of his
+action by a pension of £1700 a year. He was made a member of
+the privy council in 1805; in 1807 he was appointed plenipotentiary
+at Berlin, but the mission was abandoned, and Frere
+was again sent to Spain in 1808 as plenipotentiary to the Central
+Junta. The condition of Spain rendered his position a very
+responsible and difficult one. When Napoleon began to advance
+on Madrid it became a matter of supreme importance to decide
+whether Sir John Moore, who was then in the north of Spain,
+should endeavour to anticipate the occupation of the capital or
+merely make good his retreat, and if he did retreat whether he
+should do so by Portgual or by Galicia. Frere was strongly of
+opinion that the bolder was the better course, and he urged his
+views on Sir John Moore with an urgent and fearless persistency
+that on one occasion at least overstepped the limits of his
+commission. After the disastrous retreat to Corunna, the public
+accused Frere of having by his advice endangered the British
+army, and though no direct censure was passed upon his conduct
+by the government, he was recalled, and the marquess of
+Wellesley was appointed in his place.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended Frere&rsquo;s public life. He afterwards refused to undertake
+an embassy to St Petersburg, and twice declined the honour
+of a peerage. In 1816 he married Elizabeth Jemima, dowager
+countess of Erroll, and in 1820, on account of her failing health,
+he went with her to the Mediterranean. There he finally settled
+in Malta, and though he afterwards visited England more than
+once, the rest of his life was for the most part spent in the island
+of his choice. In quiet retirement he devoted himself to literature,
+studied his favourite Greek authors, and taught himself
+Hebrew and Maltese. His hospitality was well known to many
+an English guest, and his charities and courtesies endeared him
+to his Maltese neighbours. He died at the Pietà Valetta on
+the 7th of January 1846. Frere&rsquo;s literary reputation now rests
+entirely upon his spirited verse translations of Aristophanes,
+which remain in many ways unrivalled. The principles according
+to which he conducted his task were elucidated in an article on
+Mitchell&rsquo;s <i>Aristophanes</i>, which he contributed to <i>The Quarterly
+Review</i>, vol. xxiii. The translations of <i>The Acharnians</i>, <i>The
+Knights</i>, <i>The Birds</i>, and <i>The Frogs</i> were privately printed, and
+were first brought into general notice by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis
+in the <i>Classical Museum</i> for 1847. They were followed some
+time after by <i>Theognis Restitutus, or the personal history of the
+poet Theognis, reduced from an analysis of his existing fragments</i>.
+In 1817 he published a mock-heroic Arthurian poem entitled
+<i>Prospectus and Specimen of an intended National Work, by
+William and Robert Whistlecraft, of Stowmarket in Suffolk,
+Harness and Collar Makers, intended to comprise the most interesting
+particulars relating to King Arthur and his Round Table</i>.
+William Tennant in <i>Anster Fair</i> had used the <i>ottava rima</i> as a
+vehicle for semi-burlesque poetry five years earlier, but Frere&rsquo;s
+experiment is interesting because Byron borrowed from it the
+measure that he brought to perfection in <i>Don Juan</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Frere&rsquo;s complete works were published in 1871, with a memoir
+by his nephews, W. E. and Sir Bartle Frere, and reached a second
+edition in 1874. Compare also Gabrielle Festing, <i>J. H. Frere and his
+Friends</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRÈRE, PIERRE ÉDOUARD<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1819-1886), French painter,
+studied under Delaroche, entered the École des Beaux-Arts in
+1836 and exhibited first at the Salon in 1843. The marked
+sentimental tendency of his art makes us wonder at Ruskin&rsquo;s
+enthusiastic eulogy which finds in Frère&rsquo;s work &ldquo;the depth of
+Wordsworth, the grace of Reynolds, and the holiness of Angelico.&rdquo;
+What we can admire in his work is his accomplished craftsmanship
+and the intimacy and tender homeliness of his conception.
+Among his chief works are the two paintings, &ldquo;Going to School&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Coming from School,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Little Glutton&rdquo; (his first
+exhibited picture) and &ldquo;<i>L&rsquo;Exercice</i>&rdquo; (Mr Astor&rsquo;s collection).
+A journey to Egypt in 1860 resulted in a small series of Orientalist
+subjects, but the majority of Frère&rsquo;s paintings deal with the life
+of the kitchen, the workshop, the dwellings of the humble, and
+mainly with the pleasures and little troubles of the young,
+which the artist brings before us with humour and sympathy.
+He was one of the most popular painters of domestic genre in
+the middle of the 19th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRÈRE-ORBAN, HUBERT JOSEPH WALTHER<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1812-1896),
+Belgian statesman, was born at Liége on the 24th of April 1812.
+His family name was Frère, to which on his marriage he added
+his wife&rsquo;s name of Orban. After studying law in Paris, he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span>
+practised as a barrister at Liége, took a prominent part in the
+Liberal movement, and in June 1847 was returned to the Chamber
+as member for Liége. In August of the same year he was appointed
+minister of public works in the Rogier cabinet, and from
+1848 to 1852 was minister of finance. He founded the Banque
+Nationale and the Caisse d&rsquo;Épargne, abolished the newspaper
+tax, reduced the postage, and modified the customs duties as
+a preliminary to a decided free-trade policy. The Liberalism
+of the cabinet, in which Frère-Orban exercised an influence
+hardly inferior to that of Rogier, was, however, distasteful to
+Napoleon III. Frère-Orban, to facilitate the negotiations for
+a new commercial treaty, conceded to France a law of copyright,
+which proved highly unpopular in Belgium, and he resigned
+office, soon followed by the rest of the cabinet. His work
+<i>La Mainmorte et la charité</i> (1854-1857), published under the
+pseudonym of &ldquo;Jean van Damme,&rdquo; contributed greatly to
+restore his party to power in 1857, when he again became
+minister of finance. He now embodied his free-trade principles in
+commercial treaties with England and France, and abolished the
+<i>octroi</i> duties and the tolls on the national roads. He resigned
+in 1861 on the gold question, but soon resumed office, and in
+1868 succeeded Rogier as prime minister. In 1869 he defeated
+the attempt of France to gain control of the Luxemburg railways,
+but, despite this service to his country, fell from power at the
+elections of 1870. He returned to office in 1878 as president of
+the council and foreign minister. He provoked the bitter opposition
+of the Clerical party by his law of 1879 establishing secular
+primary education, and in 1880 went so far as to break off diplomatic
+relations with the Vatican. He next found himself at
+variance with the Radicals, whose leader, Janson, moved the
+introduction of universal suffrage. Frère-Orban, while rejecting
+the proposal, conceded an extension of the franchise (1883);
+but the hostility of the Radicals, and the discontent caused by a
+financial crisis, overthrew the government at the elections of
+1884. Frère-Orban continued to take an active part in politics
+as leader of the Liberal opposition till 1894, when he failed to
+secure re-election. He died at Brussels on the 2nd of January
+1896. Besides the work above mentioned, he published <i>La
+Question monétaire</i> (1874); <i>La Question monétaire en Belgique</i>
+in 1889; <i>Échange de vues entre MM. Frère-Orban et E. de Laveleye</i>
+(1890); and <i>La Révision constitutionnelle en Belgique et ses
+conséquences</i> (1894). He was also the author of numerous
+pamphlets, among which may be mentioned his last work,
+<i>La Situation présente</i> (1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRÉRET, NICOLAS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1688-1749), French scholar, was born
+at Paris on the 15th of February 1688. His father was <i>procureur</i>
+to the parlement of Paris, and destined him to the profession
+of the law. His first tutors were the historian Charles Rollin
+and Father Desmolets (1677-1760). Amongst his early studies
+history, chronology and mythology held a prominent place.
+To please his father he studied law and began to practise at the
+bar; but the force of his genius soon carried him into his own
+path. At nineteen he was admitted to a society of learned men
+before whom he read memoirs on the religion of the Greeks,
+on the worship of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Cybele and of Apollo.
+He was hardly twenty-six years of age when he was admitted
+as pupil to the Academy of Inscriptions. One of the first
+memoirs which he read was a learned and critical discourse,
+<i>Sur l&rsquo;origine des Francs</i> (1714). He maintained that the Franks
+were a league of South German tribes and not, according to the
+legend then almost universally received, a nation of free men
+deriving from Greece or Troy, who had kept their civilization
+intact in the heart of a barbarous country. These sensible
+views excited great indignation in the Abbé Vertot, who denounced
+Fréret to the government as a libeller of the monarchy.
+A <i>lettre de cachet</i> was issued, and Fréret was sent to the Bastille.
+During his three months of confinement he devoted himself to
+the study of the works of Xenophon, the fruit of which appeared
+later in his memoir on the <i>Cyropaedia</i>. From the time of his
+liberation in March 1715 his life was uneventful. In January
+1716 he was received associate of the Academy of Inscriptions,
+and in December 1742 he was made perpetual secretary. He
+worked without intermission for the interests of the Academy,
+not even claiming any property in his own writings, which were
+printed in the <i>Recueil de l&rsquo;académie des inscriptions</i>. The list
+of his memoirs, many of them posthumous, occupies four columns
+of the <i>Nouvelle Biographie générale</i>. They treat of history,
+chronology, geography, mythology and religion. Throughout
+he appears as the keen, learned and original critic; examining
+into the comparative value of documents, distinguishing between
+the mythical and the historical, and separating traditions with
+an historical element from pure fables and legends. He rejected
+the extreme pretensions of the chronology of Egypt and China,
+and at the same time controverted the scheme of Sir Isaac
+Newton as too limited. He investigated the mythology not only
+of the Greeks, but of the Celts, the Germans, the Chinese and
+the Indians. He was a vigorous opponent of the theory that
+the stories of mythology may be referred to historic originals.
+He also suggested that Greek mythology owed much to the
+Phoenicians and Egyptians. He was one of the first scholars of
+Europe to undertake the study of the Chinese language; and in
+this he was engaged at the time of his committal to the Bastille.
+He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1749.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Long after his death several works of an atheistic character were
+falsely attributed to him, and were long believed to be his. The most
+famous of these spurious works are the <i>Examen critique des apologistes
+de la religion chrétienne</i> (1766), and the <i>Lettre de Thrasybule à Leucippe</i>,
+printed in London about 1768. A very defective and inaccurate
+edition of Fréret&rsquo;s works was published in 1796-1799. A new and
+complete edition was projected by Champollion-Figeac, but of this
+only the first volume appeared (1825). It contains a life of Fréret.
+His manuscripts, after passing through many hands, were deposited
+in the library of the Institute. The best account of his works is
+&ldquo;Examen critique des ouvrages composés par Fréret&rdquo; in C. A.
+Walckenaer&rsquo;s <i>Recueil des notices</i>, &amp;c. (1841-1850). See also Quérard&rsquo;s
+<i>France littéraire</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRÉRON, ÉLIE CATHERINE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1719-1776), French critic and
+controversialist, was born at Quimper in 1719. He was educated
+by the Jesuits, and made such rapid progress in his studies
+that before the age of twenty he was appointed professor at the
+college of Louis-le-Grand. He became a contributor to the
+<i>Observations sur les écrits modernes</i> of the abbé Guyot Desfontaines.
+The very fact of his collaboration with Desfontaines,
+one of Voltaire&rsquo;s bitterest enemies, was sufficient to arouse the
+latter&rsquo;s hostility, and although Fréron had begun his career as
+one of his admirers, his attitude towards Voltaire soon changed.
+Fréron in 1746 founded a similar journal of his own, entitled
+<i>Lettres de la Comtesse de</i>.... It was suppressed in 1749, but he
+immediately replaced it by <i>Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps</i>,
+which, with the exception of a short suspension in 1752, on
+account of an attack on the character of Voltaire, was continued
+till 1754, when it was succeeded by the more ambitious <i>Année
+littéraire</i>. His death at Paris on the 10th of March 1776 is said
+to have been hastened by the temporary suppression of this
+journal. Fréron is now remembered solely for his attacks on
+Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, and by the retaliations they
+provoked on the part of Voltaire, who, besides attacking him in
+epigrams, and even incidentally in some of his tragedies, directed
+against him a virulent satire, <i>Le Pauvre diable</i>, and made him
+the principal personage in a comedy <i>L&rsquo;Écossaise</i>, in which the
+journal of Fréron is designated <i>L&rsquo;Âne littéraire</i>. A further
+attack on Fréron entitled <i>Anecdotes sur Fréron</i> ... (1760),
+published anonymously, is generally attributed to Voltaire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fréron was the author of <i>Ode sur la bataille de Fontenoy</i> (1745);
+<i>Histoire de Marie Stuart</i> (1742, 2 vols.); and <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;empire
+d&rsquo;Allemagne</i>, (1771, 8 vols.). See Ch. Nisard, <i>Les Ennemis de
+Voltaire</i> (1853); Despois, <i>Journalistes et journaux du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i>; Barthélemy, <i>Les confessions de Fréron</i>: Ch. Monselet,
+<i>Fréron, ou l&rsquo;illustre critique</i> (1864); <i>Fréron, sa vie, souvenirs</i>, &amp;c.
+(1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRÉRON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1754-1802), French
+revolutionist, son of the preceding, was born at Paris on the 17th
+of August 1754. His name was, on the death of his father,
+attached to <i>L&rsquo;Année littéraire</i>, which was continued till 1790
+and edited successively by the abbés G. M. Royou and J. L.
+Geoffroy. On the outbreak of the revolution Fréron, who was a
+schoolfellow of Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins, established
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span>
+the violent journal <i>L&rsquo;Orateur du peuple</i>. Commissioned, along
+with Barras in 1793, to establish the authority of the convention
+at Marseilles and Toulon, he distinguished himself
+in the atrocity of his reprisals, but both afterwards joined the
+Thermidoriens, and Fréron became the leader of the <i>jeunesse
+dorée</i> and of the Thermidorian reaction. He brought about the
+accusation of Fouquier-Tinville, and of J. B. Carrier, the deportation
+of B. Barère, and the arrest of the last <i>Montagnards</i>. He
+made his paper the official journal of the reactionists, and being
+sent by the Directory on a mission of peace to Marseilles he
+published in 1796 <i>Mémoire historique sur la réaction royale et
+sur les malheurs du midi</i>. He was elected to the council of the
+Five Hundred, but not allowed to take his seat. Failing as
+suitor for the hand of Pauline Bonaparte, one of Napoleon&rsquo;s
+sisters, he went in 1799 as commissioner to Santo Domingo and
+died there in 1802. General V. M. Leclerc, who had married
+Pauline Bonaparte, also received a command in Santo Domingo
+in 1801, and died in the same year as his former rival.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESCO<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Ital. for <i>cool</i>, &ldquo;fresh&rdquo;), a term introduced into
+English, both generally (as in such phrases as <i>al fresco</i>, &ldquo;in the
+fresh air&rdquo;), and more especially as a technical term for a sort
+of mural painting on plaster. In the latter sense the Italians
+distinguished painting <i>a secco</i> (when the plaster had been allowed
+to dry) from <i>a fresco</i> (when it was newly laid and still wet). The
+nature and history of fresco-painting is dealt with in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Painting</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1583-1644), Italian musical
+composer, was born in 1583 at Ferrara. Little is known of his
+life except that he studied music under Alessandro Milleville,
+and owed his first reputation to his beautiful voice. He was
+organist at St Peter&rsquo;s in Rome from 1608 to 1628. According to
+Baini no less than 30,000 people flocked to St Peter&rsquo;s on his first
+appearance there. On the 20th of November 1628 he went to
+live in Florence, becoming organist to the duke. From December
+1633 to March 1643 he was again organist at St Peter&rsquo;s. But in
+the last year of his life he was organist in the parish church of
+San Lorenzo in Monte. He died on the 2nd of March 1644, being
+buried at Rome in the Church of the Twelve Apostles. Frescobaldi
+also excelled as a teacher, Frohberger being the most
+distinguished of his pupils. Frescobaldi&rsquo;s compositions show
+the consummate art of the early Italian school, and his works
+for the organ more especially are full of the finest devices of
+fugal treatment. He also wrote numerous vocal compositions,
+such as canzone, motets, hymns, &amp;c., a collection of madrigals
+for five voices (Antwerp, 1608) being among the earliest of his
+published works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESENIUS, KARL REMIGIUS<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1818-1897), German chemist,
+was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of December 1818.
+After spending some time in a pharmacy in his native town, he
+entered Bonn University in 1840, and a year later migrated to
+Giessen, where he acted as assistant in Liebig&rsquo;s laboratory, and
+in 1843 became assistant professor. In 1845 he was appointed
+to the chair of chemistry, physics and technology at the Wiesbaden
+Agricultural Institution, and three years later he became
+the first director of the chemical laboratory which he induced
+the Nassau government to establish at that place. Under his
+care this laboratory continuously increased in size and popularity,
+a school of pharmacy being added in 1862 (though given up in
+1877) and an agricultural research laboratory in 1868. Apart
+from his administrative duties Fresenius occupied himself almost
+exclusively with analytical chemistry, and the fullness and
+accuracy of his text-books on that subject (of which that on
+qualitative analysis first appeared in 1841 and that on quantitative
+in 1846) soon rendered them standard works. Many of his
+original papers were published in the <i>Zeitschrift für analytische
+Chemie</i>, which he founded in 1862 and continued to edit till his
+death. He died suddenly at Wiesbaden on the 11th of June
+1897. In 1881 he handed over the directorship of the agricultural
+research station to his son, Remigius Heinrich Fresenius (b.
+1847), who was trained under H. Kolbe at Leipzig. Another son,
+Theodor Wilhelm Fresenius (b. 1856), was educated at Strassburg
+and occupied various positions in the Wiesbaden laboratory.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESHWATER,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a watering place in the Isle of Wight,
+England, 12 m. W. by S. of Newport by rail. Pop.(1901) 3306.
+It is a scattered township lying on the peninsula west of the
+river Var, which forms the western extremity of the island. The
+portion known as Freshwater Gate fronts the English Channel
+from the strip of low-lying coast interposed between the cliffs
+of the peninsula and those of the main part of the island. The
+peninsula rises to 397 ft. in Headon Hill, and the cliffs are
+magnificent. The western promontory is flanked on the north
+by the picturesque Alum Bay, and the lofty detached rocks
+known as the Needles lie off it. Farringford House in the parish
+was for some time the home of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who is
+commemorated by a tablet in All Saints&rsquo; church and by a great
+cross on the high downs above the town. There are golf links
+on the downs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1788-1827), French physicist,
+the son of an architect, was born at Broglie (Eure) on the 10th
+of May 1788. His early progress in learning was slow, and when
+eight years old he was still unable to read. At the age of thirteen
+he entered the École Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half
+the École Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with distinction.
+Thence he went to the École des Ponts et Chaussées.
+He served as an engineer successively in the departments of
+Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Villaine; but his espousal of the
+cause of the Bourbons in 1814 occasioned, on Napoleon&rsquo;s reaccession
+to power, the loss of his appointment. On the second
+restoration he obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where much
+of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics,
+continued until his death, appear to have been begun about the
+year 1814, when he prepared a paper on the aberration of light,
+which, however, was not published. In 1818 he read a memoir
+on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he received the prize
+of the Académie des Sciences at Paris. He was in 1823 unanimously
+elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he
+became a member of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827,
+at the time of his last illness, awarded him the Rumford medal.
+In 1819 he was nominated a commissioner of lighthouses, for
+which he was the first to construct compound lenses as substitutes
+for mirrors. He died of consumption at Ville-d&rsquo;Avray, near
+Paris, on the 14th of July 1827.</p>
+
+<p>The undulatory theory of light, first founded upon experimental
+demonstration by Thomas Young, was extended to a
+large class of optical phenomena, and permanently established
+by his brilliant discoveries and mathematical deductions. By
+the use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other
+an angle of nearly 180°, he avoided the diffraction caused in
+the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663) on interference
+by the employment of apertures for the transmission of the light,
+and was thus enabled in the most conclusive manner to account
+for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the
+undulatory theory. With D. F. J. Arago he studied the laws
+of the interference of polarized rays. Circularly polarized light
+he obtained by means of a rhomb of glass, known as &ldquo;Fresnel&rsquo;s
+rhomb,&rdquo; having obtuse angles of 126°, and acute angles of 54°.
+His labours in the cause of optical science received during his
+lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers
+were not printed by the Académie des Sciences till many years
+after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in 1824, in him
+&ldquo;that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory&rdquo;
+had been blunted. &ldquo;All the compliments,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;that I have
+received from Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much
+pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation
+of a calculation by experiment.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Duleau, &ldquo;Notice sur Fresnel,&rdquo; <i>Revue ency.</i> t. xxxix.;
+Arago, <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i>, t. i.; and Dr G. Peacock, <i>Miscellaneous
+Works of Thomas Young</i>, vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESNILLO,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of the state of Zacatecas, Mexico, 37 m.
+N.W. of the city of Zacatecas on a branch of the Santiago river.
+Pop. (1900) 6309. It stands on a fertile plain between the Santa
+Cruz and Zacatecas ranges, about 7700 ft. above sea-level, has
+a temperate climate, and is surrounded by an agricultural
+district producing Indian corn and wheat. It is a clean, well-built
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span>
+town, whose chief distinction is its school of mines founded
+in 1853. Fresnillo has large amalgam works for the reduction
+of silver ores. Its silver mines, located in the neighbouring
+Proaño hill, were discovered in 1569, and were for a time among
+the most productive in Mexico. Since 1833, when their richest
+deposits were reached, the output has greatly decreased. There
+is a station near on the Mexican Central railway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESNO,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Fresno county, California,
+U.S.A., situated in the San Joaquin valley (altitude
+about 300 ft.) near the geographical centre of the state. Pop.
+(1880) 1112; (1890) 10,818; (1900) 12,470, of whom 3299 were
+foreign-born and 1279 were Asiatics; (1910 census) 24,892.
+The city is served by the Southern Pacific and the Atchison,
+Topeka &amp; Santa Fé railways. The county is mainly a vast
+expanse of naturally arid plains and mountains. The valley is
+the scene of an extensive irrigation system, water being brought
+(first in 1872-1876) from King&rsquo;s river, 20 m. distant; in 1905
+500 sq. m. were irrigated. Fresno is in a rich farming country,
+producing grains and fruit, and is the only place in America
+where Smyrna figs have been grown with success; it is the centre
+of the finest raisin country of the state, and has extensive vineyards
+and wine-making establishments. The city&rsquo;s principal
+manufacture is preserved (dried) fruits, particularly raisins;
+the value of the fruits thus preserved in 1905 was $6,942,440,
+being 70.5% of the total value of the factory product in that year
+($9,849,001). In 1900-1905 the factory product increased
+257.9%, a ratio of increase greater than that of any other city
+in the state. In the mountains, lumbering and mining are
+important industries; lumber is carried from Shaver in the
+mountains to Clovis on the plains by a <b>V</b>-shaped flume 42 m.
+long, the waste water from which is ditched for irrigation. The
+petroleum field of the county is one of the richest in California.
+Fresno is the business and shipping centre of its county and of the
+surrounding region. The county was organized in 1856. In
+1872 the railway went through, and Fresno was laid out and
+incorporated. It became the county-seat in 1874 and was
+chartered as a city in 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1611-1665), French
+painter and writer on his art, was born in Paris, son of an apothecary.
+He was destined for the medical profession, and well
+educated in Latin and Greek; but, having a natural propensity
+for the fine arts, he would not apply to his intended vocation,
+and was allowed to learn the rudiments of design under Perrier
+and Vouet. At the age of twenty-one he went off to Rome, with
+no resources; he drew ruins and architectural subjects. After
+two years thus spent he re-encountered his old fellow-student
+Pierre Mignard, and by his aid obtained some amelioration of his
+professional prospects. He studied Raphael and the antique,
+went in 1633 to Venice, and in 1656 returned to France. During
+two years he was now employed in painting altar-pieces in the
+château of Raincy, landscapes, &amp;c. His death was caused by
+an attack of apoplexy followed by palsy; he expired at Villiers
+le Bel, near Paris. He never married. His pictorial works are
+few; they are correct in drawing, with something of the Caracci
+in design, and of Titian in colouring, but wanting fire and expression,
+and insufficient to keep his name in any eminent repute.
+He is remembered now almost entirely as a writer rather than
+painter. His Latin poem, <i>De arte graphica</i>, was written during
+his Italian sojourn, and embodied his observations on the art
+of painting; it may be termed a critical treatise on the practice
+of the art, with general advice to students. The precepts are
+sound according to the standard of his time; the poetical
+merits slender enough. The Latin style is formed chiefly on
+Lucretius and Horace. This poem was first published by
+Mignard, and has been translated into several languages. In
+1684 it was turned into French by Roger de Piles; Dryden
+translated the work into English prose; and a rendering into
+verse by Mason followed, to which Sir Joshua Reynolds added
+some annotations.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRET<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>. (1) (From O. Eng. <i>fretan</i>, a word common in various
+forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. <i>fressen</i>, to eat greedily),
+properly to devour, hence to gnaw, so used of the slow corroding
+action of chemicals, water, &amp;c., and hence, figuratively, to chafe
+or irritate. Possibly connected with this word, in sense of rubbing,
+is the use of &ldquo;fret&rdquo; for a bar on the fingerboard of a banjo,
+guitar, or similar musical instruments to mark the fingering.
+(2) (Of doubtful origin; possibly from the O. Eng. <i>frætive</i>, ornaments,
+but its use is paralleled by the Fr. <i>frette</i>, trellis or lattice),
+network, a term used in heraldry for an interlaced figure, but
+best known as applied to the decoration used by the Greeks
+in their temples and vases: the Greek fret consists of a series
+of narrow bands of different lengths, placed at right angles to
+one another, and of great variety of design. It is an ornament
+which owes its origin to woven fabrics, and is found on the
+ceilings of the Egyptian tombs at Benihasan, Siout and elsewhere.
+In Greek work it was painted on the abacus of the Doric capital
+and probably on the architraves of their temples; when employed
+by the Romans it was generally carved; the Propylaea of the
+temple at Damascus and the temple at Atil being examples of
+the 2nd century. It was carved in large dimensions on some
+of the Mexican temples, as for instance on the palace at Mitla
+with other decorative bands, all of which would seem to have
+been reproductions of woven patterns, and had therefore an
+independent origin. It is found in China and Japan, and in the
+latter country when painted on lacquer is employed as a fret-diaper,
+the bands not being at right angles to one another but
+forming acute and obtuse angles. In old English writers a wider
+signification was given to it, as it was applied to raised patterns
+in plaster oh roofs or ceilings, which were not confined to the
+geometrical fret but extended to the modelling of flowers,
+leaves and fruit; in such cases the decoration was known as
+fret-work. In France the fret is better known as the &ldquo;meander.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREUDENSTADT,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, on the right bank of the Murg, 40 m. S.W. from
+Stuttgart, on the railway to Hochdorf. Pop. 7000. It has a
+Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, some small manufactures
+of cloth, furniture, knives, nails and glass, and is
+frequented as a climatic health resort. It was founded in 1599
+by Protestant refugees from Salzburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREUND, WILHELM<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1806-1894), German philologist and
+lexicographer, was born at Kempen in the grand duchy of Posen
+on the 27th of January 1806. He studied at Berlin, Breslau and
+Halle, and was for twenty years chiefly engaged in private
+tuition. From 1855-1870 he was director of the Jewish school
+at Gleiwitz in Silesia, and subsequently retired to Breslau, where
+he died on the 4th of June 1894. Although chiefly known
+for his philological labours, Freund took an important part in
+the movement for the emancipation of his Prussian co-religionists,
+and the <i>Judengesetz</i> of 1847 was in great measure the result
+of his efforts. The work by which he is best known is his <i>Wörterbuch
+der lateinischen Sprache</i> (1834-1845), practically the basis
+of all Latin-English dictionaries. His <i>Wie studiert man klassische
+Philologie?</i> (6th ed., 1903) and <i>Triennium philologicum</i> (2nd ed.,
+1878-1885) are valuable aids to the classical student.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREWEN, ACCEPTED<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1588-1664), archbishop of York, was
+born at Northiam, in Sussex, and educated at Magdalen College,
+Oxford, where in 1612 he became a fellow. In 1617 and 1621
+the college allowed him to act as chaplain to Sir John Digby,
+ambassador in Spain. At Madrid he preached a sermon which
+pleased Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., and the latter on
+his accession appointed Frewen one of his chaplains. In 1625
+he became canon of Canterbury and vice-president of Magdalen
+College, and in the following year he was elected president.
+He was vice-chancellor of the university in 1628 and 1629,
+and again in 1638 and 1639. It was mainly by his instrumentality
+that the university plate was sent to the king at York in
+1642. Two years later he was consecrated bishop of Lichfield
+and Coventry, and resigned his presidentship. Parliament
+declared his estates forfeited for treason in 1652, and Cromwell
+afterwards set a price on his head. The proclamations, however,
+designated him Stephen Frewen, and he was consequently able
+to escape into France. At the Restoration he reappeared in
+public, and in 1660 he was consecrated archbishop of York. In
+1661 he acted as chairman of the Savoy conference.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREY<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Old Norse, Freyr) son of Njord, one of the chief deities
+in the northern pantheon and the national god of the Swedes.
+He is the god of fruitfulness, the giver of sunshine and rain, and
+thus the source of all prosperity. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic Peoples</a></span>,
+<i>ad fin.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREYBURG<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Freyburg an der Unstrut</span>], a town of
+Germany, in Prussian Saxony, in an undulating vine-clad
+country on the Unstrut, 6 m. N. from Naumberg-on-the-Saale,
+on the railway to Artern. Pop. 3200. It has a parish church,
+a mixture of Gothic and Romanesque architecture, with a
+handsome tower. It is, however, as being the &ldquo;Mecca&rdquo; of the
+German gymnastic societies that Freyburg is best known. Here
+Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), the father of German
+gymnastic exercises, lies buried. Over his grave is built the
+Turnhalle, with a statue of the &ldquo;master,&rdquo; while hard by it the
+Jahn Museum in Romanesque style, erected in 1903. Freyburg
+produces sparkling wine of good quality and has some other
+small manufactures. On a hill commanding the town is the
+castle of Neuenburg, built originally in 1062 by Louis the Leaper,
+count in Thuringia, but in its present form mainly the work of
+the dukes of Saxe-Weissenfels.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREYCINET, CHARLES LOUIS DE SAULCES DE<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1828-&emsp;&emsp;),
+French statesman, was born at Foix on the 14th of November
+1828. He was educated at the École Polytechnique, and entered
+the government service as a mining engineer. In 1858 he was
+appointed traffic manager to the Compagnie de chemins de fer
+du Midi, a post in which he gave proof of his remarkable talent
+for organization, and in 1862 returned to the engineering service
+(in which he attained in 1886 the rank of inspector-general).
+He was sent on a number of special scientific missions, among
+which may be mentioned one to England, on which he wrote
+a notable <i>Mémoire sur le travail des femmes et des enfants dans les
+manufactures de l&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (1867). On the establishment of
+the Third Republic in September 1870, he offered his services
+to Gambetta, was appointed prefect of the department of Tarn-et-Garronne,
+and in October became chief of the military cabinet.
+It was mainly his powers of organization that enabled Gambetta
+to raise army after army to oppose the invading Germans. He
+showed himself a strategist of no mean order; but the policy
+of dictating operations to the generals in the field was not
+attended with happy results. The friction between him and
+General d&rsquo;Aurelle de Paladines resulted in the loss of the advantage
+temporarily gained at Orleans, and he was responsible
+for the campaign in the east, which ended in the destruction of
+Bourbaki&rsquo;s army. In 1871 he published a defence of his administration
+under the title of <i>La Guerre en province pendant le siège de
+Paris.</i> He entered the Senate in 1876 as a follower of Gambetta,
+and in December 1877 became minister of public works in the
+Dufaure cabinet. He carried a great scheme for the gradual
+acquisition of the railways by the state and the construction of
+new lines at a cost of three milliards, and for the development
+of the canal system at a further cost of one milliard. He retained
+his post in the ministry of Waddington, whom he succeeded in
+December 1879 as president of the council and minister for
+foreign affairs. He passed an amnesty for the Communists,
+but in attempting to steer a middle course on the question of the
+religious associations, lost the support of Gambetta, and resigned
+in September 1880. In January 1882 he again became president
+of the council and minister for foreign affairs. His refusal to
+join England in the bombardment of Alexandria was the death-knell
+of French influence in Egypt. He attempted to compromise
+by occupying the Isthmus of Suez, but the vote of credit
+was rejected in the Chamber by 417 votes to 75, and the ministry
+resigned. He returned to office in April 1885 as foreign minister
+in the Brisson cabinet, and retained that post when, in January
+1886, he succeeded to the premiership. He came into power
+with an ambitious programme of internal reform; but except
+that he settled the question of the exiled pretenders, his successes
+were won chiefly in the sphere of colonial extension. In spite of
+his unrivalled skill as a parliamentary tactician, he failed to
+keep his party together, and was defeated on 3rd December
+1886. In the following year, after two unsuccessful attempts
+to construct new ministries he stood for the presidency of the
+republic; but the radicals, to whom his opportunism was
+distasteful, turned the scale against him by transferring the
+votes to M. Sadi Carnot.</p>
+
+<p>In April 1888 he became minister of war in the Floquet cabinet&mdash;the
+first civilian since 1848 to hold that office. His services
+to France in this capacity were the crowning achievement of his
+life, and he enjoyed the conspicuous honour of holding his office
+without a break for five years through as many successive
+administrations&mdash;those of Floquet and Tirard, his own fourth
+ministry (March 1890-February 1892), and the Loubet and
+Ribot ministries. To him were due the introduction of the
+three-years&rsquo; service and the establishment of a general staff,
+a supreme council of war, and the army commands. His premiership
+was marked by heated debates on the clerical question, and
+it was a hostile vote on his Bill against the religious associations
+that caused the fall of his cabinet. He failed to clear himself
+entirely of complicity in the Panama scandals, and in January
+1893 resigned the ministry of war. In November 1898 he once
+more became minister of war in the Dupuy cabinet, but resigned
+office on 6th May 1899. He has published, besides the works
+already mentioned, <i>Traité de mécanique rationnelle</i> (1858); <i>De
+l&rsquo;analyse infinitésimale</i> (1860, revised ed., 1881); <i>Des pentes
+économiques en chemin de fer</i> (1861); <i>Emploi des eaux d&rsquo;égout en
+agriculture</i> (1869); <i>Principes de l&rsquo;assainissement des villes and
+Traité d&rsquo;assainissement industriel</i> (1870); <i>Essai sur la philosophie
+des sciences</i> (1896); <i>La Question d&rsquo;Égypte</i> (1905); besides some
+remarkable &ldquo;Pensées&rdquo; contributed to the <i>Contemporain</i> under
+the pseudonym of &ldquo;Alceste.&rdquo; In 1882 he was elected a member
+of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1890 to the French Academy
+in succession to Émile Augier.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DESAULSES DE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1779-1842),
+French navigator, was born at Montélimart, Drôme, on the 7th
+of August 1779. In 1793 he entered the French navy. After
+taking part in several engagements against the British, he joined
+in 1800, along with his brother Louis Henri Freycinet (1777-1840),
+who afterwards rose to the rank of admiral, the expedition
+sent out under Captain Baudin in the &ldquo;Naturaliste&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Géographe&rdquo; to explore the south and south-west coasts of
+Australia. Much of the ground already gone over by Flinders
+was revisited, and new names imposed by this expedition, which
+claimed credit for discoveries really made by the English navigator.
+An inlet on the coast of West Australia, in 26° S., is
+called Freycinet Estuary; and a cape near the extreme south-west
+of the same coast also bears the explorer&rsquo;s name. In 1805
+he returned to Paris, and was entrusted by the government
+with the work of preparing the maps and plans of the expedition;
+he also completed the narrative, and the whole work appeared
+under the title of <i>Voyage de découvertes aux terres australes</i>
+(Paris, 1807-1816). In 1817 he commanded the &ldquo;Uranie,&rdquo;
+in which Arago and others went to Rio de Janeiro, to take a series
+of pendulum measurements. This was only part of a larger
+scheme for obtaining observations, not only in geography and
+ethnology, but in astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and meteorology,
+and for the collection of specimens in natural history.
+On this expedition the hydrographic operations were conducted
+by Louis Isidore Duperry (1786-1865) who in 1822 was appointed
+to the command of the &ldquo;Coquille,&rdquo; and during the next three
+years carried out scientific explorations in the southern Pacific
+and along the coast of South America. For three years
+Freycinet cruised about, visiting Australia, the Marianne,
+Sandwich, and other Pacific islands, South America, and other
+places, and, notwithstanding the loss of the &ldquo;Uranie&rdquo; on the
+Falkland Islands during the return voyage, returned to France
+with fine collections in all departments of natural history, and
+with voluminous notes and drawings which form an important
+contribution to a knowledge of the countries visited. The
+results of this voyage were published under Freycinet&rsquo;s supervision,
+with the title of <i>Voyage autour du monde sur les corvettes
+&ldquo;l&rsquo;Uranie&rdquo; et &ldquo;la Physicienne&rdquo;</i> in 1824-1844, in 13 quarto
+volumes and 4 folio volumes of fine plates and maps. Freycinet
+was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1825, and was one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span>
+of the founders of the Paris Geographical Society. He died at
+Freycinet, Drôme, on the 18th of August 1842.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREYIA,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> the sister of Frey, and the most prominent goddess in
+Northern mythology. Her character seems in general to have
+resembled that of her brother. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic Peoples</a></span>, <i>ad fin.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1788-1861),
+German philologist, was born at Lüneburg on the 19th of
+September 1788. After attending school he entered the university
+of Göttingen as a student of philology and theology; here
+from 1811 to 1813 he acted as a theological tutor, but in the latter
+year accepted an appointment as sub-librarian at Königsberg.
+In 1815 he became a chaplain in the Prussian army, and in that
+capacity visited Paris. On the proclamation of peace he resigned
+his chaplaincy, and returned to his researches in Arabic, Persian
+and Turkish, studying at Paris under De Sacy. In 1819 he was
+appointed to the professorship of oriental languages in the new
+university of Bonn, and this post he continued to hold until his
+death on the 16th of November 1861.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides a compendium of Hebrew grammar (<i>Kurzgefasste Grammatik
+der hebräischen Sprache</i>, 1835), and a treatise on Arabic
+versification (<i>Darstellung der arabischen Verskunst</i>, 1830), he edited
+two volumes of Arabic songs (<i>Hamasae carmina</i>, 1828-1852) and
+three of Arabic proverbs (<i>Arabum proverbia</i>, 1838-1843). But his
+principal work was the laborious and praiseworthy <i>Lexicon Arabico-latinum</i>
+(Halle, 1830-1837), an abridgment of which was published
+in 1837.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FREYTAG, GUSTAV<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1816-1895), German novelist, was born
+at Kreuzburg, in Silesia, on the 13th of July 1816. After attending
+the gymnasium at Öls, he studied philology at the universities
+of Breslau and Berlin, and in 1838 took the degree with a remarkable
+dissertation, <i>De initiis poëseos scenicae apud Germanos</i>.
+In 1839 he settled at Breslau, as <i>Privatdocent</i> in German
+language and literature, but devoted his principal attention to
+writing for the stage, and achieved considerable success with
+the comedy <i>Die Brautfahrt, oder Kunz von der Rosen</i> (1844).
+This was followed by a volume of unimportant poems, <i>In
+Breslau</i> (1845) and the dramas <i>Die Valentine</i> (1846) and <i>Graf
+Waldemar</i> (1847). He at last attained a prominent position
+by his comedy, <i>Die Journalisten</i> (1853), one of the best German
+comedies of the 19th century. In 1847 he migrated to Berlin,
+and in the following year took over, in conjunction with
+Julian Schmidt, the editorship of <i>Die Grenzboten</i>, a weekly
+journal which, founded in 1841, now became the leading organ of
+German and Austrian liberalism. Freytag helped to conduct it
+until 1861, and again from 1867 till 1870, when for a short time
+he edited a new periodical, <i>Im neuen Reich</i>. His literary fame
+was made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel,
+<i>Soll und Haben</i>, which was translated into almost all the languages
+of Europe. It was certainly the best German novel of its day,
+impressive by its sturdy but unexaggerated realism, and in many
+parts highly humorous. Its main purpose is the recommendation
+of the German middle class as the soundest element in the nation,
+but it also has a more directly patriotic intention in the contrast
+which it draws between the homely virtues of the Teuton and the
+shiftlessness of the Pole and the rapacity of the Jew. As a
+Silesian, Freytag had no great love for his Slavonic neighbours,
+and being a native of a province which owed everything to
+Prussia, he was naturally an earnest champion of Prussian
+hegemony over Germany. His powerful advocacy of this idea
+in his <i>Grenzboten</i> gained him the friendship of the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
+whose neighbour he had become, on acquiring the
+estate of Siebleben near Gotha. At the duke&rsquo;s request Freytag
+was attached to the staff of the crown prince of Prussia in the
+campaign of 1870, and was present at the battles of Wörth and
+Sedan. Before this he had published another novel, <i>Die verlorene
+Handschrift</i> (1864), in which he endeavoured to do for German
+university life what in <i>Soll und Haben</i> he had done for commercial
+life. The hero is a young German professor, who is so wrapt up
+in his search for a manuscript by Tacitus that he is oblivious
+to an impending tragedy in his domestic life. The book was,
+however, less successful than its predecessor. Between 1859 and
+1867 Freytag published in five volumes <i>Bilder aus der deutschen
+Vergangenheit</i>, a most valuable work on popular lines, illustrating
+the history and manners of Germany. In 1872 he began a
+work with a similar patriotic purpose, <i>Die Ahnen</i>, a series of
+historical romances in which he unfolds the history of a German
+family from the earliest times to the middle of the 19th century.
+The series comprises the following novels, none of which, however,
+reaches the level of Freytag&rsquo;s earlier books. (1) <i>Ingo und Ingraban</i>
+(1872), (2) <i>Das Nest der Zaunkönige</i> (1874), (3) <i>Die Brüder
+vom deutschen Hause</i> (1875), (4) <i>Marcus König</i> (1876), (5) <i>Die
+Geschwister</i> (1878), and (6) in conclusion, <i>Aus einer kleinen Stadt</i>
+(1880). Among Freytag&rsquo;s other works may be noticed <i>Die
+Technik des Dramas</i> (1863); an excellent biography of the Baden
+statesman <i>Karl Mathy</i> (1869); an autobiography (<i>Erinnerungen
+aus meinen Leben</i>, 1887); his <i>Gesammelte Aufsätze</i>, chiefly
+reprinted from the <i>Grenzboten</i> (1888); <i>Der Kronprinz und die
+deutsche Kaiserkrone</i>; <i>Erinnerungsblätter</i> (1889). He died at
+Wiesbaden on the 30th of April 1895.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Freytag&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were published in 22 vols. at Leipzig
+(1886-1888); his <i>Vermischte Aufsätze</i> have been edited by E. Elster,
+2 vols. (Leipzig, 1901-1903). On Freytag&rsquo;s life see, besides his
+autobiography mentioned above, the lives by C. Alberti (Leipzig,
+1890) and F. Seiler (Leipzig, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIAR<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>frater</i>, through the Fr. <i>frère</i>), the
+English generic name for members of the mendicant religious
+orders. Formerly it was the title given to individual members
+of these orders, as Friar Laurence (in <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>), but this
+is not now common. In England the chief orders of friars were
+distinguished by the colour of their habit: thus the Franciscans
+or Minors were the Grey Friars; the Dominicans or Preachers
+were the Black Friars (from their black mantle over a white
+habit), and the Carmelites were the White Friars (from their
+white mantle over a brown habit): these, together with the
+Austin Friars or Hermits, formed the four great mendicant
+orders&mdash;Chaucer&rsquo;s &ldquo;alle the ordres foure.&rdquo; Besides the four
+great orders of friars, the Trinitarians (<i>q.v.</i>), though really
+canons, were in England called Trinity Friars or Red Friars; the
+Crutched or Crossed Friars were often identified with them, but
+were really a distinct order; there were also a number of lesser
+orders of friars, many of which were suppressed by the second
+council of Lyons in 1274. Detailed information on these orders
+and on their position in England is given in separate articles.
+The difference between friars and monks is explained in article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>. Though the usage is not accurate, friars, and also
+canons regular, are often spoken of as monks and included among
+the monastic orders.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Fr. Cuthbert, <i>The Friars and how they came to England</i>,
+pp. 11-32 (1903); also F. A. Gasquet, <i>English Monastic Life</i>, pp.
+234-249 (1904), where special information on all the English friars is
+<span class="correction" title="amended from coveniently">conveniently</span> brought together.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIBOURG<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> [Ger. <i>Freiburg</i>], one of the Swiss Cantons, in
+the western portion of the country, and taking its name from
+the town around which the various districts that compose it
+gradually gathered. Its area is 646.3 sq. m., of which 568 sq. m.
+are classed as &ldquo;productive&rdquo; (forests covering 119 sq. m. and
+vineyards .8 sq. m.); it boasts of no glaciers or eternal snow.
+It is a hilly, not mountainous, region, the highest summits (of
+which the Vanil Noir, 7858 ft., is the loftiest) rising in the Gruyère
+district at its south-eastern extremity, the best known being
+probably the Moléson (6582 ft.) and the Berra (5653 ft.). But
+it is the heart of pastoral Switzerland, is famed for its cheese and
+cattle, and is the original home of the &ldquo;<i>Ranz des Vaches</i>,&rdquo; the
+melody by which the herdsmen call their cattle home at milking
+time. It is watered by the Sarine or Saane river (with its tributaries
+the Singine or Sense and the Glâne) that flows through the
+canton from north to south, and traverses its capital town.
+The upper course of the Broye (like the Sarine, a tributary of
+the Aar) and that of the Veveyse (flowing to the Lake of Geneva)
+are in the southern portion of the canton. A small share of the
+lakes of Neuchâtel and of Morat belongs to the canton, wherein
+the largest sheet of water is the Lac Noir or Schwarzsee. A
+sulphur spring rises near the last-named lake, and there are other
+such springs in the canton at Montbarry and at Bonn, near the
+capital. There are about 150 m. of railways in the canton, the
+main line from Lausanne to Bern past Fribourg running through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span>
+it; there are also lines from Fribourg to Morat and to Estavayer,
+while from Romont (on the main line) a line runs to Bulle, and
+in 1904 was extended to Gessenay or Saanen near the head of the
+Sarine or Saane valley. The population of the canton amounted
+in 1900 to 127,951 souls, of whom 108,440 were Romanists,
+19,305 Protestants, and 167 Jews. The canton is on the linguistic
+frontier in Switzerland, the line of division running nearly due
+north and south through it, and even right through its capital.
+In 1900 there were 78,353 French-speaking inhabitants, and
+38,738 German-speaking, the latter being found chiefly in the
+north-western (Morat region) and north-eastern (Singine valley)
+portions, as well as in the upper valley of the Jogne or Jaun in
+the south-east. Besides the capital, Fribourg (<i>q.v.</i>), the only
+towns of any importance are Bulle (3330 inhabitants), Châtel
+St Denis (2509 inhabitants), Morat (<i>q.v.</i>) or Murten (2263 inhabitants),
+Romont (2110 inhabitants), and Estavayer le Lac
+or Stäffis am See (1636 inhabitants).</p>
+
+<p>The canton is pre-eminently a pastoral and agricultural
+region, tobacco, cheese and timber being its chief products.
+Its industries are comparatively few: straw-plaiting, watch-making
+(Semsales), paper-making (Marly), lime-kilns, and, above
+all, the huge Cailler chocolate factory at Broc. It forms part
+of the diocese of Lausanne and Geneva, the bishop living since
+1663 at Fribourg. It is a stronghold of the Romanists, and still
+contains many monasteries and nunneries, such as the Carthusian
+monks at Valsainte, and the Cistercian nuns at La Fille Dieu
+and at Maigrauge. The canton is divided into 7 administrative
+districts, and contains 283 communes. It sends 2 members
+(named by the cantonal legislature) to the Federal <i>Ständerath</i>,
+and 6 members to the Federal <i>Nationalrath</i>. The cantonal
+constitution has scarcely been altered since 1857, and is remarkable
+as containing none of the modern devices (referendum,
+initiative, proportional representation) save the right of &ldquo;initiative&rdquo;
+enjoyed by 6000 citizens to claim the revision of the
+cantonal constitution. The executive council of 7 members is
+named for 5 years by the cantonal legislature, which consists
+of members (holding office for 5 years) elected in the proportion
+of one to every 1200 (or fraction over 800) of the population.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIBOURG<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> [Ger. <i>Freiburg</i>], the capital of the Swiss canton
+of that name. It is built almost entirely on the left bank of the
+Sarine, the oldest bit (the Bourg) of the town being just above
+the river bank, flanked by the Neuveville and Auge quarters,
+these last (with the Planche quarter on the right bank of the
+river) forming the <i>Ville Basse</i>. On the steeply rising ground
+to the west of the Bourg is the Quartier des Places, beyond
+which, to the west and south-west, is the still newer Pérolles
+quarter, where are the railway station and the new University;
+all these (with the Bourg) constituting the <i>Ville Haute</i>. In
+1900 the population of the town was 15,794, of whom 13,270
+were Romanists and 109 Jews, while 9701 were French-speaking,
+and 5595 German-speaking, these last being mainly in the Ville
+Basse. Its linguistic history is curious. Founded as a German
+town, the French tongue became the official language during the
+greater part of the 14th and 15th centuries, but when it joined
+the Swiss Confederation in 1481 the German influence came to
+the fore, and German was the official language from 1483 to 1798,
+becoming thus associated with the rule of the patricians. From
+1798 to 1814, and again from 1830 onwards, French prevailed,
+as at present, though the new University is a centre of German
+influence.</p>
+
+<p>Fribourg is on the main line of railway from Bern (20 m.) to
+Lausanne (41 m.). The principal building in the town is the
+collegiate church of St Nicholas, of which the nave dates from the
+13th-14th centuries, while the choir was rebuilt in the 17th
+century. It is a fine building, remarkable in itself, as well as
+for its lofty, late 15th century, bell-tower (249 ft. high), with a
+fine peal of bells; its famous organ was built between 1824 and
+1834 by Aloys Mooser (a native of the town), has 7800 pipes,
+and is played daily in summer for the edification of tourists.
+The numerous monasteries in and around the town, its old-fashioned
+aspect, its steep and narrow streets, give it a most
+striking appearance. One of the most conspicuous buildings in
+the town is the college of St Michael, while in front of the 16th
+century town hall is an ancient lime tree stated (but this is very
+doubtful) to have been planted on the day of the victory of Morat
+(June 22, 1476). In the Lycée is the Cantonal Museum of Fine
+Arts, wherein, besides many interesting objects, is the collection
+of paintings and statuary bequeathed to the town in 1879 by
+Duchess Adela Colonna (a member of the d&rsquo;Affry family of
+Fribourg), by whom many were executed under the name of
+&ldquo;Marcello.&rdquo; The deep ravine of the Sarine is crossed by a very
+fine suspension bridge, constructed 1832-1834 by M. Chaley,
+of Lyons, which is 167 ft. above the Sarine, has a span of 808 ft.,
+and consists of 6 huge cables composed of 3294 strands. A
+loftier suspension bridge is thrown over the Gotteron stream
+just before it joins the Sarine: it is 590 ft. long and 246 ft. in
+height, and was built in 1840. About 3 m. north of the town
+is the great railway viaduct or girder bridge of Grandfey, constructed
+in 1862 (1092 ft. in length, 249 ft. high) at a cost of
+2¾ million francs. Immediately above the town a vast dam
+(591 ft. long) was constructed across the Sarine by the engineer
+Ritter in 1870-1872, the fall thus obtained yielding a water-power
+of 2600 to 4000 horse-power, and forming a sheet of water
+known as the Lac de Pérolles. A motive force of 600 horse-power,
+secured by turbines in the stream, is conveyed to the
+plateau of Pérolles by &ldquo;telodynamic&rdquo; cables of 2510 ft. in
+length, for whose passage a tunnel has been pierced in the rock.
+On the Pérolles plateau is the International Catholic University
+founded in 1889.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;In 1178 the foundation of the town (meant to hold
+in check the turbulent nobles of the neighbourhood) was completed
+by Berchthold IV., duke of Zähringen, whose father Conrad
+had founded Freiburg in Breisgau in 1120, and whose son,
+Berchthold V., was to found Bern in 1191. The spot was chosen
+for purposes of military defence, and was situated in the <i>Uechtland</i>
+or waste land between Alamannian and Burgundian
+territory. He granted it many privileges, modelled on the
+charters of Cologne and of Freiburg in Breisgau, though the oldest
+existing charter of the town dates from 1249. On the extinction
+of the male line of the Zähringen dynasty, in 1218, their lands
+passed to Anna, the sister of the last duke and wife of Count
+Ulrich of Kyburg. That house kept Fribourg till it too became
+extinct, in 1264, in the male line. Anna, the heiress, married
+about 1273 Eberhard, count of Habsburg-Laufenburg, who sold
+Fribourg in 1277 for 3000 marks to his cousin Rudolf, the head
+of the house of Habsburg as well as emperor. The town had to
+fight many a hard battle for its existence against Bern and the
+count of Savoy, especially between 1448 and 1452. Abandoned
+by the Habsburgs, and desirous of escaping from the increasing
+power of Bern, Fribourg in 1452 finally submitted to the count
+of Savoy, to whom it had become indebted for vast sums of money.
+Yet, despite all its difficulties, it was in the first half of the 15th
+century that Fribourg exported much leather and cloth to France,
+Italy and Venice, as many as 10,000 to 20,000 bales of cloth being
+stamped with the seal of the town. When Yolande, dowager
+duchess of Savoy, entered into an alliance with Charles the Bold,
+duke of Burgundy, Fribourg joined Bern, and helped to gain the
+victories of Grandson and of Morat (1476).</p>
+
+<p>In 1477 the town was finally freed from the rule of Savoy,
+while in 1481 (with Soleure) it became a member of the Swiss
+Confederation, largely, it is said, through the influence of the
+holy man, Bruder Klaus (Niklaus von der Flüe). In 1475
+the town had taken Illens and Arconciel from Savoy, and in
+1536 won from Vaud much territory, including Romont, Rue,
+Châtel St Denis, Estavayer, St Aubin (by these two conquests its
+dominion reached the Lake of Neuchâtel), as well as Vuissens and
+Surpierre, which still form outlying portions (physically within
+the canton of Vaud) of its territory, while in 1537 it took Bulle
+from the bishop of Lausanne. In 1502-1504 the lordship of
+Bellegarde or Jaun was bought, while in 1555 it acquired (jointly
+with Bern) the lands of the last count of the Gruyère, and thus
+obtained the rich district of that name. From 1475 it ruled
+(with Bern) the bailiwicks of Morat, Grandson, Orbe and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span>
+Echallens, just taken from Savoy, but in 1798 Morat was incorporated
+with (finally annexed in 1814) the canton of Fribourg,
+the other bailiwicks being then given to the canton of Léman
+(later of Vaud). In the 16th century the original democratic
+government gradually gave place to the oligarchy of the patrician
+families. Though this government caused much discontent
+it continued till it was overthrown on the French occupation of
+1798.</p>
+
+<p>From 1803 (Act of Mediation) to 1814, Fribourg was one of
+the six cantons of the Swiss Confederation. But, on the fall of
+the new régime, in 1814, the old patrician rule was partly restored,
+as 108 of the 144 seats in the cantonal legislature were assigned to
+members of the patrician families. In 1831 the Radicals gained
+the power and secured the adoption of a more liberal constitution.
+In 1846 Fribourg (where the Conservatives had regained power
+in 1837) joined the <i>Sonderbund</i> and, in 1847, saw the Federal
+troops before its walls, and had to surrender to them. The
+Radicals now came back to power, and again revised the cantonal
+constitution in a liberal sense. The Catholic and Conservative
+party made several attempts to recover their supremacy, but
+their chiefs were driven into exile. In 1856 the Conservatives
+regained the upper hand at the general cantonal election, secured
+the adoption in 1857 of a new cantonal constitution, and have
+ever since maintained their rule, which some dub &ldquo;clerical,&rdquo;
+while others describe it as &ldquo;anti-radical.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Archives de la Société d&rsquo;histoire du Canton de
+F.</i>, from 1850; F. Buomberger, <i>Bevölkerungs- u. Vermögensstatistik
+in d. Stadt u. Landschaft F. um die Mitte d. 15ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Bern,
+1900); A. Daguet, <i>Histoire de la ville et de la seigneurie de F.</i>, to
+1481 (Fribourg, 1889); A. Dellion, <i>Dictionnaire historique et
+statistique des paroisses catholiques du C. de F.</i> (12 vols., Fribourg,
+1884-1903); <i>Freiburger Geschichtsblätter</i>, from 1894; <i>Fribourg
+artistique</i> (fine plates), from 1890; E. Heyck, <i>Geschichte der Herzoge
+von Zähringen</i> (Freiburg i. Br., 1891); F. Kuenlin, <i>Der K. Freiburg</i>
+(St Gall and Bern, 1834); <i>Mémorial de F.</i> (6 vols., 1854-1859);
+<i>Recueil diplomatique du Cant. de F.</i> (original documents) (8 vols.,
+Fribourg, 1839-1877); F. E. Welti, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des
+älteren Stadtrechtes von Freiburg im Uechtland</i> (Bern, 1908); J. Zemp,
+<i>L&rsquo;Art de la ville de Fribourg au moyen âge</i> (Fribourg, 1905); J.
+Zimmerli, <i>Die deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in d. Schweiz</i>
+(Basel and Geneva, 1895), vol. ii., pp. 72 seq.; <i>Les Alpes fribourgeoises</i>
+(Lausanne, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRICTION<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>fricare</i>, to rub), in physical and mechanical
+science, the term given to the resistance which every material
+surface presents to the sliding of any other such surface upon it.
+This resistance is due to the roughness of the surfaces; the
+minute projections upon each enter more or less into the minute
+depressions on the other, and when motion occurs these roughnesses
+must either be worn off, or continually lifted out of the
+hollows into which they have fallen, or both, the resistance to
+motion being in either case quite perceptible and measurable.</p>
+
+<p>Friction is preferably spoken of as &ldquo;resistance&rdquo; rather than
+&ldquo;force,&rdquo; for a reason exactly the same as that which induces
+us to treat stress rather as molecular resistance (to change of
+form) than as force, and which may be stated thus: although
+friction can be utilized as a moving force at will, and is continually
+so used, yet it cannot be a primary moving force; it can transmit
+or modify motion already existing, but cannot in the first instance
+cause it. For this some external force, not friction, is required.
+The analogy with stress appears complete; the motion of the
+&ldquo;driving link&rdquo; of a machine is communicated to all the other
+parts, modified or unchanged as the case may be, by the stresses
+in those parts; but the actual setting in motion of the driving
+link itself cannot come about by stress, but must have for its
+production force obtained directly from the expenditure of some
+form of energy. It is important, however, that the use of the
+term &ldquo;resistance&rdquo; should not be allowed to mislead. Friction
+resists the motion of one surface upon another, but it may and
+frequently does confer the motion of the one upon the other, and
+in this way causes, instead of resists, the motion of the latter.
+This may be made more clear, perhaps, by an illustration.
+Suppose we have a leather strap A passing over a fixed cylindrical
+drum B, and let a pulling force or effort be applied to the strap.
+The force applied to A can act on B only at the surfaces of contact
+between them. There it becomes an effort tending either to move
+A upon B, or to move the body B itself, according to the frictional
+conditions. In the absence of friction it would simply cause A
+to slide on B, so that we may call it an effort tending to make
+A slide on B. The friction is the resistance offered by the surface
+of B to any such motion. But the value of this resistance is not
+in any way a function of the effort itself,&mdash;it depends chiefly
+upon the pressure normal to the surfaces and the nature of the
+surfaces. It may therefore be either less or greater than the
+effort. If less, A slides over B, the rate of motion being determined
+by the excess of the effort over the resistance (friction).
+But if the latter be greater no sliding can occur, <i>i.e.</i> A cannot,
+under the action of the supposed force, move upon B. The effort
+between the surfaces exists, however, exactly as before,&mdash;and
+it must now tend to cause the motion of B. But the body B is
+fixed,&mdash;or, in other words, we suppose its resistance to motion
+greater than any effort which can tend to move it,&mdash;hence no
+motion takes place. It must be specially noticed, however,
+that it is not the friction between A and B that has prevented
+motion, this only prevented A moving on B,&mdash;it is the force
+which keeps B stationary, whatever that may be, which has
+finally prevented any motion taking place. This can be easily
+seen. Suppose B not to be fixed, but to be capable of moving
+against some third body C (which might, <i>e.g.</i>, contain cylindrical
+bearings, if B were a drum with its shaft), itself fixed,&mdash;and
+further, suppose the frictional resistance between B and C to
+be the only resistance to B&rsquo;s motion. Then if this be less than
+the effort of A upon B, as it of course may be, this effort will cause
+the motion of B. Thus friction causes motion, for had there
+been no frictional resistance between the surfaces of A and of B,
+the latter body would have remained stationary, and A only
+would have moved. In the case supposed, therefore, the friction
+between A and B is a necessary condition of B receiving any
+motion from the external force applied to A.</p>
+
+<p>Without entering here on the mathematical treatment of
+the subject of friction, some general conclusions may be pointed
+out which have been arrived at as the results of experiment.
+The &ldquo;laws&rdquo; first enunciated by C. A. Coulomb (1781), and afterwards
+confirmed by A. J. Morin (1830-1834), have been found to
+hold good within very wide limits. These are: (1) that the friction
+is proportional to the normal pressure between the surfaces
+of contact, and therefore independent of the area of those surfaces,
+and (2) that it is independent of the velocity with which the
+surfaces slide one on the other. For many practical purposes
+these statements are sufficiently accurate, and they do in fact
+sensibly represent the results of experiment for the pressures
+and at the velocities most commonly occurring. Assuming the
+correctness of these, friction is generally measured in terms
+simply of the total pressure between the surfaces, by multiplying
+it by a &ldquo;coefficient of friction&rdquo; depending on the material of
+the surfaces and their state as to smoothness and lubrication.
+But beyond certain limits the &ldquo;laws&rdquo; stated are certainly
+incorrect, and are to be regarded as mere practical rules, of
+extensive application certainly, but without any pretension to
+be looked at as really general laws. Both at very high and very
+low pressures the coefficient of friction is affected by the intensity
+of pressure, and, just as with velocity, it can only be regarded
+as independent of the intensity and proportional simply to the
+total load within more or less definite limits.</p>
+
+<p>Coulomb pointed out long ago that the resistance of a body
+to be set in motion was in many cases much greater than the
+resistance which it offered to continued motion; and since his
+time writers have always distinguished the &ldquo;friction of rest,&rdquo;
+or static friction, from the &ldquo;friction of motion,&rdquo; or kinetic
+friction. He showed also that the value of the former depended
+often both upon the intensity of the pressure and upon the
+length of time during which contact had lasted, both of which
+facts quite agree with what we should expect from our knowledge
+of the physical nature, already mentioned, of the causes
+of friction. It seems not unreasonable to expect that the
+influence of time upon friction should show itself in a comparison
+of very slow with very rapid motion, as well as in a comparison
+of starting (<i>i.e.</i> motion after a long time of rest) with continued
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span>
+motion. That the friction at the higher velocities occurring in
+engineering practice is much less than at common velocities
+has been shown by several modern experiments, such as those
+of Sir Douglas Galton (see <i>Report Brit. Assoc.</i>, 1878, and <i>Proc.
+Inst. Mech. Eng.</i>, 1878, 1879) on the friction between brake-blocks
+and wheels, and between wheels and rails. But no increase in
+the coefficient of friction had been detected at slow speeds,
+until the experiments of Prof. Fleeming Jenkin (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>,
+1877, pt. 2) showed conclusively that at extremely low velocities
+(the lowest measured was about .0002 ft. per second) there is a
+sensible increase of frictional resistance in many cases, most
+notably in those in which there is the most marked difference
+between the friction of rest and that of motion. These experiments
+distinctly point to the conclusion, although without
+absolutely proving it, that in such cases the coefficient of kinetic
+friction gradually increases as the velocity becomes extremely
+small, and passes without discontinuity into that of static
+friction.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. B. W. K.; W. E. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIDAY<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (A.S. <i>frige-dæg</i>, fr. <i>frige</i>, gen. of <i>frigu</i>, love, or the
+goddess of love&mdash;the Norse Frigg,&mdash;the <i>dæg</i>, day; cf. Icelandic
+<i>frjádagr</i>, O.H. Ger. <i>friatag</i>, <i>frigatag</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Freitag</i>),
+the sixth day of the week, corresponding to the Roman <i>Dies
+Veneris</i>, the French <i>Vendredi</i> and Italian <i>Venerdi</i>. The ill-luck
+associated with the day undoubtedly arose from its connexion
+with the Crucifixion; for the ancient Scandinavian peoples
+regarded it as the luckiest day of the week. By the Western
+and Eastern Churches the Fridays throughout the year, except
+when Christmas falls on that day, have ever been observed as
+days of fast in memory of the Passion. The special day on
+which the Passion of Christ is annually commemorated is
+known as Good Friday (<i>q.v.</i>). According to Mahommedan
+tradition, Friday, which is the Moslem Sabbath, was the day on
+which Adam was created, entered Paradise and was expelled,
+and it was the day of his repentance, the day of his death, and
+will be the Day of Resurrection.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDBERG,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the name of two towns in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>1. A small town in Upper Bavaria, with an old castle, known
+mainly as the scene of Moreau&rsquo;s victory of the 24th of August
+1796 over the Austrians.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Friedberg in der Wetterau</span>, in the grand duchy of
+Hesse-Darmstadt, on an eminence above the Usa, 14 m. N. of
+Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway to Cassel and at the junction
+of a line to Hanau. Pop. (1905) 7702. It is a picturesque
+town, still surrounded by old walls and towers, and contains many
+medieval buildings, of which the beautiful Gothic town church
+(Evangelical) and the old castle are especially noteworthy.
+The grand-ducal palace has a beautiful garden. The schools
+include technical and agricultural academies and a teachers&rsquo;
+seminary. It has manufactures of sugar, gloves and leather,
+and breweries. Friedberg is of Roman origin, but is first mentioned
+as a town in the 11th century. In 1211 it became a free
+imperial city, but in 1349 was pledged to the counts of Schwarzburg,
+and subsequently often changed hands, eventually in
+1802 passing to Hesse-Darmstadt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dieffenbach, <i>Geschichte der Stadt und Burg Friedberg</i> (Darms.,
+1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDEL, CHARLES<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1832-1899), French chemist and mineralogist,
+was born at Strassburg on the 12th of March 1832.
+After graduating at Strassburg University he spent a year in
+the counting-house of his father, a banker and merchant, and
+then in 1851 went to live in Paris with his maternal grandfather,
+Georges Louis Duvernoy (1777-1855), professor of natural
+history and, from 1850, of comparative anatomy, at the Collège
+de France. In 1854 he entered C. A. Wurtz&rsquo;s laboratory, and
+in 1856, at the instance of H. H. de Sénarmont (1808-1862), was
+appointed conservator of the mineralogical collections at the
+École des Mines. In 1871 he began to lecture in place of A. L.
+O. L. Des Cloizeaux (1817-1897) at the École Normale, and in
+1876 he became professor of mineralogy at the Sorbonne, but on
+the death of Wurtz in 1884 he exchanged that position for
+the chair of organic chemistry. He died at Montauban on the
+20th of April 1899. Friedel achieved distinction both in mineralogy
+and organic chemistry. In the former he was one of the
+leading workers, in collaboration from 1879 to 1887 with Émile
+Edmond Sarasin (1843-1890), at the formation of minerals by
+artificial means, particularly in the wet way with the aid of heat
+and pressure, and he succeeded in reproducing a large number
+of the natural compounds. In 1893, as the result of an attempt
+to make diamond by the action of sulphur on highly carburetted
+cast iron at 450°-500° C. he obtained a black powder too small in
+quantity to be analysed but hard enough to scratch corundum.
+He also devoted much attention to the pyroelectric phenomena
+of crystals, which served as the theme of one of the two memoirs
+he presented for the degree of D.Sc. in 1869, and to the determination
+of crystallographic constants. In organic chemistry,
+his study of the ketones and aldehydes, begun in 1857, provided
+him with the subject of his other doctoral thesis. In 1862 he
+prepared secondary propyl alcohol, and in 1863, with James
+Mason Crafts (b. 1839), for many years a professor at the Massachusetts
+Institute of Technology, Boston, he obtained various
+organometallic compounds of silicon. A few years later further
+work, with Albert Ladenburg, on the same element yielded
+silicochloroform and led to a demonstration of the close analogy
+existing between the behaviour in combination of silicon and
+carbon. In 1871, with R. D. da Silva (b. 1837) he synthesized
+glycerin, starting from propylene. In 1877, with Crafts, he
+made the first publication of the fruitful and widely used method
+for synthesizing benzene homologues now generally known as
+the &ldquo;Friedel and Crafts reaction.&rdquo; It was based on an accidental
+observation of the action of metallic aluminium on amyl chloride,
+and consists in bringing together a hydrocarbon and an organic
+chloride in presence of aluminium chloride, when the residues
+of the two compounds unite to form a more complex body.
+Friedel was associated with Wurtz in editing the latter&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire
+de chimie</i>, and undertook the supervision of the supplements
+issued after 1884. He was the chief founder of the <i>Revue générale
+de chimie</i> in 1899. His publications include a <i>Notice sur la vie
+et les travaux de Wurtz</i> (1885), <i>Cours de chimie organique</i> (1887)
+and <i>Cours de minéralogie</i> (1893). He acted as president of the
+International Congress held at Geneva in 1892 for revising the
+nomenclature of the fatty acid series.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See a memorial lecture by J. M. Crafts, printed in the <i>Journal of
+the London Chemical Society</i> for 1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDLAND,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a town of Bohemia, Austria, 103 m. N.E. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 6229. Besides the old town, which
+is still surrounded by walls, it contains three suburbs. The
+principal industry is the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth.
+Friedland is chiefly remarkable for its old castle, which occupies
+an imposing situation on a small hill commanding the town.
+A round watch-tower is said to have been built on its site as
+early as 1014; and the present castle dates from the 13th century.
+It was several times besieged in the Thirty Years&rsquo; and Seven
+Years&rsquo; Wars. In 1622 it was purchased by Wallenstein, who
+took from it his title of duke of Friedland. After his death it
+was given to Count Mathias Gallas by Ferdinand II., and since
+1757 it has belonged to the Count Clam Gallas. It was magnificently
+restored in 1868-1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDLAND,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> the name of seven towns in Germany. The
+most important now is that in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
+on the Mühlenteich, 35 m. N.E. of Strelitz by the
+railway to Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. 7000. It possesses a fine
+Gothic church and a gymnasium, and has manufactures of
+woollen and linen cloth, leather and tobacco. Friedland was
+founded in 1244 by the margraves John and Otto III. of
+Brandenburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDLAND,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town of Prussia, on the Alle, 27 m. S.E. of
+Königsberg (pop. 3000), famous as the scene of the battle
+fought between the French under Napoleon and the Russians
+commanded by General Bennigsen, on the 14th of June 1807
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). The Russians had on the 13th
+driven the French cavalry outposts from Friedland to the westward,
+and Bennigsen&rsquo;s main body began to occupy the town in
+the night. The army of Napoleon was set in motion for Friedland,
+but it was still dispersed on its various march routes, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span>
+first stage of the engagement was thus, as usual, a pure
+&ldquo;encounter-battle.&rdquo; The corps of Marshal Lannes as &ldquo;general
+advanced guard&rdquo; was first engaged, in the Sortlack Wood and
+in front of Posthenen (2.30-3 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 14th). Both sides now
+used their cavalry freely to cover the formation of lines of battle,
+and a race between the rival squadrons for the possession of
+Heinrichsdorf resulted in favour of the French under Grouchy.
+Lannes in the meantime was fighting hard to hold Bennigsen,
+for Napoleon feared that the Russians meant to evade him again.
+Actually, by 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Bennigsen had nearly 50,000 men across the
+river and forming up west of Friedland. His infantry, in two
+lines, with artillery, extended between the Heinrichsdorf-Friedland
+road and the upper bends of the river. Beyond the right of the
+infantry, cavalry and Cossacks extended the line to the wood
+N.E. of Heinrichsdorf, and small bodies of Cossacks penetrated
+even to Schwonau. The left wing also had some cavalry and,
+beyond the Alle, batteries were brought into action to cover it.
+A heavy and indecisive fire-fight raged in the Sortlack Wood
+between the Russian skirmishers and some of Lannes&rsquo;s troops.
+The head of Mortier&rsquo;s (French and Polish) corps appeared at
+Heinrichsdorf and the Cossacks were driven out of Schwonau.
+Lannes held his own, and by noon, when Napoleon arrived,
+40,000 French troops were on the scene of action. His orders
+were brief: Ney&rsquo;s corps was to take the line between Posthenen
+and the Sortlack Wood, Lannes closing on his left, to form the
+centre, Mortier at Heinrichsdorf the left wing. Victor and the
+Guard were placed in reserve behind Posthenen. Cavalry
+masses were collected at Heinrichsdorf. The main attack was
+to be delivered against the Russian left, which Napoleon saw at
+once to be cramped in the narrow tongue of land between the
+river and the Posthenen mill-stream. Three cavalry divisions
+were added to the general reserve. The course of the previous
+operations had been such that both armies had still large detachments
+out towards Königsberg. The afternoon was spent by
+the emperor in forming up the newly arrived masses, the deployment
+being covered by an artillery bombardment. At 5 o&rsquo;clock
+all was ready, and Ney, preceded by a heavy artillery fire,
+rapidly carried the Sortlack Wood. The attack was pushed on
+toward the Alle. One of Ney&rsquo;s divisions (Marchand) drove part
+of the Russian left into the river at Sortlack. A furious charge
+of cavalry against Marchand&rsquo;s left was repulsed by the dragoon
+division of Latour-Maubourg. Soon the Russians were huddled
+together in the bends of the Alle, an easy target for the guns of
+Ney and of the reserve. Ney&rsquo;s attack indeed came eventually
+to a standstill; Bennigsen&rsquo;s reserve cavalry charged with great
+effect and drove him back in disorder. As at Eylau, the approach
+of night seemed to preclude a decisive success, but in June and
+on firm ground the old mobility of the French reasserted
+its value. The infantry division of Dupont advanced rapidly
+from Posthenen, the cavalry divisions drove back the Russian
+squadrons into the now congested masses of foot on the river
+bank, and finally the artillery general Sénarmont advanced a
+mass of guns to case-shot range. It was the first example of
+the terrible artillery preparations of modern warfare, and the
+Russian defence collapsed in a few minutes. Ney&rsquo;s exhausted
+infantry were able to pursue the broken regiments of Bennigsen&rsquo;s
+left into the streets of Friedland. Lannes and Mortier had all
+this time held the Russian centre and right on its ground, and
+their artillery had inflicted severe losses. When Friedland itself
+was seen to be on fire, the two marshals launched their infantry
+attack. Fresh French troops approached the battlefield.
+Dupont distinguished himself for the second time by fording
+the mill-stream and assailing the left flank of the Russian centre.
+This offered a stubborn resistance, but the French steadily
+forced the line backwards, and the battle was soon over. The
+losses incurred by the Russians in retreating over the river at
+Friedland were very heavy, many soldiers being drowned.
+Farther north the still unbroken troops of the right wing drew
+off by the Allenburg road; the French cavalry of the left wing,
+though ordered to pursue, remaining, for some reason, inactive.
+The losses of the victors were reckoned at 12,100 out of 86,000,
+or 14%, those of the Russians at 10,000 out of 46,000, or 21%
+(Berndt, <i>Zahl im Kriege</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:516px; height:529px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img216.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDMANN, MEIR<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1831-1908), Hungarian Jewish scholar.
+His editions of the Midrash are the standard texts. His chief
+editions were the <i>Sifre</i> (1864), the <i>Mekhilta</i> (1870), <i>Pesiqla
+Rabbathi</i> (1880). At the time of his death he was editing the
+<i>Sifra</i>. Friedmann, while inspired with regard for tradition, dealt
+with the Rabbinic texts on modern scientific methods, and rendered
+conspicuous service to the critical investigation of the
+Midrash and to the history of early homilies.</p>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDRICH, JOHANN<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1836-&emsp;&emsp;), German theologian, was
+born at Poxdorf in Upper Franconia on the 5th of May 1836,
+and was educated at Bamberg and at Munich, where in 1865 he
+was appointed professor extraordinary of theology. In 1869 he
+went to the Vatican Council as secretary to Cardinal Hohenlohe,
+and took an active part in opposing the dogma of papal infallibility,
+notably by supplying the opposition bishops with historical
+and theological material. He left Rome before the council
+closed. &ldquo;No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won
+for himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held
+so important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading
+German cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly
+open before him to the highest advancement in the Church of
+Rome, yet he deliberately sacrificed all such hopes and placed
+himself in the van of a hard and doubtful struggle&rdquo; (<i>The Guardian</i>,
+1872, p. 1004). Sentence of excommunication was passed on
+Friedrich in April 1871, but he refused to acknowledge it and
+was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued to
+perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic
+position, becoming ordinary professor in 1872. In 1882 he was
+transferred to the philosophical faculty as professor of history.
+By this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the advanced
+position which he at first occupied in organizing the Old
+Catholic Church, for he was not in agreement with its abolition
+of enforced celibacy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Friedrich was a prolific writer; among his chief works are:
+<i>Johann Wessel</i> (1862); <i>Die Lehre des Johann Hus</i> (1862); <i>Kirchengeschichte
+Deutschlands</i> (1867-1869); <i>Tagebuch während des Vatikan.
+Concils geführt</i> (1871); <i>Zur Verteidigung meines Tagebuchs</i> (1872);
+<i>Beiträge zur Kirchengeschichte des 18ten Jahrh.</i> (1876); <i>Geschichte des
+Vatikan. Konzils</i> (1877-1886); <i>Beiträge zur Gesch. des Jesuitenordens</i>
+(1881); <i>Das Papsttum</i> (1892); <i>I. v. Döllinger</i> (1899-1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDRICHRODA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a summer resort in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
+Germany, at the north foot of the Thuringian
+Forest, 13 m. by rail S.W. from Gotha. Pop. 4500. It is surrounded
+by fir-clad hills and possesses numerous handsome
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span>
+villa residences, a <i>Kurhaus</i>, sanatorium, &amp;c. In the immediate
+neighbourhood is the beautiful ducal hunting seat of Reinhardsbrunn,
+built out of the ruins of the famous Benedictine monastery
+founded in 1085.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDRICHSDORF,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus
+range, 3 m. N.E. from Homburg. Pop. 1300. It has a French
+Reformed church, a modern school, dyeworks, weaving mills,
+tanneries and tobacco manufactures. Friedrichsdorf was founded
+in 1687 by Huguenot refugees and the inhabitants still speak
+French. There is a monument to Philipp Reis (1834-1874),
+who in 1860 first constructed the telephone while a science
+master at the school.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDRICHSHAFEN,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Württemberg, on the east shore of the Lake of Constance, at
+the junction of railways to Bretten and Lindau. Pop. 4600.
+It consists of the former imperial town of Buchhorn and the
+monastery and village of Hofen. The principal building is the
+palace, formerly the residence of the provosts of Hofen, and
+now the summer residence of the royal family. To the palace
+is attached the Evangelical parish church. The town has a
+hydropathic establishment and is a favourite tourist resort.
+Here are also the natural history and antiquarian collections of
+the Lake Constance Association. Buchhorn is mentioned (as
+Buachihorn or Puchihorn) in documents of 837 and was the
+seat of a powerful countship. The line of counts died out in
+1089, and the place fell first to the Welfs and in 1191 to the
+Hohenstaufen. In 1275 it was made a free imperial city by
+King Rudolph I. In 1802 it lost this status and was assigned
+to Bavaria, and in 1810 to Württemberg. The monastery of
+Hofen was founded in 1050 as a convent of Benedictine nuns,
+but was changed in 1420 into a provostship of monks. It was
+suppressed in 1802 and in 1805 came to Württemberg. King
+Frederick I., who caused the harbour to be made, amalgamated
+Buchhorn and Hofen under the new name of Friedrichshafen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEDRICHSRUH,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a village in the Prussian province of
+Schleswig-Holstein, 15 m. S.E. of Hamburg, with a station on
+the main line of railway to Berlin. It gives its name to the
+famous country seat of the Bismarck family. The house is a
+plain unpretentious structure, but the park and estate, forming
+a portion of the famous Sachsenwald, are attractive. Close by,
+on a knoll, the Schneckenberg, stands the mausoleum in
+which the remains of Prince Otto von Bismarck were entombed
+on the 16th of March 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIENDLY<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">SOCIETIES.</span> These organizations, according to
+the comprehensive definition of the Friendly Societies Act 1896,
+which regulates such societies in Great Britain and Ireland,
+are &ldquo;societies for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscriptions
+of the members thereof, with or without the aid of donations,
+for the relief or maintenance of the members, their husbands,
+wives, children, fathers, mothers, brothers or sisters, nephews
+or nieces, or wards being orphans, during sickness or other
+infirmity, whether bodily or mental, in old age, or in widowhood,
+or for the relief or maintenance of the orphan children of members
+during minority; for insuring money to be paid on the birth of
+a member&rsquo;s child, or on the death of a member, or for the funeral
+expenses of the husband, wife, or child of a member, or of the
+widow of a deceased member, or, as respects persons of the
+Jewish persuasion, for the payment of a sum of money during
+the period of confined mourning; for the relief or maintenance
+of the members when on travel in search of employment or when
+in distressed circumstances, or in case of shipwreck, or loss
+or damage of or to boats or nets; for the endowment of members
+or nominees of members at any age; for the insurance against
+fire to any amount not exceeding £15 of the tools or implements
+of the trade or calling of the members&rdquo;&mdash;and are limited in
+their contracts for assurance of annuities to £52 (previous to the
+Friendly Societies Act 1908 the sum was £50), and for insurance
+of a gross sum to £300 (previous to the act of 1908 the sum was
+£200). They may be described in a more popular and condensed
+form of words as the mutual insurance societies of the poorer
+classes, by which they seek to aid each other in the emergencies
+arising from sickness and death and other causes of distress. A
+phrase in the first act for the encouragement and relief of friendly
+societies, passed in 1793, designating them &ldquo;societies of good
+fellowship,&rdquo; indicates another useful phase of their operations.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the friendly society is, probably in all countries,
+the burial club. It has been the policy of every religion, if indeed
+it is not a common instinct of humanity, to surround the disposal
+of a dead body with circumstances of pomp and expenditure,
+often beyond the means of the surviving relatives. The appeal
+for help to friends and neighbours which necessarily follows is
+soon organized into a system of mutual aid, that falls in naturally
+with the religious ceremonies by which honour is done to the
+dead. Thus in China there are burial societies, termed &ldquo;long-life
+loan companies,&rdquo; in almost all the towns and villages. Among
+the Greeks the <span class="grk" title="eranoi">&#7956;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span> combined the religious with the provident
+element (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charity and Charities</a></span>). From the Greeks the
+Romans derived their fraternities of a similar kind. The Teutons
+in like manner had their gilds. Whether the English friendly
+society owes its origin in the higher degree to the Roman or the
+Teutonic influence can hardly be determined. The utility of
+providing by combination for the ritual expenditure upon burial
+having been ascertained, the next step&mdash;to render mutual assistance
+in circumstances of distress generally&mdash;was an easy one,
+and we find it taken by the Greek <span class="grk" title="eranoi">&#7956;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span> and by the English
+gilds. Another modification&mdash;that the societies should consist not
+so much of neighbours as of persons having the same occupation&mdash;soon
+arises; and this is the germ of our trade unions and
+our city companies in their original constitution. The interest,
+however, that these inquiries possess is mainly antiquarian.
+The legal definition of a friendly society quoted above points to
+an organization more complex than those of the ancient fraternities
+and gilds, and proceeding upon different principles. It
+may be that the one has grown out of the other. The common
+element of a provision for a contingent event by a joint contribution
+is in both; but the friendly society alone has attempted
+to define with precision what is the risk against which it intends
+to provide, and what should be the contributions of the members
+to meet that risk.</p>
+
+<p><i>United Kingdom.</i>&mdash;It would be curious to endeavour to trace
+how, after the suppression of the religious gilds in the 16th
+century, and the substitution of an organized system of relief
+by the poor law of Elizabeth for the more voluntary and casual
+means of relief that previously existed, the modern system of
+friendly societies grew up. The modern friendly society, particularly
+in rural districts, clings with fondness to its annual feast
+and procession to church, its procession of all the brethren on
+the occasion of the funeral of one of them, and other incidents
+which are almost obviously survivals of the customs of medieval
+gilds. The last recorded gild was in existence in 1628, and there
+are records of friendly societies as early as 1634 and 1639. The
+connecting links, however, cannot be traced. With the exception
+of a society in the port of Borrowstounness on the Firth of Forth,
+no existing friendly society is known to be able to trace back its
+history beyond a date late in the 17th century, and no records
+remain of any that might have existed in the latter half of the
+16th century or the greater part of the 17th. One founded in
+1666 was extant in 1850, but it has since ceased to exist. This
+is not so surprising as it might appear. Documents which exist
+in manuscript only are much less likely to have been preserved
+since the invention of printing than they were before; and such
+would be the simple rules and records of any society that might
+have existed during this interval&mdash;if, indeed, many of them
+kept records at all. On the whole, it seems probable therefore
+that the friendly society is a lineal descendant of the ancient
+gild&mdash;the idea never having wholly died out, but having been
+kept up from generation to generation in a succession of small
+and scattered societies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span></p>
+
+<p>At the same time, it seems probable that the friendly society
+of the present day owes its revival to a great extent to the Protestant
+refugees of Spitalfields, one of whose societies was founded
+in 1703, and has continued among descendants of the same
+families, whose names proclaim their Norman origin. This
+society has distinguished itself by the intelligence with which it
+has adapted its machinery to the successive modifications of the
+law, and it completely reconstructed its rules under the provisions
+of the Friendly Societies Acts 1875 and 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Another is the society of Lintot, founded in London in 1708,
+in which the office of secretary was for more than half a century
+filled by persons of the name of Levesque, one of whom published
+a translation of its original rules. No one was to be received into
+the society who was not a member, or the descendant of a member,
+of the church of Lintot, of recognized probity, a good Protestant,
+and well-intentioned towards the queen [Anne] and
+faithful to the government of the country. No one was to be
+admitted below the age of eighteen, or who had not been received
+at holy communion and become member of a church. A
+member should not have a claim to relief during his first year&rsquo;s
+membership, but if he fell sick within the year a collection should
+be made for him among the members. The foreign names still
+borne by a large proportion of the members show that the connexion
+with descendants of the refugees is maintained.</p>
+
+<p>The example of providence given by these societies was so
+largely followed that Rose&rsquo;s Act in 1793 recognized the existence
+of numerous societies, and provided encouragement for them in
+various ways, as well as relief from taxation to an extent which
+in those days must have been of great pecuniary value, and exemption
+from removal under the poor law. The benefits offered
+by this statute were readily accepted by the societies, and the
+vast number of societies which speedily became enrolled shows
+that Rose&rsquo;s Act met with a real public want. In the county of
+Middlesex alone nearly a thousand societies were enrolled within
+a very few years after the passing of the act, and the number in
+some other counties was almost as great. The societies then
+formed were nearly all of a like kind&mdash;small clubs, in which the
+feature of good fellowship was in the ascendant, and that of
+provident assurance for sickness and death merely accessory.
+This is indicated by one provision which occurs in many of the
+early enrolled rules, viz. that the number of members shall be
+limited to 61, 81 or 101, as the case may be. The odd 1 which
+occurs in these numbers probably stands for the president or
+secretary, or is a contrivance to ensure a clear majority. Several
+of these old societies are still in existence, and can point to a
+prosperous career based rather upon good luck than upon
+scientific calculation. Founded among small tradesmen or
+persons in the way to thrive, the claims for sickness were only
+made in cases where the sickness was accompanied by distress,
+and even the funeral allowance was not always demanded.</p>
+
+<p>The societies generally not being established upon any scientific
+principle, those which met with this prosperity were the exception
+to the rule; and accordingly the cry that friendly societies
+were failing in all quarters was as great in 1819 as in 1869. A
+writer of that time speaks of the instability of friendly societies
+as &ldquo;universal&rdquo;; and the general conviction that this was so
+resulted in the passing of the act of 1819. It recites that &ldquo;the
+habitual reliance of poor persons upon parochial relief, rather
+than upon their own industry, tends to the moral deterioration
+of the people and to the accumulation of heavy burthens upon
+parishes; and it is desirable, with a view as well to the reduction
+of the assessment made for the relief of the poor as to the improvement
+of the habits of the people, that encouragement should be
+afforded to persons desirous of making provision for themselves
+or their families out of the fruits of their own industry. By the
+contributions of the savings of many persons to one common
+fund the most effectual provision may be made for the casualties
+affecting all the contributors; and it is therefore desirable to
+afford further facilities and additional security to persons who
+may be willing to unite in appropriating small sums from time
+to time to a common fund for the purposes aforesaid, and it is
+desirable to protect such persons from the effects of fraud or
+miscalculation.&rdquo; This preamble went on to recite that the
+provisions of preceding acts had been found insufficient for these
+purposes, and great abuses had prevailed in many societies
+established under their authority. By this statute a friendly
+society was defined as &ldquo;an institution, whereby it is intended
+to provide, by contribution, on the principle of mutual insurance,
+for the maintenance or assistance of the contributors thereto,
+their wives or children, in sickness, infancy, advanced age,
+widowhood or any other natural state or contingency, whereof
+the occurrence is susceptible of calculation by way of average.&rdquo;
+It will be seen that this act dealt exclusively with the scientific
+aspect of the societies, and had nothing to say to the element
+of good fellowship. Rules and tables were to be submitted by
+the persons intending to form a society to the justices, who,
+before confirming them, were to satisfy themselves that the contingencies
+which the society was to provide against were within
+the meaning of the act, and that the formation of the society
+would be useful and beneficial, regard being had to the existence
+of other societies in the same district. No tables or rules connected
+with calculation were to be confirmed by the justices until
+they had been approved by two persons at least, known to be
+professional actuaries or persons skilled in calculation, as fit
+and proper, according to the most correct calculation of which
+the nature of the case would admit. The justices in quarter
+sessions were also by this act authorized to publish general rules
+for the formation and government of friendly societies within
+their county. The practical effect of this statute in requiring that
+the societies formed under it should be established on sound
+principles does not appear to have been as great as might have
+been expected. The justices frequently accepted as &ldquo;persons
+skilled in calculation&rdquo; local schoolmasters and others who had
+no real knowledge of the technical difficulties of the subject,
+while the restrictions upon registry served only to increase the
+number of societies established without becoming registered.</p>
+
+<p>In 1829 the law relating to friendly societies was entirely reconstructed
+by an act of that year, and a barrister was appointed
+under that act to examine the rules of societies, and ascertain
+that they were in conformity to law and to the provisions of the
+act. The barrister so appointed was John Tidd Pratt (1797-1870);
+and no account of friendly societies would be complete
+that did not do justice to the remarkable public service rendered
+by this gentleman. For forty years, though he had by statute
+really very slight authority over the societies, his name exercised
+the widest influence, and the numerous reports and publications
+by which he endeavoured to impress upon the public mind sound
+principles of management of friendly societies, and to expose
+those which were managed upon unsound principles, made him
+a terror to evil-doers. On the other hand, he lent with readiness
+the aid of his legal knowledge and great mental activity to assisting
+well-intentioned societies in coming within the provisions
+of the acts, and thus gave many excellent schemes a legal
+organization.</p>
+
+<p>By the act of 1829, in lieu of the discretion as to whether the
+formation of the proposed society would be useful and beneficial,
+and the requirement of the actuarial certificate to the tables, it was
+enacted that the justices were to satisfy themselves that the
+tables proposed to be used might be adopted with safety to all
+parties concerned. This provision, of course, became a dead
+letter and was repealed in 1834. Thenceforth, societies were
+free to establish themselves upon what conditions and with what
+rates they chose, provided only they satisfied the barrister that
+the rules were &ldquo;calculated to carry into effect the intention of the
+parties framing them,&rdquo; and were &ldquo;in conformity to law.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By an act of 1846 the barrister certifying the rules
+was constituted &ldquo;Registrar of Friendly Societies,&rdquo; and the
+rules of all societies were brought together under his custody.
+An actuarial certificate was to be obtained before any society
+could be registered &ldquo;for the purpose of securing any benefit
+dependent on the laws of sickness and mortality.&rdquo; In 1850 the
+acts were again repealed and consolidated with amendments.
+Societies were divided into two classes, &ldquo;certified&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;registered.&rdquo; The certified societies were such as obtained a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span>
+certificate to their tables by an actuary possessing a given qualification,
+who was required to set forth the data of sickness and
+mortality upon which he proceeded, and the rate of interest
+assumed in the calculations. All other societies were to be
+simply registered. Very few societies were constituted of the
+&ldquo;certified&rdquo; class. The distinction of classes was repealed and
+the acts were again consolidated in 1855. Under this act, which
+admitted of all possible latitude to the framers of rules of societies,
+21,875 societies were registered, a large number of them being
+lodges or courts of affiliated orders, and the act continued in
+force till the end of 1875.</p>
+
+<p>The Friendly Societies Act 1875 and the several acts amending
+it are still, in effect, the law by which these societies are regulated,
+though in form they have been replaced by two consolidating
+acts, viz. the Friendly Societies Act 1896 and the Collecting
+Societies and Industrial Assurance Companies Act 1896. This
+legislation still bears the permissive and elastic character which
+marked the more successful of the previous acts, but it provides
+ampler means to members of ascertaining and remedying defects of
+management and of restraining fraud. The business of registry is
+under the control of a chief registrar, who has an assistant registrar
+in each of the three countries, with an actuary. An appeal to the
+chief registrar in the case of the refusal of an assistant registrar
+to register a society or an amendment of rules, and in the case of
+suspension or cancelling of registry, is interposed before appeal
+is to be made to the High Court. Registry under a particular
+name may be refused if in the opinion of the registrar the name
+is likely to deceive the members or the public as to the nature
+of the society or as to its identity. It is the duty of the chief
+registrar, among other things, to require from every society a
+return in proper form each year of its receipts and expenditure,
+funds and effects; and also once every five years a valuation of
+its assets and liabilities. Upon the application of a certain
+proportion of the members, varying according to the magnitude
+of the society, the chief registrar may appoint an inspector to
+examine into its affairs, or may call a general meeting of the
+members to consider and determine any matter affecting its
+interests. These are powers which have been used with excellent
+effect. Cases have occurred in which fraud has been detected
+and punished by this means that could not probably have been
+otherwise brought to light. In others a system of mismanagement
+has been exposed and effectually checked. The power of calling
+special meetings has enabled societies to remedy defects in their
+rules, to remove officers guilty of misconduct, &amp;c., where the
+procedure prescribed by the rules was for some reason or other
+inapplicable. Upon an application of a like proportion of members
+the chief registrar may, if he finds that the funds of a society
+are insufficient to meet the existing claims thereon, or that
+the rates of contribution are insufficient to cover the benefits
+assured (upon which he consults his actuary), order the society
+to be dissolved, and direct how its funds are to be applied.
+Authority is given to the chief registrar to direct the expense
+(preliminary, incidental, &amp;c.) of an inspection or special
+meeting to be defrayed by the members or officers, or former
+members or officers, of a society, if he does not think they
+should be defrayed either by the applicants or out of the
+society&rsquo;s funds. He is also empowered, with the approval of
+the treasury, to exempt any friendly society from the provisions
+of the Collecting Societies Act if he considers it to be one to
+which those provisions ought not to apply. Every society registered
+after 1895, to which these provisions do apply, is to use the
+words &ldquo;Collecting Society&rdquo; as the last words of its name.</p>
+
+<p>The law as to the membership of infants has been altered three
+times. The act of 1875 allowed existing societies to continue
+any rule or practice of admitting children as members that was
+in force at its passing, and prohibited membership under sixteen
+years of age in any other case, except the case of a juvenile
+society composed wholly of members under that age. The
+treasury made special regulations for the registry of such juvenile
+societies. In 1887 the maximum age of their members was
+extended to twenty-one. In 1895 it was enacted that no society
+should have any members under one year of age, whether
+authorized by an existing rule or not; and that every society
+should be entitled to make a rule admitting members at any age
+over one year, but by the Friendly Societies Act 1908 membership
+was permitted to minors under the age of one year. The
+Treasury, upon the enactment of 1895 coming into operation,
+rescinded its regulations for the registry of juvenile societies;
+and though it is still the practice to submit for registry societies
+wholly composed of persons under twenty-one, these societies
+in no way differ from other societies, except in the circumstances
+that they are obliged to seek officers and a committee of management
+from outside, as no member of the committee of any society
+can be under twenty-one years of age. In order to promote the
+discontinuance of this anomalous proceeding of creating societies
+under the Friendly Societies Act, which, by the conditions of
+their existence, are unable to be self-governing, the act provides
+an easy method of amalgamating juvenile societies and ordinary
+societies or branches, or of distributing the members and the
+funds of a juvenile society among a number of branches. The
+liability of schoolboys and young working lads to sickness is
+small, and these societies frequently accumulate funds, which,
+as their membership is temporary, remain unclaimed and are
+sometimes misapplied.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The legislation of 1875 and 1876 was the result of the labours of
+a royal commission of high authority, presided over by Sir Stafford
+Northcote (afterwards Lord Iddesleigh), which sat from 1870 to 1874,
+and prosecuted an exhaustive inquiry into the organization and
+condition of the various classes of friendly societies. Their reports
+occupy more than a dozen large bluebooks. They divided registered
+friendly societies into 13 classes.</p>
+
+<p>The first class included the affiliated societies or &ldquo;orders,&rdquo; such
+as the Manchester Unity of Oddfellows, the Ancient Order of
+Foresters, the Rechabites, Druids, &amp;c. These societies have a
+central body, either situated in some large town, as in the case of the
+Manchester Unity, or moving from place to place, as in that of the
+Foresters. Under this central body, the country is (in most cases)
+parcelled out into districts, and these districts again consist each of
+a number of independent branches, called &ldquo;lodges,&rdquo; &ldquo;courts,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;tents,&rdquo; or &ldquo;divisions,&rdquo; having a separate fund administered by
+themselves, but contributing also to a fund under the control of
+the central body. Besides these great orders, there were smaller
+affiliated bodies, each having more than 1000 members; and the
+affiliated form of society appears to have great attraction. Indeed,
+in the colony of Victoria, Australia, all the existing friendly societies
+are of this class. The orders have their &ldquo;secrets,&rdquo; but these, it
+may safely be said, are of a very innocent character, and merely
+serve the purpose of identifying a member of a distant branch by his
+knowledge of the &ldquo;grip,&rdquo; and of the current password, &amp;c. Indeed
+they are now so far from being &ldquo;secret societies&rdquo; that their meetings
+are attended by reporters and the debates published in the newspapers,
+and the Order of Foresters has passed a wise resolution
+expunging from its publications all affectation of mystery.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the lodges existing before 1875 have converted themselves
+into registered branches. The requirement that for that purpose a
+vote of three-fourths should be necessary was altered in 1895 to a
+bare majority vote. The provisions as to settlement of disputes were
+extended in 1885 to every description of dispute between branches
+and the central body, and in 1895 it was provided that the forty
+days after which a member may apply to the court to settle a dispute
+where the society fails to do so, shall not begin to run until application
+has been made in succession to all the tribunals created by the order
+for the purpose. In 1887 it was enacted that no body which had been
+a registered branch should be registered as a separate society except
+upon production of a certificate from the order that it had seceded
+or been expelled; and in 1895 it was further enacted that no such
+body should, after secession or expulsion, use any name or number
+implying that it is still a branch of the order. The orders generally,
+especially the greater ones, have carefully supervised the valuations
+of their branches, and have urged and, as far as circumstances have
+rendered it practicable, have enforced upon the branches measures
+for diminishing the deficiencies which the valuations have disclosed.
+They have organized plans by which branches disposed to make an
+effort to help themselves in this matter may be assisted out of a
+central fund. The second class was made up of &ldquo;general societies,&rdquo;
+principally existing in London, of which the commissioners enumerated
+8 with nearly 60,000 members, and funds amounting to a
+quarter of a million.</p>
+
+<p>The third class included the &ldquo;county societies.&rdquo; These societies
+have been but feebly supported by those for whose benefit they are
+instituted, having all exacted high rates of contribution, in order
+to secure financial soundness.</p>
+
+<p>Class 4, &ldquo;local town societies,&rdquo; is a very numerous one. Among
+some of the larger societies may be mentioned the &ldquo;Chelmsford
+Provident,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Brighton and Sussex Mutual,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Cannon
+Street, Birmingham,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Birmingham General Provident.&rdquo; In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span>
+this group might also be included the interesting societies which are
+established among the Jewish community. They differ from ordinary
+friendly societies partly in the nature of the benefits granted upon
+death, which are intended to compensate for loss of employment
+during the time of ceremonial seclusion enjoined by the Jewish law,
+which is called &ldquo;sitting shiva.&rdquo; They also provide a cab for the
+mourners and rabbi, and a tombstone for the departed, and the
+same benefits as an ordinary friendly society during sickness. Some
+also provide a place of worship. Of these the &ldquo;Pursuers of Peace&rdquo;
+(enrolled in December 1797), the &ldquo;Bikhur Cholim, or Visitors
+of the Sick&rdquo; (April 1798), the &ldquo;Hozier Holim&rdquo; (1804), may be
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Class 5 was &ldquo;local village and country societies,&rdquo; including the
+small public-house clubs which abound in the villages and rural
+districts, a large proportion of which are unregistered.</p>
+
+<p>Class 6 was formed of &ldquo;particular trade societies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Class 7 was &ldquo;dividing societies.&rdquo; These were before 1875 unauthorized
+by law, though they were very attractive to the members.
+Their practice is usually to start afresh every January, paying a
+subscription somewhat in excess of that usually charged by an
+ordinary friendly society, out of which a sick allowance is granted
+to any member who may fall sick during the year, and at Christmas
+the balance not so applied is divided among the members equally,
+with the exception of a small sum left to begin the new year with.
+The mischief of the system is that, as there is no accumulation of
+funds, the society cannot provide for prolonged sickness or old age,
+and must either break up altogether or exclude its sick and aged
+members at the very time when they most need its help. This,
+however, has not impaired the popularity of the societies, and the
+act of 1875, framed on the sound principle that the protection of
+the law should not be withheld from any form of association, enables
+a society to be registered with a rule for dividing its funds, provided
+only that all existing claims upon the society are to be met before
+a division takes place.</p>
+
+<p>Class 8, &ldquo;deposit friendly societies,&rdquo; combine the characteristics
+of a savings bank with those of a friendly society. They were
+devised by the Hon. and Rev. S. Best, on the principle that a certain
+proportion of the sick allowance is to be raised out of a member&rsquo;s
+separate deposit account, which, if not so used, is retained for his
+benefit. Their advantages are in the encouragement they offer to
+saving, and in meeting the selfish objection sometimes raised to
+friendly societies, that the man who is not sick gets nothing for his
+money; their disadvantage is in their failing to meet cases of sickness
+so prolonged as to exhaust the whole of the member&rsquo;s own deposit.</p>
+
+<p>Class 9, &ldquo;collecting societies,&rdquo; are so called because their contributions
+are received through a machinery of house-to-house
+collection. These were the subject of much laborious investigation
+and close attention on the part of the commissioners. They deal
+with a lower class of the community, both with respect to means
+and to intelligence, than that from which the members of ordinary
+friendly societies are drawn. The large emoluments gained by the
+officers and collectors, the high percentage of expenditure (often exceeding
+half the contributions), and the excessive frequency of
+lapsing of insurances point to mischiefs in their management. &ldquo;The
+radical evil of the whole system (the commissioners remark) appears
+to us to lie in the employment of collectors, otherwise than under
+the direct supervision and control of the members, a supervision and
+control which we fear to be absolutely unattainable in burial societies
+that are not purely local.&rdquo; On the other hand, it must be conceded
+that these societies extend the benefits of life insurance to a class
+which the other societies cannot reach, namely, the class that will
+not take the trouble to attend at an office, but must be induced to
+effect an insurance by a house-to-house canvasser, and be regularly
+visited by the collector to ensure their paying the contributions.
+To many such persons these societies, despite all their errors of
+constitution and management, have been of great benefit. The great
+source of these errors lies in a tendency on the part of the managers
+of the societies to forget that they are simply trustees, and to look
+upon the concern as their own personal property to be managed for
+their own benefit. These societies are of two kinds, local and general.
+For the general societies the act of 1875 made certain stringent
+provisions. Each member was to be furnished with a copy of the
+rules for one penny, and a signed policy for the same charge. Forfeiture
+of benefit for non-payment is not to be enforced without
+fourteen days&rsquo; written notice. The transfer of a member from one
+society to another was not to be made without his written consent
+and notice to the society affected. No collector is to be a manager,
+or vote or take part at any meeting. At least one general meeting
+was to be held every year, of which notice must be given either by
+advertisement or by letter or post card to each member. The
+balance-sheet is to be open for inspection seven days before the
+meeting, and to be certified by a public accountant, not an officer of
+the society. Disputes could be settled by justices, or county courts,
+notwithstanding anything in the rules of the society to the contrary.
+Closely associated with the question of the management of these
+societies is that of the risk incurred by infant life, through the
+facilities offered by these societies for making insurances on the
+death of children. That this is a real risk is certain from the records
+of the assizes, and from many circumstances of suspicion; but the
+extent of it cannot be measured, and has probably been exaggerated.
+It has never been lawful to assure more than £6 on the death of a
+child under five years of age, or more than £10 on the death of one
+under ten. Previous to the act of 1875, however, there was no
+machinery for ascertaining that the law was complied with, or for
+enforcing it. This is supplied by that act, though still somewhat
+imperfectly. When the bill went up to the House of Lords, an
+amendment was made, reducing the limit of assurance on a child
+under three years of age to £3, but this amendment was unfortunately
+disagreed with by the House of Commons.</p>
+
+<p>Class 10, annuity societies, prevail in the west of England. These
+societies are few, and their business is diminishing. Most of them
+originated at the time when government subsidized friendly societies
+by allowing them £4 : 11 : 3% per annum interest. Now annuities
+may be purchased direct from the National Debt commissioners.
+These societies are more numerous, however, in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Class 11, female societies, are numerous. Many of them resemble
+affiliated orders at least in name, calling themselves Female Foresters,
+Odd Sisters, Loyal Orangewomen, Comforting Sisters and so forth.
+In their rules may be found such a provision as that a member shall
+be fined who does not &ldquo;behave as becometh an Orangewoman.&rdquo;
+Many are unregistered. In the northern counties of England they are
+sometimes termed &ldquo;life boxes,&rdquo; doubtless from the old custom of
+placing the contributions in a box. The trustees, treasurer, and
+committee are usually females, but very frequently the secretary
+is a man, paid a small salary.</p>
+
+<p>Under Class 12 the commissioners included the societies for
+various purposes which were authorized by the secretary of state to
+be registered under the Friendly Societies Act of 1855, comprising
+working-men&rsquo;s clubs, and certain specially authorized societies,
+as well as others that are now defined to be friendly societies. Among
+these purposes are assisting members in search of employment;
+assisting members during slack seasons of trade; granting temporary
+relief to members in distressed circumstances; purchase of coals and
+other necessaries to be supplied to members; relief or maintenance
+in case of lameness, blindness, insanity, paralysis, or bodily hurt
+through accidents; also, the assurance against loss by disease or
+death of cattle employed in trade or agriculture; relief in case of
+shipwreck or loss or damage to boats or nets; and societies for social
+intercourse, mutual helpfulness, mental and moral improvement,
+rational recreation, &amp;c., called working-men&rsquo;s clubs.</p>
+
+<p>Class 13 was composed of cattle insurance societies.</p>
+
+<p>These are the thirteen classes into which the commissioners
+divided registered friendly societies. There were 26,034 societies
+enrolled or certified under the various acts for friendly societies
+in force between 1793 and 1855; and, as we have seen, 21,875
+societies registered under the act of 1855 before the 1st January
+1876, when the act of 1875 came into operation. The total therefore
+of societies to which a legal constitution had been given was
+47,909. Of these 26,087 were presumed to be in existence when
+the registrar called for his annual return, but only 11,282 furnished
+the return required. These had 3,404,187 members, and £9,336,946
+funds. Twenty-two societies returned over 10,000 members each;
+nine over 30,000. One society (the Royal Liver Friendly Society,
+Liverpool, the largest of the collecting societies) returned 682,371
+members. The next in order was one of the same class, the United
+Assurance Society, Liverpool, with 159,957 members; but in all
+societies of this class the membership consists very largely of infants.
+The average of members in the 11,260 societies with less
+than 10,000 members each was only 171.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the registered societies; but there remained behind a
+large body of unregistered societies. With increased knowledge of
+the advantages of registration,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and of the true principles upon
+which friendly societies should be established, the number of unregistered
+societies, in comparison with those registered, ought to
+become much less.</p>
+
+<p>On the actuarial side it is in the highest degree essential to the
+interests of their members that friendly societies should be financially
+sound,&mdash;in other words, that they should throughout their existence
+be able to meet the engagements into which they have entered with
+their members. For this purpose it is necessary that the members&rsquo;
+contributions should be so fixed as to prove adequate, with proper
+management, to provide the benefits promised to the members.
+These benefits almost entirely depend upon the contingencies of
+health and life; that is, they take the form of payments to members
+when sick, of payments to members upon attaining given ages, or
+of payments upon members&rsquo; deaths, and frequently a member is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span>
+assured for all these benefits, viz. a weekly payment if at any time
+sick before attaining a certain age, a weekly payment for the
+remainder of life after attaining that age, and a sum to be paid upon
+his death. Of course the object of the allowance in sickness is to
+provide a substitute for the weekly wage lost in consequence of being
+unable to work, and the object of the weekly payment after attaining
+a certain age, when the member will probably be too infirm to be
+able to earn a living by the exercise of his calling or occupation, is
+to provide him with the necessaries of life, and so enable him to
+be independent of poor relief. There is every reason to believe that,
+when a large group of persons of the same age and calling are observed,
+there will be found to prevail among them, taken one with another,
+an average number of days&rsquo; sickness, as well as an average rate of
+mortality, in passing through each year of life, which can be very
+nearly predicted from the results furnished by statistics based upon
+observations previously made upon similarly circumstanced groups.
+Assuming, therefore, the necessary statistics to be attainable, the
+computation of suitable rates of contribution to be paid by the
+members of a society in return for certain allowances during sickness,
+or upon attaining a certain age, or upon death, can be readily made
+by an actuarial expert. Accordingly, to furnish these statistics, the
+act of 1875, in continuation of an enactment which first appeared
+in a statute passed in 1829, required every registered society to make
+quinquennial returns of the sickness and mortality experienced by
+its members. By the year 1880 ten periods of five years had been
+completed, and at the end of each of them a number of returns had
+been received. Some of these had been tabulated by actuaries, the
+latest tabulation being of those for the five years ending 1855.
+There remained untabulated five complete sets of returns for the
+five subsequent quinquennial periods. It was resolved that these
+should be tabulated once for all, and it was considered that they
+would afford sufficient material for the construction of tables of
+sickness and mortality that might be adopted for the future as
+standard tables for friendly societies; and that it would be
+inexpedient to impose any longer on the societies the burden of
+making such returns. This requirement of the act was accordingly
+repealed in 1882. The result of the tabulation appeared in 1896,
+in a bluebook of 1367 folio pages, containing tables based upon the
+experience of nearly four and a half million years of life. These
+tables showed generally, as compared with previous observations,
+an increased liability to sickness. This inference has been confirmed
+by the observations of Mr Alfred W. Watson, actuary to the Independent
+Order of Oddfellows, Manchester Unity Friendly Society,
+on his investigation of the sickness and mortality experience of that
+society during the five years 1893-1897, which extended over
+800,000 individuals, more than 3,000,000 years of life and 7,000,000
+weeks of sickness.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of the National Conference of Friendly Societies
+by the orders and a few other societies has been of great service in
+obtaining improvements in the law, and in enabling the societies
+strongly to represent to the government and the legislature any
+grievance entertained by them. A complaint that membership of a
+shop club was made by certain employers a condition of employment,
+and that the rules of the club required the members to withdraw
+from other societies, led to the appointment of a departmental
+committee, who recommended that such a condition of employment
+should be made illegal, except in certain cases, and that in every
+case it should be illegal to make the withdrawal from a society a
+condition of employment. In 1902 an act was passed based upon
+this recommendation.</p>
+
+<p>It is an increasing practice among societies of combining together
+to obtain medical attendance and medicine for their members by
+the formation of medical associations. In 1895 trade unions were
+enabled to join in such associations, and it was provided that a
+contributing society or union should not withdraw from an association
+except upon three months&rsquo; notice. The working of these
+associations has been viewed with dissatisfaction by members of the
+medical profession, and it has been suggested that a board of conciliation
+should be formed consisting of representatives of the
+Conference of Friendly Societies and of an equal number of medical
+men.</p>
+
+<p>The following figures are derived from returns of registered
+societies and branches of registered societies to the beginning of 1905:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of<br />Returns.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of<br />Members.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Funds.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ordinary Friendly Societies (classes 2 to 8, 10 and 11)</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,938</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,132,065</td> <td class="tcr rb">£17,042,398</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Societies having Branches (class 1)</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,819</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,606,029</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,446,330</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Collecting Friendly Societies (class 9)</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,448,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,862,569</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Benevolent Societies (class 12)</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,509</td> <td class="tcr rb">317,913</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Working Men&rsquo;s Clubs (class 12)</td> <td class="tcr rb">913</td> <td class="tcr rb">236,298</td> <td class="tcr rb">318,945</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Specially Authorized Societies (class 12)</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,089</td> <td class="tcr rb">628,759</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Specially Authorized Loan Societies (class 12)</td> <td class="tcr rb">517</td> <td class="tcr rb">115,511</td> <td class="tcr rb">771,578</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Medical Societies (see last paragraph)</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">324,145</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,049</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cattle Insurance Societies (class 13)</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,736</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,746</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Shop Clubs (under act of 1902)</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,859</td> <td class="tcr rb">773</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">29,588</td> <td class="tcr allb">13,978,790</td> <td class="tcr allb">£50,459,060</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>British Empire.</i>&mdash;In many of the British colonies legislation
+on the subject similar to that of the mother-country has been
+adopted. In those forming the Commonwealth of Australia
+and in New Zealand the affiliated orders hold the field, there
+being few, if any, independent friendly societies. The state
+of Victoria has more than 1000 lodges with more than 100,000
+members and nearly 1½ million pounds funds, averaging nearly
+£14 per member. Besides the registrar there is a government
+actuary for friendly societies, by whom the liabilities and
+accounts of all societies are valued every five years, a method
+which ensures uniformity in the processes of valuation. The
+friendly societies in the other Australasian states are not
+so numerous nor so wealthy, but are in each case under the
+supervision of vigilant public officials. In New Zealand a friendly
+society was established at New Plymouth in 1841, the first year
+of that settlement. The formation of a society at Nelson was
+resolved upon by the emigrants on shipboard on their passage
+out, and the first meeting was held among the tall fern near the
+beach a few days after they landed. The societies have now a
+registrar, an actuary, a revising barrister and two public valuers.
+Investigations have been made into their sickness experience,
+with results which compare favourably with those of the Manchester
+Unity and the registry office in the mother-country
+until the higher ages, when greater sickness appears to result
+from lower mortality. The average funds per member are
+£19, 10s. Nearly four-fifths are invested in the purchase or on
+mortgage of real estate.</p>
+
+<p>In Cape Colony no society is allowed to register unless it be
+shown to the satisfaction of the registrar that the contributions
+which it proposes to charge are adequate to provide for the
+benefits which it undertakes to grant. The consequence is that
+little more than one-third of the existing societies are registered.</p>
+
+<p>In the Dominion of Canada, province of Ontario, extensive
+powers of control are given to the registrar, and societies are not
+admitted to registry without strict proof of their compliance
+with the conditions of registry imposed by the law. Very full
+returns of their transactions are required and published, and
+registry is cancelled when any of the conditions of registry
+cease to be observed. These conditions apply not only to societies
+existing in Ontario, but to foreign societies transacting business
+there.</p>
+
+<p>In several of the West Indian Islands statutes have been
+passed on the model of British legislation and registrars have
+been appointed.</p>
+
+<p><i>European Countries.</i>&mdash;In foreign countries the development
+of friendly societies has proceeded upon different lines. Belgium
+has a <i>Commission royale permanente des sociétés de secours mutuel</i>.
+Under laws passed in 1851 and 1894 societies are divided into
+two classes, recognized and not recognized. The recognized
+societies were in 1886 only about half as many as the unrecognized.
+There were in 1904 nearly 7000 recognized societies
+with 700,000 members. They enjoy the privileges of incorporation,
+exemption from stamp duty, gratuitous announcement in
+the official Moniteur and may have free postage.</p>
+
+<p>In France under the second empire a scheme was prepared
+for assisting friendly societies by granting them collective
+insurances under government security. The societies have
+the privilege of investing their funds in the Caisse des Dépôts
+et Consignations, corresponding to the English National Debt
+commission. The dual classification
+of societies in France is into those
+&ldquo;authorized&rdquo; and those &ldquo;approved.&rdquo;
+By a law of the 1st of April 1898 a
+friendly society may be established by
+merely depositing a copy of its rules
+and list of officers with the sousprefet.
+Approved societies are entitled to
+certain state subventions for assisting
+in the purchase of old-age pensions and
+otherwise. A higher council has been
+established to advise on their working.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany a law was passed on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span>
+the 7th of April 1876 (amended on the 1st of June 1884)
+which prescribed for registered friendly societies many things
+which in England are left to the discretion of their founders;
+and it provided for an amount of official interference in their
+management that is wholly unknown here. The superintending
+authority had a right to inspect the books of every
+society, whether registered or not, and to give formal notice
+to a society to call in arrears, exclude defaulters, pay benefits
+or revoke illegal resolutions. A higher authority might, in
+certain cases, order societies to be dissolved. These provisions
+related to voluntary societies; but it was competent
+for communal authorities also to order the formation of a friendly
+society, and to make a regulation compelling all workmen not
+already members of a society to join it. Since then the great
+series of imperial statutes has been passed, commencing in 1883
+with that for sickness insurance, followed in 1884 by that for
+workmen&rsquo;s accident insurance, extended to sickness insurance
+in 1885, developed in the laws relating to accident and sickness
+insurance of persons engaged in agricultural and forestry pursuits
+in 1886, of persons engaged in the building trade and of seamen
+and others engaged in seafaring pursuits in 1887, and crowned
+by the law relating to infirmity and old-age insurance in 1889.
+Mr H. Unger, a distinguished actuary, remarks that the whole
+German workman&rsquo;s insurance and its executive bodies (sickness
+funds, trade associations, insurance institutions) are constantly
+endeavouring to improve the position of the workmen in a social
+and sanitary aspect, to the benefit of internal peace and the
+welfare of the German empire.</p>
+
+<p>In Holland it is stated that the number of burial clubs and
+sickness benefit societies appears to be greater in proportion
+to the population than in any other country; but that the burial
+clubs do not rest upon a scientific basis, and have an unfavourable
+influence upon infant mortality. Half the population are
+insured in some burial club or other. The sick benefit societies
+are, as in England, some in a good and some in a bad financial
+condition; and legislation follows the English system of compulsory
+publicity, combined with freedom of competition.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain friendly societies have grown out of the religious
+gilds. They are regulated by an act of 1887. Their actuarial
+condition appears to be backward, but to show indications of
+improvement.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. W. B.)</div>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;Under the title of fraternal societies are
+included in the United States what are known in England as
+friendly societies, having some basis of mutual help to members,
+mutual insurance associations and benefit associations of all
+kinds. There are various classes and a great variety of forms
+of fraternal associations. It is therefore difficult to give a concrete
+historical statement of their origin and growth; but, dealing
+with those having benefit features for the payment of certain
+amounts in case of sickness, accident or death, it is found that
+their history in the United States is practically within the last
+half of the 19th century. The more important of the older
+organizations are the Improved Order of Red Men, founded in
+1771 and reorganized in 1834; Ancient Order of Foresters,
+1836; Ancient Order of Hibernians of America, 1836; United
+Ancient Order of Druids, 1839; Independent Order of Rechabites,
+1842; Independent Order of B&rsquo;nai B&rsquo;rith, founded in 1843;
+Order of the United American Mechanics, 1845; Independent
+Order of Free Sons of Israel, 1849; Junior Order of United
+American Mechanics, 1853. A very large proportion, probably
+more than one-half, of the societies which have secret organizations
+pay benefits in case of sickness, accident, disability, and
+funeral expenses in case of death. This class of societies grew
+out of the English friendly societies and have masonic characteristics.
+The Freemasons and other secret societies, while not all
+having benefit features in their distinctive organizations, have
+auxiliary societies with such features. There is also a class of
+secret societies, based largely on masonic usages, that have for
+their principal object the payment of benefits in some form.
+These are the Oddfellows, the Knights of Pythias, the Knights
+of Honour, the Royal Arcanum and some others. Many trade
+unions have now adopted benefit features, especially the Typographical
+Union, while many subordinate unions and great
+publishing houses have mutual relief associations purely of a local
+character, and some of the more important newspapers have such
+mutual relief or benefit societies. The New York trade unions,
+taken as a whole, have paid out large sums of money in benefits
+where members have been out of work, or are sick, or are on strike
+or have died. The total paid in one year for all these benefits
+was over $500,000.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to give the membership of all the fraternal
+associations in the United States; but, including Oddfellows,
+Freemasons, purely benefit associations and all the class of the
+larger fraternal organizations, the membership is over 6,000,000.
+Among the more important, so far as membership is concerned,
+are the Knights of Pythias, the Oddfellows, the Modern Woodmen
+of America, the Ancient Order of United Workmen, Improved
+Order of Red Men, Royal Arcanum, Knights of the
+Maccabees, Junior Order of United American Mechanics,
+Foresters of America, Independent Order of Foresters, &amp;c.
+These and other organizations pay out a vast amount of money
+every year in the various forms.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Since about the year 1870 a new form of benefit organization has
+come into existence. This is a life insurance based on the assessment
+plan, assessments being levied whenever a member dies;
+or, as more recently, regular assessments being made in
+<span class="sidenote">Assessment insurance.</span>
+advance of death, as post-mortem assessments have proved
+a fallacious method of securing the means of paying
+death benefits. There are about 200 mutual benefit insurance
+companies or associations in the United States conducted on the
+&ldquo;lodge system&rdquo;; that is to say, they have regular meetings for
+social purposes and for general improvement, and in their work there
+is found the mysticism, forms and ceremonies which belong to
+secret societies generally. These elements have proved a very strong
+force in keeping this class of associations fairly intact. The &ldquo;work&rdquo;
+of the lodges in the initiation of members and their passing through
+various degrees is attractive to many people, and in small places,
+remote from the amusements of the city, these lodges constitute
+a resort where members can give play to their various talents. In
+most of them the features of the Masonic ritual are prominent. The
+amount of insurance which a single member can carry in such associations
+is small. In the Knights of Honour, one of the first of this
+class, policies ranging from $500 to $2000 are granted. In the Royal
+Arcanum the maximum is $3000. This form of insurance may be
+called co-operative, and has many elements which make the organizations
+practising it stronger than the ordinary assessment insurance
+companies having no stated meetings of members. These co-operative
+insurance societies are organized on the federal plan&mdash;as
+the Knights of Honour, for instance&mdash;having local assemblies, where
+the lodge-room element is in force; state organizations, to which
+the local bodies send delegates, and the national organization, which
+conducts all the insurance business through its executive officers.
+The local societies pay a certain given amount towards the support
+of the state and national offices, and while originally they paid
+death assessments, as called for, they now pay regular monthly
+assessments, in order to avoid the weakness of the post-mortem
+assessment. The difficulty which these organizations have in
+conducting the insurance business is in keeping the average age of
+membership at a low point, for with an increase in the average the
+assessments increase, and many such organizations have had great
+trouble to convince younger members that their assessments should
+be increased to make up for the heavy losses among the older members.
+The experience of these purely insurance associations has not been
+sufficient yet to demonstrate their absolute soundness or desirability,
+but they have enabled a large number of persons of limited means
+to carry insurance at a very low rate. They have not materially
+interfered with regular level premium insurance enterprises, for they
+have stimulated the people to understand the benefits of insurance,
+and have really been an educational force in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>A modern method of benefit association is found in the railway
+relief departments of some of the large railway corporations. These
+departments are organized upon a different plan from the
+benefit features of labour organizations and secret societies,
+<span class="sidenote">Railway relief departments.</span>
+providing the members not only with payments on account
+of death, but also with assistance of definite amounts in
+case of sickness or accident, the railway companies contributing
+to the funds, partly from philanthropic and partly from
+financial motives. The principal railway companies in the United
+States which have established these relief departments are the
+Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia &amp; Reading, the Baltimore &amp;
+Ohio, the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, and the Plant System.
+The relief department benefits the employés, the railways, and the
+public, because it is based upon the sound principle that the
+&ldquo;interests and welfare of labour, capital and society are common
+and harmonious, and can be promoted more by co-operation of
+effort than by antagonism and strife.&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span>
+The railway employés support one-twentieth of the entire population,
+and most of their associations maintain organizations to provide
+their members with relief and insurance. The Brotherhood of
+Locomotive Engineers, the Order of Railway Conductors of America,
+the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, the Brotherhood of
+Railway Trainmen, the Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen, the
+Switchmen&rsquo;s Union, the Brotherhood of Railway Carmen, and the
+Order of Railway Telegraphers, all have relief and benefit features.
+The oldest and largest of these is the International Brotherhood of
+Locomotive Engineers, founded at Detroit in August 1863. Like
+other labour organizations of the higher class of workmen, the
+objects of the brotherhoods of railway employés are partly social
+and partly educational, but in addition to these great purposes they
+seek to protect their members through relief and benefit features.
+Of course the relief departments of the railway companies are
+competitors of the relief and insurance features of the railway
+employés orders, but both methods of providing assistance have
+proved successful and beneficial.</p>
+
+<p>For a history of the various American organizations, see Albert C.
+Stevens, <i>The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities</i> (New York, 1899); <i>Facts
+for Fraternalists</i>, published by the <i>Fraternal Monitor</i>, Rochester,
+N.Y.; for annual statements, &ldquo;The <i>World</i> Almanac,&rdquo; &ldquo;Railway
+Relief Departments,&rdquo; &ldquo;Brotherhood Relief and Insurance of
+Railway Employés,&rdquo; &ldquo;Mutual Relief and Benefit Associations
+in the Printing Trade,&rdquo; &ldquo;Benefit Features of American Trade
+Unions,&rdquo; <i>Bulletins</i> Nos. 8, 17, 19 and 22 of the U.S. Department
+of Labour.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. D. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;friend&rdquo; (O.E. <i>freond</i>, Ger. <i>Freund</i>, Dutch <i>Vriend</i>) is
+derived from an old Teutonic verb meaning to love. While used
+generally as the opposite to enemy, it is specially the term which
+connotes any degree, but particularly a high degree, of personal
+goodwill, affection or regard, from which the element of sexual love
+is absent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> These may be briefly summed up thus:&mdash;(1) power to hold land
+and vesting of property in trustees by mere appointment; (2) remedy
+against misapplication of funds; (3) priority in bankruptcy or on
+death of officer; (4) transfer of stock by direction of chief registrar;
+(5) exemption from stamp duties; (6) membership of minors;
+(7) certificates of birth and death at reduced cost; (8) investment
+with National Debt Commissioners; (9) reduction of fines on admission
+to copyholds; (10) discharge of mortgages by mere receipt;
+(11) obligation on officers to render accounts; (12) settlement of
+disputes; (13) insurance of funeral expenses for wives and children
+without insurable interest; (14) nomination at death; (15) payment
+without administration; (16) services of public auditors and valuers;
+(17) registry of documents, of which copies may be put in evidence.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> the name adopted by a body of
+Christians, who, in law and general usage, are commonly called
+Quakers. Though small in number, the Society occupies a
+position of singular interest. To the student of ecclesiastical
+history it is remarkable as exhibiting a form of Christianity
+widely divergent from the prevalent types, being a religious
+fellowship which has no formulated creed demanding definite
+subscription, and no liturgy, priesthood or outward sacrament,
+and which gives to women an equal place with men in church
+organization. The student of English constitutional history
+will observe the success with which Friends have, by the mere
+force of passive resistance, obtained, from the legislature and the
+courts, indulgence for all their scruples and a legal recognition
+of their customs. In American history they occupy an
+important place because of the very prominent part which
+they played in the colonization of New Jersey and Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Quakerism in England may be divided into
+three periods:&mdash;(1) from the first preaching of George Fox in
+1647 to the Toleration Act 1689; (2) from 1689 to the evangelical
+movement in 1835; (3) from 1835 to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Period 1647-1689.</i>&mdash;George Fox (1624-1691), the son of a
+weaver of Drayton-in-the-Clay (now called Fenny Drayton) in
+Leicestershire, was the founder of the Society. He
+began his public ministry in 1647, but there is no
+<span class="sidenote">George Fox.</span>
+evidence to show that he set out to form a separate
+religious body. Impressed by the formalism and deadness of
+contemporary Christianity (of which there is much evidence
+in the confessions of the Puritan writers themselves) he emphasized
+the importance of repentance and personal striving after
+the truth. When, however, his preaching attracted followers,
+a community began to be formed, and traces of organization
+and discipline may be noted in very early times. In 1652 a
+number of people in Westmorland and north Lancashire who
+had separated from the common national worship,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> came under
+the influence of Fox, and it was this community (if it can be so
+called) at Preston Patrick which formed the nucleus of the
+Quaker church. For two years the movement spread rapidly
+throughout the north of England, and in 1654 more than sixty
+ministers went to Norwich, London, Bristol, the Midlands,
+Wales and other parts. Fox and his fellow-preachers spoke
+whenever opportunity offered,&mdash;sometimes in churches (declining,
+for the most part, to occupy the pulpit), sometimes in barns,
+sometimes at market crosses. The insistence on an inward
+spiritual experience was the great contribution made by Friends
+to the religious life of the time, and to thousands it came as a new
+revelation. There is evidence to show that the arrangement
+for this &ldquo;publishing of Truth&rdquo; rested mainly with Fox, and
+that the expenses of it and of the foreign missions were borne
+out of a common fund. Margaret Fell (1614-1702), wife of
+Thomas Fell (1598-1658), vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster,
+and afterwards of George Fox, opened her house, Swarthmore
+Hall near Ulverston, to these preachers and probably
+contributed largely to this fund.</p>
+
+<p>Their insistence on the personal aspect of religious experience
+made it impossible for Friends to countenance the setting apart
+of any man or building for the purpose of divine worship to
+the exclusion of all others. The operation of the Spirit was in
+no way limited to time, or individual or place. The great stress
+which they laid upon this aspect of Christian truth caused them
+to be charged with unbelief in the current orthodox views as
+to the inspiration of the Scriptures, and the person and work of
+Christ, a charge which they always denied. Contrary to the
+Puritan teaching of the time, they insisted on the possibility,
+in this life, of complete victory over sin. Robert Barclay, writing
+some twenty years later, admits of degrees of perfection, and the
+possibility of a fall from it (<i>Apology</i>, Prop. viii.). Such teaching
+necessarily brought Fox and his friends into conflict with all
+the religious bodies of England, and they were continually
+engaged in strife with the Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists,
+Episcopalians and the wilder sectaries, such as the Ranters and
+the Muggletonians. The strife was often conducted on both sides
+with a zeal and bitterness of language which were characteristic
+of the period. Although there was little or no stress laid
+on either the joys or the terrors of a future life, the movement
+was not infrequently accompanied by most of those physical
+symptoms which usually go with vehement appeals to the
+conscience and emotions of a rude multitude. It was owing to
+these physical manifestations that the name &ldquo;Quaker&rdquo; was
+either first given or was regarded as appropriate when given for
+another reason (see Fox&rsquo;s <i>Journal</i> concerning Justice Bennet at
+Derby in 1650 and Barclay&rsquo;s <i>Apology</i>, Prop. <span class="sc">ii</span>, § 8). The early
+Friends definitely asserted that those who did not know quaking
+and trembling were strangers to the experience of Moses, David
+and other saints.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the earliest adherents indulged in extravagances of
+no measured kind. Some of them imitated the Hebrew prophets
+in the performance of symbolic acts of denunciation, foretelling
+or warning, going barefoot, or in sackcloth or undress, and, in a
+few cases, for brief periods, altogether naked; even women in
+some cases distinguished themselves by extravagance of conduct.
+The case of James Nayler (1617?-1660), who, in spite of Fox&rsquo;s
+grave warning, allowed Messianic homage to be paid to him, is the
+best known of these instances; they are to be explained partly
+by mental disturbance, resulting from the undue prominence of
+a single idea, and partly by the general religious excitement of
+the time and the rudeness of manners prevailing in the classes of
+society from which many of these individuals came. It must be
+remembered that at this time, and for long after, there was no
+definite or formal membership or system of admission to the
+society, and it was open to any one by attending the meetings
+to gain the reputation of being a Quaker.</p>
+
+<p>The activity of the early Friends was not confined to England
+or even to the British Isles. Fox and others travelled in America
+and the West India Islands; another reached Jerusalem and
+preached against the superstition of the monks; Mary Fisher
+(fl. 1652-1697), &ldquo;a religious maiden,&rdquo; visited Smyrna, the
+Morea and the court of Mahommed IV. at Adrianople; Alexander
+Parker (1628-1689) went to Africa; others made their
+way to Rome; two women were imprisoned by the Inquisition
+at Malta; two men passed into Austria and Hungary; and
+William Penn, George Fox and several others preached in
+Holland and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>It was only gradually that the Quaker community clothed
+itself with an organization. The beginning of this appears to be
+due to William Dewsbury (1621-1688) and George Fox; it was
+not until 1666 that a complete system of church organization
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span>
+was established. The introduction of an ordered system and
+discipline was, naturally, viewed with some suspicion by people
+taught to believe that the inward light of each individual man
+was the only true guide for his conduct. The project met with
+determined opposition for about twenty years (1675-1695)
+from persons of considerable repute in the body. John Wilkinson
+and John Story of Westmorland, together with William Rogers
+of Bristol, raised a party against Fox concerning the management
+of the affairs of the society, regarding with suspicion any fixed
+arrangement for meetings for conducting church business, and
+in fact hardly finding a place for such meetings at all. They
+stood for the principle of Independency against the Presbyterian
+form of church government which Fox had recently established
+in the &ldquo;Monthly Meetings&rdquo; (see below). They opposed all
+arrangement for the orderly distribution of travelling ministers
+to different localities, and even for the payment of their expenses
+(see above); they also strongly objected to any disciplinary
+power being entrusted to the women&rsquo;s separate meetings for
+business, which had become of considerable importance after
+the Plague (1665) and the Fire of London (1666) in consequence
+of the need for poor relief. They also claimed the right to meet
+secretly for worship in time of persecution (see below). They
+drew a considerable following away with them and set up a
+rival organization, but before long a number returned to their
+original leader. William Rogers set forth his views in <i>The
+Christian Quaker</i>, 1680; the story of the dissension is told, to
+some extent, in <i>The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the
+Commonwealth</i>, by R. Barclay (not the &ldquo;Apologist&rdquo;); the best
+account is given in a pamphlet entitled <i>Micah&rsquo;s Mother</i> by John
+S. Rowntree.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Barclay (<i>q.v.</i>), a descendant of an ancient Scottish
+family, who had received a liberal education, principally in Paris,
+at the Scots College, of which his uncle was rector, joined the
+Quakers about 1666, and William Penn (<i>q.v.</i>) came to them about
+two years later. The Quakers had always been active controversialists,
+and a great body of tracts and papers was issued by
+them; but hitherto these had been of small account from a
+literary point of view. Now, however, a more logical and
+scholarly aspect was given to their literature by the writings of
+Barclay, especially his <i>Apology for the True Christian Divinity</i>
+published in Latin (1676) and in English (1678), and by the
+works of Penn, amongst which <i>No Cross No Crown</i> and the
+<i>Maxims</i> or <i>Fruits of Solitude</i> are the best known.</p>
+
+<p>During the whole time between their rise and the passing of
+the Toleration Act 1689, the Quakers were the object of almost
+continuous persecution which they endured with
+extraordinary constancy and patience; they insisted
+<span class="sidenote">Persecution.</span>
+on the duty of meeting openly in time of persecution,
+declining to hold secret assemblies for worship as other
+Nonconformists were doing. The number who died in prison
+approached 400, and at least 100 more perished from violence
+and ill-usage. A petition to the first parliament of Charles II.
+stated that 3179 had been imprisoned; the number rose to 4500
+in 1662, the Fifth Monarchy outbreak, in which Friends were
+in no way concerned, being largely responsible for this increase.
+There is no evidence to show that they were in any way connected
+with any of the plots of the Commonwealth or Restoration
+periods. A petition to James II. in 1685 stated that 1460 were
+then in prison. Under the Quaker Act of 1662 and the Conventicle
+Act of 1664 a number were transported out of England,
+and under the last-named act and that of 1670 (the second
+Conventicle Act) hundreds of households were despoiled of all
+their goods. The penal laws under which Friends suffered may
+be divided chronologically into those of the Commonwealth and
+the Restoration periods. Under the former there were a few
+charges of plotting against the government. Several imprisonments,
+including that of George Fox at Derby in 1650-1651, were
+brought about under the Blasphemy Act of 1650, which inflicted
+penalties on any one who asserted himself to be very God or equal
+with God, a charge to which the Friends were peculiarly liable
+owing to their doctrine of perfection. After a royalist insurrection
+in 1655, a proclamation was issued announcing that persons
+suspected of Roman Catholicism would be required to take an
+oath abjuring the papal authority and transubstantiation. The
+Quakers, accused as they were of being Jesuits, and refusing to
+take the oath, suffered under this proclamation and under the
+more stringent act of 1656. A considerable number were flogged
+under the Vagrancy Acts (39 Eliz. c. 4; 7 Jac. I. c. 4), which were
+strained to cover the case of itinerant Quaker preachers. They
+also came under the provisions of the acts of 1644, 1650 and 1656
+directed against travelling on the Lord&rsquo;s day. The interruption
+of preachers when celebrating divine service rendered the offender
+liable to three months&rsquo; imprisonment under a statute of the first
+year of Mary, but Friends generally waited to speak till the
+service was over.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The Lord&rsquo;s Day Act 1656 also enacted
+penalties against any one disturbing the service, but apart from
+statute many Friends were imprisoned for open contempt of
+ministers and magistrates. At the Restoration 700 Friends,
+imprisoned for contempt and some minor offences, were set at
+liberty. After the Restoration there began a persecution of
+Friends and other Nonconformists <i>as such</i>, notwithstanding the
+king&rsquo;s Declaration of Breda which had proclaimed liberty for
+tender consciences as long as no disturbance of the peace was
+caused. Among the most common causes of imprisonment was
+the practice adopted by judges and magistrates of tendering to
+Friends (particularly when no other charge could be proved
+against them) the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance (5 Eliz.
+c. 1 &amp; 7 Jac. I. c. 6). The refusal in any circumstance to take
+an oath led to much suffering. The Act 3 Jac. I. c. 4, passed
+in consequence of the Gunpowder Plot, against Roman Catholics
+for not attending church, was put in force against Friends, and
+under it enormous fines were levied. The Quaker Act 1662
+and the Conventicle Acts of 1664 and 1670, designed to enforce
+attendance at church, and inflicting severe penalties on those
+attending other religious gatherings, were responsible for the
+most severe persecution of all. The act of 1670 gave to informers
+a pecuniary interest (they were to have one-third of the fine
+imposed) in hunting down Nonconformists who broke the law,
+and this and other statutes were unduly strained to secure convictions.
+A somewhat similar act of 35 Eliz. c. 1., enacting even
+more severe penalties, had never been repealed, and was sometimes
+put in force against Friends. The Militia Act 1663 (14 Car.
+II. c. 3), enacting fines against those who refused to find a man for
+the militia, was occasionally put in force. The refusal to pay
+tithes and other ecclesiastical demands led to continuous and
+heavy distraints, under the various laws made in that behalf.
+This state of things continued to some extent into the 19th
+century. For further information see &ldquo;The Penal Laws affecting
+Early Friends in England&rdquo; (from which the foregoing summary
+is taken) by Wm. Chas. Braithwaite in <i>The First Publishers
+of Truth</i>. On the 15th of March 1672 Charles II. issued his
+declaration suspending the penal laws in ecclesiastical matters,
+and shortly afterwards, by pardon under the great seal, he
+released nearly 500 Quakers from prison, remitted their fines and
+released such of their estates as were forfeited by <i>praemunire</i>.
+It is of interest to note that, although John Bunyan was bitterly
+opposed to Quakers, his friends, on hearing of the petition
+contemplated by them, requested them to insert his name on the
+list, and in this way he gained his freedom. The dissatisfaction
+which this exercise of the royal prerogative aroused induced the
+king, in the following year, to withdraw his proclamation, and,
+notwithstanding appeals to him, the persecution continued
+intermittently throughout his reign. On the accession of James
+II. the Quakers addressed him (see above) with some hope on
+account of his known friendship for William Penn, and the king
+not long afterwards directed a stay of proceedings in all matters
+pending in the exchequer against Quakers on the ground of non-attendance
+at the national worship. In 1687 came his declaration
+for liberty of conscience, and, after the Revolution of 1688, the
+Toleration Act 1689 put an end to the persecution of Quakers
+(along with other Dissenters) for non-attendance at church.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span>
+For many years after this they were liable to imprisonment for
+non-payment of tithes, and, together with other Dissenters,
+they remained under various civil disabilities, the gradual removal
+of which is part of the general history of England. In the years
+succeeding the Toleration Act at least twelve of their number
+were prosecuted (often more than once in the spiritual and other
+courts) for keeping school without a bishop&rsquo;s licence. It is
+coming to be recognized that the growth of religious toleration
+owed much to the early Quakers who, with the exception of a
+few Baptists at the first, stood almost alone among Dissenters in
+holding their public meetings openly and regularly.</p>
+
+<p>The Toleration Act was not the only law of William and Mary
+which benefited Quakers. The legislature has continually had
+regard to their refusal to take oaths, and not only the said
+act but also another of the same reign, and numerous others,
+subsequently passed, have respected the peculiar scruples of
+Friends (see Davis&rsquo;s <i>Digest of Legislative Enactments relating
+to Friends</i>, Bristol, 1820).</p>
+
+<p><i>2. Period 1689-1835.</i>&mdash;From the beginning of the 18th
+century the zeal of the Quaker body abated. Although many
+&ldquo;General&rdquo; and other meetings were held in different
+parts of the country for the purpose of setting forth
+<span class="sidenote">Period of Decline.</span>
+Quakerism, the notion that the whole Christian church
+would be absorbed in it, and that the Quakers were, in fact, the
+church, gave place to the conception that they were &ldquo;a peculiar
+people&rdquo; to whom, more than to others, had been given an understanding
+of the will of God. The Quakerism of this period was
+largely of a traditional kind; it dwelt with increasing emphasis
+on the peculiarities of its dress and language; it rested much
+upon discipline, which developed and hardened into rigorous
+forms; and the correction or exclusion of its members occupied
+more attention than did the winning of converts.</p>
+
+<p>Excluded from political and municipal life by the laws which
+required either the taking of an oath or joining in the Lord&rsquo;s
+Supper according to the rites of the Established Church, excluding
+themselves not only from the frivolous pursuits of pleasure,
+but from music and art in general, attaining no high average
+level of literary culture (though producing some men of eminence
+in science and medicine), the Quakers occupied themselves
+mainly with trade, the business of their Society, and the calls of
+philanthropy. From early times George Fox and many others
+had taken a keen interest in education, and in 1779 there was
+founded at Ackworth, near Pontefract, a school for boys and
+girls; this was followed by the reconstitution, in 1808, of a
+school at Sidcot in the Mendips, and in 1811, of one in Islington
+Road, London; it was afterwards removed to Croydon, and,
+later, to Saffron Walden. Others have since been established
+at York and in other parts of England and Ireland. None of
+them are now reserved exclusively for the children of Friends.</p>
+
+<p>During this period Quakerism was sketched from the outside
+by two very different men. Voltaire (<i>Dictionnaire Philosophique</i>,
+&ldquo;Quaker,&rdquo; &ldquo;Toleration&rdquo;) described the body, which attracted
+his curiosity, his sympathy and his sneers, with all his brilliance.
+Thomas Clarkson (<i>Portraiture of Quakerism</i>) has given an
+elaborate and sympathetic account of the Quakers as he knew
+them when he travelled amongst them from house to house on his
+crusade against the slave trade.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>From 1835.</i>&mdash;During the 18th century the doctrine of the
+Inward Light acquired such exclusive prominence as to bring
+about a tendency to disparage, or, at least, to neglect, the written
+word (the Scriptures) as being &ldquo;outward&rdquo; and non-essential.
+In the early part of the 19th century an American Friend, Elias
+Hicks, pressed this doctrine to its furthest limits, and, in doing so,
+he laid stress on &ldquo;Christ within&rdquo; in such a way as practically
+to take little account of the person and work of the &ldquo;outward,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> the historic Christ. The result was a separation of the Society
+in America into two divisions which persist to the present day
+(see below, &ldquo;Quakerism in America&rdquo;). This led to a counter
+movement in England, known as the Beacon Controversy,
+from the name of a warning publication issued by Isaac Crewdson
+of Manchester in 1835, advocating views of a pronounced &ldquo;evangelical&rdquo;
+type. Much controversy ensued, and a certain number
+of Friends (Beaconites as they are sometimes called) departed
+from the parent stock. They left behind them, however, many
+influential members, who may be described as a middle party,
+and who strove to give a more &ldquo;evangelical&rdquo; tone to Quaker
+doctrine. Joseph John Gurney of Norwich, a brother of Elizabeth
+Fry, by means of his high social position and his various
+writings (some published before 1835), was the most prominent
+actor in this movement. Those who quitted the Society maintained,
+for some little time, a separate organization of their
+own, but sooner or later most of them joined the Evangelical
+Church or the Plymouth Brethren.</p>
+
+<p>Other causes have been at work modifying the Quaker society.
+The repeal of the Test Act, the admission of Quakers to Parliament
+in consequence of their being allowed to affirm instead of
+taking the oath (1832, when Joseph Pease was elected for South
+Durham), the establishment of the University of London, and,
+more recently, the opening of the universities of Oxford and
+Cambridge to Nonconformists, have all had their effect upon the
+body. It has abandoned its peculiarities of dress and language,
+as well as its hostility to music and art, and it has cultivated a
+wider taste in literature. In fact, the number of men, either
+Quakers or of Quaker origin and proclivities, who occupy
+positions of influence in English life is large in proportion to
+the small body with which they are connected. During the 19th
+century the interests of Friends became widened and they are
+no longer a close community.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doctrine.</i>&mdash;It is not easy to state with certainty the doctrines
+of a body which (in England at least) has never demanded subscription
+to any creed, and whose views have undoubtedly
+undergone more or less definite changes. There is not now the
+sharp distinction which formerly existed between Friends and
+other non-sacerdotal evangelical bodies; these have, in theory
+at least, largely accepted the spiritual message of Quakerism.
+By their special insistence on the fact of immediate communion
+between God and man, Friends have been led into those views
+and practices which still mark them off from their fellow-Christians.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all their distinctive views (<i>e.g.</i> their refusal to take
+oaths, their testimony against war, their disuse of a professional
+ministry, and their recognition of women&rsquo;s ministry) were being
+put forward in England, by various individuals or sects, in the
+strife which raged during the intense religious excitement of the
+middle of the 17th century. Nevertheless, before the rise of the
+Quakers, these views were nowhere found in conjunction as held
+by any one set of people; still less were they regarded as the
+outcome of any one central belief or principle. It is rather in
+their emphasis on this thought of Divine communion, in their
+insistence on its reasonable consequences (as it seems to them),
+that Friends constitute a separate community. The appointment
+of one man to preach, to the exclusion of others, whether
+he feels a divine call so to do or not, is regarded as a limitation
+of the work of the Spirit and an undue concentration of that
+responsibility which ought to be shared by a wider circle. For
+the same reason they refuse to occupy the time of worship with
+an arranged programme of vocal service; they meet in silence,
+<span class="sidenote">Public worship.</span>
+desiring that the service of the meeting shall depend
+on spiritual guidance. Thus it is left to any man or
+woman to offer vocal prayer, to read the Scriptures,
+or to utter such exhortation or teaching as may seem to be
+called for. Of late years, in certain of their meetings on Sunday
+evening, it has become customary for part of the time to be
+occupied with set addresses for the purpose of instructing the
+members of the congregation, or of conveying the Quaker message
+to others who may be present, all their meetings for worship
+being freely open to the public. In a few meetings hymns are
+occasionally sung, very rarely as part of any arrangement,
+but almost always upon the request of some individual for a
+particular hymn appropriate to the need of the congregation.
+The periods of silence are regarded as times of worship equally
+with those occupied with vocal service, inasmuch as Friends
+hold that robustness of spiritual life is best promoted by earnest
+striving on the part of each one to know the will of God for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span>
+himself, and to be drawn into Christian fellowship with the
+other worshippers. The points on which special stress is laid
+are:&mdash;(1) the share of responsibility resting on each individual,
+whether called to vocal service or not, for the right spiritual
+atmosphere of the Meeting, and for the welfare of the congregation;
+(2) the privilege which may be enjoyed by each worshipper
+of waiting upon the Lord without relying on spoken words,
+however helpful, or on other outward matters; (3) freedom
+for each individual (whether a Friend or not) to speak, for the
+help of others, such message as he or she may feel called to utter;
+(4) a fresh sense of a divine call to deliver the message on that
+particular occasion, whether previous thought has been given
+to it or not. The idea which ought to underlie a Friends&rsquo; meeting
+is thus set forth by Robert Barclay: &ldquo;When I came into the
+silent assemblies of God&rsquo;s people, I felt a secret power among
+them, which touched my heart, and as I gave way unto it, I
+found the evil weakening in me and the good raised up&rdquo; (<i>Apology</i>,
+xi. 7). In many places Friends have felt the need of bringing
+spiritual help to those who are unable to profit by the somewhat
+severe discipline of their ordinary manner of worship. To meet
+this need they hold (chiefly on Sunday evenings) meetings which
+are not professedly &ldquo;Friends&rsquo; meetings for worship,&rdquo; but which
+are services conducted on lines similar to those of other religious
+bodies, with, in some cases, a portion of time set apart for silent
+worship, and freedom for any one of the congregation to utter
+words of exhortation or prayer.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning Friends have not practised the outward
+ordinances of Baptism and the Lord&rsquo;s Supper, even in a non-sacerdotal
+spirit. They attach, however, supreme value to the
+realities of which the observances are reminders or types&mdash;on the
+Baptism which is more than putting away the filth of the flesh,
+and on the vital union with Christ which is behind any outward
+ceremony. Their testimony is not <i>primarily</i> against these
+outward observances; their disuse of them is due to a sense
+of the danger of substituting the shadow for the reality. They
+believe that an experience of more than 250 years gives ample
+warrant for the belief that Christ did not command them as a
+perpetual outward ordinance; on the contrary, they hold that
+it was alien to His method to lay down minute, outward rules
+for all time, but that He enunciated principles which His Church
+should, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, apply to the
+varying needs of the day. Their contention that every event of
+life may be turned into a sacrament, a means of grace, is summed
+up in the words of Stephen Grellet: &ldquo;I very much doubt
+whether, since the Lord by His grace brought me into the faith
+of His dear Son, I have ever broken bread or drunk wine, even
+in the ordinary course of life, without the remembrance of, and
+some devout feeling regarding, the broken body and the blood-shedding
+of my dear Lord and Saviour.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When the ministry of any man or woman has been found to
+be helpful to the congregation, the Monthly Meeting (see below)
+may, after solemn consideration, record the fact that
+it believes the individual to have a divine call to the
+<span class="sidenote">Ministers.</span>
+ministry, and that it encourages him or her to be faithful to the
+gift. Such ministers are said to be &ldquo;acknowledged&rdquo; or &ldquo;recorded&rdquo;;
+they are emphatically <i>not</i> appointed to preach, and
+the fact of their acknowledgment is not regarded as conferring
+any special status upon them. The various Monthly Meetings
+appoint Elders, or some body of Friends, to give advice of
+encouragement or restraint as may be needed, and, generally,
+to take the ministry under their care.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the ministry of women, Friends hold that
+there is no evidence that the gifts of prophecy and teaching are
+confined to one sex. On the contrary, they see that a
+<span class="sidenote">Women.</span>
+manifest blessing has rested on women&rsquo;s preaching,
+and they regard its almost universal prohibition as a relic of the
+seclusion of women which was customary in the countries where
+Christianity took its rise. The particular prohibition of Paul
+(1 Cor. xiv. 34, 35) they regard as due to the special circumstances
+of time and place.</p>
+
+<p>Friends have always held that war is contrary to the precepts
+and spirit of the Gospel, believing that it springs from the lower
+impulses of human nature, and not from the seed of divine life
+with its infinite capacity of response to the Spirit of God. Their
+<span class="sidenote">War.</span>
+testimony is not based <i>primarily</i> on any objection to
+the use of force in itself, or even on the fact that
+war involves suffering and loss of life; their root objection is
+based on the fact that war is both the outcome and the cause of
+ambition, pride, greed, hatred and everything that is opposed to
+the mind of Christ; and that no end to be attained can justify
+the use of such means. While not unaware that with this, as
+with all moral questions, there may be a certain borderland of
+practical difficulty, Friends endeavour to bring all things to the
+test of the Realities which, though not seen, are eternal, and
+to hold up the ideal, set forth by George Fox, of living in the
+virtue of that life and power which takes away the <i>occasion of
+war.</i></p>
+
+<p>Friends have always held that the attempt to enforce truth-speaking
+by means of an oath, in courts of law and elsewhere,
+tends to create a double standard of truth. They find
+Scripture warrant for this belief in Matt. v. 33-37 and
+<span class="sidenote">Oaths.</span>
+James v. 12. Their testimony in this respect is the better understood
+when we bear in mind the large amount of perjury in the
+law courts, and profane swearing in general which prevailed
+at the time when the Society took its rise. &ldquo;People swear to
+the end that they may speak truth; Christ would have men
+speak truth to the end they might not swear&rdquo; (W. Penn, <i>A
+Treatise of Oaths</i>).</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the fundamental doctrines of Christianity,
+the belief of the Society of Friends does not essentially differ
+from that of other Christian bodies. At the same time
+their avoidance of exact definition embodied in a rigid
+<span class="sidenote">Theology.</span>
+creed, together with their disuse of the outward ordinances of
+Baptism and the Supper, has laid them open to considerable
+misunderstanding. As will have been seen, they hold an exalted
+view of the divinity and work of Christ as the Word become
+flesh and the Saviour of the world; but they have always shrunk
+from rigid Trinitarian <i>definitions</i>. They believe that the same
+Spirit who gave forth the Scriptures still guides men to a right
+understanding of them. &ldquo;You profess the Holy Scriptures:
+but what do you witness and experience? What interest have
+you in them? Can you set to your seal that they are true by
+the work of the same spirit in you that gave them forth in the
+holy ancients?&rdquo; (William Penn, <i>A Summons or Call to Christendom</i>).
+At certain periods this doctrine, pushed to an extreme,
+has led to a practical undervaluing of the Scriptures, but of late
+times it has enabled Friends to face fearlessly the conclusions
+of modern criticism, and has contributed to a largely increased
+interest in Bible study. During the past few years a new movement
+has been started in the shape of lecture schools, lasting for
+longer or shorter periods, for the purpose of studying Biblical,
+ecclesiastical and social subjects. In 1903 there was established
+at Woodbrooke, an estate at Selly Oak on the outskirts of
+Birmingham, a permanent settlement for men and women, for
+the study of these questions on modern lines. The outward
+beginning of this movement was the Manchester Conference of
+1895, a turning-point in Quaker history. Speaking generally,
+it may be noted that the Society includes various shades of
+opinion, from that known as &ldquo;evangelical,&rdquo; with a certain
+hesitation in receiving modern thought, to the more &ldquo;advanced&rdquo;
+position which finds greater freedom to consider and adopt new
+suggestions of scientific, religious or other thinkers. The
+differences, however, are seldom pressed, and rarely become acute.
+Apart from points of doctrine which can be more or less definitely
+stated (not always with unanimity) Quakerism is an <i>atmosphere</i>,
+a manner of life, a method of approaching questions, a habit and
+attitude of mind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quakerism in Scotland.</i>&mdash;Quakerism was preached in Scotland
+very soon after its rise in England; but in the north and south
+of Scotland there existed, independently of and before this
+preaching, groups of persons who were dissatisfied with the
+national form of worship and who met together in silence for
+devotion. They naturally fell into this Society. In Aberdeen
+the Quakers took considerable hold, and were there joined by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span>
+some persons of influence and position, especially Alexander
+Jaffray, sometime provost of Aberdeen, and Colonel David
+Barclay of Ury and his son Robert, the author of the <i>Apology</i>.
+Much light has been thrown on the history of the Quakers in
+Aberdeenshire by the discovery in 1826 at Ury of a MS. <i>Diary</i>
+of Jaffray, since published with elucidations (2nd ed., London,
+1836).</p>
+
+<p><i>Ireland.</i>&mdash;The father of Quakerism in Ireland was William
+Edmondson; his preaching began in 1653-1654. The <i>History of
+the Quakers in Ireland</i> (from 1653 to 1752), by Wight and Rutty,
+may be consulted. Dublin Yearly Meeting, constituted in 1670,
+is independent of London Yearly Meeting (see below).</p>
+
+<p><i>America.</i>&mdash;In July 1656 two women Quakers, Mary Fisher and
+Ann Austin, arrived at Boston. Under the general law against
+heresy their books were burnt by the hangman, they were
+searched for signs of witchcraft, they were imprisoned for five
+weeks and then sent away. During the same year eight others
+were sent back to England.</p>
+
+<p>In 1656, 1657 and 1658 laws were passed to prevent the introduction
+of Quakers into Massachusetts, and it was enacted
+that on the first conviction one ear should be cut off, on the
+second the remaining ear, and that on the third conviction the
+tongue should be bored with a hot iron. Fines were laid upon
+all who entertained these people or were present at their meetings.
+Thereupon the Quakers, who were perhaps not without the
+obstinacy of which Marcus Aurelius complained in the early
+Christians, rushed to Massachusetts as if invited, and the result
+was that the general court of the colony banished them on pain of
+death, and four of them, three men and one woman, were hanged
+for refusing to depart from the jurisdiction or for obstinately
+returning within it. That the Quakers were, at times, irritating
+cannot be denied: some of them appear to have publicly
+mocked the institutions and the rulers of the colony and to have
+interrupted public worship; and a few of their men and women
+acted with the fanaticism and disorder which frequently characterized
+the religious controversies of the time. The particulars
+of the proceedings of Governor Endecott and the magistrates of
+New England as given in Besse&rsquo;s <i>Sufferings of the Quakers</i> (see
+below) are startling to read. On the Restoration of Charles II.
+a memorial was presented to him by the Quakers in England
+stating the persecutions which their fellow-members had undergone
+in New England. Even the careless Charles was moved
+to issue an order to the colony which effectually stopped the
+hanging of the Quakers for their religion, though it by no means
+put an end to the persecution of the body in New England.</p>
+
+<p>It is not wonderful that the Quakers, persecuted and oppressed
+at home and in New England, should turn their eyes to the
+unoccupied parts of America, and cherish the hope of founding,
+amidst their woods, some refuge from oppression, and some
+likeness of a city of God upon earth. As early as 1660 George
+Fox was considering the question of buying land from the
+Indians. In 1671-1673 he had visited the American plantations
+from Carolina to Rhode Island and had preached alike to Indians
+and to settlers; in 1674 a portion of New Jersey (<i>q.v.</i>) was sold
+by Lord Berkeley to John Fenwicke in trust for Edward Byllynge.
+Both these men were Quakers, and in 1675 Fenwicke with a large
+company of his co-religionists crossed the Atlantic, sailed up
+Delaware Bay, and landed at a fertile spot which he called
+Salem. Byllynge, having become embarrassed in his circumstances,
+placed his interest in the land in the hands of Penn and
+others as trustees for his creditors; they invited buyers, and
+companies of Quakers in Yorkshire and London were amongst
+the largest purchasers. In 1677-1678 five vessels with eight
+hundred emigrants, chiefly Quakers, arrived in the colony (then
+separated from the rest of New Jersey, under the name of West
+New Jersey), and the town of Burlington was established. In
+1677 the fundamental laws of West New Jersey were published,
+and recognized in a most absolute form the principles of democratic
+equality and perfect freedom of conscience. Notwithstanding
+certain troubles from claims of the governor of New
+York and of the duke of York, the colony prospered, and in 1681
+the first legislative assembly of the colony, consisting mainly of
+Quakers, was held. They agreed to raise an annual sum of £200
+for the expenses of their commonwealth; they assigned their governor
+a salary of £20; they prohibited the sale of ardent spirits
+to the Indians and imprisonment for debt. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New Jersey</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>But beyond question the most interesting event in connexion
+with Quakerism in America is the foundation by William Penn
+(<i>q.v.</i>) of the colony of Pennsylvania, where he hoped
+to carry into effect the principles of his sect&mdash;to found
+<span class="sidenote">William Penn.</span>
+and govern a colony without armies or military
+power, to reduce the Indians by justice and kindness to civilization
+and Christianity, to administer justice without oaths, and
+to extend an equal toleration to all persons who professed a
+belief in God. The history of this is part of the history of America
+and of Pennsylvania (<i>q.v.</i>) in particular. The chief point of
+interest in the history of Friends in America during the 18th
+century is their effort to clear themselves of complicity in
+slavery and the slave trade. As early as 1671 George Fox when
+in Barbados counselled kind treatment of slaves and ultimate
+liberation of them. William Penn provided for the freedom
+of slaves after fourteen years&rsquo; service. In 1688 the German
+Friends of Germantown, Philadelphia, raised the first official
+protest uttered by any religious body against slavery. In 1711
+a law was passed in Pennsylvania prohibiting the importation
+of slaves, but it was rejected by the Council in England. The
+prominent anti-slavery workers were Ralph Sandiford, Benjamin
+Lay, Anthony Benezet and John Woolman.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> By the end of
+the 18th century slavery was practically extinct among Friends,
+and the Society as a whole laboured for its abolition, which came
+about in 1865, the poet Whittier being one of the chief writers
+and workers in the cause. From early times up to the present
+day Friends have laboured for the welfare of the North American
+Indians. The history of the 19th century is largely one of
+division. Elias Hicks (<i>q.v.</i>), of Long Island, N.Y., propounded
+doctrines inconsistent with the orthodox views concerning
+Christ and the Scriptures, and a separation resulted in 1827-1828
+(see above). His followers are known as &ldquo;Hicksites,&rdquo;
+a name not officially used by themselves, and only assented to
+for purposes of description under some protest. They have
+their own organization, being divided into seven yearly meetings
+numbering about 20,000 members, but these meetings form no
+part of the official organization which links London Yearly
+Meeting with other bodies of Friends on the American continent.
+This separation led to strong insistence on &ldquo;evangelical&rdquo; views
+(in the usual sense of the term) concerning Christ, the Atonement,
+imputed righteousness, the Scriptures, &amp;c. This showed itself
+in the Beaconite controversy in England (see above), and in a
+further division in America. John Wilbur, a minister of New
+England, headed a party of protest against the new evangelicalism,
+laying extreme stress on the &ldquo;Inward Light&rdquo;; the result
+was a further separation of &ldquo;Wilburites&rdquo; or &ldquo;the smaller
+body,&rdquo; who, like the &ldquo;Hicksites,&rdquo; have a separate independent
+organization of their own. In 1907 they were divided into seven
+yearly meetings (together with some smaller independent
+bodies, the result of extreme emphasis laid on individualism),
+with a membership of about 5000. Broadly speaking, the
+&ldquo;smaller body&rdquo; is characterized by a rigid adherence to old
+forms of dress and speech, to a disapproval of music and art,
+and to an insistence on the &ldquo;Inward Light&rdquo; which, at times,
+leaves but little room for the Scriptures or the historic Christ,
+although with no definite or intended repudiation of them.
+In 1908 the number of &ldquo;orthodox&rdquo; yearly meetings in America,
+including one in Canada, was fifteen, with a total membership
+of about 100,000. They have, for the most part, adopted, to a
+greater or less degree, the &ldquo;pastoral system,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the appointment
+of one man or woman in each congregation to &ldquo;conduct&rdquo;
+the meeting for worship and to carry on pastoral work. In most
+cases the pastor receives a salary. A few of them demand from
+their ministers definite subscription to a specific body of doctrine,
+mostly of the ordinary &ldquo;evangelical&rdquo; type. In the matters of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span>
+organization, disuse of the outward ordinances (this point is
+subject to some slight exception, principally in Ohio), and women&rsquo;s
+ministry, they do not differ from English Friends. The yearly
+meetings of Baltimore and Philadelphia have not adopted the
+pastoral system; the latter contains a very strong conservative
+element, and, contrary to the practice of London and the other
+&ldquo;orthodox&rdquo; yearly meetings, it officially regards the meetings
+of &ldquo;the smaller body&rdquo; (see above) as meetings of the Society
+of Friends. In 1902 the &ldquo;orthodox&rdquo; yearly meetings in the
+United States established a &ldquo;Five Years&rsquo; Meeting,&rdquo; a representative
+body meeting once every five years to consider matters
+affecting the welfare of all, and to further such philanthropic
+and religious work as may be undertaken in common, <i>e.g.</i>
+matters concerning foreign missions, temperance and peace, and
+the welfare of negroes and Indians. Two yearly meetings remain
+outside the organization, that of Ohio on ultra-evangelical
+grounds, while that of Philadelphia has not taken the matter into
+consideration. Canada joined at the first, and having withdrawn,
+again joined in 1907.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James Bowden, <i>History of the Society of Friends in America</i>
+(1850-1854); Allan C. and Richard H. Thomas, <i>The History of
+Friends in America</i> (4th edition, 1905); Isaac Sharpless, <i>History of
+Quaker Government in Pennsylvania</i> (1898, 1899); R. P. Hallowell,
+<i>The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts</i> (1887), and <i>The Pioneer
+Quakers</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Organization and Discipline.</i>&mdash;The duty of watching over one
+another for good was insisted on by the early Friends, and has
+been embodied in a system of discipline. Its objects embrace
+(<i>a</i>) admonition to those who fail in the payment of their just
+debts, or otherwise walk contrary to the standard of Quaker
+ethics, and the exclusion of obstinate or gross offenders from
+the body, and, as incident to this, the hearing of appeals from
+individuals or meetings considering themselves aggrieved;
+(<i>b</i>) the care and maintenance of the poor and provision for the
+Christian education of their children, for which purpose the
+Society has established boarding schools in different parts of the
+country; (<i>c</i>) the amicable settlement of &ldquo;all differences about
+outward things,&rdquo; either by the parties in controversy or by the
+submission of the dispute to arbitration, and the restraint of all
+proceedings at law between members except by leave; (<i>d</i>) the
+&ldquo;recording&rdquo; of ministers (see above); (<i>e</i>) the cognizance of all
+steps preceding marriage according to Quaker forms; (<i>f</i>) the
+registration of births, deaths and marriages and the admission
+of members; (<i>g</i>) the issuing of certificates or letters of approval
+granted to ministers travelling away from their homes, or to
+members removing from one meeting to another; and (<i>h</i>) the
+management of the property belonging to the Society. The
+meetings for business further concern themselves with arrangements
+for spreading the Quaker doctrine, and for carrying out
+various religious, philanthropic and social activities not necessarily
+confined to the Society of Friends.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The present organization of the Quaker church is essentially
+democratic; every person born of Quaker parents is a member, and,
+together with those who have been admitted on their own
+request, is entitled to take part in the business assemblies
+<span class="sidenote">Periodic &ldquo;meetings.&rdquo;</span>
+of any meeting of which he or she is a member. The
+Society is organized as a series of subordinated meetings
+which recall to the mind the Presbyterian model. The &ldquo;Preparative
+Meeting&rdquo; usually consists of a single congregation; next in order
+comes the &ldquo;Monthly Meeting,&rdquo; the executive body, usually embracing
+several Preparative Meetings called together, as its name indicates,
+monthly (in some cases less often); then the &ldquo;Quarterly
+Meeting,&rdquo; embracing several Monthly Meetings; and lastly the
+&ldquo;Yearly Meeting,&rdquo; embracing the whole of Great Britain (but not
+Ireland). After several yearly or &ldquo;general&rdquo; meetings had been held
+in different places at irregular intervals as need arose, the first of an
+uninterrupted series met in 1668. From that date until 1904 it was
+held in London. In 1905 it met in Leeds, and in 1908 in Birmingham.
+Its official title is &ldquo;London Yearly Meeting.&rdquo; It is the legislative
+body of Friends in Great Britain. It considers questions of policy,
+and some of its sittings are conferences for the consideration of
+reports on religious, philanthropic, educational and social work
+which is carried on. Its sessions occupy a week in May of each year.
+Representatives are sent from each inferior to each superior meeting,
+but they have no precedence over others, and all Friends may
+attend any meeting and take part in any of which they are members.
+Formerly the system was double, the men and women meeting
+separately for their own appointed business. Of late years the
+meetings have been, for the most part, held jointly, with equal
+liberty for all men and women to state their opinions, and to serve
+on all committees and other appointments. The mode of conducting
+these meetings is noteworthy. A secretary or &ldquo;clerk,&rdquo; as he is
+called, acts as chairman or president; there are no formal resolutions;
+and there is no voting or applause. The clerk ascertains
+what he considers to be the judgment of the assembly, and records
+it in a minute. The permanent standing committee of the Society
+is known as the &ldquo;Meeting for Sufferings&rdquo; (established in 1675),
+which took its rise in the days when the persecution of many Friends
+demanded the Christian care and material help of those who were
+able to give it. It is composed of representatives (men and women)
+sent by the quarterly meetings, and of all recorded Ministers and
+Elders. Its work is not confined to the interests of Friends; it is
+sensitive to the call of oppression and distress (<i>e.g.</i> a famine) in all
+parts of the world, it frequently raises large sums of money to
+alleviate the same, and intervenes, often successfully, and mostly
+without publicity, with those in authority who have the power to
+bring about an amelioration.</p>
+
+<p>The offices known to the Quaker body are: (1) that of <i>minister</i>
+(the term &ldquo;office&rdquo; is not strictly applicable, see above as to &ldquo;recording&rdquo;);
+(2) of <i>elder</i>, whose duty it is &ldquo;to encourage and help young
+ministers, and advise others as they, in the wisdom of God, see
+occasion&rdquo;; (3) of <i>overseer</i>, to whom is especially entrusted that
+duty of Christian care for and interest in one another which Quakers
+recognize as obligatory in all the members of a church. In most
+Monthly Meetings the care of the poor is committed to the overseers.
+These officers hold, from time to time, meetings separate from the
+general assemblies of the members, but the special organization for
+many years known as the Meeting of Ministers and Elders, reconstituted
+in 1876 as the Meeting on Ministry and Oversight, came to
+an end in 1906-1907.</p>
+
+<p>This present form both of organization and of discipline has been
+reached only by a process of development. As early as 1652-1654
+there is evidence of some slight organization for dealing with
+marriages, poor relief, &ldquo;disorderly walkers,&rdquo; matters of arbitration,
+&amp;c. The Quarterly or &ldquo;General&rdquo; meetings of the different counties
+seem to have been the first unions of separate congregations. In
+1666 Fox established Monthly Meetings; in 1727 elders were first
+appointed; in 1752 overseers were added; and in 1737 the right
+of children of Quakers to be considered as members was fully
+recognized. Concerning the 18th century in general, see above.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years the stringency of the Quaker discipline has been
+relaxed: the peculiarities of dress and language have been
+abandoned; marriage with a non-member or between two non-members
+is now possible at a Quaker meeting-house; and marriage
+elsewhere has ceased to involve exclusion from the body. Above
+all, many of its members have come to &ldquo;the conviction, which is
+not new, but old, that the virtues which can be rewarded and the
+vices which can be punished by external discipline are not as a rule
+the virtues and the vices that make or mar the soul&rdquo; (Hatch,
+<i>Bampton Lectures</i>, 81).</p>
+
+<p>A genuine vein of philanthropy has always existed in the Quaker
+body. In nothing has this been more conspicuous than in the
+matter of slavery. George Fox and William Penn
+laboured to secure the religious teaching of slaves. As
+<span class="sidenote">Philanthropic interests.</span>
+early as 1676 the assembly of Barbados passed &ldquo;An Act
+to prevent the people called Quakers from bringing
+negroes to their meetings.&rdquo; On the attitude of Friends in America
+to slavery, see the section &ldquo;Quakerism in America&rdquo; (above). In
+1783 the first petition to the House of Commons for the abolition
+of the slave trade and slavery went up from the Quakers; and in the
+long agitation which ensued the Society took a prominent part.</p>
+
+<p>In 1798 Joseph Lancaster, himself a Friend, opened his first school
+for the education of the poor; and the cause of unsectarian religious
+education found in the Quakers steady support. They also took an
+active part in Sir Samuel Romilly&rsquo;s efforts to ameliorate the penal
+code, in prison reform, with which the name of Elizabeth Fry (a
+Friend) is especially connected, and in the efforts to ameliorate the
+condition of lunatics in England (the Friends&rsquo; Retreat at York,
+founded in 1792, was the earliest example in England of kindly
+treatment of the insane). It is noteworthy that Quaker efforts for
+the education of the poor and philanthropy in general, though they
+have always been Christian in character, have not been undertaken
+primarily for the purpose of bringing proselytes within the body,
+and have not done so to any great extent.</p>
+
+<p>By means of the Adult Schools, Friends have been able to exercise
+a religious influence beyond the borders of their own Society. The
+movement began in Birmingham in 1845, in an attempt
+to help the loungers at street corners; reading and
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+writing were the chief inducements offered. The schools
+are unsectarian in character and mainly democratic in government:
+the aim is to draw out what is best in men and to induce them to act
+for the help of their fellows. Whilst the work is essentially religious
+in character, a well-equipped school also caters for the social,
+intellectual and physical parts of a man&rsquo;s nature. Bible teaching is
+the central part of the school session: the lessons are mainly concerned
+with life&rsquo;s practical problems. The spirit of brotherliness
+which prevails is largely the secret of the success of the movement.
+At the end of 1909 there were in connexion with the &ldquo;National
+Council of Adult-School Associations&rdquo; 1818 &ldquo;schools&rdquo; for men with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span>
+a membership of about 113,789; and 402 for women with a membership
+of about 27,000. The movement, which is no longer exclusively
+under the control of Friends, is rapidly becoming one of the chief
+means of bringing about a religious fellowship among a class which
+the organized churches have largely failed to reach. The effect of
+the work upon the Society itself may be summarized thus: some
+addition to membership; the creation of a sphere of usefulness for
+the younger and more active members; a general stirring of interest
+in social questions.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A strong interest in Sunday schools for children preceded the
+Adult School movement. The earliest schools which are still
+existing were formed at Bristol, for boys in 1810 and for girls in the
+following year. Several isolated efforts were made earlier than this;
+it is evident that there was a school at Lothersdale near Skipton
+in 1800 &ldquo;for the preservation of the youth of both sexes, and for
+their instruction in useful learning&rdquo;; and another at Nottingham.
+Even earlier still were the Sunday and day schools in Rossendale,
+Lancashire, dating from 1793. At the end of 1909 there were in
+connexion with the Friends&rsquo; First-Day School Association 240
+schools with 2722 teachers and 25,215 scholars, very few of whom
+were the children of Friends. Not included in these figures are
+classes for children of members and &ldquo;attenders,&rdquo; which are usually
+held before or during a portion of the time of the morning meeting
+for worship; in these distinctly denominational teaching is given.
+Monthly organ, <i>Teachers and Taught</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A &ldquo;provisional committee&rdquo; of members of the Society of Friends
+was formed in 1865 to deal with offers of service in foreign lands.
+In 1868 this developed into the Friends&rsquo; Foreign Mission
+Association, which now undertakes Missionary work in
+<span class="sidenote">Foreign missions.</span>
+India (begun 1866), Madagascar (1867), Syria (1869),
+China (1886), Ceylon (1896). In 1909 the number of missionaries
+(including wives) was 113; organized churches, 194; members and
+adherents, 21,085; schools, 135; pupils, 7042; hospitals and
+dispensaries, 17; patients treated, 6865; subscriptions raised from
+Friends in Great Britain and Ireland, £26,689, besides £3245 received
+in the fields of work. Quarterly organ, <i>Our Missions</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Statistics of Quakerism.</i>&mdash;At the close of 1909 there were 18,686
+Quakers (the number includes children) in Great Britain; and
+&ldquo;associates&rdquo; and habitual &ldquo;attenders&rdquo; not in membership, 8586;
+number of congregations regularly meeting, 390. Ireland&mdash;members,
+2528; habitual attenders not in membership, 402.</p>
+
+<p>The central offices and reference library of the Society of Friends
+are situate at Devonshire House, Bishopsgate Without, London.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bibliography.</i>&mdash;The writings of the early Friends are very numerous:
+the most noteworthy are the <i>Journals</i> of George Fox and of
+Thomas Ellwood, both autobiographies, the <i>Apology</i> and other
+works of Robert Barclay, and the works of Penn and Penington.
+Early in the 18th century William Sewel, a Dutch Quaker, wrote a
+history of the Society and published an English translation; modern
+(small) histories have been written by T. Edmund Harvey (<i>The
+Rise of the Quakers</i>) and by Mrs Emmott (<i>The Story of Quakerism</i>).
+<i>The Sufferings of the Quakers</i> by Joseph Besse (1753) gives a detailed
+account of the persecution of the early Friends in England and
+America. An excellent portraiture of early Quakerism is given in
+William Tanner&rsquo;s <i>Lectures on Friends in Bristol and Somersetshire</i>.
+<i>The Book of Discipline</i> in its successive printed editions from 1783
+to 1906 contains the working rules of the organization, and also a
+compilation of testimonies borne by the Society at different periods,
+to important points of Christian truth, and often called forth by the
+special circumstances of the time. <i>The Inner Life of the Religious
+Societies of the Commonwealth</i> (London, 1876) by Robert Barclay,
+a descendant of the Apologist, contains much curious information
+about the Quakers. See also &ldquo;Quaker&rdquo; in the index to Masson&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Milton</i>. Joseph Smith&rsquo;s <i>Descriptive Catalogue of Friends&rsquo;
+Books</i> (London, 1867) gives the information which its title promises;
+the same author has also published a catalogue of works hostile to
+Quakerism. For an exposition of Quakerism on its spiritual side
+many of the poems by Whittier may be referred to, also <i>Quaker
+Strongholds</i> and <i>Light Arising</i> by Caroline E. Stephen; <i>The Society of
+Friends, its Faith and Practice</i>, and other works by John Stephenson
+Rowntree, <i>A Dynamic Faith</i> and other works by Rufus M. Jones;
+<i>Authority and the Light Within</i> and other works by Edw. Grubb,
+and the series of &ldquo;Swarthmore Lectures&rdquo; as well as the histories
+above mentioned. Much valuable information will be found in <i>John
+Stephenson Rowntree: His Life and Work</i> (1908). The history of the
+modern forward movement may be studied in <i>Essays and Addresses</i>
+by John Wilhelm Rowntree, and in <i>Present Day Papers</i> edited by him.
+The social life of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th is
+portrayed in <i>Records of a Quaker Family, the Richardsons of Cleveland</i>,
+by Mrs Boyce, and <i>The Diaries of Edward Pease, the Father of English
+Railways</i>, edited by Sir A. E. Pease. Other works which may usefully
+be consulted are the Journals of John Woolman, Stephen Grellet and
+Elizabeth Fry; also <i>The First Publishers of Truth</i>, a reprint of contemporary
+accounts of the rise of Quakerism in various districts.
+The periodicals issued (not officially) in connexion with the Quaker
+body are <i>The Friend</i> (weekly), <i>The British Friend</i> (monthly), <i>The
+Friends&rsquo; Witness</i>, <i>The Friendly Messenger</i>, <i>The Friends&rsquo; Fellowship
+Papers</i>, <i>The Friends&rsquo; Quarterly Examiner</i>, <i>Journal of the Friends&rsquo;
+Historical Society</i>. Officially issued: <i>The Book of Meetings</i> and <i>The
+Friends&rsquo; Year Book</i>. See also works mentioned at the close of
+sections on Adult Schools and on Quakerism in America, Scotland
+and Ireland, and elsewhere in this article; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fox, George</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. N. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> At the time referred to, and during the Commonwealth, the
+pulpits of the cathedrals and churches were occupied by Episcopalians
+of the Richard Baxter type, Presbyterians, Independents and a few
+Baptists. It is these, and not the clergy of the Church of England,
+who are continually referred to by George Fox as &ldquo;priests.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> On the whole subject of preaching &ldquo;after the priest had done,&rdquo;
+see Barclay&rsquo;s <i>Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth</i>,
+ch. xii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Woolman&rsquo;s <i>Journal</i> and <i>Works</i> are remarkable. He had a
+vision of a political economy based not on selfishness but on love,
+not on desire but on self-denial.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See <i>A History of the Adult School Movement</i> by J. W. Rowntree
+and H. B. Binns. The organ of the movement is One and All,
+published monthly. See also <i>The Adult School Year Book</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1794-1878), Swedish botanist,
+was born at Femsjö, Småland, on the 15th of August 1794.
+From his father, the pastor of the church at Femsjö, he early
+acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering plants. In 1811
+he entered the university of Lund, where in 1814 he was elected
+docent of botany and in 1824 professor. In 1834 he became
+professor of practical economy at Upsala, and in 1844 and 1848
+he represented the university of that city in the Rigsdag. On
+the death of Göran Wahlenberg (1780-1851) he was appointed
+professor of botany at Upsala, where he died on the 8th of
+February 1878. Fries was admitted a member of the Swedish
+Royal Academy in 1847, and a foreign member of the Royal
+Society of London in 1875.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As an author on the Cryptogamia he was in the first rank. He
+wrote <i>Novitiae florae Suecicae</i> (1814 and 1823); <i>Observationes
+mycologicae</i> (1815); <i>Flora Hollandica</i> (1817-1818); <i>Systema mycologicum</i>
+(1821-1829); <i>Systema orbis vegetabilis</i>, not completed
+(1825); <i>Elenchus fungorum</i> (1828); <i>Lichenographia Europaea</i>
+(1831); <i>Epicrisis systematis mycologici</i> (1838; 2nd ed., or <i>Hymenomycetes
+Europaei</i>, 1874); <i>Summa vegetabilium Scandinaviae</i> (1846);
+<i>Sveriges ätliga och giftiga Svampar</i>, with coloured plates (1860);
+<i>Monographia hymenomycetum Suecicae</i> (1863), with the <i>Icones
+hymenomycetum</i>, vol. i. (1867), and pt. i. vol. ii. (1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1773-1843), German philosopher,
+was born at Barby, Saxony, on the 23rd of August 1773. Having
+studied theology in the academy of the Moravian brethren at
+Niesky, and philosophy at Leipzig and Jena, he travelled for
+some time, and in 1806 became professor of philosophy and
+elementary mathematics at Heidelberg. Though the progress
+of his psychological thought compelled him to abandon the
+positive theology of the Moravians, he always retained an
+appreciation of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philosophical
+position with regard to his contemporaries he had
+already made clear in the critical work <i>Reinhold, Fichte und
+Schelling</i> (1803; reprinted in 1824 as <i>Polemische Schriften</i>),
+and in the more systematic treatises <i>System der Philosophie als
+evidente Wissenschaft</i> (1804), <i>Wissen, Glaube und Ahnung</i> (1805,
+new ed. 1905). His most important treatise, the <i>Neue oder
+anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft</i> (2nd ed., 1828-1831), was
+an attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis
+to the critical theory of Kant. In 1811 appeared his <i>System
+der Logik</i> (ed. 1819 and 1837), a very instructive work, and in
+1814 <i>Julius und Evagoras</i>, a philosophical romance. In 1816
+he was invited to Jena to fill the chair of theoretical philosophy
+(including mathematics and physics, and philosophy proper),
+and entered upon a crusade against the prevailing Romanticism.
+In politics he was a strong Liberal and Unionist, and did much
+to inspire the organization of the <i>Burschenschaft</i>. In 1816 he
+had published his views in a brochure, <i>Vom deutschen Bund
+und deutscher Staatsverfassung</i>, dedicated to &ldquo;the youth of
+Germany,&rdquo; and his influence gave a powerful impetus to the
+agitation which led in 1819 to the issue of the Carlsbad Decrees
+by the representatives of the German governments. Karl Sand,
+the murderer of Kotzebue, was one of his pupils; and a letter
+of his, found on another student, warning the lad against participation
+in secret societies, was twisted by the suspicious
+authorities into evidence of his guilt. He was condemned by the
+Mainz Commission; the grand-duke of Weimar was compelled
+to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to
+lecture on philosophy. The grand-duke, however, continued
+to pay him his stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena
+as professor of mathematics and physics, receiving permission
+also to lecture on philosophy in his own rooms to a select number
+of students. Finally, in 1838, the unrestricted right of lecturing
+was restored to him. He died on the 10th of August 1843.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most important of the many works written during his Jena
+professorate are the <i>Handbuch der praktischen Philosophie</i> (1817-1832),
+the <i>Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologie</i> (1820-1821,
+2nd ed. 1837-1839), <i>Die mathematische Naturphilosophie</i> (1822),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span>
+<i>System der Metaphysik</i> (1824), <i>Die Geschichte der Philosophie</i> (1837-1840).
+Fries&rsquo;s point of view in philosophy may be described as a
+modified Kantianism, an attempt to reconcile the criticism of Kant
+and Jacobi&rsquo;s philosophy of belief. With Kant he regarded <i>Kritik</i>,
+or the critical investigation of the faculty of knowledge, as the
+essential preliminary to philosophy. But he differed from Kant
+both as regards the foundation for this criticism and as regards the
+metaphysical results yielded by it. Kant&rsquo;s analysis of knowledge
+had disclosed the a priori element as the necessary complement of
+the isolated a posteriori facts of experience. But it did not seem to
+Fries that Kant had with sufficient accuracy examined the mode in
+which we arrive at knowledge of this a priori element. According
+to him we only know these a priori principles through inner or
+psychical experience; they are not then to be regarded as transcendental
+factors of all experience, but as the necessary, constant
+elements discovered by us in our inner experience. Accordingly
+Fries, like the Scotch school, places psychology or analysis of consciousness
+at the foundation of philosophy, and called his criticism
+of knowledge an anthropological critique. A second point in which
+Fries differed from Kant is the view taken as to the relation between
+immediate and mediate cognitions. According to Fries, the understanding
+is purely the faculty of proof; it is in itself void; immediate
+certitude is the only source of knowledge. Reason contains principles
+which we cannot demonstrate, but which can be deduced, and are
+the proper objects of belief. In this view of reason Fries approximates
+to Jacobi rather than to Kant. His most original idea is the
+graduation of knowledge into knowing, belief and presentiment.
+We know phenomena, how the existence of things appears to us in
+nature; we believe in the true nature, the eternal essence of things
+(the good, the true, the beautiful); by means of presentiment
+(<i>Ahnung</i>) the intermediary between knowledge and belief, we
+recognize the supra-sensible in the sensible, the being in the phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>See E. L. Henke, <i>J. F. Fries</i> (1867); C. Grapengiesser, <i>J. F. Fries,
+ein Gedenkblatt</i> and <i>Kant&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kritik der Vernunft&rdquo; und deren Fortbildung
+durch J. F. Fries</i> (1882); H. Strasosky, <i>J. F. Fries als
+Kritiker der Kantischen Erkenntnistheorie</i> (1891); articles in Ersch
+and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i> and <i>Allgemeine deutsche
+Biographie</i>; J. E. Erdmann, <i>Hist. of Philos.</i> (Eng. trans., London,
+1890), vol. ii. § 305.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIES, JOHN<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1764-1825), American insurgent leader, was
+born in Pennsylvania of &ldquo;Dutch&rdquo; (German) descent about
+1764. As an itinerant auctioneer he became well acquainted
+with the Germans in the S.E. part of Pennsylvania. In July
+1798, during the troubles between the United States and France,
+Congress levied a direct tax (on dwelling-houses, lands and
+slaves) of $2,000,000, of which Pennsylvania was called upon to
+contribute $237,000. There were very few slaves in the state,
+and the tax was accordingly assessed upon dwelling-houses and
+land, the value of the houses being determined by the number
+and size of the windows. The inquisitorial nature of the proceedings
+aroused strong opposition among the Germans, and
+many of them refused to pay. Fries, assuming leadership,
+organized an armed band of about sixty men, who marched
+about the country intimidating the assessors and encouraging
+the people to resist. At last the governor called out the
+militia (March 1799) and the leaders were arrested. Fries and
+two others were twice tried for treason (the second time before
+Samuel Chase) and were sentenced to be hanged, but they were
+pardoned by President Adams in April 1800, and a general
+amnesty was issued on 21st May. The affair is variously known
+as the &ldquo;Fries Rebellion,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Hot-Water Rebellion&rdquo;&mdash;because
+hot water was used to drive assessors from houses&mdash;, and the
+&ldquo;Home Tax Rebellion.&rdquo; Fries died in Philadelphia in 1825.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Carpenter, <i>Two Trials of John Fries ... Taken in Shorthand</i>
+(Philadelphia, 1800); the second volume of McMaster&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the United States</i> (New York, 1883); and W. W. H. Davis, <i>The
+Fries Rebellion</i> (Doylestown, Pa., 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIESLAND,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Vriesland</span>, a province of Holland, bounded
+S.W., W. and N. by the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, E. by
+Groningen and Drente, and S.E. by Overysel. It also includes
+the islands of Ameland and Schiermonnikoog (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frisian
+Islands</a></span>). Area, 1281 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 340,262. The soil
+of Friesland falls naturally into three divisions consisting of
+sea-clay in the north and north-west, of low-fen between the
+south-west and north-east, and of a comparatively small area
+of high-fen in the south-east. The clay and low-fen furnish a
+luxuriant meadow-land for the principal industries of the province&mdash;cattle-rearing
+and cheese- and butter-making. Horse-breeding
+has also been practised for centuries, and the breed of black
+Frisian horse is well known. On the clay lands agriculture is
+also extensively practised. In the high-fen district peat-digging
+is the chief occupation. The effect of this industry, however,
+is to lay bare a subsoil of diluvial sand which offers little inducement
+for subsequent cultivation. Despite the general productiveness
+of the soil, however, the social condition of Friesland has
+remained in a backward state and poverty is rife in many districts.
+The ownership of property being largely in the hands of absentee
+landlords, the peasantry have little interest in the land, the
+profits from which go to enrich other provinces. Moreover,
+the nature of the fertility of the meadow-lands is such as to
+require little manual labour, and other industrial means of
+subsistence have hardly yet come into existence. This state of
+affairs has given rise to a social-democratic outcry on account
+of which Friesland is sometimes regarded as the &ldquo;Ireland of
+Holland.&rdquo; The water system of the province comprises a few
+small rivers (now largely canalized) in the high lands in the east,
+and the vast network of canals, waterways and lakes of the whole
+north and west. The principal lakes are Tjeuke Meer, Sloter
+Meer, De Fluessen and Sneeker Meer. The tides being lowest
+on the north coast of the province, the scheme of the Waterstaat,
+the government department (dating from 1879), provides for
+the largest removal of superfluous surface water into the Lauwerszee.
+But owing to the long distance which the water must
+travel from certain parts of the province, and the continual
+recession of the Lauwerszee, the drainage problem is a peculiarly
+difficult one, and floods are sometimes inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>The population of the province is evenly distributed in small
+villages. The principal market centres are Leeuwarden, the
+chief towns, Sneek, Bolsward, Franeker (<i>qq.v.</i>), Dokkum (4053)
+and Heerenveen (5011). With the exception of Franeker and
+Heerenveen all these towns originally arose on the inlet of the
+Middle Sea. The seaport towns are more or less decayed;
+they include Stavoren (820), Hindeloopen (1030), Workum
+(3428), Harlingen (<i>q.v.</i>) and Makkum (2456).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frisians</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIEZE.<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> 1. (Through the Fr. <i>frise</i>, and Ital. <i>fregio</i>, from
+the Lat. <i>Phrygium, sc. opus</i>, Phrygian or embroidered work),
+a term given in architecture to the central division of the entablature
+of an order (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>), but also applied to any oblong
+horizontal feature, introduced for decorative purposes and
+enriched with carving. The Doric frieze had a structural origin
+as the triglyphs suggest vertical support. The Ionic frieze was
+purely decorative and probably did not exist in the earliest
+examples, if we may judge by the copies found in the Lycian
+tombs carved in the rock. There is no frieze in the Caryatide
+portico of the Erechtheum, but in the Ionic temples its introduction
+may have been necessitated in consequence of more height
+being required in the entablature to carry the beams supporting
+the lacunaria over the peristyle. In the frieze of the Erechtheum
+the figures (about 2 ft. high) were carved in white marble and
+affixed by clamps to a background of black Eleusinian marble.
+The frieze of the Choragic monument of Lysicrates (10 in. high)
+was carved with figures representing the story of Dionysus and
+the pirates. The most remarkable frieze ever sculptured was
+that on the outside of the wall of the cella of the Parthenon
+representing the procession of the celebrants of the Panathenaic
+Festival. It was 40 in. in height and 525 ft. long, being carried
+round the whole building under the peristyle. Nearly the whole
+of the western frieze exists <i>in situ</i>; of the remainder, about half
+is in the British Museum, and as much as remains is either in
+Athens or in other museums. In some of the Roman temples,
+as in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina and the temple
+of the Sun, the frieze is elaborately carved and in later work is
+made convex, to which the term &ldquo;pulvinated&rdquo; is given.</p>
+
+<p>2. (Probably connected with &ldquo;frizz,&rdquo; to curl; there is no
+historical reason to connect the word with Friesland), a thick,
+rough woollen cloth, of very lasting quality, and with a heavy
+nap, forming small tufts or curls. It is largely manufactured in
+Ireland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIGATE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (Fr. <i>frégate</i>, Span. and Port. <i>fragata</i>; the etymology
+of the word is obscure; it has been derived from the Late Lat.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span>
+<i>fabricata</i>, and the use of the Fr. <i>bâtiment</i>, for a vessel as well as a
+building is compared; another suggestion derives the word from
+the Gr. <span class="grk" title="aphraktos">&#7940;&#966;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, unfenced or unguarded), originally a small
+swift, undecked vessel, propelled by oars or sails, in use on the
+Mediterranean. The word is thus used of the large open boats,
+without guns, used for war purposes by the Portuguese in the
+East Indies during the 16th and 17th centuries. The French
+first applied the term to a particular type of ships of war during
+the second quarter of the 18th century. The Seven Years&rsquo;
+War (1756-1763) marked the definite adoption of the &ldquo;frigate&rdquo;
+as a standard class of vessel, coming next to ships of the line,
+and used for cruising and scouting purposes. They were three-masted,
+fully rigged, fast vessels, with the main armament
+carried on a single deck, and additional guns on the poop and
+forecastle. The number of guns varied from 24 to 50, but
+between 30 and 40 guns was the usual amount carried. &ldquo;Frigate&rdquo;
+continued to be used as the name for this type of ship, even
+after the introduction of steam and of ironclad vessels, but the
+class is now represented by that known as &ldquo;cruiser.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIGATE-BIRD,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> the name commonly given by English
+sailors, on account of the swiftness of its flight, its habit of
+cruising about near other species and of daringly pursuing them,
+to a large sea-bird<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>&mdash;the <i>Fregata aquila</i> of most ornithologists&mdash;the
+<i>Fregatte</i> of French and the <i>Rabihorcado</i> of Spanish mariners.
+It was placed by Linnaeus in the genus <i>Pelecanus</i>, and its
+assignment to the family <i>Pelecanidae</i> had hardly ever been
+doubted till Professor St George Mivart declared (<i>Trans. Zool.
+Soc.</i> x. p. 364) that, as regards the postcranial part of its axial
+skeleton, he could not detect sufficiently good characters to
+unite it with that family in the group named by Professor J. F.
+Brandt <i>Steganopodes</i>. There seems to be no ground for disputing
+this decision so far as separating the genus <i>Fregata</i> from the
+<i>Pelecanidae</i> goes, but systematists will probably pause before
+they proceed to abolish the <i>Steganopodes</i>, and the result will
+most likely be that the frigate-birds will be considered to form
+a distinct family (<i>Fregatidae</i>) in that group. In one very remarkable
+way the osteology of <i>Fregata</i> differs from that of all other
+birds known. The furcula coalesces firmly at its symphysis
+with the carina of the sternum, and also with the coracoids at
+the upper extremity of each of its rami, the anterior end of each
+coracoid coalescing also with the proximal end of the scapula.
+Thus the only articulations in the whole sternal apparatus are
+where the coracoids meet the sternum, and the consequence is
+a bony framework which would be perfectly rigid did not the
+flexibility of the rami of the furcula permit a limited amount of
+motion. That this mechanism is closely related to the faculty
+which the bird possesses of soaring for a considerable time in the
+air with scarcely a perceptible movement of the wings can
+hardly be doubted.</p>
+
+<p>Two species of <i>Fregata</i> are considered to exist, though they
+differ in little but size and geographical distribution. The larger,
+<i>F. aquila</i>, has a wide range all round the world within the tropics
+and at times passes their limits. The smaller, <i>F. minor</i>, appears
+to be confined to the eastern seas, from Madagascar to the
+Moluccas, and southward to Australia, being particularly abundant
+in Torres Strait,&mdash;the other species, however, being found
+there as well. Having a spread of wing equal to a swan&rsquo;s and
+a very small body, the buoyancy of these birds is very great.
+It is a beautiful sight to watch one or more of them floating
+overhead against the deep blue sky, the long forked tail alternately
+opening and shutting like a pair of scissors, and the head, which
+is of course kept to windward, inclined from side to side, while
+the wings are to all appearance fixedly extended, though the
+breeze may be constantly varying in strength and direction.
+Equally fine is the contrast afforded by these birds when engaged
+in fishing, or, as seems more often to happen, in robbing other
+birds, especially boobies, as they are fishing. Then the speed
+of their flight is indeed seen to advantage, as well as the marvellous
+suddenness with which they can change their rapid course
+as their victim tries to escape from their attack. Before gales
+frigate-birds are said often to fly low, and their appearance
+near or over land, except at their breeding-time, is supposed to
+portend a hurricane.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Generally seen singly or in pairs, except
+when the prospect of prey induces them to congregate, they
+breed in large companies, and O. Salvin has graphically described
+(<i>Ibis</i>, 1864, p. 375) one of their settlements off the coast of
+British Honduras, which he visited in May 1862. Here they
+chose the highest mangrove-trees<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> on which to build their frail
+nests, and seemed to prefer the leeward side. The single egg
+laid in each nest has a white and chalky shell very like that of a
+cormorant&rsquo;s. The nestlings are clothed in pure white down,
+and so thickly as to resemble puff-balls. When fledged, the
+beak, head, neck and belly are white, the legs and feet bluish-white,
+but the body is dark above. The adult females retain the
+white beneath, but the adult males lose it, and in both sexes at
+maturity the upper plumage is of a very dark chocolate brown,
+nearly black, with a bright metallic gloss, while the feet in the
+females are pink, and black in the males&mdash;the last also acquiring
+a bright scarlet pouch, capable of inflation, and being perceptible
+when on the wing. The habits of <i>F. minor</i> seem wholly to
+resemble those of <i>F. aquila</i>. According to J. M. Bechstein, an
+example of this last species was obtained at the mouth of the
+Weser in January 1792.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;Man-of-war-bird&rdquo; is also sometimes applied to it, and is
+perhaps the older name; but it is less distinctive, some of the larger
+Albatrosses being so called, and, in books at least, has generally
+passed out of use.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hence another of the names&mdash;&ldquo;hurricane-bird&rdquo;&mdash;by which this
+species is occasionally known.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Captain Taylor, however, found their nests as well on low bushes
+of the same tree in the Bay of Fonseca (<i>Ibis</i>, 1859, pp. 150-152).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIGG,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the wife of the god Odin (Woden) in northern mythology.
+She was known also to other Teutonic peoples both on
+the continent (O. H. Ger. <i>Friia</i>, Langobardic <i>Frea</i>) and in England,
+where her name still survives in Friday (O. E. <i>Frigedæg</i>).
+She is often wrongly identified with Freyia. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic
+Peoples</a></span>, <i>ad fin</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIGIDARIUM,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the Latin term (from <i>frigidus</i>, cold) applied
+to the open area of the Roman thermae, in which there was
+generally a cold swimming bath, and sometimes to the bath
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baths</a></span>). From the description given by Aelius Spartianus
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 297) it would seem that portions of the frigidarium were
+covered over by a ceiling formed of interlaced bars of gilt bronze,
+and this statement has been to a certain extent substantiated
+by the discovery of many tons of <b>T</b>-shaped iron found in the
+excavations under the paving of the frigidarium of the thermae
+of Caracalla. Dr J. H. Middleton in <i>The Remains of Ancient
+Rome</i> (1892) points out that in the part of the enclosure walls
+are deep sinkings to receive the ends of the great girders. He
+suggests that the panels of the lattice-work ceiling were filled in
+with concrete made of light pumice stone.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIIS, JOHAN<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1494-1570), Danish statesman, was born in
+1494, and was educated at Odense and at Copenhagen, completing
+his studies abroad. Few among the ancient Danish nobility
+occupy so prominent a place in Danish history as Johan Friis,
+who exercised a decisive influence in the government of the
+realm during the reign of three kings. He was one of the first
+of the magnates to adhere to the Reformation and its promoter
+King Frederick I. (1523-1533), his apostasy being so richly
+rewarded out of the spoils of the plundered Church that his heirs
+had to restore property of the value of 1,000,000 kroner. Friis
+succeeded Claus Gjoodsen as imperial chancellor in 1532, and
+held that dignity till his death. During the ensuing interregnum
+he powerfully contributed, at the head of the nobles of Funen
+and Jutland, to the election of Christian III. (1533-1559), but
+in the course of the &ldquo;Count&rsquo;s War&rdquo; he was taken prisoner by
+Count Christopher, the Catholic candidate for the throne, and
+forced to do him homage. Subsequently by judicious bribery
+he contrived to escape to Germany, and from thence rejoined
+Christian III. He was one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded
+peace with Lübeck at the congress of Hamburg, and subsequently
+took an active part in the great work of national reconstruction
+necessitated by the Reformation, acting as mediator between
+the Danish and the German parties who were contesting for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span>
+supremacy during the earlier years of Christian III. This he was
+able to do, as a moderate Lutheran, whose calmness and common
+sense contrasted advantageously with the unbridled violence
+of his contemporaries. As the first chancellor of the reconstructed
+university of Copenhagen, Friis took the keenest
+interest in spiritual and scientific matters, and was the first donor
+of a legacy to the institution. He also enjoyed the society of
+learned men, especially of &ldquo;those who could talk with him
+concerning ancient monuments and their history.&rdquo; He encouraged
+Hans Svaning to complete Saxo&rsquo;s history of Denmark,
+and Anders Vedel to translate Saxo into Danish. His generosity
+to poor students was well known; but he could afford to be
+liberal, as his share of spoliated Church property had made him
+one of the wealthiest men in Denmark. Under King Frederick II.
+(1559-1588), who understood but little of state affairs, Friis
+was well-nigh omnipotent. He was largely responsible for the
+Scandinavian Seven Years&rsquo; War (1562-70), which did so much
+to exacerbate the relations between Denmark and Sweden.
+Friis died on the 5th of December 1570, a few days before the
+peace of Stettin, which put an end to the exhausting and unnecessary
+struggle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIMLEY,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary
+division of Surrey, England, 33 m. W.S.W. from London by
+the London &amp; South-Western railway, and 1 m. N. of Farnborough
+in Hampshire. Pop. (1901) 8409. Its healthy climate,
+its position in the sandy heath-district of the west of Surrey,
+and its proximity to Aldershot Camp have contributed to its
+growth as a residential township. To the east the moorland
+rises in the picturesque elevation of Chobham Ridges; and
+3 m. N.E. is Bagshot, another village growing into a residential
+town, on the heath of the same name extending into Berkshire.
+Bisley Camp, to which in 1890 the meetings of the National
+Rifle Association were removed from Wimbledon, is 4 m. E.
+Coniferous trees and rhododendrons are characteristic products
+of the soil, and large nurseries are devoted to their cultivation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of Palota,
+Prince of Antrodocco</span> (1759-1831), Austrian general, entered
+the Austrian cavalry as a trooper in 1776, won his commission
+in the War of the Bavarian Succession, and took part in the
+Turkish wars and in the early campaigns against the French
+Revolutionary armies, in which he frequently earned distinction.
+At Frankenthal in 1796 he won the cross of Maria Theresa. In
+the campaign of 1800 he distinguished himself greatly as a
+cavalry leader at Marengo (14th of June), and in the next year
+became major-general. In the war of 1805 he was again employed
+in Italy and won further renown by his gallantry at the battle
+of Caldiero. In 1809 he again saw active service in Italy in the
+rank of lieutenant field marshal, and in 1812 led the cavalry of
+Schwarzenberg&rsquo;s corps in the Russian campaign. He served in
+the campaigns of 1813-14 in high command, and rendered
+conspicuous service at Brienne-La Rothière and at Arcis-sur-Aube.
+In 1815 he was commander-in-chief of the Austrians in
+Italy, and his army penetrated France as far as Lyons, which
+was entered on the 11th of July. With the army of occupation
+he remained in France for some years, and in 1819 he commanded
+at Venice. In 1821 he led the Austrian army which was employed
+against the Neapolitan rebels, and by the 24th of March he had
+victoriously entered Naples. His reward from King Ferdinand
+of Naples was the title of prince of Antrodocco and a handsome
+sum of money, and from his own master the rank of general of
+cavalry. After this he commanded in North Italy, and was
+called upon to deal with many outbreaks of the Italian patriots.
+He became president of the Aulic council in 1831, but died a few
+months later.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRISCHES HAFF,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a lagoon on the Baltic coast of Germany,
+within the provinces East and West Prussia, between Danzig
+and Königsberg. It is 52 m. in length, from 4 to 12 m. broad,
+332 sq. m. in area, and is separated from the Baltic by a narrow
+spit or bank of land. This barrier was torn open by a storm in
+1510, and the channel thus formed, now dredged out to a depth
+of 22 ft., affords a navigable passage for vessels. Into the Haff
+flow the Nogat, the Elbing, the Passarge, the Pregel and the
+Frisching, from the last of which the name Frisches Haff probably
+arose.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1547-1590), German
+philologist and poet, was born on the 22nd of September 1547
+at Balingen in Württemberg, where his father was parish
+minister. He was educated at the university of Tübingen,
+where in 1568 he was promoted to the chair of poetry and
+history. In 1575 for his comedy of <i>Rebecca</i>, which he read at
+Regensburg before the emperor Maximilian II., he was rewarded
+with the laureateship, and in 1577 he was made a count palatine
+(<i>comes palatinus</i>) or <i>Pfalzgraf</i>. In 1582 his unguarded language
+and reckless life made it necessary that he should leave Tübingen,
+and he accepted a mastership at Laibach in Carniola, which he
+held for about two years. Shortly after his return to the university
+in 1584, he was threatened with a criminal prosecution on a
+charge of immoral conduct, and the threat led to his withdrawal
+to Frankfort-on-Main in 1587. For eighteen months he taught
+in the Brunswick gymnasium, and he appears also to have resided
+occasionally at Strassburg, Marburg and Mainz. From the
+last-named city he wrote certain libellous letters, which led to his
+being arrested in March 1590. He was imprisoned in the fortress
+of Hohenurach, near Reutlingen, where, on the night of the 29th
+of November 1590, he was killed by a fall in attempting to let
+himself down from the window of his cell.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Frischlin&rsquo;s prolific and versatile genius produced a great variety
+of works, which entitle him to some rank both among poets and
+among scholars. In his Latin verse he often successfully imitated
+the classical models; his comedies are not without freshness and
+vivacity; and some of his versions and commentaries, particularly
+those on the <i>Georgics</i> and <i>Bucolics</i> of Virgil, though now well-nigh
+forgotten, were important contributions to the scholarship of his
+time. There is no collected edition of his works, but his <i>Opera
+poëtica</i> were published twelve times between 1535 and 1636. Among
+those most widely known may be mentioned the <i>Hebraeis</i> (1590), a
+Latin epic based on the Scripture history of the Jews; the <i>Elegiaca</i>
+(1601), his collected lyric poetry, in twenty-two books; the <i>Opera
+scenica</i> (1604) consisting of six comedies and two tragedies (among
+the former, <i>Julius Caesar redivivus</i>, completed 1584); the <i>Grammatica
+Latina</i> (1585); the versions of Callimachus and Aristophanes;
+and the commentaries on Persius and Virgil. See the
+monograph of D. F. Strauss (<i>Leben und Schriften des Dichters und
+Philologen Frischlin</i>, 1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRISI, PAOLO<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1728-1784), Italian mathematician and
+astronomer, was born at Milan on the 13th of April 1728. He
+was educated at the Barnabite monastery and afterwards at
+Padua. When twenty-one years of age he composed a treatise
+on the figure of the earth, and the reputation which he soon
+acquired led to his appointment by the king of Sardinia to the
+professorship of philosophy in the college of Casale. His friendship
+with Radicati, a man of liberal opinions, occasioned Frisi&rsquo;s
+removal by his clerical superiors to Novara, where he was compelled
+to do duty as a preacher. In 1753 he was elected a corresponding
+member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, and shortly
+afterwards he became professor of philosophy in the Barnabite
+College of St Alexander at Milan. An acrimonious attack by a
+young Jesuit, about this time, upon his dissertation on the
+figure of the earth laid the foundation of his animosity against
+the Jesuits, with whose enemies, including J. d&rsquo;Alembert,
+J. A. N. Condorcet and other Encyclopedists, he later closely
+associated himself. In 1756 he was appointed by Leopold,
+grand-duke of Tuscany, to the professorship of mathematics
+in the university of Pisa, a post which he held for eight years.
+In 1757 he became an associate of the Imperial Academy of
+St Petersburg, and a foreign member of the Royal Society of
+London, and in 1758 a member of the Academy of Berlin, in
+1766 of that of Stockholm, and in 1770 of the Academies of
+Copenhagen and of Bern. From several European crowned
+heads he received, at various times, marks of special distinction,
+and the empress Maria Theresa granted him a yearly pension
+of 100 sequins (£50). In 1764 he was created professor of
+mathematics in the palatine schools at Milan, and obtained
+from Pope Pius VI. release from ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and
+authority to become a secular priest. In 1766 he visited France
+and England, and in 1768 Vienna. In 1777 he became director
+of a school of architecture at Milan. His knowledge of hydraulics
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span>
+caused him to be frequently consulted with respect to the management
+of canals and other watercourses in various parts of Europe.
+It was through his means that lightning-conductors were first
+introduced into Italy for the protection of buildings. He died
+on the 22nd of November 1784.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His publications include:&mdash;<i>Disquisitio mathematica in causam
+physicam figurae et magnitudinis terrae</i> (Milan, 1751); <i>Saggio della
+morale filosofia</i> (Lugano, 1753); <i>Nova electricitatis theoria</i> (Milan,
+1755); <i>Dissertatio de motu diurno terrae</i> (Pisa, 1758); <i>Dissertationes
+variae</i> (2 vols. 4to, Lucca, 1759, 1761); <i>Del modo di regolare i fiumi
+e i torrenti</i> (Lucca, 1762); <i>Cosmographia physica et mathematica</i>
+(Milan, 1774, 1775, 2 vols. 4to, his chief work); <i>Dell&rsquo; architettura,
+statica e idraulica</i> (Milan, 1777); and other treatises.</p>
+
+<p>See Verri, <i>Memorie ... del signor dom Paolo Frisi</i> (Milan, 1787),
+4to; Fabbroni, &ldquo;Elogi d&rsquo; illustri Italiani,&rdquo; <i>Atti di Milano</i>, vol. ii.;
+J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biograph. litterar. Handwörterbuch</i>, vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRISIAN ISLANDS,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a chain of islands, lying from 3 to 20 m.
+from the mainland, and stretching from the Zuider Zee E. and
+N. as far as Jutland, along the coasts of Holland and Germany.
+They are divided into three groups:&mdash;(1) The West Frisian, (2)
+the East Frisian, and (3) the North Frisian.</p>
+
+<p>The chain of the Frisian Islands marks the outer fringe of the
+former continental coast-line, and is separated from the mainland
+by shallows, known as Wadden or Watten, answering to the <i>maria
+vadosa</i> of the Romans. Notwithstanding the protection afforded
+by sand-dunes and earthen embankments backed by stones
+and timber, the Frisian Islands are slowly but surely crumbling
+away under the persistent attacks of storm and flood, and the
+old Frisian proverb &ldquo;<i>de nich will diken mut wiken</i>&rdquo; (&ldquo;who will
+not build dikes must go away&rdquo;) still holds good. Many of the
+Frisian legends and folk-songs deal with the submerged villages
+and hamlets, which lie buried beneath the treacherous waters
+of the Wadden. Heinrich Heine made use of these legends in his
+<i>Nordseebilder</i>, composed during a visit to Norderney in 1825.
+The Prussian and Dutch governments annually expend large
+sums for the protection of the islands, and in some cases the erosion
+on the seaward side is counterbalanced by the accretion of land
+on the inner side, fine sandy beaches being formed well suited
+for sea-bathing, which <span class="correction" title="amended from attracts">attract</span> many visitors in summer. The
+inhabitants of these islands support themselves by seafaring,
+pilotage, grazing of cattle and sheep, fishing and a little agriculture,
+chiefly potato-growing.</p>
+
+<p>The islands, though well lighted, are dangerous to navigation,
+and a glance at a wreck chart will show the entire chain to be
+densely dotted. One of the most remarkable disasters was the
+loss of H.M.S. &ldquo;La Lutine,&rdquo; 32 guns, which was wrecked off
+Vlieland in October 1799, only one hand being saved, who
+died before reaching England. &ldquo;La Lutine,&rdquo; which had been
+captured from the French by Admiral Duncan, was carrying
+a large quantity of bullion and specie, which was underwritten
+at Lloyd&rsquo;s. The Dutch government claimed the wreck and
+granted one-third of the salvage to bullion-fishers. Occasional
+recoveries were made of small quantities which led to repeated
+disputes and discussions, until eventually the king of the Netherlands
+ceded to Great Britain, for Lloyd&rsquo;s, half the remainder
+of the wreck. A Dutch salvage company, which began operations
+in August 1857, recovered £99,893 in the course of two years,
+but it was estimated that some £1,175,000 are still unaccounted
+for. The ship&rsquo;s rudder, which was recovered in 1859, has been
+fashioned into a chair and a table, now in the possession of
+Lloyd&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>The West Frisian Islands belong to the kingdom of the Netherlands,
+and embrace Texel or Tessel (71 sq. m.), Vlieland (19 sq.
+m.), Terschelling (41 sq. m.), Ameland (23 sq. m.),
+Schiermonnikoog (19 sq. m.), as well as the much smaller
+<span class="sidenote">West Frisian.</span>
+islands of Boschplaat and Rottum, which are practically
+uninhabited. The northern end of Texel is called Eierland,
+or &ldquo;island of eggs,&rdquo; in reference to the large number of sea-birds&rsquo;
+eggs which are found there. It was joined to Texel by a sand-dike
+in 1629-1630, and is now undistinguishable from the main island.
+Texel was already separated from the mainland in the 8th century,
+but remained a Frisian province and countship, which once
+extended as far as Alkmaar in North Holland, until it came into
+the possession of the counts of Holland. The island was occupied
+by British troops from August to December 1799. The village
+of Oude Schild has a harbour. The island of Terschelling once
+formed a separate lordship, but was sold to the states of Holland.
+The principal village of West-Terschelling has a harbour. As
+early as the beginning of the 9th century Ameland was a lordship
+of the influential family of Cammingha who held immediately
+of the emperor, and in recognition of their independence the
+Amelanders were in 1369 declared to be neutral in the fighting
+between Holland and Friesland, while Cromwell made the same
+declaration in 1654 with respect to the war between England and
+the United Netherlands. The castle of the Camminghas in the
+village of Ballum remained standing till 1810, and finally disappeared
+in 1829 after four centuries. This island is joined to
+the mainland of Friesland by a stone dike constructed in 1873
+for the purpose of promoting the deposit of mud. The island of
+Schiermonnikoog has a village and a lighthouse. Rottum was
+once the property of the ancient abbey at Rottum, 8 m. N.
+of Groningen, of which there are slight remains.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Wangeroog, which belongs to the grand
+duchy of Oldenburg, the East Frisian Islands belong to Prussia.
+They comprise Borkum (12½ sq. m.), with two lighthouses
+and connected by steamer with Emden and
+<span class="sidenote">East Frisian.</span>
+Leer; Memmert; Juist (2¼ sq. m.), with two lifeboat
+stations, and connected by steamer with Norddeich and Greetsiel;
+Norderney (5½ sq. m.); Baltrum, with a lifeboat station;
+Langeoog (8 sq. m.), connected by steamer with the adjacent
+islands, and with Bensersiel on the mainland; Spiekeroog
+(4 sq. m.), with a tramway for conveyance to the bathing beach,
+and connected by steamer with Carolinenziel; and Wangeroog
+(2 sq. m.), with a lighthouse and lifeboat station. All these
+islands are visited for sea-bathing. In the beginning of the
+18th century Wangeroog comprised eight times its present area.
+Borkum and Juist are two surviving fragments of the original
+island of Borkum (computed at 380 sq. m.), known to Drusus as
+<i>Fabaria</i>, and to Pliny as <i>Burchana</i>, which was rent asunder by
+the sea in 1170. Neuwerk and Scharhörn, situated off the mouth
+of the Elbe, are islands belonging to the state of Hamburg.
+Neuwerk, containing some marshland protected by dikes, has two
+lighthouses and a lifeboat station. At low water it can be reached
+from Duhnen by carriage.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1250 the area of the North Frisian Islands was
+estimated at 1065 sq. m.; by 1850 this had diminished to only
+105 sq. m. This group embraces the islands of Nordstrand
+(17¼ sq. m.), which up to 1634 formed one
+<span class="sidenote">North Frisian.</span>
+larger island with the adjoining Pohnshallig and
+Nordstrandisch-Moor; Pellworm (16¼ sq. m.), protected by a
+circle of dikes and connected by steamer with Husum on the
+mainland; Amrum (10½ sq. m.); Föhr (32 sq. m.); Sylt (38
+sq. m.); Röm (16 sq. m.), with several villages, the principal of
+which is Kirkeby; Fanö (21 sq. m.); and Heligoland (¼ sq. m.).
+With the exception of Fanö, which is Danish, all these islands
+belong to Prussia. In the North Frisian group there are also
+several smaller islands called Halligen. These rise generally only
+a few feet above the level of the sea, and are crowned by a single
+house standing on an artificial mound and protected by a
+surrounding dike or embankment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Staring, <i>De Bodem van Nederland</i> (1856);
+Blink, <i>Nederland en zijne Bewoners</i> (1892); P. H. Witkamp,
+<i>Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederland</i> (1895); P. W. J.
+Teding van Berkhout, <i>De Landaanwinning op de Friesche Wadden</i>
+(1869); J. de Vries and T. Focken, <i>Ostfriesland</i> (1881); Dr D. F.
+Buitenrust Hettema, <i>Fryske Bybleteek</i> (Utrecht, 1895); Dr Eugen
+Traeger, <i>Die Halligen der Nordsee</i> (Stuttgart, 1892); also <i>Globus</i>,
+vol. lxxviii. (1900), No. 15; P. Axelsen, in <i>Deut. Rundschau für
+Geog. u. Statistik</i> (1898); Christian Jensen, <i>Vom Dünenstrand der
+Nordsee und vom Wattenmeer</i> (Schleswig, 1901), which contains a
+bibliography; <i>Osterloh, Wangeroog und sein Seebad</i> (Emden, 1884);
+Zwickert, <i>Führer durch das Nordseebad Wangeroog</i> (Oldenburg,
+1894); Nellner, <i>Die Nordseeinsel Spickeroog</i> (Emden, 1884);
+Tongers, <i>Die Nordseeinsel Langeoog</i> (2nd ed., Norden, 1892); Meier,
+<i>Die Nordseeinsel Borkum</i> (10th ed., Emden, 1894); Herquet, <i>Die
+Insel Borkum</i>, &amp;c. (Emden, 1886); Scherz, <i>Die Nordseeinsel Juist</i>
+(2nd ed., Norden, 1893); von Bertouch, <i>Vor 40 Jahren: Natur und
+Kultur auf der Insel Nordstrand</i> (Weimar, 1891); W. G. Black,
+<i>Heligoland and the Islands of the North Sea</i> (Glasgow, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRISIANS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Frisii</i>; in Med. Lat. <i>Frisones</i>, <i>Frisiones</i>,
+<i>Fresones</i>; in their own tongue <i>Frêsa</i>, <i>Frêsen</i>), a people of
+Teutonic (Low-German) stock, who in the first century of our
+era were found by the Romans in occupation of the coast lands
+stretching from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the Ems.
+They were nearly related both by speech and blood to the Saxons
+and Angles, and other Low German tribes, who lived to the east
+of the Ems and in Holstein and Schleswig. The first historical
+notices of the Frisians are found in the <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus. They
+were rendered (or a portion of them) tributary by Drusus, and
+became <i>socii</i> of the Roman people. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 28 the exactions of
+a Roman official drove them to revolt, and their subjection was
+henceforth nominal. They submitted again to Cn. Domitius
+Corbulo in the year 47, but shortly afterwards the emperor
+Claudius ordered the withdrawal of all Roman troops to the left
+bank of the Rhine. In 58 they attempted unsuccessfully to
+appropriate certain districts between the Rhine and the Yssel,
+and in 70 they took part in the campaign of Claudius Civilis.
+From this time onwards their name practically disappears. As
+regards their geographical position Ptolemy states that they
+inhabited the coast above the Bructeri as far as the Ems, while
+Tacitus speaks of them as adjacent to the Rhine. But there is
+some reason for believing that the part of Holland which lies to
+the west of the Zuider Zee was at first inhabited by a different
+people, the Canninefates, a sister tribe to the Batavi. A trace
+of this people is perhaps preserved in the name Kennemerland
+or Kinnehem, formerly applied to the same district. Possibly,
+therefore, Tacitus&rsquo;s statement holds good only for the period
+subsequent to the revolt of Civilis, when we hear of the Canninefates
+for the last time.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with the movements of the migration period the
+Frisians are hardly ever mentioned, though some of them are
+said to have surrendered to the Roman prince Constantius about
+the year 293. On the other hand we hear very frequently of
+Saxons in the coast regions of the Netherlands. Since the Saxons
+(Old Saxons) of later times were an inland people, one can
+hardly help suspecting either that the two nations have been
+confused or, what is more probable, that a considerable mixture
+of population, whether by conquest or otherwise, had taken
+place. Procopius (<i>Goth.</i> iv. 20) speaks of the Frisians as one of
+the nations which inhabited Britain in his day, but we have no
+evidence from other sources to bear out his statement. In
+Anglo-Saxon poetry mention is frequently made of a Frisian
+king named Finn, the son of Folcwalda, who came into conflict
+with a certain Hnaef, a vassal of the Danish king Healfdene,
+about the middle of the 5th century. Hnaef was killed, but his
+followers subsequently slew Finn in revenge. The incident is
+obscure in many respects, but it is perhaps worth noting that
+Hnaef&rsquo;s chief follower, Hengest, may quite possibly be identical
+with the founder of the Kentish dynasty. About the year 520
+the Frisians are said to have joined the Frankish prince Theodberht
+in destroying a piratical expedition which had sailed up
+the Rhine under Chocilaicus (Hygelac), king of the Götar.
+Towards the close of the century they begin to figure much more
+prominently in Frankish writings. There is no doubt that by
+this time their territories had been greatly extended in both
+directions. Probably some Frisians took part with the Angles
+and Saxons in their sea-roving expeditions, and assisted their
+neighbours in their invasions and subsequent conquest of England
+and the Scottish lowlands.</p>
+
+<p>The rise of the power of the Franks and the advance of their
+dominion northwards brought on a collision with the Frisians, who
+in the 7th century were still in possession of the whole of the seacoast,
+and apparently ruled over the greater part of modern
+Flanders. Under the protection of the Frankish king Dagobert
+(622-638), the Christian missionaries Amandus (St Amand)
+and Eligius (St Eloi) attempted the conversion of these Flemish
+Frisians, and their efforts were attended with a certain measure
+of success; but farther north the building of a church by Dagobert
+at Trajectum (Utrecht) at once aroused the fierce hostility
+of the heathen tribesmen of the Zuider Zee. The &ldquo;free&rdquo; Frisians
+could not endure this Frankish outpost on their borders. Utrecht
+was attacked and captured, and the church destroyed. The
+first missionary to meet with any success among the Frisians was
+the Englishman Wilfrid of York, who, being driven by a storm
+upon the coast, was hospitably received by the king, Adgild or
+Adgisl, and was allowed to preach Christianity in the land.
+Adgild appears to have admitted the overlordship of the Frankish
+king, Dagobert II. (675). Under his successor, however, Radbod
+(Frisian Rêdbâd), an attempt was made to extirpate Christianity
+and to free the Frisians from the Frankish subjection.
+He was, however, beaten by Pippin of Heristal in the battle of
+Dorstadt (689), and was compelled to cede West Frisia (<i>Frisia
+citerior</i>) from the Scheldt to the Zuider Zee to the conqueror. On
+Pippin&rsquo;s death Radbod again attacked the Franks and advanced
+as far as Cologne, where he defeated Charles Martel, Pippin&rsquo;s
+natural son. Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and compelled
+the Frisians to submit. Radbod died in 719, but for some
+years his successors struggled against the Frankish power. A
+final defeat was, however, inflicted upon them by Charles Martel
+in 734, which secured the supremacy of the Franks in the north,
+though it was not until the days of Charles the Great (785) that
+the subjection of the Frisians was completed. Meanwhile
+Christianity had been making its conquests in the land, mainly
+through the lifelong labours and preaching of the Englishman
+Willibrord, who came to Frisia in 692 and made Utrecht his
+headquarters. He was consecrated (695) at Rome archbishop of
+the Frisians, and on his return founded a number of bishoprics
+in the northern Netherlands, and continued his labours unremittingly
+until his death in 739. It is an interesting fact that
+both Wilfrid and Willibrord appear to have found no difficulty
+from the first in preaching to the Frisians in their native dialect,
+which was so nearly allied to their own Anglo-Saxon tongue.
+The see of Utrecht founded by Willibrord has remained the chief
+see of the Northern Netherlands from his day to our own. Friesland
+was likewise the scene of a portion of the missionary labours
+of a greater than Willibrord, the famous Boniface, the Apostle
+of the Germans, also an Englishman. It was at Dokkum in
+Friesland that he met a martyr&rsquo;s death (754).</p>
+
+<p>Charles the Great granted the Frisians important privileges
+under a code known as the <i>Lex Frisionum</i>, based upon the
+ancient laws of the country. They received the title of freemen
+and were allowed to choose their own <i>podestat</i> or imperial
+governor. In the <i>Lex Frisionum</i> three districts are clearly
+distinguished: West Frisia from the Zwin to the Flie; Middle
+Frisia from the Flie to the Lauwers; East Frisia from the
+Lauwers to the Weser. At the partition treaty of Verdun (843)
+Frisia became part of Lotharingia or Lorraine; at the treaty of
+Mersen (870) it was divided between the kingdoms of the East
+Franks (Austrasia) and the West Franks (Westrasia); in 880
+the whole country was united to Austrasia; in 911 it fell under
+the dominion of Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks,
+but the districts of East Frisia asserted their independence and
+for a long time governed themselves after a very simple democratic
+fashion. The history of West Frisia gradually loses itself
+in that of the countship of Holland and the see of Utrecht (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holland</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Utrecht</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Frisians during the interval between the
+invasion of Britain and the loss of their independence must have
+been greater than is generally recognized. They were a seafaring
+people and engaged largely in trade, especially perhaps
+the slave trade, their chief emporium being Wyk te Duurstede.
+During the period in question there is considerable archaeological
+evidence for intercourse between the west coast of Norway
+and the regions south of the North Sea, and it is worth noting
+that this seems to have come to an end early in the 9th century.
+Probably it is no mere accident that the first appearance, or
+rather reappearance, of Scandinavian pirates in the west took
+place shortly after the overthrow of the Frisians. Since Radbod&rsquo;s
+dominions extended from Duerstede to Heligoland his power
+must have been by no means inconsiderable.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Frisians discussed above there is a people called
+North Frisians, who inhabit the west coast of Schleswig. At
+present a Frisian dialect is spoken only between Tondern and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span>
+Husum, but formerly it extended farther both to the north and
+south. In historical times these North Frisians were subjects
+of the Danish kingdom and not connected in any way with the
+Frisians of the empire. They are first mentioned by Saxo
+Grammaticus in connexion with the exile of Knud V. Saxo
+recognized that they were of Frisian origin, but did not know
+when they had first settled in this region. Various opinions are
+still held with regard to the question; but it seems not unlikely
+that the original settlers were Frisians who had been expelled
+by the Franks in the 8th century. Whether the North Frisian
+language is entirely of Frisian origin is somewhat doubtful owing
+to the close relationship which Frisian bears to English. The inhabitants
+of the neighbouring islands, Sylt, Amrum and Föhr,
+who speak a kindred dialect, have apparently never regarded
+themselves as Frisians, and it is the view of many scholars that
+they are the direct descendants of the ancient Saxons.</p>
+
+<p>In 1248 William of Holland, having become emperor, restored
+to the Frisians in his countship their ancient liberties in reward
+for the assistance they had rendered him in the siege of Aachen;
+but in 1254 they revolted, and William lost his life in the contest
+which ensued. After many struggles West Friesland became
+completely subdued, and was henceforth virtually absorbed in
+the county of Holland. But the Frieslanders east of the Zuider
+Zee obstinately resisted repeated attempts to bring them into
+subjection. In the course of the 14th century the country was
+in a state of anarchy; petty lordships sprang into existence, the
+interests of the common weal were forgotten or disregarded, and
+the people began to be split up into factions, and these were
+continually carrying on petty warfare with one another. Thus
+the Fetkoopers (Fatmongers) of Oostergoo had endless feuds
+with the Schieringers (Eelfishers) of Westergoo.</p>
+
+<p>This state of affairs favoured the attempts of the counts of
+Holland to push their conquests eastward, but the main body of
+the Frisians was still independent when the countship of Holland
+passed into the hands of Philip the Good of Burgundy. Philip
+laid claim to the whole country, but the people appealed to the
+protection of the empire, and Frederick III., in August 1457,
+recognized their direct dependence on the empire and called on
+Philip to bring forward formal proof of his rights. Philip&rsquo;s
+successor, Charles the Bold, summoned an assembly of notables
+at Enkhuizen in 1469, in order to secure their homage; but the
+conference was without result, and the duke&rsquo;s attention was soon
+absorbed by other and more important affairs. The marriage
+of Maximilian of Austria with the heiress of Burgundy was to be
+productive of a change in the fortunes of that part of Frisia
+which lies between the Vlie and the Lauwers. In 1498 Maximilian
+reversed the policy of his father Frederick III., and
+detached this territory, known afterwards as the province of
+Friesland, from the empire. He gave it as a fief to Albert of
+Saxony, who thoroughly crushed out all resistance. In 1523 it
+fell with all the rest of the provinces of the Netherlands under
+the strong rule of the emperor Charles, the grandson of Maximilian
+and Mary of Burgundy.</p>
+
+<p>That part of Frisia which lies to the east of the Lauwers had
+a divided history. The portion which lies between the Lauwers
+and the Ems after some struggles for independence had, like the
+rest of the country, to submit itself to Charles. It became
+ultimately the province of the town and district of Groningen
+(Stadt en Landen) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groningen</a></span>). The easternmost part
+between the Ems and the Weser, which had since 1454 been a
+county, was ruled by the descendants of Edzard Cirksena, and
+was attached to the empire. The last of the Cirksenas, Count
+Charles Edward, died in 1744 and in default of heirs male the
+king of Prussia took possession of the county.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Friesland was one of the seven provinces
+which by the treaty known as the Union of Utrecht bound
+themselves together to resist the tyranny of Spain. From 1579
+to 1795 Friesland remained one of the constituent parts of the
+republic of the United Provinces, but it always jealously insisted
+on its sovereign rights, especially against the encroachments of
+the predominant province of Holland. It maintained throughout
+the whole of the republican period a certain distinctiveness of
+nationality, which was marked by the preservation of a different
+dialect and of a separate stadtholder. Count William Lewis
+of Nassau-Siegen, nephew and son-in-law of William the Silent,
+was chosen stadtholder, and through all the vicissitudes of the
+17th and 18th centuries the stadtholdership was held by one of
+his descendants. Frederick Henry of Orange was stadtholder
+of six provinces, but not of Friesland, and even during the stadtholderless
+periods which followed the deaths of William II. and
+William III. of Orange the Frisians remained stanch to the
+family of Nassau-Siegen. Finally, by the revolution of 1748,
+William of Nassau-Siegen, stadtholder of Friesland (who, by
+default of heirs male of the elder line, had become William IV.,
+prince of Orange), was made hereditary stadtholder of all the
+provinces. His grandson in 1815 took the title of William I.,
+king of the Netherlands. The male line of the &ldquo;Frisian&rdquo;
+Nassaus came to an end with the death of King William III. in
+1890.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>&mdash;See Tacitus, <i>Ann.</i> iv. 72 f., xi. 19 f., xiii. 54;
+<i>Hist.</i> iv. 15 f.; <i>Germ.</i> 34; Ptolemy, <i>Geogr.</i> ii. 11, § 11; Dio Cassius
+liv. 32; Eumenius, <i>Paneg.</i> iv. 9; the Anglo-Saxon poems, Finn,
+Beowulf and Widsith; <i>Fredegarii Chronici continuatio</i> and various
+German Annals; <i>Gesta regum Francorum</i>; Eddius, <i>Vita Wilfridi</i>,
+cap. 25 f.; Bede, <i>Hist. Eccles</i>, iv. 22, v. 9 f.; Alcuin, <i>Vita Willebrordi</i>;
+I. Undset, <i>Aarbger for nordisk Oldkyndighed</i> (1880), p. 89 ff.
+(cf. E. Mogk in Paul&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss d. germ. Philologie</i> ii. p. 623 ff.);
+Ubbo Emmius, <i>Rerum Frisicarum historia</i> (Leiden, 1616); Pirius
+Winsemius, <i>Chronique van Vriesland</i> (Franoker, 1822); C. Scotanus,
+<i>Beschryvinge end Chronyck van des Heerlickheydt van Frieslandt</i>
+(1655); <i>Groot Placaat en Charter-boek van Friesland</i> (ed. Baron C. F.
+zu Schwarzenberg) (5 vols., Leeuwarden, 1768-1793); T. D. Wiarda,
+<i>Ost-frieschische Gesch.</i> (vols. i.-ix., Aurich, 1791) (vol. x., Bremen,
+1817); J. Dirks, <i>Geschiedkundig onderzoek van den Koophandel der
+Friezen</i> (Utrecht, 1846); O. Klopp, <i>Gesch. Ostfrieslands</i> (3 vols.,
+Hanover, 1854-1858); Hooft van Iddekinge, <i>Friesland en de
+Friezen in de Middeleeuwen</i> (Leiden, 1881); A. Telting, <i>Het Oudfriesche
+Stadrecht</i> (The Hague, 1882); P. J. Blok, <i>Friesland im
+Mittelalter</i> (Leer, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRITH<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Fryth</span>), <b>JOHN</b> (<i>c.</i> 1503-1533), English Reformer
+and Protestant martyr, was born at Westerham, Kent. He was
+educated at Eton and King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, where Gardiner,
+afterwards bishop of Winchester, was his tutor. At the invitation
+of Cardinal Wolsey, after taking his degree he migrated
+(December 1525) to the newly founded college of St Frideswide
+or Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford. The sympathetic
+interest which he showed in the Reformation movement
+in Germany caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and led to his
+imprisonment for some months. Subsequently he appears to
+have resided chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university
+of Marburg, where he became acquainted with several scholars
+and reformers of note, especially Patrick Hamilton (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Frith&rsquo;s first publication was a translation of Hamilton&rsquo;s <i>Places</i>,
+made shortly after the martyrdom of its author; and soon
+afterwards the <i>Revelation of Antichrist</i>, a translation from the
+German, appeared, along with <i>A Pistle to the Christen Reader</i>,
+by &ldquo;Richard Brightwell&rdquo; (supposed to be Frith), and <i>An
+Antithesis wherein are compared togeder Christes Actes and our
+Holye Father the Popes</i>, dated &ldquo;at Malborow in the lande of
+Hesse,&rdquo; 12th July 1529. His <i>Disputacyon of Purgatorye</i>, a
+treatise in three books, against Rastell, Sir T. More and Fisher
+(bishop of Rochester) respectively, was published at the same
+place in 1531. While at Marburg, Frith also assisted Tyndale,
+whose acquaintance he had made at Oxford (or perhaps in
+London) in his literary labours. In 1532 he ventured back to
+England, apparently on some business in connexion with the
+prior of Reading. Warrants for his arrest were almost immediately
+issued at the instance of Sir T. More, then lord chancellor.
+Frith ultimately fell into the hands of the authorities at Milton
+Shore in Essex, as he was on the point of making his escape to
+Flanders. The rigour of his imprisonment in the Tower was
+somewhat abated when Sir T. Audley succeeded to the chancellorship,
+and it was understood that both Cromwell and Cranmer
+were disposed to show great leniency. But the treacherous
+circulation of a manuscript &ldquo;lytle treatise&rdquo; on the sacraments,
+which Frith had written for the information of a friend, and
+without any view to publication, served further to excite the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span>
+hostility of his enemies. In consequence of a sermon preached
+before him against the &ldquo;sacramentaries,&rdquo; the king ordered that
+Frith should be examined; he was afterwards tried and found
+guilty of having denied, with regard to the doctrines of purgatory
+and of transubstantiation, that they were necessary articles of
+faith. On the 23rd of June 1533 he was handed over to the
+secular arm, and at Smithfield on the 4th of July following he
+was burnt at the stake. During his captivity he wrote, besides
+several letters of interest, a reply to More&rsquo;s letter against
+Frith&rsquo;s &ldquo;lytle treatise&rdquo;; also two tracts entitled <i>A Mirror or
+Glass to know thyself</i>, and <i>A Mirror or Looking-glass wherein you
+may behold the Sacrament of Baptism</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Frith is an interesting and so far important figure in English
+ecclesiastical history as having been the first to maintain and
+defend that doctrine regarding the sacrament of Christ&rsquo;s body
+and blood, which ultimately came to be incorporated in the
+English communion office. Twenty-three years after Frith&rsquo;s
+death as a martyr to the doctrine of that office, that &ldquo;Christ&rsquo;s
+natural body and blood are in Heaven, not here,&rdquo; Cranmer, who
+had been one of his judges, went to the stake for the same belief.
+Within three years more, it had become the publicly professed
+faith of the entire English nation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. à Wood, <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i> (ed. P. Bliss, 1813), i. p. 74;
+John Foxe, <i>Acts and Monuments</i> (ed. G. Townshend, 1843-1849),
+v. pp. 1-16 (also Index); G. Burnet, <i>Hist. of the Reformation of the
+Church of England</i> (ed. N. Pocock, 1865), i. p. 273; L. Richmond,
+<i>The Fathers of the English Church</i>, i. (1807); <i>Life and Martyrdom of
+John Frith</i> (London, 1824), published by the Church of England
+Tract Society; Deborah Alcock, <i>Six Heroic Men</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1819-1909), English painter,
+was born at Aldfield, in Yorkshire, on the 9th of January 1819.
+His parents moved in 1826 to Harrogate, where his father became
+landlord of the Dragon Inn, and it was then that the boy began
+his general education at a school at Knaresborough. Later he
+went for about two years to a school at St Margaret&rsquo;s, near
+Dover, where he was placed specially under the direction of the
+drawing-master, as a step towards his preparation for the profession
+which his father had decided on as the one that he wished
+him to adopt. In 1835 he was entered as a student in the well-known
+art school kept by Henry Sass in Bloomsbury, from which
+he passed after two years to the Royal Academy schools. His
+first independent experience was gained in 1839, when he went
+about for some months in Lincolnshire executing several commissions
+for portraits; but he soon began to attempt compositions,
+and in 1840 his first picture, &ldquo;Malvolio, cross-gartered
+before the Countess Olivia,&rdquo; appeared at the Royal Academy.
+During the next few years he produced several notable paintings,
+among them &ldquo;Squire Thornhill relating his town adventures to
+the Vicar&rsquo;s family,&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Village Pastor,&rdquo; which established
+his reputation as one of the most promising of the younger men
+of that time. This last work was exhibited in 1845, and in the
+autumn of that year he was elected an Associate of the Royal
+Academy. His promotion to the rank of Academician followed
+in 1853, when he was chosen to fill the vacancy caused by
+Turner&rsquo;s death. The chief pictures painted by him during his
+tenure of Associateship were: &ldquo;An English Merry-making
+in the Olden Time,&rdquo; &ldquo;Old Woman accused of Witchcraft,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Coming of Age,&rdquo; &ldquo;Sancho and Don Quixote,&rdquo; &ldquo;Hogarth
+before the Governor of Calais,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Scene from Goldsmith&rsquo;s
+&rsquo;Good-natured Man,&rsquo;&rdquo; which was commissioned in 1850 by
+Mr Sheepshanks, and bequeathed by him to the South Kensington
+Museum. Then came a succession of large compositions which
+gained for the artist an extraordinary popularity. &ldquo;Life at
+the Seaside,&rdquo; better known as &ldquo;Ramsgate Sands,&rdquo; was exhibited
+in 1854, and was bought by Queen Victoria; &ldquo;The Derby Day,&rdquo;
+in 1858; &ldquo;Claude Duval,&rdquo; in 1860; &ldquo;The Railway Station,&rdquo;
+in 1862; &ldquo;The Marriage of the Prince of Wales,&rdquo; painted for
+Queen Victoria, in 1865; &ldquo;The Last Sunday of Charles II.,&rdquo;
+in 1867; &ldquo;The Salon d&rsquo;Or,&rdquo; in 1871; &ldquo;The Road to Ruin,&rdquo;
+a series, in 1878; a similar series, &ldquo;The Race for Wealth,&rdquo;
+shown at a gallery in King Street, St James&rsquo;s, in 1880; &ldquo;The
+Private View,&rdquo; in 1883; and &ldquo;John Knox at Holyrood,&rdquo; in
+1886. Frith also painted a considerable number of portraits
+of well-known people. In 1889 he became an honorary retired
+academician. His &ldquo;Derby Day&rdquo; is in the National Gallery of
+British Art. In his youth, in common with the men by whom
+he was surrounded, he had leanings towards romance, and he
+scored many successes as a painter of imaginative subjects.
+In these he proved himself to be possessed of exceptional qualities
+as a colourist and manipulator, qualities that promised to earn
+for him a secure place among the best executants of the British
+School. But in his middle period he chose a fresh direction.
+Fascinated by the welcome which the public gave to his first
+attempts to illustrate the life of his own times, he undertook a
+considerable series of large canvases, in which he commented
+on the manners and morals of society as he found it. He became
+a pictorial preacher, a painter who moralized about the everyday
+incidents of modern existence; and he sacrificed some of his
+technical variety. There remained, however, a remarkable
+sense of characterization, and an acute appreciation of dramatic
+effect. Frith died on the 2nd of November 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Frith published his <i>Autobiography and Reminiscences</i> in 1887, and
+<i>Further Reminiscences</i> in 1889.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRITILLARY<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>Fritillaria</i>: from Lat. <i>fritillus</i>, a chess-board,
+so called from the chequered markings on the petals), a genus
+of hardy bulbous plants of the natural order Liliaceae, containing
+about 50 species widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.
+The genus is represented in Britain by the fritillary or snake&rsquo;s
+head, which occurs in moist meadows in the southern half of
+England, especially in Oxfordshire. A much larger plant is
+the crown imperial (<i>F. imperialis</i>), a native of western Asia
+and well known in gardens. This grows to a height of about
+3 ft., the lower part of the stoutish stem being furnished with
+leaves, while near the top is developed a crown of large pendant
+flowers surmounted by a tuft of bright green leaves like those
+of the lower part of the stem, only smaller. The flowers are
+bell-shaped, yellow or red, and in some of the forms double. The
+plant grows freely in good garden soil, preferring a deep well-drained
+loam, and is all the better for a top-dressing of manure
+as it approaches the flowering stage. Strong clumps of five or
+six roots of one kind have a very fine effect. It is a very suitable
+subject for the back row in mixed flower borders, or for recesses
+in the front part of shrubbery borders. It flowers in April or
+early in May. There are a few named varieties, but the most
+generally grown are the single and double yellow, and the single
+and double red, the single red having also two variegated varieties,
+with the leaves striped respectively with white and yellow.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Fritillary&rdquo; is also the name of a kind of butterfly.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRITZLAR,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Cassel, on the left bank of the Eder, 16 m. S.W. from Cassel,
+on the railway Wabern-Wildungen. Pop. (1905) 3448. It is a
+prettily situated old-fashioned place, with an Evangelical and two
+Roman Catholic churches, one of the latter, that of St Peter, a
+striking medieval edifice. As early as 732 Boniface, the apostle of
+Germany, established the church of St Peter and a small
+Benedictine monastery at Frideslar, &ldquo;the quiet home&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;abode of peace.&rdquo; Before long the school connected with the
+monastery became famous, and among its earlier scholars it
+numbered Sturm, abbot of Fulda, and Megingod, second bishop
+of Würzburg. When Boniface found himself unable to continue
+the supervision of the society himself, he entrusted the office to
+Wigbert of Glastonbury, who thus became the first abbot of
+Fritzlar. In 774 the little settlement was taken and burnt by
+the Saxons; but it evidently soon recovered from the blow.
+For a short time after 786 it was the seat of the bishopric of
+Buraburg, which had been founded by Boniface in 741. At the
+diet of Fritzlar in 919 Henry I. was elected German king. In
+the beginning of the 13th century the village received municipal
+rights; in 1232 it was captured and burned by the landgrave
+Conrad of Thuringia and his allies; in 1631 it was taken by
+William of Hesse; in 1760 it was successfully defended by
+General Luckner against the French; and in 1761 it was occupied
+by the French and unsuccessfully bombarded by the Allies.
+As a principality Fritzlar continued subject to the archbishopric
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span>
+of Mainz till 1802, when it was incorporated with Hesse. From
+1807 to 1814 it belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia; and
+in 1866 passed with Hesse Cassel to Prussia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRIULI<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (in the local dialect, <i>Furlanei</i>), a district at the head
+of the Adriatic Sea, at present divided between Italy and Austria,
+the Italian portion being included in the province of Udine and
+the district of Portogruaro, and the Austrian comprising the
+province of Görz and Gradiska, and the so-called Idrian district.
+In the north and east Friuli includes portions of the Julian and
+Carnic Alps, while the south is an alluvial plain richly watered
+by the Isonzo, the Tagliamento, and many lesser streams which,
+although of small volume during the dry season, come down in
+enormous floods after rain or thaw. The inhabitants, known
+as Furlanians, are mainly Italians, but they speak a dialect of
+their own which contains Celtic elements. The area of the
+country is about 3300 sq. m.; it contains about 700,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Friuli derives its name from the Roman town of <i>Forum
+Julii</i>, or <i>Forojulium</i>, the modern Cividale, which is said by
+Paulus Diaconus to have been founded by Julius Caesar. In the
+2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the district was subjugated by the Romans,
+and became part of Gallia Transpadana. During the Roman
+period, besides Forum Julii, its principal towns were Concordia,
+Aquileia and Vedinium. On the conquest of the country by
+the Lombards during the 6th century it was made one of their
+thirty-six duchies, the capital being Forum Julii or, as they
+called it, Civitas Austriae. It is needless to repeat the list of
+dukes of the Lombard line, from Gisulf (d. 611) to Hrothgaud,
+who fell a victim to his opposition to Charlemagne about 776;
+their names and exploits may be read in the <i>Historia Langobardorum</i>
+of Paulus Diaconus, and they were mainly occupied
+in struggles with the Avars and other barbarian peoples, and in
+resisting the pretensions of the Lombard kings. The discovery,
+however, of Gisulf&rsquo;s grave at Cividale, in 1874, is an interesting
+proof of the historian&rsquo;s authenticity. Charlemagne filled
+Hrothgaud&rsquo;s place with one of his own followers, and the frontier
+position of Friuli gave the new line of counts, dukes or margraves
+(for they are variously designated) the opportunity of acquiring
+importance by exploits against the Bulgarians, Slovenians and
+other hostile peoples to the east. After the death of Charlemagne
+Friuli shared in general in the fortunes of northern Italy.
+In the 11th century the ducal rights over the greater part of
+Friuli were bestowed by the emperor Henry IV. on the patriarch
+of Aquileia; but towards the close of the 14th century the nobles
+called in the assistance of Venice, which, after defeating the
+archbishop, afforded a new illustration of Aesop&rsquo;s well-known
+fable, by securing possession of the country for itself. The
+eastern part of Friuli was held by the counts of Görz till 1500,
+when on the failure of their line it was appropriated by the
+German king, Maximilian I., and remained in the possession of
+the house of Austria until the Napoleonic wars. By the peace
+of Campo Formio in 1797 the Venetian district also came to
+Austria, and on the formation of the Napoleonic kingdom of
+Italy in 1805 the department of Passariano was made to include
+the whole of Venetian and part of Austrian Friuli, and in 1809
+the rest was added to the Illyrian provinces. The title of duke
+of Friuli was borne by Marshal Duroc. In 1815 the whole
+country was recovered by the emperor of Austria, who himself
+assumed the ducal title and coat of arms; and it was not till
+1866 that the Venetian portion was again ceded to Italy by the
+peace of Prague. The capital of the country is Udine, and its
+arms are a crowned eagle on a field azure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Manzano, <i>Annali del Friuli</i> (Udine, 1858-1879); and <i>Compendio
+di storia friulana</i> (Udine, 1876); Antonini, <i>Il Friuli orientale</i>
+(Milan, 1865); von Zahn, <i>Friaulische Studien</i> (Vienna, 1878);
+Pirona, <i>Vocabolario friulino</i> (Venice, 1869); and L. Fracassetti, <i>La
+Statistica etnografica del Friuli</i> (Udine, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROBEN<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Frobenius</span>], <b>JOANNES</b> (<i>c.</i> 1460-1527), German
+printer and scholar, was born at Hammelburg in Bavaria
+about the year 1460. After completing his university career
+at Basel, where he made the acquaintance of the famous printer
+Johannes Auerbach (1443-1513), he established a printing house
+in that city about 1491, and this soon attained a European
+reputation for accuracy and for taste. In 1500 he married the
+daughter of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into
+partnership with him. He was on terms of friendship with
+Erasmus (<i>q.v.</i>), who not only had his own works printed by him,
+but superintended Frobenius&rsquo;s editions of St Jerome, St Cyprian,
+Tertullian, Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose. His <i>Neues
+Testament</i> in Greek (1516) was used by Luther for his translation.
+Frobenius employed Hans Holbein to illuminate his texts.
+It was part of his plan to print editions of the Greek Fathers.
+He did not, however, live to carry out this project, but it was
+very creditably executed by his son Jerome and his son-in-law
+Nikolaus Episcopius. Frobenius died in October 1527. His
+work in Basel made that city in the 16th century the leading
+centre of the German book trade. An extant letter of Erasmus,
+written in the year of Frobenius&rsquo;s death, gives an epitome
+of his life and an estimate of his character; and in it Erasmus
+mentions that his grief for the death of his friend was far more
+poignant than that which he had felt for the loss of his own
+brother, adding that &ldquo;all the apostles of science ought to wear
+mourning.&rdquo; The epistle concludes with an epitaph in Greek
+and Latin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1535-1594), English navigator
+and explorer, fourth child of Bernard Frobisher of Altofts in
+the parish of Normanton, Yorkshire, was born some time between
+1530 and 1540. The family came originally from North Wales.
+At an early age he was sent to a school in London and placed
+under the care of a kinsman, Sir John York, who in 1544 placed
+him on board a ship belonging to a small fleet of merchantmen
+sailing to Guinea. By 1565 he is referred to as Captain Martin
+Frobisher, and in 1571-1572 as being in the public service at
+sea off the coast of Ireland. He married in 1559. As early as
+1560 or 1561 Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a
+voyage in search of a North-West Passage to Cathay and India.
+The discovery of such a route was the motive of most of the
+Arctic voyages undertaken at that period and for long after,
+but Frobisher&rsquo;s special merit was in being the first to give to
+this enterprise a national character. For fifteen years he solicited
+in vain the necessary means to carry his project into execution,
+but in 1576, mainly by help of the earl of Warwick, he was put
+in command of an expedition consisting of two tiny barks, the
+&ldquo;Gabriel&rdquo; and &ldquo;Michael,&rdquo; of about 20 to 25 tons each, and a
+pinnace of 10 tons, with an aggregate crew of 35.</p>
+
+<p>He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received
+a good word from Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich, set sail on the
+7th of June, by way of the Shetland Islands. Stormy weather
+was encountered in which the pinnace was lost, and some time
+afterwards the &ldquo;Michael&rdquo; deserted; but stoutly continuing
+the voyage alone, on the 28th of July the &ldquo;Gabriel&rdquo; sighted
+the coast of Labrador in lat. 62° 2&prime; N. Some days later the
+mouth of Frobisher Bay was reached, and a farther advance
+northwards being prevented by ice and contrary winds, Frobisher
+determined to sail westward up this passage (which he conceived
+to be a strait) to see &ldquo;whether he mighte carrie himself through
+the same into some open sea on the backe syde.&rdquo; Butcher&rsquo;s
+Island was reached on the 18th of August, and some natives
+being met with here, intercourse was carried on with them for
+some days, the result being that five of Frobisher&rsquo;s men were
+decoyed and captured, and never more seen. After vainly
+trying to get back his men, Frobisher turned homewards, and
+reached London on the 9th of October.</p>
+
+<p>Among the things which had been hastily brought away
+by the men was some &ldquo;black earth,&rdquo; and just as it seemed
+as if nothing more was to come of this expedition, it was
+noised abroad that the apparently valueless &ldquo;black earth&rdquo;
+was really a lump of gold ore. It is difficult to say how
+this rumour arose, and whether there was any truth in it,
+or whether Frobisher was a party to a deception, in order
+to obtain means to carry out the great idea of his life.
+The story, at any rate, was so far successful; the greatest
+enthusiasm was manifested by the court and the commercial
+and speculating world of the time; and next year a much more
+important expedition than the former was fitted out, the queen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span>
+lending the &ldquo;Aid&rdquo; from the royal navy and subscribing £1000
+towards the expenses of the expedition. A Company of Cathay
+was established, with a charter from the crown, giving the
+company the sole right of sailing in every direction but the east;
+Frobisher was appointed high admiral of all lands and waters
+that might be discovered by him. On the 26th of May 1577 the
+expedition, consisting, besides the &ldquo;Aid,&rdquo; of the ships &ldquo;Gabriel&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Michael,&rdquo; with boats, pinnaces and an aggregate complement
+of 120 men, including miners, refiners, &amp;c., left Blackwall,
+and sailing by the north of Scotland reached Hall&rsquo;s Island
+at the mouth of Frobisher Bay on the 17th of July. A few days
+later the country and the south side of the bay was solemnly
+taken possession of in the queen&rsquo;s name. Several weeks were now
+spent in collecting ore, but very little was done in the way of
+discovery, Frobisher being specially directed by his commission
+to &ldquo;defer the further discovery of the passage until another
+time.&rdquo; There was much parleying and some skirmishing with
+the natives, and earnest but futile attempts made to recover the
+men captured the previous year. The return was begun on the
+23rd of August, and the &ldquo;Aid&rdquo; reached Milford Haven on the
+23rd of September; the &ldquo;Gabriel&rdquo; and &ldquo;Michael,&rdquo; having
+separated, arrived later at Bristol and Yarmouth.</p>
+
+<p>Frobisher was received and thanked by the queen at Windsor.
+Great preparations were made and considerable expense incurred
+for the assaying of the great quantity of &ldquo;ore&rdquo; (about 200 tons)
+brought home. This took up much time, and led to considerable
+dispute among the various parties interested. Meantime the
+faith of the queen and others remained strong in the productiveness
+of the newly discovered territory, which she herself named
+<i>Meta Incognita</i>, and it was resolved to send out a larger expedition
+than ever, with all necessaries for the establishment of a
+colony of 100 men. Frobisher was again received by the queen
+at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold around
+his neck. On the 31st of May 1578 the expedition, consisting in
+all of fifteen vessels, left Harwich, and sailing by the English
+Channel on the 20th of June reached the south of Greenland,
+where Frobisher and some of his men managed to land. On the
+2nd of July the foreland of Frobisher Bay was sighted, but
+stormy weather and dangerous ice prevented the rendezvous
+from being gained, and, besides causing the wreck of the barque
+&ldquo;Dennis&rdquo; of 100 tons, drove the fleet unwittingly up a new
+(Hudson) strait. After proceeding about 60 m. up this &ldquo;mistaken
+strait,&rdquo; Frobisher with apparent reluctance turned back, and
+after many bufferings and separations the fleet at last came to
+anchor in Frobisher Bay. Some attempt was made at founding
+a settlement, and a large quantity of ore was shipped; but, as
+might be expected, there was much dissension and not a little
+discontent among so heterogeneous a company, and on the last
+day of August the fleet set out on its return to England, which
+was reached in the beginning of October. Thus ended what was
+little better than a fiasco, though Frobisher himself cannot be
+held to blame for the result; the scheme was altogether chimerical,
+and the &ldquo;ore&rdquo; seems to have been not worth smelting.</p>
+
+<p>In 1580 Frobisher was employed as captain of one of the
+queen&rsquo;s ships in preventing the designs of Spain to assist the
+Irish insurgents, and in the same year obtained a grant of the
+reversionary title of clerk of the royal navy. In 1585 he commanded
+the &ldquo;Primrose,&rdquo; as vice-admiral to Sir F. Drake in his
+expedition to the West Indies, and when soon afterwards the
+country was threatened with invasion by the Spanish Armada,
+Frobisher&rsquo;s name was one of four mentioned by the lord high
+admiral in a letter to the queen of &ldquo;men of the greatest experience
+that this realm hath,&rdquo; and for his signal services in the
+&ldquo;Triumph,&rdquo; in the dispersion of the Armada, he was knighted.
+He continued to cruise about in the Channel until 1590, when he
+was sent in command of a small fleet to the coast of Spain. In
+1591 he visited his native Altofts, and there married his second
+wife, a daughter of Lord Wentworth, becoming at the same time
+a landed proprietor in Yorkshire and Notts. He found, however,
+little leisure for a country life, and the following year took
+charge of the fleet fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh to the Spanish
+coast, returning with a rich prize. In November 1594 he was
+engaged with a squadron in the siege and relief of Brest, when
+he received a wound at Fort Crozon from which he died at
+Plymouth on the 22nd of November. His body was taken to
+London and buried at St Giles&rsquo;, Cripplegate. Though he appears
+to have been somewhat rough in his bearing, and too strict a
+disciplinarian to be much loved, Frobisher was undoubtedly one
+of the most able seamen of his time and justly takes rank among
+England&rsquo;s great naval heroes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hakluyt&rsquo;s <i>Voyages</i>; the Hakluyt Society&rsquo;s <i>Three Voyages of
+Frobisher</i>; Rev. F. Jones&rsquo;s <i>Life of Frobisher</i> (1878); Julian Corbett,
+<i>Drake and the Tudor Navy</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROCK,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> originally a long, loose gown with broad sleeves, more
+especially that worn by members of the religious orders. The
+word is derived from the O. Fr. <i>froc</i>, of somewhat obscure origin;
+in medieval Lat. <i>froccus</i> appears also as <i>floccus</i>, which, if it is the
+original, as Du Cange suggests (<i>literula mutata</i>), would connect
+the word with &ldquo;flock&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), properly a tuft of wool. Another
+suggestion refers the word to the German <i>Rock</i>, a coat (cf.
+&ldquo;rochet&rdquo;), which in some rare instances is found as <i>hrock</i>. The
+formal stripping off of the frock became part of the ceremony of
+degradation or deprivation in the case of a condemned monk;
+hence the expression &ldquo;to unfrock&rdquo; (med. Lat. <i>defrocare</i>, Fr.
+<i>défroquer</i>) used of the degradation of monks and of priests from
+holy orders. In the middle ages &ldquo;frock&rdquo; was also used of a long
+loose coat worn by men and of a coat of mail, the &ldquo;frock of mail.&rdquo;
+In something of this sense the word survived into the 19th
+century for a coat with long skirts, now called the &ldquo;frock coat.&rdquo;
+The word in now chiefly used in English for a child&rsquo;s or young
+girl&rsquo;s dress, of body and skirt, but is frequently used of a woman&rsquo;s
+dress. Du Cange (<i>Glossarium</i>, s.v. <i>flocus</i>) quotes an early use
+of the word for a woman&rsquo;s garment (<i>Miracula S. Udalrici</i>, ap.
+Mabillon, <i>Acta Sanctorum Benedict</i>, saec. v. p. 466). Here a
+woman, possessed of a devil, is cured, and sends her garments
+to the tomb of the saint, and a dalmatic is ordered to be made
+out of the flocus or <i>frocus</i>. &ldquo;Frock&rdquo; also appears in the &ldquo;smock
+frock,&rdquo; once the typical outer garment of the English peasant.
+It consists of a loose shirt of linen or other material, worn over
+the other clothes and hanging to about the knee; its characteristic
+feature is the &ldquo;smocking,&rdquo; a puckered honeycomb stitching
+round the neck and shoulders.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1782-1852),
+German philosopher, philanthropist and educational reformer,
+was born at Oberweissbach, a village of the Thuringian forest,
+on the 21st of April 1782. Like Comenius, with whom he had
+much in common, he was neglected in his youth, and the remembrance
+of his own early sufferings made him in after life
+the more eager in promoting the happiness of children. His
+mother he lost in his infancy, and his father, the pastor of
+Oberweissbach and the surrounding district, attended to his
+parish but not to his family. Friedrich soon had a stepmother,
+and neglect was succeeded by stepmotherly attention; but a
+maternal uncle took pity on him, and gave him a home for some
+years at Stadt-Ilm. Here he went to the village school, but like
+many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce. Throughout life
+he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying
+unity in all things. Nothing of the kind was to be perceived
+in the piecemeal studies of the school, and Froebel&rsquo;s mind, busy
+as it was for itself, would not work for the masters. His half-brother
+was therefore thought more worthy of a university
+education, and Friedrich was apprenticed for two years to a
+forester (1797-1799).</p>
+
+<p>Left to himself in the Thuringian forest, Froebel began to
+study nature, and without scientific instruction he obtained a
+profound insight into the uniformity and essential unity of
+nature&rsquo;s laws. Years afterwards the celebrated Jahn (the
+&ldquo;Father Jahn&rdquo; of the German gymnasts) told a Berlin student
+of a queer fellow he had met, who made out all sorts of wonderful
+things from stones and cobwebs. This queer fellow was Froebel;
+and the habit of making out general truths from the observation
+of nature, especially from plants and trees, dated from the solitary
+rambles in the forest. No training could have been better suited
+to strengthen his inborn tendency to mysticism; and when he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span>
+left the forest at the early age of seventeen, he seems to have
+been possessed by the main ideas which influenced him all his
+life. The conception which in him dominated all others was the
+unity of nature; and he longed to study natural sciences that
+he might find in them various applications of nature&rsquo;s universal
+laws. With great difficulty he got leave to join his elder brother
+at the university of Jena, and there for a year he went from
+lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that connexion
+of the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any
+particular science in itself. But Froebel&rsquo;s allowance of money
+was very small, and his skill in the management of money was
+never great, so his university career ended in an imprisonment
+of nine weeks for a debt of thirty shillings. He then returned
+home with very poor prospects, but much more intent on what
+he calls the course of &ldquo;self-completion&rdquo; (<i>Vervollkommnung
+meines selbst</i>) than on &ldquo;getting on&rdquo; in a worldly point of view.
+He was sent to learn farming, but was recalled in consequence
+of the failing health of his father. In 1802 the father died, and
+Froebel, now twenty years old, had to shift for himself. It was
+some time before he found his true vocation, and for the next
+three and a half years we find him at work now in one part of
+Germany now in another&mdash;sometimes land-surveying, sometimes
+acting as accountant, sometimes as private secretary; but in all
+this his &ldquo;outer life was far removed from his inner life,&rdquo; and in
+spite of his outward circumstances he became more and more
+conscious that a great task lay before him for the good of
+humanity. The nature of the task, however, was not clear to
+him, and it seemed determined by accident. While studying
+architecture in Frankfort-on-Main, he became acquainted with
+the director of a model school, who had caught some of the
+enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. This friend saw that Froebel&rsquo;s true
+field was education, and he persuaded him to give up architecture
+and take a post in the model school. In this school Froebel
+worked for two years with remarkable success, but he then
+retired and undertook the education of three lads of one family.
+In this he could not satisfy himself, and he obtained the parents&rsquo;
+consent to his taking the boys to Yverdon, near Neuchâtel, and
+there forming with them a part of the celebrated institution of
+Pestalozzi. Thus from 1807 till 1809 Froebel was drinking in
+Pestalozzianism at the fountain-head, and qualifying himself to
+carry on the work which Pestalozzi had begun. For the science
+of education had to deduce from Pestalozzi&rsquo;s experience principles
+which Pestalozzi himself could not deduce. And &ldquo;Froebel, the
+pupil of Pestalozzi, and a genius like his master, completed the
+reformer&rsquo;s system; taking the results at which Pestalozzi had
+arrived through the necessities of his position, Froebel developed
+the ideas involved in them, not by further experience but by
+deduction from the nature of man, and thus he attained to the
+conception of true human development and to the requirements
+of true education&rdquo; (Schmidt&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Pädagogik</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Holding that man and nature, inasmuch as they proceed from
+the same source, must be governed by the same laws, Froebel
+longed for more knowledge of natural science. Even Pestalozzi
+seemed to him not to &ldquo;honour science in her divinity.&rdquo; He
+therefore determined to continue the university course which
+had been so rudely interrupted eleven years before, and in 1811
+he began studying at Göttingen, whence he proceeded to Berlin.
+But again his studies were interrupted, this time by the king
+of Prussia&rsquo;s celebrated call &ldquo;to my people.&rdquo; Though not a
+Prussian, Froebel was heart and soul a German. He therefore
+responded to the call, enlisted in Lützow&rsquo;s corps, and went through
+the campaign of 1813. But his military ardour did not take
+his mind off education. &ldquo;Everywhere,&rdquo; he writes, &ldquo;as far as
+the fatigues I underwent allowed, I carried in my thoughts my
+future calling as educator; yes, even in the few engagements
+in which I had to take part. Even in these I could gather
+experience for the task I proposed to myself.&rdquo; Froebel&rsquo;s
+soldiering showed him the value of discipline and united action,
+how the individual belongs not to himself but to the whole
+body, and how the whole body supports the individual.</p>
+
+<p>Froebel was rewarded for his patriotism by the friendship
+of two men whose names will always be associated with his,
+Langethal and Middendorff. These young men, ten years
+younger than Froebel, became attached to him in the field, and
+were ever afterwards his devoted followers, sacrificing all their
+prospects in life for the sake of carrying out his ideas.</p>
+
+<p>At the peace of Fontainebleau (signed in May 1814) Froebel
+returned to Berlin, and became curator of the museum of
+mineralogy under Professor Weiss. In accepting this appointment
+from the government he seemed to turn aside from his
+work as educator; but if not teaching he was learning. More
+and more the thought possessed him that the one thing needful
+for man was unity of development, perfect evolution in accordance
+with the laws of his being, such evolution as science discovers
+in the other organisms of nature. He at first intended to become
+a teacher of natural science, but before long wider views dawned
+upon him. Langethal and Middendorff were in Berlin, engaged
+in tuition. Froebel gave them regular instruction in his theory,
+and at length, counting on their support, he resolved to set
+about realizing his own idea of &ldquo;the new education.&rdquo; This was
+in 1816. Three years before one of his brothers, a clergyman,
+had died of fever caught from the French prisoners. His widow
+was still living in the parsonage at Griesheim, a village on the
+Ilm. Froebel gave up his post, and set out for Griesheim on foot,
+spending his very last groschen on the way for bread. Here
+he undertook the education of his orphan niece and nephews,
+and also of two more nephews sent him by another brother.
+With these he opened a school and wrote to Middendorff and
+Langethal to come and help in the experiment. Middendorff
+came at once, Langethal a year or two later, when the school
+had been moved to Keilhau, another of the Thuringian villages,
+which became the Mecca of the new faith. In Keilhau Froebel,
+Langethal, Middendorff and Barop, a relation of Middendorff&rsquo;s,
+all married and formed an educational community. Such zeal
+could not be fruitless, and the school gradually increased, though
+for many years its teachers, with Froebel at their head, were in
+the greatest straits for money and at times even for food. After
+fourteen years&rsquo; experience he determined to start other institutions
+to work in connexion with the parent institution at Keilhau,
+and being offered by a private friend the use of a castle on the
+Wartensee, in the canton of Lucerne, he left Keilhau under the
+direction of Barop, and with Langethal he opened the Swiss
+institution. The ground, however, was very ill chosen. The
+Catholic clergy resisted what they considered as a Protestant
+invasion, and the experiment on the Wartensee and at Willisau
+in the same canton, to which the institution was moved in 1833,
+never had a fair chance. It was in vain that Middendorff at
+Froebel&rsquo;s call left his wife and family at Keilhau, and laboured
+for four years in Switzerland without once seeing them. The
+Swiss institution never flourished. But the Swiss government
+wished to turn to account the presence of the great educator;
+so young teachers were sent to Froebel for instruction, and
+finally Froebel moved to Burgdorf (a Bernese town of some
+importance, and famous from Pestalozzi&rsquo;s labours there thirty
+years earlier) to undertake the establishment of a public orphanage
+and also to superintend a course of teaching for schoolmasters.
+The elementary teachers of the canton were to spend three
+months every alternate year at Burgdorf, and there compare
+experiences, and learn of distinguished men such as Froebel and
+Bitzius. In his conferences with these teachers Froebel found
+that the schools suffered from the state of the raw material
+brought into them. Till the school age was reached the children
+were entirely neglected. Froebel&rsquo;s conception of harmonious
+development naturally led him to attach much importance to
+the earliest years, and his great work on <i>The Education of Man</i>,
+published as early as 1826, deals chiefly with the child up to the
+age of seven. At Burgdorf his thoughts were much occupied
+with the proper treatment of young children, and in scheming
+for them a graduated course of exercises, modelled on the games
+in which he observed them to be most interested. In his eagerness
+to carry out his new plans he grew impatient of official restraints;
+so he returned to Keilhau, and soon afterwards opened the first
+<i>Kindergarten</i> or &ldquo;Garden of Children,&rdquo; in the neighbouring village
+of Blankenburg (1837). Firmly convinced of the importance of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span>
+the Kindergarten for the whole human race, Froebel described
+his system in a weekly paper (his <i>Sonntagsblatt</i>) which appeared
+from the middle of 1837 till 1840. He also lectured in great
+towns; and he gave a regular course of instruction to young
+teachers at Blankenburg. But although the principles of the
+Kindergarten were gradually making their way, the first Kindergarten
+was failing for want of funds. It had to be given up, and
+Froebel, now a widower (he had lost his wife in 1839), carried
+on his course for teachers first at Keilhau, and from 1848, for
+the last four years of his life, at or near Liebenstein, in the
+Thuringian forest, and in the duchy of Meiningen. It is in these
+last years that the man Froebel will be best known to posterity,
+for in 1849 he attracted within the circle of his influence a woman
+of great intellectual power, the baroness von Marenholtz-Bülow,
+who has given us in her <i>Recollections of Friedrich Froebel</i> the only
+lifelike portrait we possess.</p>
+
+<p>These seemed likely to be Froebel&rsquo;s most peaceful days. He
+married again in 1851, and having now devoted himself to the
+training of women as educators, he spent his time in instructing
+his class of young female teachers. But trouble came upon him
+from a quarter whence he least expected it. In the great year
+of revolutions (1848) Froebel had hoped to turn to account the
+general eagerness for improvement, and Middendorff had presented
+an address on Kindergartens to the German parliament.
+Besides this, a nephew of Froebel&rsquo;s, Professor Karl Froebel of
+Zürich, published books which were supposed to teach socialism.
+True, the uncle and nephew differed so widely that the &ldquo;new
+Froebelians&rdquo; were the enemies of &ldquo;the old,&rdquo; but the distinction
+was overlooked, and Friedrich and Karl Froebel were regarded
+as the united advocates of some new thing. In the reaction
+which soon set in, Froebel found himself suspected of socialism
+and irreligion, and in 1851 the &ldquo;cultus-minister&rdquo; Von Raumer
+issued an edict forbidding the establishment of schools &ldquo;after
+Friedrich and Karl Froebel&rsquo;s principles&rdquo; in Prussia. This was
+a heavy blow to the old man, who looked to the government of
+the &ldquo;<i>Cultus-staat</i>&rdquo; Prussia for support, and was met with denunciation.
+Whether from the worry of this new controversy, or from
+whatever cause, Froebel did not long survive the decree. His
+seventieth birthday was celebrated with great rejoicings in May
+1852, but he died on the 21st of June, and was buried at Schweina,
+a village near his last abode, Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;All education not founded on religion is unproductive.&rdquo;
+This conviction followed naturally from Froebel&rsquo;s conception of
+the unity of all things, a unity due to the original Unity from
+whom all proceed and in whom all &ldquo;live, move and have their
+being.&rdquo; As man and nature have one origin they must be subject
+to the same laws. Hence Froebel, like Comenius two centuries
+before him, looked to the course of nature for the principles
+of human education. This he declares to be his fundamental
+belief: &ldquo;In the creation, in nature and the order of the material
+world, and in the progress of mankind, God has given us the true
+type (<i>Urbild</i>) of education.&rdquo; As the cultivator creates nothing
+in the trees and plants, so the educator creates nothing in the
+children,&mdash;he merely superintends the development of inborn
+faculties. So far Froebel agrees with Pestalozzi; but in one
+respect he went beyond him. Pestalozzi said that the faculties
+were developed by exercise. Froebel added that the function
+of education was to develop the faculties by arousing <i>voluntary
+activity</i>. Action proceeding from inner impulse (<i>Selbsttätigkeit</i>)
+was the one thing needful.</p>
+
+<p>The prominence which Froebel gave to action, his doctrine
+that man is primarily a doer and even a creator, and that he
+learns only through &ldquo;self-activity,&rdquo; has its importance all
+through education. But it was to the first stage of life that
+Froebel paid the greatest attention. He held with Rousseau
+that each age has a completeness of its own, and that the perfection
+of the later stage can be attained only through the
+perfection of the earlier. If the infant is what he should be as
+an infant, and the child as a child, he will become what he should
+be as a boy, just as naturally as new shoots spring from the healthy
+plant. Every stage, then, must be cared for and tended in such
+a way that it may attain its own perfection. Impressed with the
+immense importance of the first stage, Froebel like Pestalozzi
+devoted himself to the instruction of mothers. But he would not,
+like Pestalozzi, leave the children entirely in the mother&rsquo;s hands.
+Pestalozzi held that the child belonged to the family; Fichte,
+on the other hand, claimed it for society and the state.
+Froebel, whose mind delighted in harmonizing apparent contradictions,
+and who taught that &ldquo;all progress lay through
+opposites to their reconciliation,&rdquo; maintained that the child
+belonged both to the family and to society, and he would therefore
+have children spend some hours of the day in a common
+life and in well-organized common employments. These
+assemblies of children he would not call schools, for the children
+in them ought not to be old enough for schooling. So he invented
+the name <i>Kindergarten</i>, garden of children, and called
+the superintendents &ldquo;children&rsquo;s gardeners.&rdquo; He laid great
+stress on every child cultivating its own plot of ground, but this
+was not his reason for the choice of the name. It was rather
+that he thought of these institutions as enclosures in which
+young human plants are nurtured. In the Kindergarten the
+children&rsquo;s employment should be <i>play</i>. But any occupation
+in which children delight is play to them; and Froebel invented
+a series of employments, which, while they are in this sense
+play to the children, have nevertheless, as seen from the adult
+point of view, a distinct educational object. This object, as
+Froebel himself describes it, is &ldquo;to give the children employment
+in agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies,
+to exercise their senses, to engage their awakening mind, and
+through their senses to bring them acquainted with nature and
+their fellow creatures; it is especially to guide aright the heart
+and the affections, and to lead them to the original ground of all
+life, to unity with themselves.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Froebel&rsquo;s own works are: <i>Menschenerziehung</i> (&ldquo;Education of
+Man&rdquo;), (1826), which has been translated into French and English;
+<i>Pädagogik d. Kindergartens</i>; <i>Kleinere Schriften</i> and <i>Mutter- und
+Koselieder</i>; collected editions have been edited by Wichard Lange
+(1862) and Friedrich Seidel (1883).</p>
+
+<p>A. B. Hauschmann&rsquo;s <i>Friedrich Fröbel</i> is a lengthy and unsatisfactory
+biography. An unpretentious but useful little book is
+<i>F. Froebel, a Biographical Sketch</i>, by Matilda H. Kriege, New York
+(Steiger). A very good account of Froebel&rsquo;s life and thoughts is
+given in Karl Schmidt&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte d. Pädagogik</i>, vol. iv.; also in
+Adalbert Weber&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte d. Volksschulpäd. u. d. Kleinkindererziehung</i>
+(Weber carefully gives authorities). For a less favourable
+account see K. Strack&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte d. deutsch. Volksschulwesens</i>.
+Frau von Marenholtz-Bülow published her <i>Erinnerungen an F. Fröbel</i>
+(translated by Mrs. Horace Mann, 1877). This lady, the chief interpreter
+of Froebel, has expounded his principles in <i>Das Kind u.
+sein Wesen</i> and <i>Die Arbeit u. die neue Erziehung</i>. H. Courthope
+Bowen has written a memoir (1897) in the &ldquo;Great Educators&rdquo;
+series. In England Miss Emily A. E. Shirreff has published <i>Principles
+of Froebel&rsquo;s System</i>, and a short sketch of Froebel&rsquo;s life. See also
+Dr Henry Barnard&rsquo;s <i>Papers on Froebel&rsquo;s Kindergarten</i> (1881); R. H.
+Quick, <i>Educational Reformers</i> (1890).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. H. Q.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROG,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a name in zoology, of somewhat wide application,
+strictly for an animal belonging to the family <i>Ranidae</i>, but also
+used of some other families of the order <i>Ecaudata</i> or the sub-class
+Batrachia (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Frogs proper are typified by the common British species,
+<i>Rana temporaria</i>, and its allies, such as the edible frog, <i>R.
+esculenta</i>, and the American bull-frog <i>R. catesbiana</i>. The genus
+<i>Rana</i> may be defined as firmisternal Ecaudata with cylindrical
+transverse processes to the sacral vertebra, teeth in the upper
+jaw and on the vomer, a protrusible tongue which is free and
+forked behind, a horizontal pupil and more or less webbed toes.
+It includes about 200 species, distributed over the whole world
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span>
+with the exception of the greater part of South America and
+Australia. Some of the species are thoroughly aquatic and have
+fully webbed toes, others are terrestrial, except during the breeding
+season, others are adapted for burrowing, by means of the
+much-enlarged and sharp-edged tubercle at the base of the inner
+toe, whilst not a few have the tips of the digits dilated into disks
+by which they are able to climb on trees. In most of the older
+classifications great importance was attached to these physiological
+characters, and a number of genera were established
+which, owing to the numerous annectent forms which have since
+been discovered, must be abandoned. The arboreal species
+were thus associated with the true tree-frogs, regardless of their
+internal structure. We now know that such adaptations are
+of comparatively small importance, and cannot be utilized
+for establishing groups higher than genera in a natural or
+phylogenetic classification. The tree-frogs, <i>Hylidae</i>, with which
+the arboreal <i>Ranidae</i> were formerly grouped, show in their
+anatomical structure a close resemblance to the toads, <i>Bufonidae</i>,
+and are therefore placed far away from the true frogs, however
+great the superficial resemblance between them.</p>
+
+<p>Some frogs grow to a large size. The bull-frog of the eastern
+United States and Canada, reaching a length of nearly 8 in. from
+snout to vent, long regarded as the giant of the genus, has been
+surpassed by the discovery of <i>Rana guppyi</i> (8½ in.) in the
+Solomon Islands, and of <i>Rana goliath</i> (10 in.) in South Cameroon.</p>
+
+<p>The family <i>Ranidae</i> embraces a large number of genera, some
+of which are very remarkable. Among these may be mentioned
+the hairy frog of West Africa, <i>Trichobatrachus robustus</i>, some
+specimens of which have the sides of the body and of the hind
+limbs covered with long villosities, the function of which is
+unknown, and its ally <i>Gampsosteonyx batesi</i>, in which the last
+phalanx of the fingers and toes is sharp, claw-like and perforates
+the skin. To this family also belong the <i>Rhacophorus</i> of eastern
+Asia, arboreal frogs, some of which are remarkable for the
+extremely developed webs between the fingers and toes, which
+are believed to act as a parachute when the frog leaps from the
+branches of trees (flying-frog of A. R. Wallace), whilst others
+have been observed to make aerial nests between leaves overhanging
+water, a habit which is shared by their near allies the <i>Chiromantis</i>
+of tropical Africa. <i>Dimorphognathus</i>, from West Africa,
+is the unique example of a sexual dimorphism in the dentition,
+the males being provided with a series of large sharp teeth in the
+lower jaw, which in the female, as in most other members of the
+family, is edentulous. The curious horned frog of the Solomon
+Islands, <i>Ceratobatrachus guentheri</i>, which can hardly be separated
+from the <i>Ranidae</i>, has teeth in the lower jaw in both sexes,
+whilst a few forms, such as <i>Dendrobates</i> and <i>Cardioglossa</i>, which
+on this account have been placed in a distinct family, have no
+teeth at all, as in toads. These facts militate strongly against
+the importance which was once attached to the dentition in the
+classification of the tailless batrachians.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;frog&rdquo; is in O.E. <i>frocga</i> or <i>frox</i>, cf. Dutch <i>vorsch</i>,
+Ger. <i>Frosch</i>; Skeat suggests a possible original source in the root
+meaning &ldquo;to jump,&rdquo; &ldquo;to spring,&rdquo; cf. Ger. <i>froh</i>, glad, joyful and
+&ldquo;frolic.&rdquo; The term is also applied to the following objects: the
+horny part in the center of a horse&rsquo;s hoof; an attachment to a belt
+for suspending a sword, bayonet, &amp;c.; a fastening for the front
+of a coat, still used in military uniforms, consisting of two buttons
+on opposite sides joined by ornamental looped braids; and, in railway
+construction, the point where two rails cross. These may be
+various transferred applications of the name of the animal, but the
+&ldquo;frog&rdquo; of a horse was also called &ldquo;frush,&rdquo; probably a corruption of
+the French name <i>fourchette</i>, lit. little fork. The ornamental braiding
+is also more probably due to &ldquo;frock,&rdquo; Lat. <i>floccus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROG-BIT,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> in botany, the English name for a small floating
+herb known botanically as <i>Hydrocharis Morsus-Ranae</i>, a member
+of the order Hydrocharideae, a family of Monocotyledons. The
+plant has rosettes of roundish floating leaves, and multiplies
+like the strawberry plant by means of runners, at the end
+of which new leaf-rosettes develop. Staminate and pistillate
+flowers are borne on different plants; they have three small
+green sepals and three broadly ovate white membranous petals.
+The fruit, which is fleshy, is not found in Britain. The plant
+occurs in ponds and ditches in England and is rare in Ireland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROGMORE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a mansion within the royal demesne of Windsor,
+England, in the Home Park, 1 m. S.E. of Windsor Castle. It
+was occupied by George III.&rsquo;s queen, Charlotte, and later by
+the duchess of Kent, mother of Queen Victoria, who died here
+in 1861. The mansion, a plain building facing a small lake, has
+in its grounds the mausoleum of the duchess of Kent and the
+royal mausoleum. The first is a circular building surrounded
+with Ionic columns and rising in a dome, a lower chamber within
+containing the tomb, while in the upper chamber is a statue of the
+duchess. There is also a bust of Princess Hohenlohe-Langenberg,
+half-sister of Queen Victoria; and before the entrance is a
+memorial erected by the queen to Lady Augusta Stanley (d.
+1876), wife of Dean Stanley. The royal mausoleum, a cruciform
+building with a central octagonal lantern, richly adorned within
+with marbles and mosaics, was erected (1862-1870) by Queen
+Victoria over the tomb of Albert, prince consort, by whose side
+the queen herself was buried in 1901. There are also memorials
+to Princess Alice and Prince Leopold in the mausoleum. To
+the south of the mansion are the royal gardens and dairy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRÖHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1796-1865), Swiss poet,
+was born on the 1st of February 1796 at Brugg in the canton of
+Aargau, where his father was a teacher. After studying theology
+at Zürich he became a pastor in 1817 and returned as teacher
+to his native town, where he lived for ten years. He was then
+appointed professor of the German language and literature in
+the cantonal school at Aarau, which post he lost, however, in
+the political quarrels of 1830. He afterwards obtained the post
+of teacher and rector of the cantonal college, and was also
+appointed assistant minister at the parish church. He died at
+Baden in Aargau on the 1st of December 1865. His works are&mdash;<i>170
+Fabeln</i> (1825); <i>Schweizerlieder</i> (1827); <i>Das Evangelium
+St Johannis, in Liedern</i> (1830); <i>Elegien an Wieg&rsquo; und Sarg</i>
+(1835); <i>Die Epopöen; Ulrich Zwingli</i> (1840); <i>Ulrich von
+Hutten</i> (1845); <i>Auserlesene Psalmen und geistliche Lieder für
+die Evangelisch-reformirte Kirche des Cantons Aargau</i> (1844);
+<i>Über den Kirchengesang der Protestanten</i> (1846); <i>Trostlieder</i>
+(1852); <i>Der Junge Deutsch-Michel</i> (1846); <i>Reimsprüche aus
+Staat, Schule, und Kirche</i> (1820). An edition of his collected
+works, in 5 vols., was published at Frauenfeld in 1853. Fröhlich
+is best known for his two heroic poems, <i>Ulrich Zwingli</i> and
+<i>Ulrich von Hutten</i>, and especially for his fables, which have been
+ranked with those of Hagedorn, Lessing and Gellert.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life</i> by R. Fäsi (Zürich, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1821-1893), German theologian
+and philosopher, was born at Illkofen, near Regensburg, on the
+6th of January 1821. Destined by his parents for the Roman
+Catholic priesthood, he studied theology at Munich, but felt
+an ever-growing attraction to philosophy. Nevertheless, after
+much hesitation, he took what he himself calls the most mistaken
+step of his life, and in 1847 entered the priesthood. His keenly
+logical intellect, and his impatience of authority where it clashed
+with his own convictions, quite unfitted him for that unquestioning
+obedience which the Church demanded. It was only after
+open defiance of the bishop of Regensburg that he obtained
+permission to continue his studies at Munich. He at first devoted
+himself more especially to the study of the history of dogma,
+and in 1850 published his <i>Beiträge zur Kirchengeschichte</i>, which
+was placed on the Index Expurgatorius. But he felt that his
+real vocation was philosophy, and after holding for a short time
+an extraordinary professorship of theology, he became professor
+of philosophy in 1855. This appointment he owed chiefly to his
+work, <i>Über den Ursprung der menschlichen Seelen</i> (1854), in
+which he maintained that the human soul was not implanted
+by a special creative act in each case, but was the result of a
+secondary creative act on the part of the parents: that soul as
+well as body, therefore, was subject to the laws of heredity.
+This was supplemented in 1855 by the controversial <i>Menschenseele
+und Physiologie</i>. Undeterred by the offence which these works
+gave to his ecclesiastical superiors, he published in 1858 the
+<i>Einleitung in die Philosophie und Grundriss der Metaphysik</i>,
+in which he assailed the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, that
+philosophy was the handmaid of theology. In 1861 appeared
+<i>Über die Aufgabe der Naturphilosophie und ihr Verhältnis zur
+Naturwissenschaft</i>, which was, he declared, directed against the
+purely mechanical conception of the universe, and affirmed the
+necessity of a creative Power. In the same year he published
+<i>Über die Freiheit der Wissenschaft</i>, in which he maintained the
+independence of science, whose goal was truth, against authority,
+and reproached the excessive respect for the latter in the Roman
+Church with the insignificant part played by the German Catholics
+in literature and philosophy. He was denounced by the pope
+himself in an apostolic brief of the 11th of December 1862,
+and students of theology were forbidden to attend his lectures.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span>
+Public opinion was now keenly excited; he received an ovation
+from the Munich students, and the king, to whom he owed his
+appointment, supported him warmly. A conference of Catholic
+<i>savants</i>, held in 1863 under the presidency of Döllinger, decided
+that authority must be supreme in the Church. When, however,
+Döllinger and his school in their turn started the Old Catholic
+movement, Frohschammer refused to associate himself with
+their cause, holding that they did not go far enough, and that
+their declaration of 1863 had cut the ground from under their
+feet. Meanwhile he had, in 1862, founded the <i>Athenäum</i> as the
+organ of Liberal Catholicism. For this he wrote the first adequate
+account in German of the Darwinian theory of natural selection,
+which drew a warm letter of appreciation from Darwin himself.
+Excommunicated in 1871, he replied with three articles, which
+were reproduced in thousands as pamphlets in the chief European
+languages: <i>Der Fels Petri in Rom</i> (1873), <i>Der Primat Petri
+und des Papstes</i> (1875), and <i>Das Christenthum Christi und das
+Christenthum des Papstes</i> (1876). In <i>Das neue Wissen und der
+neue Glaube</i> (1873) he showed himself as vigorous an opponent
+of the materialism of Strauss as of the doctrine of papal infallibility.
+His later years were occupied with a series of philosophical
+works, of which the most important were: <i>Die Phantasie als
+Grundprincip des Weltprocesses</i> (1877), <i>Über die Genesis der
+Menschheit und deren geistige Entwicklung in Religion, Sittlichkeit
+und Sprache</i> (1883), and <i>Über die Organisation und Cultur der
+menschlichen Gesellschaft</i> (1885). His system is based on the
+unifying principle of imagination (<i>Phantasie</i>), which he extends
+to the objective creative force of Nature, as well as to the subjective
+mental phenomena to which the term is usually confined.
+He died at Bad Kreuth in the Bavarian Highlands on the 14th
+of June 1893.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to other treatises on theological subjects, Frohschammer
+was also the author of <i>Monaden und Weltphantasie</i> and <i>Über die
+Bedeutung der Einbildungskraft in der Philosophie Kants und Spinozas</i>
+(1879); <i>Über die Principien der Aristotelischen Philosophie und die
+Bedeutung der Phantasie in derselben</i> (1881); <i>Die Philosophie als
+Idealwissenschaft und System</i> (1884); <i>Die Philosophie des Thomas
+von Aquino kritisch gewürdigt</i> (1889); <i>Über das Mysterium Magnum
+des Daseins</i> (1891); <i>System der Philosophie im Umriss</i>, pt. i. (1892).
+His autobiography was published in A. Hinrichsen&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Denker</i>
+(1888). See also F. Kirchner, <i>Über das Grundprincip des Weltprocesses</i>
+(1882), with special reference to F.; E. Reich, <i>Weltanschauung
+und Menschenleben; Betrachtungen über die Philosophie
+J. Frohschammers</i> (1894); B. Münz, <i>J. Frohschammer, der Philosoph
+der Weltphantasie</i> (1894) and <i>Briefe von und über J. Frohschammer</i>
+(1897); J. Friedrich, <i>Jakob Frohschammer</i> (1896) and <i>Systematische
+und kritische Darstellung der Psychologie J. Frohschammers</i> (1899);
+A. Attensperger, <i>J. Frohschammers philosophisches System im
+Grundriss</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROISSART, JEAN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1338-1410?), French chronicler and
+raconteur, historian of his own times. The personal history
+of Froissart, the circumstances of his birth and education, the
+incidents of his life, must all be sought in his own verses and
+chronicles. He possessed in his own lifetime no such fame as
+that which attended the steps of Petrarch; when he died it did
+not occur to his successors that a chapter might well be added
+to his <i>Chronicle</i> setting forth what manner of man he was who
+wrote it. The village of Lestines, where he was curé, has long
+forgotten that a great writer ever lived there. They cannot
+point to any house in Valenciennes as the lodging in which he
+put together his notes and made history out of personal reminiscences.
+It is not certain when or where he died, or where he
+was buried. One church, it is true, doubtfully claims the honour
+of holding his bones. It is that of St Monegunda of Chimay.</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Gallorum sublimis honos et fama tuorum,</p>
+<p class="i05">Hic Froissarde, jaces, si modo forte jaces.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It is fortunate, therefore, that the scattered statements in his
+writings may be so pieced together as to afford a tolerably
+connected history of his life year after year. The personality
+of the man, independently of his adventures, may be arrived at
+by the same process. It will be found that Froissart, without
+meaning it, has portrayed himself in clear and well-defined
+outline. His forefathers were <i>jurés</i> (aldermen) of the little
+town of Beaumont, lying near the river Sambre, to the west of the
+forest of Ardennes. Early in the 14th century the castle and
+seigneurie of Beaumont fell into the hands of Jean, younger son
+of the count of Hainaut. With this Jean, sire de Beaumont,
+lived a certain canon of Liège called Jean le Bel, who fortunately
+was not content simply to enjoy life. Instigated by his seigneur
+he set himself to write contemporary history, to tell &ldquo;la pure
+veriteit de tout li fait entièrement al manire de chroniques.&rdquo;
+With this view, he compiled two books of chronicles. And the
+chronicles of Jean le Bel were not the only literary monuments
+belonging to the castle of Beaumont. A hundred years before
+him Baldwin d&rsquo;Avernes, the then seigneur, had caused to be
+written a book of chronicles or rather genealogies. It must
+therefore be remembered that when Froissart undertook his own
+chronicles he was not conceiving a new idea, but only following
+along familiar lines.</p>
+
+<p>Some 20 m. from Beaumont stood the prosperous city of
+Valenciennes, possessed in the 14th century of important
+privileges and a flourishing trade, second only to places like
+Bruges or Ghent in influence, population and wealth. Beaumont,
+once her rival, now regarded Valenciennes as a place where the
+ambitious might seek for wealth or advancement, and among
+those who migrated thither was the father of Foissart. He
+appears from a single passage in his son&rsquo;s verses to have been a
+painter of armorial bearings. There was, it may be noted,
+already what may be called a school of painters at Valenciennes.
+Among them were Jean and Colin de Valenciennes and Andrè
+Beau-Neveu, of whom Froissart says that he had not his equal
+in any country.</p>
+
+<p>The date generally adopted for his birth is 1338. In after
+years Froissart pleased himself by recalling in verse the scenes
+and pursuits of his childhood. These are presented in vague
+generalities. There is nothing to show that he was unlike any
+other boys, and, unfortunately, it did not occur to him that a
+photograph of a schoolboy&rsquo;s life amid bourgeois surroundings
+would be to posterity quite as interesting as that faithful portraiture
+of courts and knights which he has drawn up in his
+<i>Chronicle</i>. As it is, we learn that he loved games of dexterity
+and skill rather than the sedentary amusements of chess and
+draughts, that he was beaten when he did not know his lessons,
+that with his companions he played at tournaments, and that
+he was always conscious&mdash;a statement which must be accepted
+with suspicion&mdash;that he was born</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Loer Dieu et servir le monde.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In any case he was born in a place, as well as at a time, singularly
+adapted to fill the brain of an imaginative boy. Valenciennes
+was then a city extremely rich in romantic associations. Not
+far from its walls was the western fringe of the great forest of
+Ardennes, sacred to the memory of Pepin, Charlemagne, Roland
+and Ogier. Along the banks of the Scheldt stood, one after the
+other, not then in ruins, but bright with banners, the gleam of
+armour, and the liveries of the men at arms, castles whose
+seigneurs, now forgotten, were famous in their day for many a
+gallant feat of arms. The castle of Valenciennes itself was
+illustrious in the romance of <i>Perceforest</i>. There was born that
+most glorious and most luckless hero, Baldwin, first emperor
+of Constantinople. All the splendour of medieval life was to
+be seen in Froissart&rsquo;s native city: on the walls of the Salle le
+Comte glittered&mdash;perhaps painted by his father&mdash;the arms and
+scutcheons beneath the banners and helmets of Luxembourg,
+Hainaut and Avesnes; the streets were crowded with knights
+and soldiers, priests, artisans and merchants; the churches were
+rich with stained glass, delicate tracery and precious carving;
+there were libraries full of richly illuminated manuscripts on
+which the boy could gaze with delight; every year there was the
+<i>fête</i> of the <i>puy d&rsquo;Amour de Valenciennes</i>, at which he would hear
+the verses of the competing poets; there were festivals, masques,
+mummeries and moralities. And, whatever there might be
+elsewhere, in this happy city there was only the pomp, and not
+the misery, of war; the fields without were tilled, and the
+harvests reaped, in security; the workman within plied his
+craft unmolested for good wage. But the eyes of the boy were
+turned upon the castle and not upon the town; it was the
+splendour of the knights which dazzled him, insomuch that he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span>
+regarded and continued ever afterwards to regard a prince
+gallant in the field, glittering of apparel, lavish of largesse, as
+almost a god.</p>
+
+<p>The moon, he says, rules the first four years of life; Mercury
+the next ten; Venus follows. He was fourteen when the last
+goddess appeared to him in person, as he tells us, after the
+manner of his time, and informed him that he was to love a lady,
+&ldquo;belle, jone, et gente.&rdquo; Awaiting this happy event, he began to
+consider how best to earn his livelihood. They first placed him in
+some commercial position&mdash;impossible now to say of what kind&mdash;which
+he simply calls &ldquo;la marchandise.&rdquo; This undoubtedly
+means some kind of buying and selling, not a handicraft
+at all. He very soon abandoned merchandise&mdash;&ldquo;car vaut
+mieux science qu&rsquo;argens&rdquo;&mdash;and resolved on becoming a learned
+clerk. He then naturally began to make verses, like every other
+learned clerk. Quite as naturally, and still in the character of a
+learned clerk, he fulfilled the prophecy of Venus and fell in love.
+He found one day a demoiselle reading a book of romances. He
+did not know who she was, but stealing gently towards her, he
+asked her what book she was reading. It was the romance of
+<i>Cleomades</i>. He remarks the singular beauty of her blue eyes
+and fair hair, while she reads a page or two, and then&mdash;one would
+almost suspect a reminiscence of Dante&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Adont laissames nous le lire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">He was thus provided with that essential for soldier, knight
+or poet, a mistress&mdash;one for whom he could write verses. She
+was rich and he was poor; she was nobly born and he obscure;
+it was long before she would accept the devotion, even of the
+conventional kind which Froissart offered her, and which would
+in no way interfere with the practical business of her life. And
+in this hopeless way, the passion of the young poet remaining
+the same, and the coldness of the lady being unaltered, the course
+of this passion ran on for some time. Nor was it until the day
+of Froissart&rsquo;s departure from his native town that she gave him
+an interview and spoke kindly to him, even promising, with tears
+in her eyes, that &ldquo;Doulce Pensée&rdquo; would assure him that she
+would have no joyous day until she should see him again.</p>
+
+<p>He was eighteen years of age; he had learned all that he
+wanted to learn; he possessed the mechanical art of verse;
+he had read the slender stock of classical literature accessible;
+he longed to see the world. He must already have acquired
+some distinction, because, on setting out for the court of England,
+he was able to take with him letters of recommendation from
+the king of Bohemia and the count of Hainaut to Queen Philippa,
+niece of the latter. He was well received by the queen, always
+ready to welcome her own countrymen; he wrote ballades and
+virelays for her and her ladies. But after a year he began to
+pine for another sight of &ldquo;la très douce, simple, et quoie,&rdquo; whom
+he loved loyally. Good Queen Philippa, perceiving his altered
+looks and guessing the cause, made him confess that he was in
+love and longed to see his mistress. She gave him his <i>congé</i> on
+the condition that he was to return. It is clear that the young
+clerk had already learned to ingratiate himself with princes.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion of his single love adventure is simply and
+unaffectedly told in his <i>Trettie de l&rsquo;espinette amoureuse</i>. It
+was a passion conducted on the well-known lines of conventional
+love; the pair exchanged violets and roses, the lady accepted
+ballads; Froissart became either openly or in secret her recognized
+lover, a mere title of honour, which conferred distinction
+on her who bestowed it, as well as upon him who received it.
+But the progress of the amour was rudely interrupted by the arts
+of &ldquo;Malebouche,&rdquo; or Calumny. The story, whatever it was,
+that Malebouche whispered in the ear of the lady led to a
+complete rupture. The <i>damoiselle</i> not only scornfully refused
+to speak to her lover or acknowledge him, but even seized him
+by the hair and pulled out a handful. Nor would she ever
+be reconciled to him again. Years afterwards, when Froissart
+writes the story of his one love passage, he shows that he still
+takes delight in the remembrance of her, loves to draw her
+portrait, and lingers with fondness over the thought of what
+she once was to him.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps to get healed of his sorrow, Froissart began those
+wanderings in which the best part of his life was to be consumed.
+He first visited Avignon, perhaps to ask for a benefice, perhaps
+as the bearer of a message from the bishop of Cambray to pope
+or cardinal. It was in the year 1360, and in the pontificate of
+Innocent VI. From the papal city he seems to have gone to
+Paris, perhaps charged with a diplomatic mission. In 1361 he
+returned to England after an absence of five years. He certainly
+interpreted his leave of absence in a liberal spirit, and it may have
+been with a view of averting the displeasure of his kind-hearted
+protector that he brought with him as a present a book of
+rhymed chronicles written by himself. He says that notwithstanding
+his youth, he took upon himself the task &ldquo;à rimer et
+à dicter&rdquo;&mdash;which can only mean to &ldquo;turn into verse&rdquo;&mdash;an
+account of the wars of his own time, which he carried over to
+England in a book &ldquo;tout compilé,&rdquo;&mdash;complete to date,&mdash;and
+presented to his noble mistress Philippa of Hainaut, who joyfully
+and gently received it of him. Such a rhymed chronicle
+was no new thing. One Colin had already turned the battle of
+Crécy into verse. The queen made young Froissart one of her
+secretaries, and he began to serve her with &ldquo;beaux dittiés et
+traités amoureux.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Froissart would probably have been content to go on living
+at ease in this congenial atmosphere of flattery, praise and
+caresses, pouring out his virelays and chansons according to
+demand with facile monotony, but for the instigation of Queen
+Philippa, who seems to have suggested to him the propriety of
+travelling in order to get information for more rhymed chronicles.
+It was at her charges that Froissart made his first serious journey.
+He seems to have travelled a great part of the way alone, or
+accompanied only by his servants, for he was fain to beguile
+the journey by composing an imaginary conversation in verse
+between his horse and his hound. This may be found among his
+published poems, but it does not repay perusal. In Scotland
+he met with a favourable reception, not only from King David
+but from William of Douglas, and from the earls of Fife,
+Mar, March and others. The souvenirs of this journey are
+found scattered about in the chronicles. He was evidently much
+impressed with the Scots; he speaks of the valour of the Douglas,
+the Campbell, the Ramsay and the Graham; he describes the
+hospitality and rude life of the Highlanders; he admires the
+great castles of Stirling and Roxburgh and the famous abbey of
+Melrose. His travels in Scotland lasted for six months. Returning
+southwards he rode along the whole course of the Roman
+wall, a thing alone sufficient to show that he possessed the true
+spirit of an archaeologist; he thought that Carlisle was Carlyon,
+and congratulated himself on having found King Arthur&rsquo;s
+capital; he calls Westmorland, where the common people still
+spoke the ancient British tongue, North Wales; he rode down
+the banks of the Severn, and returned to London by way of
+Oxford&mdash;&ldquo;l&rsquo;escole d&rsquo;Asque-Suffort.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In London Froissart entered into the service of King John
+of France as secretary, and grew daily more courtly, more in
+favour with princes and great ladies. He probably acquired at
+this period that art, in which he has probably never been surpassed,
+of making people tell him all they knew. No newspaper
+correspondent, no American interviewer, has ever equalled this
+medieval collector of intelligence. From Queen Philippa, who
+confided to him the tender story of her youthful and lasting love
+for her great husband, down to the simplest knight&mdash;Froissart
+conversed with none beneath the rank of gentlemen&mdash;all united
+in telling this man what he wanted to know. He wanted to
+know everything: he liked the story of a battle from both sides
+and from many points of view; he wanted the details of every
+little cavalry skirmish, every capture of a castle, every gallant
+action and brave deed. And what was more remarkable, he
+forgot nothing. &ldquo;I had,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;thanks to God, sense,
+memory, good remembrance of everything, and an intellect
+clear and keen to seize upon the acts which I could learn.&rdquo; But
+as yet he had not begun to write in prose.</p>
+
+<p>At the age of twenty-nine, in 1366, Froissart once more left
+England. This time he repaired first to Brussels, whither were
+gathered together a great concourse of minstrels from all parts,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span>
+from the courts of the kings of Denmark, Navarre and Aragon,
+from those of the dukes of Lancaster, Bavaria and Brunswick.
+Hither came all who could &ldquo;rimer et dicter.&rdquo; What distinction
+Froissart gained is not stated; but he received a gift of money,
+as appears from the accounts: &ldquo;uni Fritsardo, dictori, qui est
+cum regina Angliae, dicto die, <span class="sc">VI.</span> mottones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After this congress of versifiers, he made his way to Brittany,
+where he heard from eye-witnesses and knights who had actually
+fought there details of the battles of Cocherel and Auray, the
+Great Day of the Thirty and the heroism of Jeanne de Montfort.
+Windsor Herald told him something about Auray, and a French
+knight, one Antoine de Beaujeu, gave him the details of Cocherel.
+From Brittany he went southwards to Nantes, La Rochelle and
+Bordeaux, where he arrived a few days before the visit of Richard,
+afterwards second of that name. He accompanied the Black
+Prince to Dax, and hoped to go on with him into Spain, but
+was despatched to England on a mission. He next formed part
+of the expedition which escorted Lionel duke of Clarence to
+Milan, to marry the daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. Chaucer
+was also one of the prince&rsquo;s suite. At the wedding banquet
+Petrarch was a guest sitting among the princes.</p>
+
+<p>From Milan Froissart, accepting gratefully a <i>cotte hardie</i> with
+20 florins of gold, set out upon his travels in Italy. At Bologna,
+then in decadence, he met Peter king of Cyprus, from whose
+follower and minister, Eustache de Conflans, he learned many
+interesting particulars of the king&rsquo;s exploits. He accompanied
+Peter as far as Venice, where he left him after receiving a gift
+of 40 ducats. With them and his <i>cotte hardie</i>, still lined we may
+hope with the 20 florins, Froissart betook himself to Rome.
+The city was then at its lowest point: the churches were roofless;
+there was no pope; there were no pilgrims; there was no
+splendour; and yet, says Froissart sadly,</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p class="i2">&ldquo;Ce furent jadis en Rome</p>
+<p>Li plus preu et li plus sage homme,</p>
+<p>Car par sens tons les arts passèrent.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It was at Rome that he learned of the death of his friend King
+Peter of Cyprus, and, worse still, an irreparable loss to him,
+that of the good Queen Philippa, of whom he writes, in grateful
+remembrance&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Propices li soit Diex à l&rsquo;âme!</p>
+<p class="i05">J&rsquo;en suis bien tenus de pryer</p>
+<p class="i05">Et ses larghesces escuyer,</p>
+<p class="i05">Car elle me fist et créa.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Philippa dead, Froissart looked around for a new patron.
+Then he hastened back to his own country and presented himself,
+with a new book in French, to the duchess of Brabant, from
+whom he received the sum of 16 francs, given in the accounts
+as paid <i>uni Frissardo dictatori</i>. The use of the word <i>uni</i> does
+not imply any meanness of position, but is simply an equivalent
+to the modern French <i>sieur</i>. Froissart may also have found a
+patron in Yolande de Bar, grandmother of King René of Anjou.
+In any case he received a substantial gift from some one in the
+shape of the benefice of Lestines, a village some three or four
+miles from the town of Binche. Also, in addition to his cure, he
+got placed upon the duke of Brabant&rsquo;s pension list, and was
+entitled to a yearly grant of grain and wine, with some small
+sum in money.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear, from Froissart&rsquo;s own account of himself, that he
+was by no means a man who would at the age of four or five and
+thirty be contented to sit down at ease to discharge the duties
+of parish priest, to say mass, to bury the dead, to marry the
+villagers and to baptize the young. In those days, and in that
+country, it does not seem that other duties were expected.
+Preaching was not required, godliness of life, piety, good works,
+and the graces of a modern ecclesiastic were not looked for.
+Therefore, when Froissart complains to himself that the taverns
+of Lestines got 500 francs of his money, we need not at once set
+him down as either a bad priest or exceptionally given to drink.
+The people of the place were greatly addicted to wine; the
+<i>taverniers de Lestines</i> proverbially sold good wine; the Flemings
+were proverbially of a joyous disposition&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Ceux de Hainaut chantent à pleines gorges.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Froissart, the parish priest of courtly manners, no doubt
+drank with the rest, and listened if they sang his own, not the
+coarse country songs. Mostly he preferred the society of Gerard
+d&rsquo;Obies, provost of Binche, and the little circle of knights within
+that town. Or&mdash;for it was not incumbent on him to be always
+in residence&mdash;he repaired to the court of Coudenberg, and became
+&ldquo;moult frère et accointé&rdquo; with the duke of Brabant. And then
+came Gui de Blois, one of King John&rsquo;s hostages in London in the
+old days. He had been fighting in Prussia with the Teutonic
+knights, and now, a little tired of war, proposed to settle down
+for a time in his castle of Beaumont. This prince was a member
+of the great house of Chatillon. He was count of Blois, of
+Soissons and of Chimay. He had now, about the year 1374, an
+excellent reputation as a good captain. In him Froissart, who
+hastened to resume acquaintance, found a new patron. More
+than that, it was this sire de Beaumont, in emulation of his
+grandfather, the patron of Jean le Bel, who advised Froissart
+seriously to take in hand the history of his own time. Froissart
+was then in his thirty-sixth year. For twenty years he had been
+rhyming, for eighteen he had been making verses for queens and
+ladies. Yet during all this time he had been accumulating in his
+retentive brain the materials for his future work.</p>
+
+<p>He began by editing, so to speak, that is, by rewriting with
+additions, the work of Jean le Bel; Gui de Blois, among others,
+supplied him with additional information. His own notes, taken
+from information obtained in his travels, gave him more details,
+and when in 1374 Gui married Marie de Namur, Froissart found
+in the bride&rsquo;s father, Robert de Namur, one who had himself
+largely shared in the events which he had to relate. He, for
+instance, is the authority for the story of the siege of Calais
+and the six burgesses. Provided with these materials, Froissart
+remained at Lestines, or at Beaumont, arranging and writing
+his chronicles. During this period, too, he composed his <i>Espinette
+amoureuse</i>, and the <i>Joli Buisson de jonesce</i>, and his romance of
+<i>Méliador</i>. He also became chaplain to the count of Blois, and
+obtained a canonry of Chimay. After this appointment we hear
+nothing more of Lestines, which he probably resigned.</p>
+
+<p>In these quiet pursuits he passed twelve years, years of which
+we hear nothing, probably because there was nothing to tell.
+In 1386 his travels began again, when he accompanied Gui to
+his castle at Blois, in order to celebrate the marriage of his son
+Louis de Dunois with Marie de Berry. He wrote a <i>pastourelle</i>
+in honour of the event. Then he attached himself for a few days
+to the duke of Berry, from whom he learned certain particulars
+of current events, and then, becoming aware of what promised to
+be the most mighty feat of arms of his time, he hastened to Sluys
+in order to be on the spot. At this port the French were collecting
+an enormous fleet, and making preparations of the greatest
+magnitude in order to repeat the invasion of William the Conqueror.
+They were tired of being invaded by the English and
+wished to turn the tables. The talk was all of conquering the
+country and dividing it among the knights, as had been done by
+the Normans. It is not clear whether Froissart intended to go
+over with the invaders; but as his sympathies are ever with the
+side where he happens to be, he exhausts himself in admiration
+of this grand gathering of ships and men. &ldquo;Any one,&rdquo; he says,
+&ldquo;who had a fever would have been cured of his malady merely
+by going to look at the fleet.&rdquo; But the delays of the duke of
+Berry, and the arrival of bad weather, spoiled everything. There
+was no invasion of England. In Flanders Froissart met many
+knights who had fought at Rosebeque, and could tell him of the
+troubles which in a few years desolated that country, once so
+prosperous. He set himself to ascertain the history with as
+much accuracy as the comparison of various accounts by eye-witnesses
+and actors would allow. He stayed at Ghent, among
+those ruined merchants and mechanics, for whom, as one of the
+same class, he felt a sympathy never extended to English or
+French, perhaps quite as unfortunate, and he devotes no fewer
+than 300 chapters to the Flemish troubles, an amount out of
+all proportion to the comparative importance of the events.
+This portion of the chronicle was written at Valenciennes.
+During this residence in his birthplace his verses were crowned
+at the &ldquo;puys d&rsquo;amour&rdquo; of Valenciennes and Tournay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span></p>
+
+<p>This part of his work finished, he considered what to do next.
+There was small chance of anything important happening in
+Picardy or Hainault, and he determined on making a journey
+to the south of France in order to learn something new. He was
+then fifty-one years of age, and being still, as he tells us, in his
+prime, &ldquo;of an age, strength, and limbs able to bear fatigue,&rdquo;
+he set out as eager to see new places as when, 33 years before,
+he rode through Scotland and marvelled at the bravery of the
+Douglas. What he had, in addition to strength, good memory
+and good spirits, was a manner singularly pleasing and great
+personal force of character. This he does not tell us, but it
+comes out abundantly in his writings; and, which he does tell
+us, he took a singular delight in his book. &ldquo;The more I work
+at it,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;the better am I pleased with it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On this occasion he rode first to Blois; on the way he fell in
+with two knights who told him of the disasters of the English
+army in Spain; one of them also informed him of the splendid
+hospitalities and generosity of Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix,
+on hearing of which Froissart resolved to seek him out. He
+avoided the English provinces of Poitou and Guienne, and rode
+southwards through Berry, Auvergne and Languedoc. Arrived
+at Foix he discovered that the count was at Orthez, whither he
+proceeded in company with a knight named Espaing de Lyon,
+who, Froissart found, had not only fought, but could describe.</p>
+
+<p>The account of those few days&rsquo; ride with Espaing de Lyon is
+the most charming, the most graphic, and the most vivid chapter
+in the whole of Froissart. Every turn of the road brings with
+it the sight of a ruined castle, about which this knight of many
+memories has a tale or a reminiscence. The whole country
+teems with fighting stories. Froissart never tires of listening
+nor the good knight of telling. &ldquo;Sainte Marie!&rdquo; cries Froissart
+in mere rapture. &ldquo;How pleasant are your tales, and how much
+do they profit me while you relate them! And you shall not lose
+your trouble, for they shall all be set down in memory and remembrance
+in the history which I am writing.&rdquo; Arrived at length
+at Orthez, Froissart lost no time in presenting his credentials to
+the count of Foix. Gaston Phoebus was at this time fifty-nine
+years of age. His wife, from whom he was separated, was that
+princess, sister of Charles of Navarre, with whom Guillaume de
+Machault carried on his innocent and poetical amour. The story
+of the miserable death of his son is well known, and may be read
+in Froissart. But that was already a tale of the past, and the
+state which the count kept up was that of a monarch. To such a
+prince such a visitor as Froissart would be in every way welcome.
+Mindful no doubt of those paid clerks who were always writing
+verses, Froissart introduced himself as a chronicler. He could,
+of course, rhyme, and in proof he brought with him his romance
+of <i>Méliador</i>; but he did not present himself as a wandering
+poet. The count received him graciously, speedily discovered
+the good qualities of his guest, and often invited him to read his
+<i>Méliador</i> aloud in the evening, during which time, says Froissart,
+&ldquo;nobody dared to say a word, because he wished me to be heard,
+such great delight did he take in listening.&rdquo; Very soon Froissart,
+from reader of a romance, became raconteur of the things he had
+seen and heard; the next step was that the count himself began
+to talk of affairs, so that the notebook was again in requisition.
+There was a good deal, too, to be learned of people about the
+court. One knight recently returned from the East told about
+the Genoese occupation of Famagosta; two more had been in the
+fray of Otterbourne; others had been in the Spanish wars.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Gaston at length, Froissart assisted at the wedding
+of the old duke of Berry with the youthful Jeanne de Bourbon,
+and was present at the grand reception given to Isabeau of
+Bavaria by the Parisians. He then returned to Valenciennes,
+and sat down to write his fourth book. A journey undertaken
+at this time is characteristic of the thorough and conscientious
+spirit in which he composed his work; it illustrates also his
+restless and curious spirit. While engaged in the events of the
+year 1385 he became aware that his notes taken at Orthez and
+elsewhere on the affairs of Castile and Portugal were wanting in
+completeness. He left Valenciennes and hastened to Bruges,
+where, he felt certain, he should find some one who would help
+him. There was, in fact, at this great commercial centre, a
+colony of Portuguese. From them he learned that a certain
+Portuguese knight, Dom Juan Fernand Pacheco, was at the
+moment in Middelburg on the point of starting for Prussia.
+He instantly embarked at Sluys, reached Middelburg in time
+to catch this knight, introduced himself, and conversed with him
+uninterruptedly for the space of six days, getting his information
+on the promise of due acknowledgment. During the next two
+years we learn little of his movements. He seems, however,
+to have had trouble with his seigneur Gui de Blois, and even to
+have resigned his chaplaincy. Froissart is tender with Gui&rsquo;s
+reputation, mindful of past favours and remembering how great
+a lord he is. Yet the truth is clear that in his declining years
+the once gallant Gui de Blois became a glutton and a drunkard,
+and allowed his affairs to fall into the greatest disorder. So
+much was he crippled with debt that he was obliged to sell his
+castle and county of Blois to the king of France. Froissart lays
+all the blame on evil counsellors. &ldquo;He was my lord and master,&rdquo;
+he says simply, &ldquo;an honourable lord and of great reputation;
+but he trusted too easily in those who looked for neither his
+welfare nor his honour.&rdquo; Although canon of Chimay and perhaps
+curé of Lestines as well, it would seem as if Froissart was not able
+to live without a patron. He next calls Robert de Namur his
+seigneur, and dedicates to him, in a general introduction, the
+whole of his chronicles. We then find him at Abbeville, trying
+to learn all about the negotiations pending between Charles VI.
+and the English. He was unsuccessful, either because he could
+not get at those who knew what was going on, or because the
+secret was too well kept. He next made his last visit to England,
+where, after forty years&rsquo; absence, he naturally found no one
+who remembered him. Here he gave King Richard a copy of his
+&ldquo;traités amoureux,&rdquo; and got favour at court. He stayed in
+England some months, seeking information on all points from
+his friends Henry Chrystead and Richard Stury, from the dukes
+of York and Gloucester, and from Robert the Hermit.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to France, he found preparations going on
+for that unlucky crusade, the end of which he describes in his
+<i>Chronicle</i>. It was headed by the count of Nevers. After him
+floated many a banner of knights, descendants of the crusaders,
+who bore the proud titles of duke of Athens, duke of Thebes,
+sire de Sidon, sire de Jericho. They were going to invade the
+sultan&rsquo;s empire by way of Hungary; they were going to march
+south; they would reconquer the holy places. And presently
+we read how it all came to nothing, and how the slaughtered
+knights lay dead outside the city of Nikopoli. In almost the
+concluding words of the <i>Chronicle</i> the murder of Richard II.
+of England is described. His death ends the long and crowded
+<i>Chronicle</i>, though the pen of the writer struggles through a few
+more unfinished sentences.</p>
+
+<p>The rest is vague tradition. He is said to have died at Chimay;
+it is further said that he died in poverty so great that his relations
+could not even afford to carve his name upon the headstone of
+his tomb; not one of his friends, not even Eustache Deschamps,
+writes a line of regret in remembrance; the greatest historian
+of his age had a reputation so limited that his death was no
+more regarded than that of any common monk or obscure
+priest. We would willingly place the date of his death, where
+his <i>Chronicle</i> stops, in the year 1400; but tradition assigns
+the date of 1410. What date more fitting than the close of the
+century for one who has made that century illustrious for ever?</p>
+
+<p>Among his friends were Guillaume de Machault, Eustache
+Deschamps, the most vigorous poet of this age of decadence,
+and Cuvelier, a follower of Bertrand du Guesclin. These alliances
+are certain. It is probable that he knew Chaucer, with whom
+Deschamps maintained a poetical correspondence; there is
+nothing to show that he ever made the acquaintance of Christine
+de Pisan. Froissart was more proud of his poetry than his prose.
+Posterity has reversed this opinion, and though a selection of
+his verse has been published, it would be difficult to find an
+admirer, or even a reader, of his poems. The selection published
+by Buchon in 1829 consists of the <i>Dit dou florin</i>, half of which
+is a description of the power of money; the <i>Débat dou cheval</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span>
+<i>et dou lévrier</i>, written during his journey in Scotland; the
+<i>Dittie de la flour de la Margherite</i>; a <i>Dittie d&rsquo;amour</i> called
+<i>L&rsquo;Orlose amoureus</i>, in which he compares himself, the imaginary
+lover, with a clock; the <i>Espinette amoureuse</i>, which contains a
+sketch of his early life, freely and pleasantly drawn, accompanied
+by rondeaux and virelays; the <i>Buisson de jonesce</i>, in which
+he returns to the recollections of his own youth; and various
+smaller pieces. The verses are monotonous; the thoughts are
+not without poetical grace, but they are expressed at tedious
+length. It would be, however, absurd to expect in Froissart
+the vigour and verve possessed by none of his predecessors.
+The time was gone when Marie de France, Ruteb&oelig;uf and
+Thibaut de Champagne made the 13th-century language a
+medium for verse of which any literature might be proud.
+Briefly, Froissart&rsquo;s poetry, unless the unpublished portion
+be better than that before us, is monotonous and mechanical.
+The chief merit it possesses is in simplicity of diction. This not
+infrequently produces a pleasing effect.</p>
+
+<p>As for the character of his <i>Chronicle</i>, little need be said.
+There has never been any difference of opinion on the distinctive
+merits of this great work. It presents a vivid and faithful
+drawing of the things done in the 14th century. No more
+graphic account exists of any age. No historian has drawn
+so many and such faithful portraits. They are, it is true, portraits
+of men as they seemed to the writer, not of men as they were.
+Froissart was uncritical; he accepted princes by their appearance.
+Who, for instance, would recognize in his portrait of Gaston
+Phoebus de Foix the cruel voluptuary, stained with the blood
+of his own son, which we know him to have been? Froissart,
+again, had no sense of historical responsibility; he was no
+judge to inquire into motives and condemn actions; he was
+simply a chronicler. He has been accused by French authors
+of lacking patriotism. Yet it must be remembered that he was
+neither a Frenchman nor an Englishman, but a Fleming. He
+has been accused of insensibility to suffering. Indignation
+against oppression was not, however, common in the 14th
+century; why demand of Froissart a quality which is rare
+enough even in our own time? Yet there are moments when,
+as in describing the massacre of Limoges, he speaks with tears
+in his voice.</p>
+
+<p>Let him be judged by his own aims. &ldquo;Before I commence
+this book,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;I pray the Saviour of all the world, who
+created every thing out of nothing, that He will also create and
+put in me sense and understanding of so much worth, that this
+book, which I have begun, I may continue and persevere in,
+so that all those who shall read, see, and hear it may find in it
+delight and pleasance.&rdquo; To give delight and pleasure, then,
+was his sole design.</p>
+
+<p>As regards his personal character, Froissart depicts it himself
+for us. Such as he was in youth, he tells us, so he remained in
+more advanced life; rejoicing mightily in dances and carols,
+in hearing minstrels and poems; inclined to love all those who
+love dogs and hawks; pricking up his ears at the uncorking of
+bottles,&mdash;&ldquo;Car au voire prens grand plaisir&rdquo;; pleased with
+good cheer, gorgeous apparel and joyous society, but no commonplace
+reveller or greedy voluptuary,&mdash;everything in Froissart
+was ruled by the good manners which he set before all else;
+and always eager to listen to tales of war and battle. As we have
+said above, he shows, not only by his success at courts, but also
+by the whole tone of his writings, that he possessed a singularly
+winning manner and strong personal character. He lived
+wholly in the present, and had no thought of the coming changes.
+Born when chivalrous ideas were most widely spread, but the
+spirit of chivalry itself, as inculcated by the best writers, in its
+decadence, he is penetrated with the sense of knightly honour,
+and ascribes to all his heroes alike those qualities which only the
+ideal knight possessed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first edition of Froissart&rsquo;s Chronicles was published in Paris.
+It bears no date; the next editions are those of the years 1505, 1514,
+1518 and 1520. The edition of Buchon, 1824, was a continuation
+of one commenced by Dacier. The best modern editions are those
+of Kervyn de Lettenhove (Brussels, 1863-1877) and Siméon Luce
+(Paris, 1869-1888); for bibliography see Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca hist.
+medii aevi</i>, i. (Berlin, 1896). An abridgment was made in Latin by
+Belleforest, and published in 1672. An English translation was
+made by Bouchier, Lord Berners, and published in London, 1525.
+See the &ldquo;Tudor Translations&rdquo; edition of Berners (Nutt, 1901),
+with introduction by W. P. Ker; and the &ldquo;Globe&rdquo; edition, with
+introduction by G. C. Macaulay. The translation by Thomas
+Johnes was originally published in 1802-1805. For Froissart&rsquo;s
+poems see Scheler&rsquo;s text in K. de Lettenhove&rsquo;s complete edition;
+<i>Méliador</i> has been edited by Longnon for the Société des Anciens
+Textes (1895-1899). See also Madame Darmesteter (Duclaux),
+<i>Froissart</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROME,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a market town in the Frome parliamentary division
+of Somersetshire, England, 107 m. W. by S. of London by the
+Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,057. It
+is unevenly built on high ground above the river Frome, which
+is here crossed by a stone bridge of five arches. It was formerly
+called Frome or Froome Selwood, after the neighbouring forest
+of Selwood; and the country round is still richly wooded and
+picturesque. The parish church of St John the Baptist, with
+its fine tower and spire, was built about the close of the 14th
+century, and, though largely restored, has a beautiful chancel,
+Lady chapel and baptistery. Fragments of Norman work are
+left; the interior is elaborately adorned with sculptures and
+stained glass. The market-hall, museum, school of art, and a
+free grammar school, founded under Edward VI., may be noted
+among buildings and institutions. The chief industries are
+brewing and art metal-working, also printing, metal-founding,
+and the manufacture of cloth, silk, tools and cards for wool-dressing.
+Dairy farming is largely practised in the neighbourhood.
+Selwood forest was long a favourite haunt of brigands,
+and even in the 18th century gave shelter to a gang of coiners and
+highwaymen.</p>
+
+<p>The Saxon occupation of Frome (From) is the earliest of
+which there is evidence, the settlement being due to the foundation
+of a monastery by Aldhelm in 705. A witenagemot was
+held there in 934, so that Frome must already have been a place
+of some size. At the time of the Domesday Survey the manor
+was owned by King William. Local tradition asserts that
+Frome was a medieval borough, and the reeve of Frome is
+occasionally mentioned in documents after the reign of Edward
+I., but there is no direct evidence that Frome was a borough and
+no trace of any charter granted to it. It was not represented
+in parliament until given one member by the Reform Act of
+1832. Separate representation ceased in 1885. Frome was
+never incorporated. A charter of Henry VII. to Edmund
+Leversedge, then lord of the manor, granted the right to have
+fairs on the 22nd of July and the 21st of September. In the
+18th century two other fairs on the 24th of February and the
+25th of November were held. Cattle fairs are now held on the
+last Wednesday in February and November, and a cheese fair
+on the last Wednesday in September. The Wednesday market
+is held under the charter of Henry VII. There is also a Saturday
+cattle market. The manufacture of woollen cloth has been
+established since the 15th century, Frome being the only Somerset
+town in which this staple industry has flourished continuously.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROMENTIN, EUGÈNE<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1820-1876), French painter, was
+born at La Rochelle in December 1820. After leaving school
+he studied for some years under Louis Cabat, the landscape
+painter. Fromentin was one of the earliest pictorial interpreters
+of Algeria, having been able, while quite young, to visit the
+land and people that suggested the subjects of most of his
+works, and to store his memory as well as his portfolio with the
+picturesque and characteristic details of North African life. In
+1849 he obtained a medal of the second class. In 1852 he paid
+a second visit to Algeria, accompanying an archaeological
+mission, and then completed that minute study of the scenery
+of the country and of the habits of its people which enabled him
+to give to his after-work the realistic accuracy that comes from
+intimate knowledge. In a certain sense his works are not more
+artistic results than contributions to ethnological science. His
+first great success was produced at the Salon of 1847, by the
+&ldquo;Gorges de la Chiffa.&rdquo; Among his more important works are&mdash;&ldquo;La
+Place de la brèche à Constantine&rdquo; (1849); &ldquo;Enterrement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span>
+Maure&rdquo; (1853); &ldquo;Bateleurs nègres&rdquo; and &ldquo;Audience chez un
+chalife&rdquo; (1859); &ldquo;Berger kabyle&rdquo; and &ldquo;Courriers arabes&rdquo;
+(1861); &ldquo;Bivouac arabe,&rdquo; &ldquo;Chasse au faucon,&rdquo; &ldquo;Fauconnier
+arabe&rdquo; (now at Luxembourg) (1863); &ldquo;Chasse au héron&rdquo;
+(1865); &ldquo;Voleurs de nuit&rdquo; (1867); &ldquo;Centaurs et arabes
+attaqués par une lionne&rdquo; (1868); &ldquo;Halte de muletiers&rdquo; (1869);
+&ldquo;Le Nil&rdquo; and &ldquo;Un Souvenir d&rsquo;Esneh&rdquo; (1875). Fromentin was
+much influenced in style by Eugène Delacroix. His works are
+distinguished by striking composition, great dexterity of handling
+and brilliancy of colour. In them is given with great
+truth and refinement the unconscious grandeur of barbarian
+and animal attitudes and gestures. His later works, however,
+show signs of an exhausted vein and of an exhausted spirit,
+accompanied or caused by physical enfeeblement. But it must
+be observed that Fromentin&rsquo;s paintings show only one side of
+a genius that was perhaps even more felicitously expressed in
+literature, though of course with less profusion. &ldquo;Dominique,&rdquo;
+first published in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> in 1862, and
+dedicated to George Sand, is remarkable among the fiction
+of the century for delicate and imaginative observation and for
+emotional earnestness. Fromentin&rsquo;s other literary works are&mdash;<i>Visites
+artistiques</i> (1852); <i>Simples Pèlerinages</i> (1856); <i>Un Été
+dans le Sahara</i> (1857); <i>Une Année dans le Sahel</i> (1858); and
+<i>Les Maîtres d&rsquo;autrefois</i> (1876). In 1876 he was an unsuccessful
+candidate for the Academy. He died suddenly at La Rochelle
+on the 27th of August 1876.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROMMEL, GASTON<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1862-1906), Swiss theologian, professor
+of theology in the university of Geneva from 1894 to 1906.
+An Alsatian by birth, he belonged mainly to French Switzerland,
+where he spent most of his life. He may best be described as
+continuing the spirit of Vinet (<i>q.v.</i>) amid the mental conditions
+marking the end of the 19th century. Like Vinet, he derived
+his philosophy of religion from a peculiarly deep experience of
+the Gospel of Christ as meeting the demands of the moral consciousness;
+but he developed even further than Vinet the
+psychological analysis of conscience and the method of verifying
+every doctrine by direct reference to spiritual experience. Both
+made much of moral individuality or personality as the crown
+and criterion of reality, believing that its correlation with
+Christianity, both historically and philosophically, was most
+intimate. But while Vinet laid most stress on the liberty from
+human authority essential to the moral consciousness, the
+changed needs of the age caused Frommel to develop rather the
+aspect of man&rsquo;s dependence as a moral being upon God&rsquo;s spiritual
+initiative, &ldquo;the conditional nature of his liberty.&rdquo; &ldquo;Liberty
+is not the primary, but the secondary characteristic&rdquo; of conscience;
+&ldquo;before being free, it is the subject of obligation.&rdquo;
+On this depends its objectivity as a real revelation of the Divine
+Will. Thus he claimed that a deeper analysis carried one beyond
+the human subjectivity of even Kant&rsquo;s categorical imperative,
+since consciousness of obligation was &ldquo;une expérience imposée
+sous le mode de l&rsquo;absolu.&rdquo; By his use of <i>imposée</i> Frommel
+emphasized the priority of man&rsquo;s sense of obligation to his
+consciousness either of self or of God. Here he appealed to the
+current psychology of the subconscious for confirmation of his
+analysis, by which he claimed to transcend mere intellectualism.
+In his language on this fundamental point he was perhaps too
+jealous of admitting an ideal element as implicit in the feeling
+of obligation. Still he did well in insisting on priority to self-conscious
+thought as a mark of metaphysical objectivity in the
+case of moral, no less than of physical experience. Further, he
+found in the Christian revelation the same characteristics as
+belonged to the universal revelation involved in conscience,
+viz. God&rsquo;s sovereign initiative and his living action in history.
+From this standpoint he argued against a purely psychological
+type of religion (<i>agnosticisme religieux</i>, as he termed it)&mdash;a
+tendency to which he saw even in A. Sabatier and the <i>symbolo-fidéisme</i>
+of the Paris School&mdash;as giving up a real and unifying
+faith. His influence on men, especially the student class, was
+greatly enhanced by the religious force and charm of his personality.
+Finally, like Vinet, he was a man of letters and a
+penetrating critic of men and systems.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;G. Godet, <i>Gaston Frommel</i> (Neuchâtel, 1906), a
+compact sketch, with full citation of sources; cf. H. Bois, in <i>Sainte-Croix</i>
+for 1906, for &ldquo;L&rsquo;Étudiant et le professeur.&rdquo; A complete
+edition of his writings was begun in 1907.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRONDE, THE,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> the name given to a civil war in France
+which lasted from 1648 to 1652, and to its sequel, the war with
+Spain in 1653-59. The word means a sling, and was applied to
+this contest from the circumstance that the windows of Cardinal
+Mazarin&rsquo;s adherents were pelted with stones by the Paris mob.
+Its original object was the redress of grievances, but the movement
+soon degenerated into a factional contest among the nobles,
+who sought to reverse the results of Richelieu&rsquo;s work and to
+overthrow his successor Mazarin. In May 1648 a tax levied on
+judicial officers of the parlement of Paris was met by that body,
+not merely with a refusal to pay, but with a condemnation of
+earlier financial edicts, and even with a demand for the acceptance
+of a scheme of constitutional reforms framed by a committee
+of the parlement. This charter was somewhat influenced
+by contemporary events in England. But there is no real
+likeness between the two revolutions, the French parlement
+being no more representative of the people than the Inns of
+Court were in England. The political history of the time is
+dealt with in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>, the present article
+being concerned chiefly with the military operations of what
+was perhaps the most costly and least necessary civil war in
+history.</p>
+
+<p>The military record of the first or &ldquo;parliamentary&rdquo; Fronde
+is almost blank. In August 1648, strengthened by the news
+of Condé&rsquo;s victory at Lens, Mazarin suddenly arrested the
+leaders of the parlement, whereupon Paris broke into insurrection
+and barricaded the streets. The court, having no army at its
+immediate disposal, had to release the prisoners and to promise
+reforms, and fled from Paris on the night of the 22nd of October.
+But the signing of the peace of Westphalia set free Condé&rsquo;s
+army, and by January 1649 it was besieging Paris. The peace
+of Rueil was signed in March, after little blood had been shed.
+The Parisians, though still and always anti-cardinalist, refused
+to ask for Spanish aid, as proposed by their princely and noble
+adherents, and having no prospect of military success without
+such aid, submitted and received concessions. Thenceforward
+the Fronde becomes a story of sordid intrigues and half-hearted
+warfare, losing all trace of its first constitutional phase. The
+leaders were discontented princes and nobles&mdash;Monsieur (Gaston
+of Orléans, the king&rsquo;s uncle), the great Condé and his brother
+Conti, the duc de Bouillon and his brother Turenne. To these
+must be added Gaston&rsquo;s daughter, Mademoiselle de Montpensier
+(La grande Mademoiselle), Condé&rsquo;s sister, Madame de Longueville,
+Madame de Chevreuse, and the astute intriguer Paul de
+Gondi, later Cardinal de Retz. The military operations fell
+into the hands of war-experienced mercenaries, led by two
+great, and many second-rate, generals, and of nobles to whom
+war was a polite pastime. The feelings of the people at large
+were enlisted on neither side.</p>
+
+<p>This peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649. The princes,
+received at court once more, renewed their intrigues against
+Mazarin, who, having come to an understanding with Monsieur,
+Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse, suddenly arrested Condé,
+Conti and Longueville (January 14, 1650). The war which
+followed this <i>coup</i> is called the &ldquo;Princes&rsquo; Fronde.&rdquo; This time
+it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier
+of his day, who headed the armed rebellion. Listening to the
+promptings of his Egeria, Madame de Longueville, he resolved
+to rescue her brother, his old comrade of Freiburg and Nördlingen.
+It was with Spanish assistance that he hoped to do so;
+and a powerful army of that nation assembled in Artois under the
+archduke Leopold, governor-general of the Spanish Netherlands.
+But the peasants of the country-side rose against the invaders,
+the royal army in Champagne was in the capable hands of César
+de Choiseul, comte du Plessis-Praslin, who counted fifty-two
+years of age and thirty-six of war experience, and the little
+fortress of Guise successfully resisted the archduke&rsquo;s attack.
+Thereupon, however, Mazarin drew upon Plessis-Praslin&rsquo;s army
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span>
+for reinforcements to be sent to subdue the rebellion in the
+south, and the royal general had to retire. Then, happily for
+France, the archduke decided that he had spent sufficient of
+the king of Spain&rsquo;s money and men in the French quarrel.
+The magnificent regular army withdrew into winter quarters,
+and left Turenne to deliver the princes with a motley host of
+Frondeurs and Lorrainers. Plessis-Praslin by force and bribery
+secured the surrender of Rethel on the 13th of December 1650,
+and Turenne, who had advanced to relieve the place, fell back
+hurriedly. But he was a terrible opponent, and Plessis-Praslin
+and Mazarin himself, who accompanied the army, had many
+misgivings as to the result of a lost battle. The marshal chose
+nevertheless to force Turenne to a decision, and the battle of
+Blanc-Champ (near Somme-Py) or Rethel was the consequence.
+Both sides were at a standstill in strong positions, Plessis-Praslin
+doubtful of the trustworthiness of his cavalry, Turenne too weak
+to attack, when a dispute for precedence arose between the
+<i>Gardes françaises</i> and the <i>Picardie</i> regiment. The royal infantry
+had to be rearranged in order of regimental seniority, and
+Turenne, seeing and desiring to profit by the attendant disorder,
+came out of his stronghold and attacked with the greatest vigour.
+The battle (December 15, 1650) was severe and for a time doubtful,
+but Turenne&rsquo;s Frondeurs gave way in the end, and his army,
+as an army, ceased to exist. Turenne himself, undeceived as to
+the part he was playing in the drama, asked and received the
+young king&rsquo;s pardon, and meantime the court, with the <i>maison
+du roi</i> and other loyal troops, had subdued the minor risings
+without difficulty (March-April 1651). Condé, Conti and
+Longueville were released, and by April 1651 the rebellion had
+everywhere collapsed. Then followed a few months of hollow
+peace and the court returned to Paris. Mazarin, an object of
+hatred to all the princes, had already retired into exile. &ldquo;Le
+temps est un galant homme,&rdquo; he remarked, &ldquo;laissons le faire!&rdquo;
+and so it proved. His absence left the field free for mutual
+jealousies, and for the remainder of the year anarchy reigned
+in France. In December 1651 Mazarin returned with a small
+army. The war began again, and this time Turenne and Condé
+were pitted against one another. After the first campaign, as
+we shall see, the civil war ceased, but for several other campaigns
+the two great soldiers were opposed to one another, Turenne as
+the defender of France, Condé as a Spanish invader. Their
+personalities alone give threads of continuity to these seven years
+of wearisome man&oelig;uvres, sieges and combats, though for a
+right understanding of the causes which were to produce the
+standing armies of the age of Louis XIV. and Frederick the Great
+the military student should search deeply into the material and
+moral factors that here decided the issue.</p>
+
+<p>The début of the new Frondeurs took place in Guyenne
+(February-March 1652), while their Spanish ally, the archduke
+Leopold William, captured various northern fortresses. On the
+Loire, whither the centre of gravity was soon transferred, the
+Frondeurs were commanded by intriguers and quarrelsome
+lords, until Condé&rsquo;s arrival from Guyenne. His bold trenchant
+leadership made itself felt in the action of Bléneau (7th April
+1652), in which a portion of the royal army was destroyed, but
+fresh troops came up to oppose him, and from the skilful dispositions
+made by his opponents Condé felt the presence of
+Turenne and broke off the action. The royal army did likewise.
+Condé invited the commander of Turenne&rsquo;s rearguard to supper,
+chaffed him unmercifully for allowing the prince&rsquo;s men to surprise
+him in the morning, and by way of farewell remarked to his
+guest, &ldquo;Quel dommage que des braves gens comme nous se
+coupent la gorge pour un faquin&rdquo;&mdash;an incident and a remark
+that thoroughly justify the iron-handed absolutism of Louis XIV.
+There was no hope for France while tournaments on a large
+scale and at the public&rsquo;s expense were fashionable amongst the
+<i>grands seigneurs</i>. After Bléneau both armies marched to Paris
+to negotiate with the parlement, de Retz and Mlle de Montpensier,
+while the archduke took more fortresses in Flanders, and Charles
+IV., duke of Lorraine, with an army of plundering mercenaries,
+marched through Champagne to join Condé. As to the latter,
+Turenne man&oelig;uvred past Condé and planted himself in front
+of the mercenaries, and their leader, not wishing to expend his
+men against the old French regiments, consented to depart with
+a money payment and the promise of two tiny Lorraine fortresses.
+A few more man&oelig;uvres, and the royal army was able to hem in
+the Frondeurs in the Faubourg St Antoine (2nd July 1652) with
+their backs to the closed gates of Paris. The royalists attacked
+all along the line and won a signal victory in spite of the knightly
+prowess of the prince and his great lords, but at the critical
+moment Gaston&rsquo;s daughter persuaded the Parisians to open the
+gates and to admit Condé&rsquo;s army. She herself turned the guns
+of the Bastille on the pursuers. An insurrectional government
+was organized in the capital and proclaimed Monsieur lieutenant-general
+of the realm. Mazarin, feeling that public opinion was
+solidly against him, left France again, and the bourgeois of Paris,
+quarrelling with the princes, permitted the king to enter the city
+on the 21st of October 1652. Mazarin returned unopposed in
+February 1653.</p>
+
+<p>The Fronde as a civil war was now over. The whole country,
+wearied of anarchy and disgusted with the princes, came to look
+to the king&rsquo;s party as the party of order and settled government,
+and thus the Fronde prepared the way for the absolutism of
+Louis XIV. The general war continued in Flanders, Catalonia
+and Italy wherever a Spanish and a French garrison were face
+to face, and Condé with the wreck of his army openly and
+definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. The &ldquo;Spanish
+Fronde&rdquo; was almost purely a military affair and, except for a
+few outstanding incidents, a dull affair to boot. In 1653 France
+was so exhausted that neither invaders nor defenders were able
+to gather supplies to enable them to take the field till July. At
+one moment, near Péronne, Condé had Turenne at a serious
+disadvantage, but he could not galvanize the Spanish general
+Count Fuensaldana, who was more solicitous to preserve his
+master&rsquo;s soldiers than to establish Condé as mayor of the palace
+to the king of France, and the armies drew apart again without
+fighting. In 1654 the principal incident was the siege and relief
+of Arras. On the night of the 24th-25th August the lines of
+circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were
+brilliantly stormed by Turenne&rsquo;s army, and Condé won equal
+credit for his safe withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover
+of a series of bold cavalry charges led by himself as usual, sword
+in hand. In 1655 Turenne captured the fortresses of Landrecies,
+Condé and St Ghislain. In 1656 the prince of Condé revenged
+himself for the defeat of Arras by storming Turenne&rsquo;s circumvallation
+around Valenciennes (16th July), but Turenne drew off
+his forces in good order. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful,
+and is only to be remembered because a body of 6000 British
+infantry, sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance
+with Mazarin, took part in it. The presence of the English
+contingent and its very definite purpose of making Dunkirk a
+new Calais, to be held by England for ever, gave the next campaign
+a character of certainty and decision which is entirely
+wanting in the rest of the war. Dunkirk was besieged promptly
+and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Condé
+appeared with the relieving army from Furnes, Turenne advanced
+boldly to meet him. The battle of the Dunes, fought on the
+14th of June 1658, was the first real trial of strength since the
+battle of the Faubourg St Antoine. Successes on one wing were
+compromised by failure on the other, but in the end Condé drew
+off with heavy losses, the success of his own cavalry charges
+having entirely failed to make good the defeat of the Spanish
+right wing amongst the Dunes. Here the &ldquo;red-coats&rdquo; made
+their first appearance on a continental battlefield, under the
+leadership of Sir W. Lockhart, Cromwell&rsquo;s ambassador at Paris,
+and astonished both armies by the stubborn fierceness of their
+assaults, for they were the products of a war where passions
+ran higher and the determination to win rested on deeper foundations
+than in the <i>dégringolade</i> of the feudal spirit in which they
+now figured. Dunkirk fell, as a result of the victory, and flew
+the St George&rsquo;s cross till Charles II. sold it to the king of France.
+A last desultory campaign followed in 1659&mdash;the twenty-fifth
+year of the Franco-Spanish War&mdash;and the peace of the Pyrenees
+was signed on the 5th of November. On the 27th of January
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span>
+1660 the prince asked and obtained at Aix the forgiveness of
+Louis XIV. The later careers of Turenne and Condé as the
+great generals&mdash;and obedient subjects&mdash;of their sovereign are
+described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Wars</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the many memoirs and letters of the time see the list in
+G. Monod&rsquo;s <i>Bibliographie de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> (Paris, 1888). The
+<i>Lettres du cardinal Mazarin</i> have been collected in nine volumes
+(Paris, 1878-1906). See P. Adolphe Chéruel, <i>Histoire de France
+pendant la minorité de Louis XIV</i> (4 vols., 1879-1880), and his
+<i>Histoire de France sous le ministère de Mazarin</i> (3 vols., 1883);
+L. C. de Beaupoil de Sainte-Aulaire, <i>Histoire de la Fronde</i> (2nd ed.,
+2 vols., 1860); &ldquo;Arvède Barine&rdquo; (Mme Charles Vincens), <i>La
+Jeunesse de la grande mademoiselle</i> (Paris, 1902); Duc d&rsquo;Aumale,
+<i>Histoire des princes de Condé</i> (Paris, 1889-1896, 7 vols.). The most
+interesting account of the military operations is in General Hardy
+de Périni&rsquo;s <i>Turenne et Condé</i> (<i>Batailles françaises</i>, vol. iv.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, LOUIS DE BUADE,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span>
+(1620-1698), French-Canadian statesman, governor and lieutenant-general
+for the French king in <i>La Nouvelle France</i>
+(Canada), son of Henri de Buade, colonel in the regiment of
+Navarre, was born in the year 1620. The details of his early
+life are meagre, as no trace of the Frontenac papers has been
+discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of distinction
+in the principality of Béarn. Antoine de Buade, seigneur de
+Frontenac, grandfather of the future governor of Canada, attained
+eminence as a councillor of state under Henri IV.; and his
+children were brought up with the dauphin, afterwards Louis
+XIII. Louis de Buade entered the army at an early age. In
+the year 1635 he served under the prince of Orange in Holland,
+and fought with credit and received many wounds during
+engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was promoted
+to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in
+1643, and three years later, after distinguishing himself at the
+siege of Orbitello, where he had an arm broken, he was made
+<i>maréchal de camp</i>. His service seems to have been continuous
+until the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he
+returned to his father&rsquo;s house in Paris and married, without the
+consent of her parents, Anne de la Grange-Trianon, a girl of
+great beauty, who later became the friend and confidante of
+Madame de Montpensier. The marriage was not a happy one,
+and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper led to a
+separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indre, where
+by an extravagant course of living he became hopelessly involved
+in debt. Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years
+beyond the fact that he held a high position at court; but in
+the year 1669, when France sent a contingent to assist the
+Venetians in the defence of Crete against the Turks, Frontenac
+was placed in command of the troops on the recommendation of
+Turenne. In this expedition he won military glory; but his
+fortune was not improved thereby.</p>
+
+<p>At this period the affairs of New France claimed the attention
+of the French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been
+successfully administered by three remarkable men&mdash;Daniel de
+Rémy de Courcelle, the governor, Jèan Talon, the intendant,
+and the marquis de Tracy, who had been appointed lieutenant-general
+for the French king in America; but a difference of
+opinion had arisen between the governor and the intendant, and
+each had demanded the other&rsquo;s recall in the public interest.
+At this crisis in the administration of New France, Frontenac
+was appointed to succeed de Courcelle. The new governor
+arrived in Quebec on the 12th of September 1672. From the
+commencement it was evident that he was prepared to give
+effect to a policy of colonial expansion, and to exercise an independence
+of action that did not coincide with the views of the
+monarch or of his minister Colbert. One of the first acts of the
+governor, by which he sought to establish in Canada the three
+estates&mdash;nobles, clergy and people&mdash;met with the disapproval
+of the French court, and measures were adopted to curb his
+ambition by increasing the power of the sovereign council and
+by reviving the office of intendant. Frontenac, however, was
+a man of dominant spirit, jealous of authority, prepared to exact
+obedience from all and to yield to none. In the course of events
+he soon became involved in quarrels with the intendant touching
+questions of precedence, and with the ecclesiastics, one or two
+of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in
+Canada had been administered for many years by the religious
+orders; for the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet
+been erected. But three years after the arrival of Frontenac a
+former vicar apostolic, François Xavier de Laval de Montmorenci,
+returned to Quebec as bishop, with a jurisdiction over
+the whole of Canada. In this redoubtable churchman the
+governor found a vigorous opponent who was determined to
+render the state subordinate to the church. Frontenac, following
+in this respect in the footsteps of his predecessors, had issued
+trading licences which permitted the sale of intoxicants. The
+bishop, supported by the intendant, endeavoured to suppress
+this trade and sent an ambassador to France to obtain remedial
+action. The views of the bishop were upheld and henceforth
+authority was divided. Troubles ensued between the governor
+and the sovereign council, most of the members of which sided
+with the one permanent power in the colony&mdash;the bishop;
+while the suspicions and intrigues of the intendant, Duchesneau,
+were a constant source of vexation and strife. As the king and
+his minister had to listen to and adjudicate upon the appeals
+from the contending parties their patience was at last worn out,
+and both governor and intendant were recalled to France in
+the year 1682. During Frontenac&rsquo;s first administration many
+improvements had been made in the country. The defences
+had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui (now
+Kingston), Ontario, bearing the governor&rsquo;s name, and conditions
+of peace had been fairly maintained between the Iroquois on
+the one hand and the French and their allies, the Ottawas and
+the Hurons, on the other. The progress of events during the
+next few years proved that the recall of the governor had been
+ill-timed. The Iroquois were assuming a threatening attitude
+towards the inhabitants, and Frontenac&rsquo;s successor, La Barre,
+was quite incapable of leading an army against such cunning
+foes. At the end of a year La Barre was replaced by the marquis
+de Denonville, a man of ability and courage, who, though he
+showed some vigour in marching against the western Iroquois
+tribes, angered rather than intimidated them, and the massacre
+of Lachine (5th of August 1689) must be regarded as one of the
+unhappy results of his administration.</p>
+
+<p>The affairs of the colony were now in a critical condition; a
+man of experience and decision was needed to cope with the
+difficulties, and Louis XIV., who was not wanting in sagacity,
+wisely made choice of the choleric count to represent and uphold
+the power of France. When, therefore, on the 15th of October
+1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as governor for the second
+time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and confidence was
+at once restored in the public mind. Quebec was not long to
+enjoy the blessing of peace. On the 16th of October 1690
+several New England ships under the command of Sir William
+Phipps appeared off the Island of Orleans, and an officer was
+sent ashore to demand the surrender of the fort. Frontenac,
+bold and fearless, sent a defiant answer to the hostile admiral,
+and handled so vigorously the forces he had collected as completely
+to repulse the enemy, who in their hasty retreat left
+behind a few pieces of artillery on the Beauport shore. The
+prestige of the governor was greatly increased by this event, and
+he was prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on
+Boston from the sea, but his resources were inadequate for the
+undertaking. New France now rejoiced in a brief respite from
+her enemies, and during the interval Frontenac encouraged the
+revival of the drama at the Château St-Louis and paid some
+attention to the social life of the colony. The Indians, however,
+were not yet subdued, and for two years a petty warfare was
+maintained. In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against
+the Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy-six years of
+age. On the 6th of July he left Lachine at the head of a considerable
+force for the village of the Onondagas, where he arrived
+a month later. In the meantime the Iroquois had abandoned
+their villages, and as pursuit was impracticable the army commenced
+its return march on the 10th of August. The old warrior
+endured the fatigue of the march as well as the youngest soldier,
+and for his courage and prowess he received the cross of St
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span>
+Louis. Frontenac died on the 28th of November 1698 at the
+Château St-Louis after a brief illness, deeply mourned by the
+Canadian people. The faults of the governor were those of
+temperament, which had been fostered by early environment.
+His nature was turbulent, and from his youth he had been used
+to command; but underlying a rough exterior there was evidence
+of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and decisive,
+and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties
+and dangers of a most critical position.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Count Frontenac</i>, by W. D. Le Sueur (Toronto, 1906); <i>Count
+Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV</i>, by Francis Parkman
+(Boston, 1878); <i>Le Comte de Frontenac</i>, by Henri Lorin
+(Paris, 1895); <i>Frontenac et ses amis</i>, by Ernest Myrand (Quebec,
+1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. G. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 40-103), Roman
+soldier and author. In 70 he was city praetor, and five years
+later was sent into Britain to succeed Petilius Cerealis as governor
+of that island. He subdued the Silures, and held the other
+native tribes in check till he was superseded by Agricola (78).
+In 97 he was appointed superintendant of the aqueducts (<i>curator
+aquarum</i>) at Rome, an office only conferred upon persons of very
+high standing. He was also a member of the college of augurs.
+His chief work is <i>De aquis urbis Romae</i>, in two books, containing
+a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including
+the laws relating to its use and maintenance, and other matters
+of importance in the history of architecture. Frontinus also
+wrote a theoretical treatise on military science (<i>De re militari</i>)
+which is lost. His <i>Strategematicon libri iii.</i> is a collection of
+examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history,
+for the use of officers; a fourth book, the plan and style of which
+is different from the rest (more stress is laid on the moral aspects
+of war, <i>e.g.</i> discipline), is the work of another writer (best edition
+by G. Gundermann, 1888). Extracts from a treatise on land-surveying
+ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in Lachmann&rsquo;s
+<i>Gromatici veteres</i> (1848).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A valuable edition of the <i>De aquis</i> (text and translation) has been
+published by C. Herschel (Boston, Mass., 1899). It contains numerous
+illustrations; maps of the routes of the ancient aqueducts
+and the city of Rome in the time of Frontinus; a photographic
+reproduction of the only MS. (the Monte Cassino); several explanatory
+chapters, and a concise bibliography, in which special
+reference is made to P. d Tissot, <i>Étude sur la condition des agrimensores</i>
+(1879). There is a complete edition of the works by
+A. Dederich (1855), and an English translation of the <i>Strategematica</i>
+by R. Scott (1816).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRONTISPIECE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (through the French, from Med. Lat. <i>frontispicium</i>,
+a front view, <i>frons</i>, <i>frontis</i>, forehead or front, and <i>specere</i>,
+to look at; the English spelling is a mistaken adaptation to
+&ldquo;piece&rdquo;), an architectural term for the principal front of a
+building, but more generally applied to a richly decorated
+entrance doorway, if projecting slightly only in front of the
+main wall, otherwise portal or porch would be a more correct
+term. The word, however, is more used for a decorative design
+or the representation of some subject connected with the substance
+of a book and placed as the first illustrated page. A
+design at the end of the chapter of a book is called a tail-piece.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100-170), Roman
+grammarian, rhetorician and advocate, was born of an Italian
+family at Cirta in Numidia. He came to Rome in the reign of
+Hadrian, and soon gained such renown as an advocate and
+orator as to be reckoned inferior only to Cicero. He amassed a
+large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and purchased the
+famous gardens of Maecenas. Antoninus Pius, hearing of his
+fame, appointed him tutor to his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius
+and Lucius Verus. In 143 he was consul for two months, but
+declined the proconsulship of Asia on the ground of ill-health.
+His latter years were embittered by the loss of all his children
+except one daughter. His talents as an orator and rhetorician
+were greatly admired by his contemporaries, a number of whom
+formed themselves into a school called after him Frontoniani,
+whose avowed object it was to restore the ancient purity and
+simplicity of the Latin language in place of the exaggerations of
+the Greek sophistical school. However praiseworthy the intention
+may have been, the list of authors specially recommended
+does not speak well for Fronto&rsquo;s literary taste. The authors of
+the Augustan age are unduly depreciated, while Ennius, Plautus,
+Laberius, Sallust are held up as models of imitation. Till 1815
+the only extant works ascribed (erroneously) to Fronto were two
+grammatical treatises, <i>De nominum verborumque differentíis</i>
+and <i>Exempla elocutionum</i> (the last being really by Arusianus
+Messius). In that year, however, Angelo Mai discovered in
+the Ambrosian library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript (and,
+later, some additional sheets of it in the Vatican), on which had
+been originally written some of Fronto&rsquo;s letters to his royal
+pupils and their replies. These palimpsests had originally
+belonged to the famous convent of St Columba at Bobbio, and
+had been written over by the monks with the acts of the first
+council of Chalcedon. The letters, together with the other
+fragments in the palimpsest, were published at Rome in 1823.
+Their contents falls far short of the writer&rsquo;s great reputation.
+The letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius,
+Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, in which the character of
+Fronto&rsquo;s pupils appears in a very favourable light, especially
+in the affection they both seem to have retained for their old
+master; and letters to friends, chiefly letters of recommendation.
+The collection also contains treatises on eloquence, some historical
+fragments, and literary trifles on such subjects as the praise of
+smoke and dust, of negligence, and a dissertation on Arion.
+&ldquo;His style is a laborious mixture of archaisms, a motley cento,
+with the aid of which he conceals the poverty of his knowledge
+and ideas.&rdquo; His chief merit consists in having preserved extracts
+from ancient writers which would otherwise have been lost.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of his works is by S. A. Naber (1867), with an
+account of the palimpsest; see also G. Boissier, &ldquo;Marc-Aurèle et
+les lettres de F.,&rdquo; in <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (April 1868); R. Ellis,
+in <i>Journal of Philology</i> (1868) and <i>Correspondence of Fronto and M.
+Aurelius</i> (1904); and the full bibliography in the article by Brzoska
+in the new edition of Pauly&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>,
+iv. pt. i. (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROSINONE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (anc. <i>Frusino</i>), a town of Italy in the province
+of Rome, from which it is 53 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901)
+town, 9530; commune, 11,029. The place is picturesquely
+situated on a hill of 955 ft. above sea-level, but contains no
+buildings of interest. Of the ancient city walls a small fragment
+alone is preserved, and no other traces of antiquity are visible,
+not even of the amphitheatre which it once possessed, for which
+a ticket (<i>tessera</i>) has been found (Th. Mommsen in <i>Ber. d. Sächsischen
+Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften</i>, 1849, 286). It was a
+Volscian, not a Hernican, town; a part of its territory was taken
+from it about 306-303 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Romans and sold. The town
+then became a <i>praefectura</i>, probably with the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i>,
+and later a colony, but we hear nothing important of it. It was
+situated just above the Via Latina.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1807-1875), French
+general, was born on the 26th of April 1807, and entered the
+army from the École Polytechnique in 1827, being posted to the
+engineers. He took part in the siege of Rome in 1849 and in
+that of Sebastopol in 1855, after which he was promoted general
+of brigade. Four years later as general of division, and chief
+of engineers in the Italian campaign, he attracted the particular
+notice of the emperor Napoleon III., who made him in 1867 chief
+of his military household and governor to the prince imperial.
+He was one of the superior military authorities who in this
+period 1866-1870 foresaw and endeavoured to prepare for the
+inevitable war with Germany, and at the outbreak of war he
+was given by Napoleon the choice between a corps command
+and the post of chief engineer at headquarters. He chose the
+command of the II. corps. On the 6th of August 1870 he held
+the position of Spicheren against the Germans until the arrival
+of reinforcements for the latter, and the non-appearance of the
+other French corps compelled him to retire. After this he took
+part in the battles around Metz, and was involved with his corps
+in the surrender of Bazaine&rsquo;s army. General Frossard published
+in 1872 a <i>Rapport sur les opérations du 2<span class="sp">e</span> corps</i>. He died at
+Château-Villain (Haute-Marne) on the 25th of August 1875.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1810-1877), English painter, was
+born at Wandsworth, near London, in September 1810. About
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span>
+1825, through William Etty, R.A., he was sent to a drawing
+school in Bloomsbury, and after several years&rsquo; study there, and
+in the sculpture rooms at the British Museum, Frost was in
+1829 admitted as a student in the schools of the Royal Academy.
+He won medals in all the schools, except the antique, in which
+he was beaten by Maclise. During those years he maintained
+himself by portrait-painting. He is said to have painted about
+this time over 300 portraits. In 1839 he obtained the gold
+medal of the Royal Academy for his picture of &ldquo;Prometheus
+bound by Force and Strength.&rdquo; At the cartoon exhibition at
+Westminster Hall in 1843 he was awarded a third-class prize
+of £100 for his cartoon of &ldquo;Una alarmed by Fauns and
+Satyrs.&rdquo; He exhibited at the Academy &ldquo;Christ crowned with
+Thorns&rdquo; (1843), &ldquo;Nymphs dancing&rdquo; (1844), &ldquo;Sabrina&rdquo; (1845),
+&ldquo;Diana and Actaeon&rdquo; (1846). In 1846 he was elected Associate
+of the Royal Academy. His &ldquo;Nymph disarming Cupid&rdquo; was exhibited
+in 1847; &ldquo;Una and the Wood-Nymphs&rdquo; of the same year
+was bought by the queen. This was the time of Frost&rsquo;s highest
+popularity, which considerably declined after 1850. His later
+pictures are simply repetitions of earlier motives. Among them
+may be named &ldquo;Euphrosyne&rdquo; (1848), &ldquo;Wood-Nymphs&rdquo;
+(1851), &ldquo;Chastity&rdquo; (1854), &ldquo;Il Penseroso&rdquo; (1855), &ldquo;The Graces&rdquo;
+(1856), &ldquo;Narcissus&rdquo; (1857), &ldquo;Zephyr with Aurora playing&rdquo;
+(1858), &ldquo;The Graces and Loves&rdquo; (1863), &ldquo;Hylas and the
+Nymphs&rdquo; (1867). Frost was elected to full membership of the
+Royal Academy in December 1871. This dignity, however, he
+soon resigned. Frost had no high power of design, though some
+of his smaller and apparently less important works are not without
+grace and charm. Technically, his paintings are, in a sense,
+very highly finished, but they are entirely without mastery.
+He died on the 4th of June 1877.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 11, Slice 2, by Various
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 2
+       "French Literature" to "Frost, William"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 12, 2011 [EBook #37736]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "Froissart had been followed as a
+      chronicler by Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1390-1453) and by the
+      historiographers of the Burgundian court, Chastelain, already
+      mentioned, whose interesting Chronique de Jacques de Lalaing is
+      much the most attractive part of his work ..." 'whose' amended from
+      'whole'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "... Mesmer, St Germain and others. In
+      this connexion, too, may perhaps also be mentioned most
+      appropriately Restif de la Bretonne, a remarkably original and
+      voluminous writer ..." 'Restif' amended from 'Bestif'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "The Anglomania which distinguished the
+      time was nowhere more strongly shown than in the cast and direction
+      of its philosophical speculations." 'strongly' amended from
+      'stongly'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH LITERATURE: "All this literature is so far connected
+      purely with the knightly and priestly orders, though it is largely
+      composed and still more largely dealt in by classes of men ..."
+      'literature' amended from 'literaure'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE: "The constitutional party in the
+      legislature desired a toleration of the nonjuring clergy, the
+      repeal of the laws against the relatives of the emigres, and some
+      merciful discrimination toward the emigres themselves."
+      'constitutional' amended from 'contitutional'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRIAR: "See Fr. Cuthbert, The Friars and how they came to
+      England, pp. 11-32 (1903); also F. A. Gasquet, English Monastic
+      Life, pp. 234-249 (1904), where special information on all the
+      English friars is conveniently brought together." 'conveniently'
+      amended from 'coveniently'.
+
+    ARTICLE FRISIAN ISLANDS: "... fine sandy beaches being formed well
+      suited for sea-bathing, which attract many visitors in summer."
+      'attract' amended from 'attracts'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XI, SLICE II
+
+    French Literature to Frost, William
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FRENCH LITERATURE                 FRIEDRICHSHAFEN
+  FRENCH POLISH                     FRIEDRICHSRUH
+  FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE            FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
+  FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS         FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
+  FRENCH WEST AFRICA                FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS
+  FRENTANI                          FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH
+  FREPPEL, CHARLES EMILE            FRIES, JOHN
+  FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD    FRIESLAND
+  FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM               FRIEZE
+  FRERE, PIERRE EDOUARD             FRIGATE
+  FRERE-ORBAN, HUBERT WALTHER       FRIGATE-BIRD
+  FRERET, NICOLAS                   FRIGG
+  FRERON, ELIE CATHERINE            FRIGIDARIUM
+  FRERON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS     FRIIS, JOHAN
+  FRESCO                            FRIMLEY
+  FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO             FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP
+  FRESENIUS, KARL REMIGIUS          FRISCHES HAFF
+  FRESHWATER                        FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS
+  FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN            FRISI, PAOLO
+  FRESNILLO                         FRISIAN ISLANDS
+  FRESNO                            FRISIANS
+  FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU      FRITH, JOHN
+  FRET                              FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL
+  FREUDENSTADT                      FRITILLARY
+  FREUND, WILHELM                   FRITZLAR
+  FREWEN, ACCEPTED                  FRIULI
+  FREY                              FROBEN, JOANNES
+  FREYBURG                          FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN
+  FREYCINET, CHARLES DE SAULCES DE  FROCK
+  FREYCINET, LOUIS DESAULSES DE     FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST
+  FREYIA                            FROG
+  FREYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH  FROG-BIT
+  FREYTAG, GUSTAV                   FROGMORE
+  FRIAR                             FROHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL
+  FRIBOURG (Swiss Canton)           FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB
+  FRIBOURG (Swiss town)             FROISSART, JEAN
+  FRICTION                          FROME
+  FRIDAY                            FROMENTIN, EUGENE
+  FRIEDBERG                         FROMMEL, GASTON
+  FRIEDEL, CHARLES                  FRONDE, THE
+  FRIEDLAND (town of Austria)       FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, LOUIS DE BUADE
+  FRIEDLAND (towns in Germany)      FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS
+  FRIEDLAND (town of Prussia)       FRONTISPIECE
+  FRIEDMANN, MEIR                   FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS
+  FRIEDRICH, JOHANN                 FROSINONE
+  FRIEDRICHRODA                     FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTE
+  FRIEDRICHSDORF                    FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH LITERATURE.
+
+  Early monuments.
+
+  Epic poetry.
+
+_Origins._--The history of French literature in the proper sense of the
+term can hardly be said to extend farther back than the 11th century.
+The actual manuscripts which we possess are seldom of older date than
+the century subsequent to this. But there is no doubt that by the end at
+least of the 11th century the French language, as a completely organized
+medium of literary expression, was in full, varied and constant use. For
+many centuries previous to this, literature had been composed in France,
+or by natives of that country, using the term France in its full modern
+acceptation; but until the 9th century, if not later, the written
+language of France, so far as we know, was Latin; and despite the
+practice of not a few literary historians, it does not seem reasonable
+to notice Latin writings in a history of French literature. Such a
+history properly busies itself only with the monuments of French itself
+from the time when the so-called Lingua Romana Rustica assumed a
+sufficiently independent form to deserve to be called a new language.
+This time it is indeed impossible exactly to determine, and the period
+at which literary compositions, as distinguished from mere conversation,
+began to employ the new tongue is entirely unknown. As early as the 7th
+century the Lingua Romana, as distinguished from Latin and from Teutonic
+dialects, is mentioned, and this Lingua Romana would be of necessity
+used for purposes of clerical admonition, especially in the country
+districts, though we need not suppose that such addresses had a very
+literary character. On the other hand, the mention, at early dates, of
+certain _cantilenae_ or songs composed in the vulgar language has served
+for basis to a superstructure of much ingenious argument with regard to
+the highly interesting problem of the origin of the _Chansons de Geste_,
+the earliest and one of the greatest literary developments of northern
+French. It is sufficient in this article, where speculation would be out
+of place, to mention that only two such _cantilenae_ actually exist, and
+that neither is French. One of the 9th century, the "Lay of Saucourt,"
+is in a Teutonic dialect; the other, the "Song of St Faron," is of the
+7th century, but exists only in Latin prose, the construction and style
+of which present traces of translation from a poetical and vernacular
+original. As far as facts go, the most ancient monuments of the written
+French language consist of a few documents of very various character,
+ranging in date from the 9th to the 11th century. The oldest gives us
+the oaths interchanged at Strassburg in 842 between Charles the Bald and
+Louis the German. The next probably in date and the first in literary
+merit is a short song celebrating the martyrdom of St Eulalia, which may
+be as old as the end of the 9th century, and is certainly not younger
+than the beginning of the 10th. Another, the _Life of St Leger_, in 240
+octosyllabic lines, is dated by conjecture about 975. The discussion
+indeed of these short and fragmentary pieces is of more philological
+than literary interest, and belongs rather to the head of French
+language. They are, however, evidence of the progress which, continuing
+for at least four centuries, built up a literary instrument out of the
+decomposed and reconstructed Latin of the Roman conquerors, blended with
+a certain limited amount of contributions from the Celtic and Iberian
+dialects of the original inhabitants, the Teutonic speech of the Franks,
+and the Oriental tongue of the Moors who pressed upwards from Spain. But
+all these foreign elements bear a very small proportion to the element
+of Latin; and as Latin furnished the greater part of the vocabulary and
+the grammar, so did it also furnish the principal models and helps to
+literary composition. The earliest French versification is evidently
+inherited from that of the Latin hymns of the church, and for a certain
+time Latin originals were followed in the choice of literary forms. But
+by the 11th century it is tolerably certain that dramatic attempts were
+already being made in the vernacular, that lyric poetry was largely
+cultivated, that laws, charters, and such-like documents were written,
+and that commentators and translators busied themselves with religious
+subjects and texts. The most important of the extant documents, outside
+of the epics presently to be noticed, has of late been held to be the
+_Life of Saint Alexis_, a poem of 625 decasyllabic lines, arranged in
+five-line stanzas, each of one assonance or vowel-rhyme, which may be as
+early as 1050. But the most important development of the 11th century,
+and the one of which we are most certain, is that of which we have
+evidence remaining in the famous _Chanson de Roland_, discovered in a
+manuscript at Oxford and first published in 1837. This poem represents
+the first and greatest development of French literature, the chansons de
+geste (this form is now preferred to that with the plural _gestes_). The
+origin of these poems has been hotly debated, and it is only recently
+that the importance which they really possess has been accorded to
+them,--a fact the less remarkable in that, until about 1820, the epics
+of ancient France were unknown, or known only through late and
+disfigured prose versions. Whether they originated in the north or the
+south is a question on which there have been more than one or two
+revolutions of opinion, and will probably be others still, but which
+need not be dealt with here. We possess in round numbers a hundred of
+these chansons. Three only of them are in Provencal. Two of these,
+_Ferabras_ and _Betonnet d'Hanstonne_, are obviously adaptations of
+French originals. The third, _Girartz de Rossilho_ (Gerard de
+Roussillon), is undoubtedly Provencal, and is a work of great merit and
+originality, but its dialect is strongly tinged with the characteristics
+of the Langue d'Oil, and its author seems to have been a native of the
+debatable land between the two districts. To suppose under these
+circumstances that the Provencal originals of the hundred others have
+perished seems gratuitous. It is sufficient to say that the chanson de
+geste, as it is now extant, is the almost exclusive property of northern
+France. Nor is there much authority for a supposition that the early
+French poets merely versified with amplifications the stories of
+chroniclers. On the contrary, chroniclers draw largely from the
+chansons, and the question of priority between _Roland_ and the
+pseudo-Turpin, though a hard one to determine, seems to resolve itself
+in favour of the former. At most we may suppose, with much probability,
+that personal and family tradition gave a nucleus for at least the
+earliest.
+
+
+  Chansons de Geste.
+
+_Chansons de Geste._--Early French narrative poetry was divided by one
+of its own writers, Jean Bodel, under three heads--poems relating to
+French history, poems relating to ancient history, and poems of the
+Arthurian cycle (_Matieres de France, de Bretagne, et de Rome_). To the
+first only is the term chansons de geste in strictness applicable. The
+definition of it goes partly by form and partly by matter. A chanson de
+geste must be written in verses either of ten or twelve syllables, the
+former being the earlier. These verses have a regular caesura, which,
+like the end of a line, carries with it the licence of a mute e. The
+lines are arranged, not in couplets or in stanzas of equal length, but
+in _laisses_ or _tirades_, consisting of any number of lines from half a
+dozen to some hundreds. These are, in the earlier examples
+assonanced,--that is to say, the vowel sound of the last syllables is
+identical, but the consonants need not agree. Thus, for instance, the
+final words of a tirade of _Amis et Amiles_ (Il. 199-206) are _erbe_,
+_nouvelle_, _selles_, _nouvelles_, _traversent_, _arrestent_, _guerre_,
+_cortege_. Sometimes the tirade is completed by a shorter line, and the
+later chansons are regularly rhymed. As to the subject, a chanson de
+geste must be concerned with some event which is, or is supposed to be,
+historical and French. The tendency of the trouveres was constantly to
+affiliate their heroes on a particular _geste_ or family. The three
+chief _gestes_ are those of Charlemagne himself, of Doon de Mayence, and
+of Garin de Monglane; but there are not a few chansons, notably those
+concerning the Lorrainers, and the remarkable series sometimes called
+the _Chevalier au Cygne_, and dealing with the crusades, which lie
+outside these groups. By this joint definition of form and subject the
+chansons de geste are separated from the romances of antiquity, from the
+romances of the Round Table, which are written in octosyllabic couplets,
+and from the _romans d'aventures_ or later fictitious tales, some of
+which, such as _Brun de la Montaigne_, are written in pure chanson form.
+
+
+  Volume and changes of early epics.
+
+Not the least remarkable point about the chansons de geste is their vast
+extent. Their number, according to the strictest definition, exceeds
+100, and the length of each chanson varies from 1000 lines, or
+thereabouts, to 20,000 or even 30,000. The entire mass, including, it
+may be supposed, the various versions and extensions of each chanson, is
+said to amount to between two and three million lines; and when, under
+the second empire, the publication of the whole Carolingian cycle was
+projected, it was estimated, taking the earliest versions alone, at over
+300,000. The successive developments of the chansons de geste may be
+illustrated by the fortunes of _Huon de Bordeaux_, one of the most
+lively, varied and romantic of the older epics, and one which is
+interesting from the use made of it by Shakespeare, Wieland and Weber.
+In the oldest form now extant, though even this is probably not the
+original, _Huon_ consists of over 10,000 lines. A subsequent version
+contains 4000 more; and lastly, in the 14th century, a later poet has
+amplified the legend to the extent of 30,000 lines. When this point had
+been reached, _Huon_ began to be turned into prose, was with many of his
+fellows published and republished during the 15th and subsequent
+centuries, and retains, in the form of a roughly printed chap-book, the
+favour of the country districts of France to the present day. It is not,
+however, in the later versions that the special characteristics of the
+chansons de geste are to be looked for. Of those which we possess, one
+and one only, the _Chanson de Roland_, belongs in its present form to
+the 11th century. Their date of production extends, speaking roughly,
+from the 11th to the 14th century, their palmy days were the 11th and
+the 12th. After this latter period the Arthurian romances, with more
+complex attractions, became their rivals, and induced their authors to
+make great changes in their style and subject. But for a time they
+reigned supreme, and no better instance of their popularity can be given
+than the fact that manuscripts of them exist, not merely in every French
+dialect, but in many cases in a strange macaronic jargon of mingled
+French and Italian. Two classes of persons were concerned in them. There
+was the _trouvere_ who composed them, and the _jongleur_ who carried
+them about in manuscript or in his memory from castle to castle and sang
+them, intermixing frequent appeals to his auditory for silence,
+declarations of the novelty and the strict copyright character of the
+chanson, revilings of rival minstrels, and frequently requests for money
+in plain words. Not a few of the manuscripts which we now possess appear
+to have been actually used by the jongleur. But the names of the
+authors, the trouveres who actually composed them, are in very few cases
+known, those of copyists, continuators, and mere possessors of
+manuscripts having been often mistaken for them.
+
+The moral and poetical peculiarities of the older and more authentic of
+these chansons are strongly marked, though perhaps not quite so strongly
+as some of their encomiasts have contended, and as may appear to a
+reader of the most famous of them, the _Chanson de Roland_, alone. In
+that poem, indeed, war and religion are the sole motives employed, and
+its motto might be two lines from another of the finest chansons
+(_Aliscans_, 161-162):--
+
+  "Dist a Bertran: 'N'avons mais nul losir,
+   Tant ke vivons alons paiens ferir.'"
+
+In Roland there is no love-making whatever, and the hero's betrothed "la
+belle Aude" appears only in a casual gibe of her brother Oliver, and in
+the incident of her sudden death at the news of Roland's fall. M. Leon
+Gautier and others have drawn the conclusion that this stern and
+masculine character was a feature of all the older chansons, and that
+imitation of the Arthurian romance is the cause of its disappearance.
+This seems rather a hasty inference. In _Amis et Amiles_, admittedly a
+poem of old date, the parts of Bellicent and Lubias are prominent, and
+the former is demonstrative enough. In _Aliscans_ the part of the
+Countess Guibourc is both prominent and heroic, and is seconded by that
+of Queen Blancheflor and her daughter Aelis. We might also mention
+Oriabel in _Jourdans de Blaivies_ and others. But it may be admitted
+that the sex which fights and counsels plays the principal part, that
+love adventures are not introduced at any great length, and that the
+lady usually spares her knight the trouble and possible indignities of a
+long wooing. The characters of a chanson of the older style are somewhat
+uniform. There is the hero who is unjustly suspected of guilt or sore
+beset by Saracens, the heroine who falls in love with him, the traitor
+who accuses him or delays help, who is almost always of the lineage of
+Ganelon, and whose ways form a very curious study. There are friendly
+paladins and subordinate traitors; there is Charlemagne (who bears
+throughout the marks of the epic king common to Arthur and Agamemnon,
+but is not in the earlier chanson the incapable and venal dotard which
+he becomes in the later), and with Charlemagne generally the duke Naimes
+of Bavaria, the one figure who is invariably wise, brave, loyal and
+generous. In a few chansons there is to be added to these a very
+interesting class of personages who, though of low birth or condition,
+yet rescue the high-born knights from their enemies. Such are Rainoart
+in _Aliscans_, Gautier in _Gaydon_, Robastre in _Gaufrey_, Varocher in
+_Macaire_. These subjects, uniform rather than monotonous, are handled
+with great uniformity if not monotony of style. There are constant
+repetitions, and it sometimes seems, and may sometimes be the case, that
+the text is a mere cento of different and repeated versions. But the
+verse is generally harmonious and often stately. The recurrent
+assonances of the endless tirade soon impress the ear with a grateful
+music, and occasionally, and far more frequently than might be thought,
+passages of high poetry, such as the magnificent _Granz doel por la mort
+de Rollant_, appear to diversify the course of the story. The most
+remarkable of the chansons are _Roland_, _Aliscans_, _Gerard de
+Roussillon_, _Amis et Amiles_, _Raoul de Cambrai_, _Garin le Loherain_
+and its sequel _Les quatre Fils Aymon_, _Les Saisnes_ (recounting the
+war of Charlemagne with Witekind), and lastly, _Le Chevalier au Cygne_,
+which is not a single poem but a series, dealing with the earlier
+crusades. The most remarkable _group_ is that centring round William of
+Orange, the historical or half-historical defender of the south of
+France against Mahommedan invasion. Almost all the chansons of this
+group, from the long-known _Aliscans_ to the recently printed _Chancon
+de Willame_, are distinguished by an unwonted _personality_ of interest,
+as well as by an intensified dose of the rugged and martial poetry which
+pervades the whole class. It is noteworthy that one chanson and one
+only, _Floovant_, deals with Merovingian times. But the chronology,
+geography, and historic facts of nearly all are, it is hardly necessary
+to say, mainly arbitrary.
+
+_Arthurian Romances._--The second class of early French epics consists
+of the Arthurian cycle, the _Matiere de Bretagne_, the earliest known
+compositions of which are at least a century junior to the earliest
+chanson de geste, but which soon succeeded the chansons in popular
+favour, and obtained a vogue both wider and far more enduring. It is not
+easy to conceive a greater contrast in form, style, subject and
+sentiment than is presented by the two classes. In both the religious
+sentiment is prominent, but the religion of the chansons is of the
+simplest, not to say of the most savage character. To pray to God and to
+kill his enemies constitutes the whole duty of man. In the romances the
+mystical element becomes on the contrary prominent, and furnishes, in
+the Holy Grail, one of the most important features. In the Carlovingian
+knight the courtesy and clemency which we have learnt to associate with
+chivalry are almost entirely absent. The _gentix ber_ contradicts, jeers
+at, and execrates his sovereign and his fellows with the utmost freedom.
+He thinks nothing of striking his _cortoise moullier_ so that the blood
+runs down her _cler vis_. If a servant or even an equal offends him, he
+will throw the offender into the fire, knock his brains out, or set his
+whiskers ablaze. The Arthurian knight is far more of the modern model in
+these respects. But his chief difference from his predecessor is
+undoubtedly in his amorous devotion to his beloved, who, if not morally
+superior to Bellicent, Floripas, Esclairmonde, and the other
+Carlovingian heroines, is somewhat less forward. Even in minute details
+the difference is strongly marked. The romances are in octosyllabic
+couplets or in prose, and their language is different from that of the
+chansons, and contains much fewer of the usual epic repetitions and
+stock phrases. A voluminous controversy has been held respecting the
+origin of these differences, and of the story or stories which were
+destined to receive such remarkable attention. Reference must be made to
+the article ARTHURIAN LEGEND for the history of this controversy and for
+an account of its present state. This state, however, and all subsequent
+states, are likely to be rather dependent upon opinion than upon actual
+knowledge. From the point of view of the general historian of literature
+it may not be improper here to give a caution against the frequent use
+of the word "proven" in such matters. Very little in regard to early
+literature, except the literary value of the texts, is ever susceptible
+of _proof_; although things may be made more or less _probable_. What we
+are at present concerned with, however, is a body of verse and prose
+composed in the latter part of the 12th century and later. The earliest
+romances, the _Saint Graal_, the _Quete du Saint Graal_, _Joseph
+d'Arimathie_ and _Merlin_ bear the names of Walter Map and Robert de
+Borron. _Artus_ and part at least of _Lancelot du Lac_ (the whole of
+which has been by turns attributed and denied to Walter Map) appear to
+be due to unknown authors. _Tristan_ came later, and has a stronger
+mixture of Celtic tradition. At the same time as Walter Map, or a little
+later, Chretien (or Chrestien) de Troyes threw the legends of the Round
+Table into octosyllabic verse of a singularly spirited and picturesque
+character. The chief poems attributed to him are the _Chevalier au Lyon_
+(Sir Ewain of Wales), the _Chevalier a la Charette_ (one of the episodes
+of _Lancelot_), _Eric et Enide_, _Tristan_ and _Percivale_. These poems,
+independently of their merit, which is great, had an extensive literary
+influence. They were translated by the German minnesingers, Wolfram von
+Eschenbach, Gottfried of Strassburg, and others. With the romances
+already referred to, which are mostly in prose, and which by recent
+authorities have been put later than the verse tales which used to be
+postponed to them, Chretien's poems complete the early forms of the
+Arthurian story, and supply the matter of it as it is best known to
+English readers in Malory's book. Nor does that book, though far later
+than the original forms, convey a very false impression of the
+characteristics of the older romances. Indeed, the Arthurian knight, his
+character and adventures, are so much better known than the heroes of
+the Carlovingian chanson that there is less need to dwell upon them.
+They had, however, as has been already pointed out, great influence upon
+their rivals, and their comparative fertility of invention, the much
+larger number of their _dramatis personae_, and the greater variety of
+interests to which they appealed, sufficiently explain their increased
+popularity. The ordinary attractions of poetry are also more largely
+present in them than in the chansons; there is more description, more
+life, and less of the mere chronicle. They have been accused of relaxing
+morality, and there is perhaps some truth in the charge. But the change
+is after all one rather of manners than of morals, and what is lost in
+simplicity is gained in refinement. _Doon de Mayence_ is a late chanson,
+and _Lancelot du Lac_ is an early romance. But the two beautiful scenes,
+in the former between Doon and Nicolette, in the latter between
+Lancelot, Galahault, Guinevere, and the Lady of Malehaut, may be
+compared as instances of the attitude of the two classes of poets
+towards the same subject.
+
+_Romances of Antiquity._--There is yet a third class of early narrative
+poems, differing from the two former in subject, but agreeing, sometimes
+with one sometimes with the other in form. These are the classical
+romances--the _Matiere de Rome_--which are not much later than those of
+Charlemagne and Arthur. The chief subjects with which their authors
+busied themselves were the conquests of Alexander and the siege of Troy,
+though other classical stories come in. The most remarkable of all is
+the romance of _Alixandre_ by Lambert the Short and Alexander of Bernay.
+It has been said that the excellence of the twelve-syllabled verse used
+in this romance was the origin of the term alexandrine. The Trojan
+romances, on the other hand, are chiefly in octosyllabic verse, and the
+principal poem which treats of them is the _Roman de Troie_ of Benoit de
+Sainte More. Both this poem and _Alixandre_ are attributed to the last
+quarter of the 12th century. The authorities consulted for these poems
+were, as may be supposed, none of the best. Dares Phrygius, Dictys
+Cretensis, the pseudo-Callisthenes supplied most of them. But the
+inexhaustible invention of the trouveres themselves was the chief
+authority consulted. The adventures of Medea, the wanderings of
+Alexander, the Trojan horse, the story of Thebes, were quite sufficient
+to spur on to exertion the minds which had been accustomed to spin a
+chanson of some 10,000 lines out of a casual allusion in some preceding
+poem. It is needless to say that anachronisms did not disturb them. From
+first to last the writers of the chansons had not in the least troubled
+themselves with attention to any such matters. Charlemagne himself had
+his life and exploits accommodated to the need of every poet who treats
+of him, and the same is the case with the heroes of antiquity. Indeed,
+Alexander is made in many respects a prototype of Charlemagne. He is
+regularly knighted, he has twelve peers, he holds tournaments, he has
+relations with Arthur, and comes in contact with fairies, he takes
+flights in the air, dives in the sea and so forth. There is perhaps more
+avowed imagination in these classical stories than in either of the
+other divisions of French epic poetry. Some of their authors even
+confess to the practice of fiction, while the trouveres of the chansons
+invariably assert the historical character of their facts and
+personages, and the authors of the Arthurian romances at least start
+from facts vouched for, partly by national tradition, partly by the
+authority of religion and the church. The classical romances, however,
+are important in two different ways. In the first place, they connect
+the early literature of France, however loosely, and with links of
+however dubious authenticity, with the great history and literature of
+the past. They show a certain amount of scholarship in their authors,
+and in their hearers they show a capacity of taking an interest in
+subjects which are not merely those directly connected with the village
+or the tribe. The chansons de geste had shown the creative power and
+independent character of French literature. There is, at least about the
+earlier ones, nothing borrowed, traditional or scholarly. They smack of
+the soil, and they rank France among the very few countries which, in
+this matter of indigenous growth, have yielded more than folk-songs and
+fireside tales. The Arthurian romances, less independent in origin,
+exhibit a wider range of view, a greater knowledge of human nature, and
+a more extensive command of the sources of poetical and romantic
+interest. The classical epics superadd the only ingredient necessary to
+an accomplished literature--that is to say, the knowledge of what has
+been done by other peoples and other literatures already, and the
+readiness to take advantage of the materials thus supplied.
+
+_Romans d'Aventures._--These are the three earliest developments of
+French literature on the great scale. They led, however, to a fourth,
+which, though later in date than all except their latest forms and far
+more loosely associated as a group, is so closely connected with them by
+literary and social considerations that it had best be mentioned here.
+This is the _roman d'aventures_, a title given to those almost avowedly
+fictitious poems which connect themselves, mainly and centrally, neither
+with French history, with the Round Table, nor with the heroes of
+antiquity. These began to be written in the 13th century, and continued
+until the prose form of fiction became generally preferred. The later
+forms of the chansons de geste and the Arthurian poems might indeed be
+well called romans d'aventures themselves. _Hugues Capet_, for instance,
+a chanson in form and class of subject, is certainly one of this latter
+kind in treatment; and there is a larger class of semi-Arthurian
+romance, which so to speak branches off from the main trunk. But for
+convenience sake the definition we have given is preferable. The style
+and subject of these romans d'aventures are naturally extremely various.
+_Guillaume de Palerme_ deals with the adventures of a Sicilian prince
+who is befriended by a were-wolf; _Le Roman de l'escoufle_, with a
+heroine whose ring is carried off by a sparrow-hawk (_escoufle_), like
+Prince Camaralzaman's talisman; _Guy of Warwick_, with one of the most
+famous of imaginary heroes; _Meraugis de Portleguez_ is a sort of branch
+or offshoot of the romances of the Round Table; _Cleomades_, the work of
+the trouvere Adenes le Roi, who also rehandled the old chanson subjects
+of _Ogier_ and _Berte aux grans pies_, connects itself once more with
+the _Arabian Nights_ as well as with Chaucer forwards in the
+introduction of a flying mechanical horse. There is, in short, no
+possibility of classifying their subjects. The habit of writing in
+gestes, or of necessarily connecting the new work with an older one, had
+ceased to be binding, and the instinct of fiction writing was free; yet
+those romans d'aventures do not rank quite as high in literary
+importance as the classes which preceded them. This under-valuation
+arises rather from a lack of originality and distinctness of savour than
+from any shortcomings in treatment. Their versification, usually
+octosyllabic, is pleasant enough; but there is not much distinctness of
+character about them, and their incidents often strike the reader with
+something of the sameness, but seldom with much of the naivete, of those
+of the older poems. Nevertheless some of them attained to a very high
+popularity, such, for instance, as the _Partenopex de Blois_ of Denis
+Pyramus, which has a motive drawn from the story of _Cupid and Psyche_
+and the charming _Floire et Blanchefleur_, giving the woes of a
+Christian prince and a Saracen slave-girl. With them may be connected a
+certain number of early romances and fictions of various dates in prose,
+none of which can vie in charm with _Aucassin et Nicolette_ (13th
+century), an exquisite literary presentment of medieval sentiment in its
+most delightful form.
+
+
+  General characteristics of early narrative.
+
+  Spread of literary taste.
+
+In these classes maybe said to be summed up the literature of feudal
+chivalry in France. They were all, except perhaps the last, composed by
+one class of persons, the trouveres, and performed by another, the
+jongleurs. The latter, indeed, sometimes presumed to compose for
+himself, and was denounced as a _troveor batard_ by the indignant
+members of the superior caste. They were all originally intended to be
+performed in the _palais marberin_ of the baron to an audience of
+knights and ladies, and, when reading became more common, to be read by
+such persons. They dealt therefore chiefly, if not exclusively, with the
+class to whom they were addressed. The bourgeois and the villain,
+personages of political nonentity at the time of their early
+composition, come in for far slighter notice, although occasionally in
+the few curious instances we have mentioned, and others, persons of a
+class inferior to the seigneur play an important part. The habit of
+private wars and of insurrection against the sovereign supply the
+motives of the chanson de geste, the love of gallantry, adventure and
+foreign travel those of the romances Arthurian and miscellaneous. None
+of these motives much affected the lower classes, who were, with the
+early developed temper of the middle- and lower-class Frenchman, already
+apt to think and speak cynically enough of tournaments, courts, crusades
+and the other occupations of the nobility. The communal system was
+springing up, the towns were receiving royal encouragement as a
+counterpoise to the authority of the nobles. The corruptions and
+maladministration of the church attracted the satire rather of the
+citizens and peasantry who suffered by them, than of the nobles who had
+less to fear and even something to gain. On the other hand, the gradual
+spread of learning, inaccurate and ill-digested perhaps, but still
+learning, not only opened up new classes of subjects, but opened them to
+new classes of persons. The thousands of students who flocked to the
+schools of Paris were not all princes or nobles. Hence there arose two
+new classes of literature, the first consisting of the embodiment of
+learning of one kind or other in the vulgar tongue. The other, one of
+the most remarkable developments of sportive literature which the world
+has seen, produced the second indigenous literary growth of which France
+can boast, namely, the fabliaux, and the almost more remarkable work
+which is an immense conglomerate of fabliaux, the great beast-epic of
+the Roman de Renart.
+
+_Fabliaux._--There are few literary products which have more originality
+and at the same time more diversity than the fabliau. The epic and the
+drama, even when they are independently produced, are similar in their
+main characteristics all the world over. But there is nothing in
+previous literature which exactly corresponds to the fabliau. It comes
+nearest to the Aesopic fable and its eastern origins or parallels. But
+differs from these in being less allegorical, less obviously moral
+(though a moral of some sort is usually if not always enforced), and in
+having a much more direct personal interest. It is in many degrees
+further removed from the parable, and many degrees nearer to the novel.
+The story is the first thing, the moral the second, and the latter is
+never suffered to interfere with the former. These observations apply
+only to the fabliaux, properly so called, but the term has been used
+with considerable looseness. The collectors of those interesting pieces,
+Barbazan, Meon, Le Grand d'Aussy, have included in their collections
+large numbers of miscellaneous pieces such as _dits_ (rhymed
+descriptions of various objects, the most famous known author of which
+was Baudouin de Conde, 13th century), and _debats_ (discussions between
+two persons or contrasts of the attributes of two things), sometimes
+even short romances, farces and mystery plays. Not that the fable
+proper--the prose classical beast-story of "Aesop"--was neglected. Marie
+de France--the poetess to be mentioned again for her more strictly
+poetical work--is the most literary of not a few writers who composed
+what were often, after the mysterious original poet, named _Ysopets_.
+Aesop, Phaedrus, Babrius were translated and imitated in Latin and in
+the vernacular by this class of writer, and some of the best known of
+"fablers" date from this time. The fabliau, on the other hand, according
+to the best definition of it yet achieved, is "the recital, generally
+comic, of a real or possible incident occurring in ordinary human life."
+The comedy, it may be added, is usually of a satiric kind, and occupies
+itself with every class and rank of men, from the king to the villain.
+There is no limit to the variety of these lively verse-tales, which are
+invariably written in eight-syllabled couplets. Now the subject is the
+misadventure of two Englishmen, whose ignorance of the French language
+makes them confuse donkey and lamb; now it is the fortunes of an
+exceedingly foolish knight, who has an amiable and ingenious
+mother-in-law; now the deserved sufferings of an avaricious or
+ill-behaved priest; now the bringing of an ungrateful son to a better
+mind by the wisdom of babes and sucklings. Not a few of the _Canterbury
+Tales_ are taken directly from fabliaux; indeed, Chaucer, with the
+possible exception of Prior, is our nearest approach to a
+fabliau-writer. At the other end of Europe the prose novels of Boccaccio
+and other Italian tale-tellers are largely based upon fabliaux. But
+their influence in their own country was the greatest. They were the
+first expression of the spirit which has since animated the most
+national and popular developments of French literature. Simple and
+unpretending as they are in form, the fabliaux announce not merely the
+_Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ and the _Heptameron_, _L'Avocat Patelin_, and
+_Pantagruel_, but also _L'Avare_ and the _Roman comique_, _Gil Blas_ and
+_Candide_. They indeed do more than merely prophesy the spirit of these
+great performances--they directly lead to them. The prose-tale and the
+farce are the direct outcomes of the fabliau, and the prose-tale and the
+farce once given, the novel and the comedy inevitably follow.
+
+
+  Social importance of fabliaux.
+
+The special period of fabliau composition appears to have been the 12th
+and 13th centuries. It signifies on the one side the growth of a lighter
+and more sportive spirit than had yet prevailed, on another the rise in
+importance of other and lower orders of men than the priest and the
+noble, on yet another the consciousness on the part of these lower
+orders of the defects of the two privileged classes, and of the
+shortcomings of the system of polity under which these privileged
+classes enjoyed their privileges. There is, however, in the fabliau
+proper not so very much of direct satire, this being indeed excluded by
+the definition given above, and by the thoroughly artistic spirit in
+which that definition is observed. The fabliaux are so numerous and so
+various that it is difficult to select any as specially representative.
+We may, however, mention, both as good examples and as interesting from
+their subsequent history, _Le Vair Palfroi_, treated in English by Leigh
+Hunt and by Peacock; _Le Vilain Mire_, the original consciously or
+unconsciously followed in _Le Medecin malgre lui_; _Le Roi d'Angleterre
+et le jongleur d'Eli_; _La houce partie_; _Le Sot Chevalier_, an
+indecorous but extremely amusing story; _Les deux bordeors ribaus_, a
+dialogue between two jongleurs of great literary interest, containing
+allusions to the chansons de geste and romances most in vogue; and _Le
+vilain qui conquist paradis par plait_, one of the numerous instances of
+what has unnecessarily puzzled moderns, the association in medieval
+times of sincere and unfeigned faith with extremely free handling of its
+objects. This lightheartedness in other subjects sometimes bubbled over
+into the _fatrasie_, an almost pure nonsense-piece, parent of the later
+_amphigouri_.
+
+_Roman de Renart._--If the fabliaux are not remarkable for direct
+satire, that element is supplied in more than compensating quantity by
+an extraordinary composition which is closely related to them. _Le Roman
+de Renart_, or _History of Reynard the Fox_, is a poem, or rather series
+of poems, which, from the end of the 12th to the middle of the 14th
+century, served the citizen poets of northern France, not merely as an
+outlet for literary expression, but also as a vehicle of satirical
+comment,--now on the general vices and weaknesses of humanity, now on
+the usual corruptions in church and state, now on the various historical
+events which occupied public attention from time to time. The enormous
+popularity of the subject is shown by the long vogue which it had, and
+by the empire which it exercised over generations of writers who
+differed from each other widely in style and temper. Nothing can be
+farther from the allegorical erudition, the political diatribes and the
+sermonizing moralities of the authors of _Renart le Contre-fait_ than
+the sly naivete of the writers of the earlier branches. Yet these and a
+long and unknown series of intermediate bards the fox-king pressed into
+his service, and it is scarcely too much to say that, during the two
+centuries of his reign, there was hardly a thought in the popular mind
+which, as it rose to the surface, did not find expression in an addition
+to the huge cycle of _Renart_.
+
+We shall not deal with the controversies which have been raised as to
+the origin of the poem and its central idea. The latter may have been a
+travestie of real persons and actual events, or it may (and much more
+probably) have been an expression of thoughts and experiences which
+recur in every generation. France, the Netherlands and Germany have
+contended for the honour of producing Renart; French, Flemish, German
+and Latin for the honour of first describing him. It is sufficient to
+say that the spirit of the work seems to be more that of the borderland
+between France and Flanders than of any other district, and that,
+wherever the idea may have originally arisen, it was incomparably more
+fruitful in France than in any other country. The French poems which we
+possess on the subject amount in all to nearly 100,000 lines,
+independently of mere variations, but including the different versions
+of _Renart le Contre-fait_. This vast total is divided into four
+different poems. The most ancient and remarkable is that edited by Meon
+under the title of _Roman du Renart_, and containing, with some
+additions made by M. Chabaille, 37 branches and about 32,000 lines. It
+must not, however, be supposed that this total forms a continuous poem
+like the _Aeneid_ or _Paradise Lost_. Part was pretty certainly written
+by Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but he was not the author of the whole. On the
+contrary, the separate branches are the work of different authors,
+hardly any of whom are known, and, but for their community of subject
+and to some extent of treatment, might be regarded as separate poems.
+The history of Renart, his victories over Isengrim, the wolf, Bruin, the
+bear, and his other unfortunate rivals, his family affection, his
+outwittings of King Noble the Lion and all the rest, are too well known
+to need fresh description here. It is perhaps in the subsequent poems,
+though they are far less known and much less amusing, that the hold
+which the idea of Renart had obtained on the mind of northern France,
+and the ingenious uses to which it was put, are best shown. The first of
+these is _Le Couronnement Renart_, a poem of between 3000 and 4000
+lines, attributed, on no grounds whatever, to the poetess Marie de
+France, and describing how the hero by his ingenuity got himself crowned
+king. This poem already shows signs of direct moral application and
+generalizing. These are still more apparent in _Renart le Nouvel_, a
+composition of some 8000 lines, finished in the year 1288 by the Fleming
+Jacquemart Gielee. Here the personification, of which, in noticing the
+_Roman de la rose_, we shall soon have to give extended mention, becomes
+evident. Instead of or at least beside the lively personal Renart who
+used to steal sausages, set Isengrim fishing with his tail, or make use
+of Chanticleer's comb for a purpose for which it was certainly never
+intended, we have _Renardie_, an abstraction of guile and hypocrisy,
+triumphantly prevailing over other and better qualities. Lastly, as the
+_Roman de la rose_ of William of Lorris is paralleled by _Renart le
+Nouvel_, so its continuation by Jean de Meung is paralleled by the great
+miscellany of _Renart le Contre-fait_, which, even in its existing
+versions, extends to fully 50,000 lines. Here we have, besides floods of
+miscellaneous erudition and discourse, political argument of the most
+direct and important kind. The wrongs of the lower orders are bitterly
+urged. They are almost openly incited to revolt; and it is scarcely too
+much to say, as M. Lenient has said, that the closely following
+Jacquerie is but a practical carrying out of the doctrines of the
+anonymous satirists of _Renart le Contre-fait_, one of whom (if indeed
+there was more than one) appears to have been a clerk of Troyes.
+
+
+  Audefroit le Bastard.
+
+  Thibaut de Champagne.
+
+  Ruteboef.
+
+  Adam de la Halle.
+
+  Lais.
+
+_Early Lyric Poetry._--Side by side with these two forms of literature,
+the epics and romances of the higher classes, and the fabliau, which, at
+least in its original, represented rather the feelings of the lower,
+there grew up a third kind, consisting of purely lyrical poetry. The
+song literature of medieval France is extremely abundant and beautiful.
+From the 12th to the 15th century it received constant accessions, some
+signed, some anonymous, some purely popular in their character, some the
+work of more learned writers, others again produced by members of the
+aristocracy. Of the latter class it may fairly be said that the
+catalogue of royal and noble authors boasts few if any names superior to
+those of Thibaut de Champagne, king of Navarre at the beginning of the
+13th century, and Charles d'Orleans, the father of Louis XII., at the
+beginning of the 15th. Although much of this lyric poetry is anonymous,
+the more popular part of it almost entirely so, yet M. Paulin Paris was
+able to enumerate some hundreds of French chansonniers between the 11th
+and the 13th century. The earliest song literature, chiefly known in the
+delightful collection of Bartsch (_Altfranzosische Romanzen und
+Pastourellen_), is mainly sentimental in character. The collector
+divides it under the two heads of romances and pastourelles, the former
+being usually the celebration of the loves of a noble knight and maiden,
+and recounting how Belle Doette or Eglantine or Oriour sat at her
+windows or in the tourney gallery, or embroidering silk and samite in
+her chamber, with her thoughts on Gerard or Guy or Henry,--the latter
+somewhat monotonous but naive and often picturesque recitals, very often
+in the first person, of the meeting of an errant knight or minstrel with
+a shepherdess, and his cavalier but not always successful wooing. With
+these, some of which date from the 12th century, may be contrasted, at
+the other end of the medieval period, the more varied and popular
+collection dating in their present form from the 15th century, and
+published in 1875 by M. Gaston Paris. In both alike, making allowance
+for the difference of their age and the state of the language, may be
+noticed a charming lyrical faculty and great skill in the elaboration of
+light and suitable metres. Especially remarkable is the abundance of
+refrains of an admirably melodious kind. It is said that more than 500
+of these exist. Among the lyric writers of these four centuries whose
+names are known may be mentioned Audefroi le Bastard (12th century), the
+author of the charming song of _Belle Idoine_, and others no way
+inferior, Quesnes de Bethune, the ancestor of Sully, whose song-writing
+inclines to a satirical cast in many instances, the Vidame de Chartres,
+Charles d'Anjou, King John of Brienne, the chatelain de Coucy, Gace
+Brusle, Colin Muset, while not a few writers mentioned elsewhere--Guyot
+de Provins, Adam de la Halle, Jean Bodel and others--were also lyrists.
+But none of them, except perhaps Audefroi, can compare with Thibaut IV.
+(1201-1253), who united by his possessions and ancestry a connexion with
+the north and the south, and who employed the methods of both districts
+but used the language of the north only. Thibaut was supposed to be the
+lover of Blanche of Castile, the mother of St Louis, and a great deal of
+his verse is concerned with his love for her. But while knights and
+nobles were thus employing lyric poetry in courtly and sentimental
+verse, lyric forms were being freely employed by others, both of high
+and low birth, for more general purposes. Blanche and Thibaut themselves
+came in for contemporary lampoons, and both at this time and in the
+times immediately following, a cloud of writers composed light verse,
+sometimes of a lyric sometimes of a narrative kind, and sometimes in a
+mixture of both. By far the most remarkable of these is Ruteboeuf (a
+name which is perhaps a nickname), the first of a long series of French
+poets to whom in recent days the title Bohemian has been applied, who
+passed their lives between gaiety and misery, and celebrated their lot
+in both conditions with copious verse. Ruteboeuf is among the earliest
+French writers who tell us their personal history and make personal
+appeals. But he does not confine himself to these. He discusses the
+history of his times, upbraids the nobles for their desertion of the
+Latin empire of Constantinople, considers the expediency of crusading,
+inveighs against the religious orders, and takes part in the disputes
+between the pope and the king. He composes pious poetry too, and in at
+least one poem takes care to distinguish between the church which he
+venerates and the corrupt churchmen whom he lampoons. Besides Ruteboeuf
+the most characteristic figure of his class and time (about the middle
+of the 13th century) is Adam de la Halle, commonly called the Hunchback
+of Arras. The earlier poems of Adam are of a sentimental character, the
+later ones satirical and somewhat ill-tempered. Such, for instance, is
+his invective against his native city. But his chief importance consists
+in his _jeux_, the _Jeu de la feuillie_, the _Jeu de Robin et Marion_,
+dramatic compositions which led the way to the regular dramatic form.
+Indeed the general tendency of the 13th century is to satire, fable and
+farce, even more than to serious or sentimental poetry. We should
+perhaps except the _lais_, the chief of which are known under the name
+of Marie de France. These lays are exclusively Breton in origin, though
+not in application, and the term seems originally to have had reference
+rather to the music to which they were sung than to the manner or matter
+of the pieces. Some resemblance to these lays may perhaps be traced in
+the genuine Breton songs published by M. Luzel. The subjects of the lais
+are indifferently taken from the Arthurian cycle, from ancient story,
+and from popular tradition, and, at any rate in Marie's hands, they give
+occasion for some passionate, and in the modern sense really romantic,
+poetry. The most famous of all is the _Lay of the Honeysuckle_,
+traditionally assigned to Sir Tristram.
+
+_Satiric and Didactic Works._--Among the direct satirists of the middle
+ages, one of the earliest and foremost is Guyot de Provins, a monk of
+Clairvaux and Cluny, whose _Bible_, as he calls it, contains an
+elaborate satire on the time (the beginning of the 13th century), and
+who was imitated by others, especially Hugues de Bregy. The same spirit
+soon betrayed itself in curious travesties of the romances of chivalry,
+and sometimes invades the later specimens of these romances themselves.
+One of the earliest examples of this travesty is the remarkable
+composition entitled _Audigier_. This poem, half fabliau and half
+romance, is not so much an instance of the heroi-comic poems which
+afterwards found so much favour in Italy and elsewhere, as a direct and
+ferocious parody of the Carlovingian epic. The hero Audigier is a model
+of cowardice and disloyalty; his father and mother, Turgibus and
+Rainberge, are deformed and repulsive. The exploits of the hero himself
+are coarse and hideous failures, and the whole poem can only be taken as
+a counterblast to the spirit of chivalry. Elsewhere a trouvere,
+prophetic of Rabelais, describes a vast battle between all the nations
+of the world, the quarrel being suddenly atoned by the arrival of a holy
+man bearing a huge flagon of wine. Again, we have the history of a
+solemn crusade undertaken by the citizens of a country town against the
+neighbouring castle. As erudition and the fancy for allegory gained
+ground, satire naturally availed itself of the opportunity thus afforded
+it; the disputes of Philippe le Bel with the pope and the Templars had
+an immense literary influence, partly in the concluding portions of the
+_Renart_, partly in the _Roman de la rose_, still to be mentioned, and
+partly in other satiric allegories of which the chief is the romance of
+_Fauvel_, attributed to Francois de Rues. The hero of this is an
+allegorical personage, half man and half horse, signifying the union of
+bestial degradation with human ingenuity and cunning. Fauvel (the name,
+it may be worth while to recall, occurs in Langland) is a divinity in
+his way. All the personages of state, from kings and popes to mendicant
+friars, pay their court to him.
+
+
+  Baudouin de Sebourc.
+
+But this serious and discontented spirit betrays itself also in
+compositions which are not parodies or travesties in form. One of the
+latest, if not absolutely the latest (for Cuvelier's still later
+_Chronique de Du Guesclin_ is only a most interesting _imitation_ of the
+_chanson_ form adapted to recent events), of the chansons de geste is
+_Baudouin de Sebourc_, one of the members of the great romance or cycle
+of romances dealing with the crusades, and entitled Le Chevalier au
+Cygne. _Baudouin de Sebourc_ dates from the early years of the 14th
+century. It is strictly a chanson de geste in form, and also in the
+general run of its incidents. The hero is dispossessed of his
+inheritance by the agency of traitors, fights his battle with the world
+and its injustice, and at last prevails over his enemy Gaufrois, who has
+succeeded in obtaining the kingdom of Friesland and almost that of
+France. Gaufrois has as his assistants two personages who were very
+popular in the poetry of the time,--viz., the Devil, and Money. These
+two sinister figures pervade the fabliaux, tales and fantastic
+literature generally of the time. M. Lenient, the historian of French
+satire, has well remarked that a romance as long as the _Renart_ might
+be spun out of the separate short poems of this period which have the
+Devil for hero, and many of which form a very interesting transition
+between the fabliau and the mystery. But the Devil is in one respect a
+far inferior hero to Renart. He has an adversary in the Virgin, who
+constantly upsets his best-laid schemes, and who does not always treat
+him quite fairly. The abuse of usury at the time, and the exactions of
+the Jews and Lombards, were severely felt, and Money itself, as
+personified, figures largely in the popular literature of the time.
+
+
+  William of Lorris.
+
+  Jean de Meung.
+
+_Roman de la Rose._--A work of very different importance from all of
+these, though with seeming touches of the same spirit, a work which
+deserves to take rank among the most important of the middle ages, is
+the _Roman de la rose_,--one of the few really remarkable books which is
+the work of two authors, and that not in collaboration but in
+continuation one of the other. The author of the earlier part was
+Guillaume de Lorris, who lived in the first half of the 13th century;
+the author of the later part was Jean de Meung, who was born about the
+middle of that century, and whose part in the _Roman_ dates at least
+from its extreme end. This great poem exhibits in its two parts very
+different characteristics, which yet go to make up a not inharmonious
+whole. It is a love poem, and yet it is satire. But both gallantry and
+raillery are treated in an entirely allegorical spirit; and this
+allegory, while it makes the poem tedious to hasty appetites of to-day,
+was exactly what gave it its charm in the eyes of the middle ages. It
+might be described as an _Ars amoris_ crossed with a _Quodlibeta_. This
+mixture exactly hit the taste of the time, and continued to hit it for
+two centuries and a half. When its obvious and gallant meaning was
+attacked by moralists and theologians, it was easy to quote the example
+of the Canticles, and to furnish esoteric explanations of the allegory.
+The writers of the 16th century were never tired of quoting and
+explaining it. Antoine de Baif, indeed, gave the simple and obvious
+meaning, and declared that "La rose c'est d'amours le guerdon gracieux";
+but Marot, on the other hand, gives us the choice of four mystical
+interpretations,--the rose being either the state of wisdom, the state
+of grace, the state of eternal happiness or the Virgin herself. We
+cannot here analyse this celebrated poem. It is sufficient to say that
+the lover meets all sorts of obstacles in his pursuit of the rose,
+though he has for a guide the metaphorical personage Bel-Accueil. The
+early part, which belongs to William of Lorris, is remarkable for its
+gracious and fanciful descriptions. Forty years after Lorris's death,
+Jean de Meung completed it in an entirely different spirit. He keeps the
+allegorical form, and indeed introduces two new personages of
+importance, Nature and Faux-semblant. In the mouths of these personages
+and of another, Raison, he puts the most extraordinary mixture of
+erudition and satire. At one time we have the history of classical
+heroes, at another theories against the hoarding of money, about
+astronomy, about the duty of mankind to increase and multiply. Accounts
+of the origin of loyalty, which would have cost the poet his head at
+some periods of history, and even communistic ideas, are also to be
+found here. In Faux-semblant we have a real creation of the theatrical
+hypocrite. All this miscellaneous and apparently incongruous material in
+fact explains the success of the poem. It has the one characteristic
+which has at all times secured the popularity of great works of
+literature. It holds the mirror up firmly and fully to its age. As we
+find in Rabelais the characteristics of the Renaissance, in Montaigne
+those of the sceptical reaction from Renaissance and reform alike, in
+Moliere those of the society of France after Richelieu had tamed and
+levelled it, in Voltaire and Rousseau respectively the two aspects of
+the great revolt,--so there are to be found in the _Roman de la rose_
+the characteristics of the later middle age, its gallantry, its
+mysticism, its economical and social troubles and problems, its
+scholastic methods of thought, its naive acceptance as science of
+everything that is written, and at the same time its shrewd and
+indiscriminate criticism of much that the age of criticism has accepted
+without doubt or question. The _Roman de la rose_, as might be supposed,
+set the example of an immense literature of allegorical poetry, which
+flourished more and more until the Renaissance. Some of these poems we
+have already mentioned, some will have to be considered under the head
+of the 15th century. But, as usually happens in such cases and was
+certain to happen in this case, the allegory which has seemed tedious to
+many, even in the original, became almost intolerable in the majority of
+the imitations.
+
+
+  Early didactic verse.
+
+  Artificial forms of verse.
+
+We have observed that, at least in the later section of the _Roman de la
+rose_, there is observable a tendency to import into the poem
+indiscriminate erudition. This tendency is now remote from our poetical
+habits; but in its own day it was only the natural result of the use of
+poetry for all literary purposes. It was many centuries before prose
+became recognized as the proper vehicle for instruction, and at a very
+early date verse was used as well for educational and moral as for
+recreative and artistic purposes. French verse was the first born of all
+literary mediums in modern European speech, and the resources of ancient
+learning were certainly not less accessible in France than in any other
+country. Dante, in his _De vulgari eloquio_, acknowledges the excellence
+of the didactic writers of the Langue d'Oil. We have already alluded to
+the _Bestiary_ of Philippe de Thaun, a Norman trouvere who lived and
+wrote in England during the reign of Henry Beauclerc. Besides the
+_Bestiary_, which from its dedication to Queen Adela has been
+conjectured to belong to the third decade of the 12th century, Philippe
+wrote also in French a _Liber de creaturis_, both works being translated
+from the Latin. These works of mystical and apocryphal physics and
+zoology became extremely popular in the succeeding centuries, and were
+frequently imitated. A moralizing turn was also given to them, which was
+much helped by the importation of several miscellanies of Oriental
+origin, partly tales, partly didactic in character, the most celebrated
+of which is the _Roman des sept sages_, which, under that title and the
+variant of _Dolopathos_, received repeated treatment from French writers
+both in prose and verse. The odd notion of an _Ovide moralise_ used to
+be ascribed to Philippe de Vitry, bishop of Meaux (1291?-1391?), a
+person complimented by Petrarch, but is now assigned to a certain
+Chretien Legonais. Art, too, soon demanded exposition in verse, as well
+as science. The favourite pastime of the chase was repeatedly dealt
+with, notably in the _Roi Modus_ (1325), mixed prose and verse; the
+_Deduits de la chasse_ (1387), of Gaston de Foix, prose; and the _Tresor
+de Venerie_ of Hardouin (1394), verse. Very soon didactic verse extended
+itself to all the arts and sciences. Vegetius and his military precepts
+had found a home in French octosyllables as early as the 12th century;
+the end of the same age saw the ceremonies of knighthood solemnly
+versified, and _napes_ (maps) _du monde_ also soon appeared. At last, in
+1245, Gautier of Metz translated from various Latin works into French
+verse a sort of encyclopaedia, while another, incongruous but known as
+_L'Image du monde_, exists from the same century. Profane knowledge was
+not the only subject which exercised didactic poets at this time.
+Religious handbooks and commentaries on the scriptures were common in
+the 13th and following centuries, and, under the title of _Castoiements,
+Enseignements_ and _Doctrinaux_, moral treatises became common. The most
+famous of these, the _Castoiement d'un pere a son fils_, falls under the
+class, already mentioned, of works due to oriental influence, being
+derived from the Indian _Panchatantra_. In the 14th century the
+influence of the _Roman de la rose_ helped to render moral verse
+frequent and popular. The same century, moreover, which witnessed these
+developments of well-intentioned if not always judicious erudition
+witnessed also a considerable change in lyrical poetry. Hitherto such
+poetry had chiefly been composed in the melodious but unconstrained
+forms of the romance and the pastourelle. In the 14th century the
+writers of northern France subjected themselves to severer rules. In
+this age arose the forms which for so long a time were to occupy French
+singers,--the ballade, the rondeau, the rondel, the triolet, the chant
+royal and others. These received considerable alterations as time went
+on. We possess not a few _Artes poeticae_, such as that of Eustache
+Deschamps at the end of the 14th century, that formerly ascribed to
+Henri de Croy and now to Molinet at the end of the 15th, and that of
+Thomas Sibilet in the 16th, giving particulars of them, and these
+particulars show considerable changes. Thus the term rondeau, which
+since Villon has been chiefly limited to a poem of 15 lines, where the
+9th and 15th repeat the first words of the first, was originally applied
+both to the rondel, a poem of 13 or 14 lines, where the first two are
+twice repeated integrally, and to the triolet, one of 8 only, where the
+first line occurs three times and the second twice. The last is an
+especially popular metre, and is found where we should least expect it,
+in the dialogue of the early farces, the speakers making up triolets
+between them. As these three forms are closely connected, so are the
+ballade and the chant royal, the latter being an extended and more
+stately and difficult version of the former, and the characteristic of
+both being the identity of rhyme and refrain in the several stanzas. It
+is quite uncertain at what time these fashions were first cultivated,
+but the earliest poets who appear to have practised them extensively
+were born at the close of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th
+centuries. Of these Guillaume de Machault (c. 1300-1380) is the oldest.
+He has left us 80,000 verses, never yet completely printed. Eustache
+Deschamps (c. 1340-c. 1410) was nearly as prolific, but more fortunate
+as more meritorious, the Societe des anciens Textes having at last
+provided a complete edition of him. Froissart the historian (1333-1410)
+was also an agreeable and prolific poet. Deschamps, the most famous as a
+poet of the three, has left us nearly 1200 ballades and nearly 200
+rondeaux, besides much other verse all manifesting very considerable
+poetical powers. Less known but not less noteworthy, and perhaps the
+earliest of all, is Jehannot de Lescurel, whose personality is obscure,
+and most of whose works are lost, but whose remains are full of grace.
+Froissart appears to have had many countrymen in Hainault and Brabant
+who devoted themselves to the art of versification; and the _Livre des
+cent ballades_ of the Marshal Boucicault (1366-1421) and his friends--c.
+1390--shows that the French gentleman of the 14th century was as apt at
+the ballade as his Elizabethan peer in England was at the sonnet.
+
+
+  Mysteries and miracles.
+
+_Early Drama._--Before passing to the prose writers of the middle ages,
+we have to take some notice of the dramatic productions of those
+times--productions of an extremely interesting character, but, like the
+immense majority of medieval literature, poetic in form. The origin or
+the revival of dramatic composition in France has been hotly debated,
+and it has been sometimes contended that the tradition of Latin comedy
+was never entirely lost, but was handed on chiefly in the convents by
+adaptations of the Terentian plays, such as those of the nun Hroswitha.
+There is no doubt that the mysteries (subjects taken from the sacred
+writings) and miracle plays (subjects taken from the legends of the
+saints and the Virgin) are of very early date. The mystery of the
+_Foolish Virgins_ (partly French, partly Latin), that of _Adam_ and
+perhaps that of _Daniel_, are of the 12th century, though due to unknown
+authors. Jean Bodel and Ruteboeuf, already mentioned, gave, the one that
+of _Saint Nicolas_ at the confines of the 12th and 13th, the other that
+of _Theophile_ later in the 13th itself. But the later moralities,
+soties, and farces seem to be also in part a very probable development
+of the simpler and earlier forms of the fabliau and of the tenson or
+jeu-parti, a poem in simple dialogue much used by both troubadours and
+trouveres. The fabliau has been sufficiently dealt with already. It
+chiefly supplied the subject; and some miracle-plays and farces are
+little more than fabliaux thrown into dialogue. Of the jeux-partis there
+are many examples, varying from very simple questions and answers to
+something like regular dramatic dialogue; even short romances, such as
+_Aucassin et Nicolette_, were easily susceptible of dramatization. But
+the _Jeu de la feuillie_ (or _feuillee_) of Adam de la Halle seems to be
+the earliest piece, profane in subject, containing something more than
+mere dialogue. The poet has not indeed gone far for his subject, for he
+brings in his own wife, father and friends, the interest being
+complicated by the introduction of stock characters (the doctor, the
+monk, the fool), and of certain fairies--personages already popular from
+the later romances of chivalry. Another piece of Adam's, _Le Jeu de
+Robin et Marion_, also already alluded to, is little more than a simple
+throwing into action of an ordinary pastourelle with a considerable
+number of songs to music. Nevertheless later criticism has seen, and not
+unreasonably, in these two pieces the origin in the one case of farce,
+and thus indirectly of comedy proper, in the other of comic opera.
+
+
+  Profane drama.
+
+For a long time, however, the mystery and miracle-plays remained the
+staple of theatrical performance, and until the 13th century actors as
+well as performers were more or less taken from the clergy. It has,
+indeed, been well pointed out that the offices of the church were
+themselves dramatic performances, and required little more than
+development at the hands of the mystery writers. The occasional festive
+outbursts, such as the Feast of Fools, that of the Boy Bishop and the
+rest, helped on the development. The variety of mysteries and miracles
+was very great. A single manuscript contains forty miracles of the
+Virgin, averaging from 1200 to 1500 lines each, written in octosyllabic
+couplets, and at least as old as the 14th century, most of them perhaps
+much earlier. The mysteries proper, or plays taken from the scriptures,
+are older still. Many of these are exceedingly long. There is a _Mystere
+de l'Ancien Testament_, which extends to many volumes, and must have
+taken weeks to act in its entirety. The _Mystere de la Passion_, though
+not quite so long, took several days, and recounts the whole history of
+the gospels. The best apparently of the authors of these pieces, which
+are mostly anonymous, were two brothers, Arnoul and Simon Greban
+(authors of the _Actes des apotres_, and in the first case of the
+_Passion_), c. 1450, while a certain Jean Michel (d. 1493) is credited
+with having continued the _Passion_ from 30,000 lines to 50,000. But
+these performances, though they held their ground until the middle of
+the 16th century and extended their range of subject from sacred to
+profane history--legendary as in the _Destruction de Troie_,
+contemporary as in the _Siege d'Orleans_--were soon rivalled by the more
+profane performances of the moralities, the farces and the soties. The
+palmy time of all these three kinds is the 15th century, while the
+Confrerie de la Passion itself, the special performers of the sacred
+drama, only obtained the licence constituting it by an ordinance of
+Charles VI. in 1402. In order, however, to take in the whole of the
+medieval theatre at a glance, we may anticipate a little. The
+Confraternity was not itself the author or performer of the profaner
+kind of dramatic performance. This latter was due to two other bodies,
+the clerks of the Bazoche and the Enfans sans Souci. As the
+Confraternity was chiefly composed of tradesmen and persons very similar
+to Peter Quince and his associates, so the clerks of the Bazoche were
+members of the legal profession of Paris, and the Enfans sans Souci were
+mostly young men of family. The morality was the special property of the
+first, the sotie of the second. But as the moralities were sometimes
+decidedly tedious plays, though by no means brief, they were varied by
+the introduction of farces, of which the jeux already mentioned were the
+early germ, and of which _L'Avocat Patelin_, dated by some about 1465
+and certainly about 200 years subsequent to Adam de la Halle, is the
+most famous example.
+
+
+  Moralities.
+
+  Soties.
+
+The morality was the natural result on the stage of the immense literary
+popularity of allegory in the _Roman de la rose_ and its imitations.
+There is hardly an abstraction, a virtue, a vice, a disease, or anything
+else of the kind, which does not figure in these compositions. There is
+Bien Advise and Mal Advise, the good boy and the bad boy of nursery
+stories, who fall in respectively with Faith, Reason and Humility, and
+with Rashness, Luxury and Folly. There is the hero Mange-Tout, who is
+invited to dinner by Banquet, and meets after dinner very unpleasant
+company in Colique, Goutte and Hydropisie. Honte-de-dire-ses-Peches
+might seem an anticipation of Puritan nomenclature to an English reader
+who did not remember the contemporary or even earlier _personae_ of
+Langland's poem. Some of these moralities possess distinct dramatic
+merit; among these is mentioned _Les Blasphemateurs_, an early and
+remarkable presentation of the Don Juan story. But their general
+character appears to be gravity, not to say dullness. The Enfans sans
+Souci, on the other hand, were definitely satirical, and nothing if not
+amusing. The chief of the society was entitled Prince des Sots, and his
+crown was a hood decorated with asses' ears. The sotie was directly
+satirical, and only assumed the guise of folly as a stalking-horse for
+shooting wit. It was more Aristophanic than any other modern form of
+comedy, and like its predecessor, it perished as a result of its
+political application. Encouraged for a moment as a political engine at
+the beginning of the 16th century, it was soon absolutely forbidden and
+put down, and had to give place in one direction to the lampoon and the
+prose pamphlet, in another to forms of comic satire more general and
+vague in their scope. The farce, on the other hand, having neither moral
+purpose nor political intention, was a purer work of art, enjoyed a
+wider range of subject, and was in no danger of any permanent
+extinction. Farcical interludes were interpolated in the mysteries
+themselves; short farces introduced and rendered palatable the
+moralities, while the sotie was itself but a variety of farce, and all
+the kinds were sometimes combined in a sort of tetralogy. It was a short
+composition, 500 verses being considered sufficient, while the morality
+might run to at least 1000 verses, the miracle-play to nearly double
+that number, and the mystery to some 40,000 or 50,000, or indeed to any
+length that the author could find in his heart to bestow upon the
+audience, or the audience in their patience to suffer from the author.
+The number of persons and societies who acted these performances grew to
+be very large, being estimated at more than 5000 towards the end of the
+15th century. Many fantastic personages came to join the Prince des
+Sots, such as the Empereur de Galilee, the Princes de l'Etrille, and des
+Nouveaux Maries, the Roi de l'Epinette, the Recteur des Fous. Of the
+pieces which these societies represented one only, that of _Maitre
+Patelin_, is now much known; but many are almost equally amusing.
+_Patelin_ itself has an immense number of versions and editions. Other
+farces are too numerous to attempt to classify; they bear, however, in
+their subjects, as in their manner, a remarkable resemblance to the
+fabliaux, their source. Conjugal disagreements, the unpleasantness of
+mothers-in-law, the shifty or, in the earlier stages, clumsy valet and
+chambermaid, the mishaps of too loosely given ecclesiastics, the abuses
+of relics and pardons, the extortion, violence, and sometimes cowardice
+of the seigneur and the soldiery, the corruption of justice, its delays
+and its pompous apparatus, supply the subjects. The treatment is rather
+narrative than dramatic in most cases, as might be expected, but makes
+up by the liveliness of the dialogue for the deficiency of elaborately
+planned action and interest. All these forms, it will be observed, are
+directly or indirectly comic. Tragedy in the middle ages is represented
+only by the religious drama, except for a brief period towards the
+decline of that form, when the "profane" mysteries referred to above
+came to be represented. These were, however, rather "histories," in the
+Elizabethan sense, than tragedies proper.
+
+
+  Early chronicles.
+
+  Villehardouin.
+
+  Joinville.
+
+_Prose History._--In France, as in all other countries of whose literary
+developments we have any record, literature in prose is considerably
+later than literature in verse. We have certain glosses or vocabularies
+possibly dating as far back as the 8th or even the 7th century; we have
+the Strassburg oaths, already described, of the 9th, and a commentary on
+the prophet Jonas which is probably as early. In the 10th century there
+are some charters and muniments in the vernacular; of the 11th the laws
+of William the Conqueror are the most important document; while the
+_Assises de Jerusalem_ of Godfrey of Bouillon date, though not in the
+form in which we now possess them, from the same age. The 12th century
+gives us certain translations of the Scriptures, and the remarkable
+Arthurian romances already alluded to; and thenceforward French prose,
+though long less favoured than verse, begins to grow in importance.
+History, as is natural, was the first subject which gave it a really
+satisfactory opportunity of developing its powers. For a time the French
+chroniclers contented themselves with Latin prose or with French verse,
+after the fashion of Wace and the Belgian, Philippe Mouskes (1215-1283).
+These, after a fashion universal in medieval times, began from fabulous
+or merely literary origins, and just as Wyntoun later carries back the
+history of Scotland to the terrestrial paradise, so does Mouskes start
+that of France from the rape of Helen. But soon prose chronicles, first
+translated, then original, became common; the earliest of all is said to
+have been that of the pseudo-Turpin, which thus recovered in prose the
+language which had originally clothed it in verse, and which, to gain a
+false appearance of authenticity, it had exchanged still earlier for
+Latin. Then came French selections and versions from the great series of
+historical compositions undertaken by the monks of St Denys, the
+so-called _Grandes Chroniques de France_ from the date of 1274, when
+they first took form in the hands of a monk styled Primat, to the reign
+of Charles V., when they assumed the title just given. But the first
+really remarkable author who used French prose as a vehicle of
+historical expression is Geoffroi de Villehardouin, marshal of
+Champagne, who was born rather after the middle of the 12th century, and
+died in Greece in 1212. Under the title of _Conquete de Constantinoble_
+Villehardouin has left us a history of the fourth crusade, which has
+been accepted by all competent judges as the best picture extant of
+feudal chivalry in its prime. The _Conquete de Constantinoble_ has been
+well called a chanson de geste in prose, and indeed in the surprising
+nature of the feats it celebrates, in the abundance of detail, and in
+the vivid and picturesque poetry of the narration, it equals the very
+best of the chansons. Even the repetition of the same phrases which is
+characteristic of epic poetry repeats itself in this epic prose; and as
+in the chansons so in Villehardouin, few motives appear but religious
+fervour and the love of fighting, though neither of these excludes a
+lively appetite for booty and a constant tendency to disunion and
+disorder. Villehardouin was continued by Henri de Valenciennes, whose
+work is less remarkable, and has more the appearance of a rhymed
+chronicle thrown into prose, a process which is known to have been
+actually applied in some cases. Nor is the transition from Villehardouin
+to Jean de Joinville (considerable in point of time, for Joinville was
+not born till ten years after Villehardouin's death) in point of
+literary history immediate. The rhymed chronicles of Philippe Mouskes
+and Guillaume Guiart belong to this interval; and in prose the most
+remarkable works are the _Chronique de Reims_, a well-written history,
+having the interesting characteristics of taking the lay and popular
+side, and the great compilation edited (in the modern sense) by Baudouin
+d'Avesnes (1213-1289). Joinville (? 1224-1317), whose special subject is
+the Life of St Louis, is far more modern than even the half-century
+which separates him from Villehardouin would lead us to suppose. There
+is nothing of the knight-errant about him personally, notwithstanding
+his devotion to his hero. Our Lady of the Broken Lances is far from
+being his favourite saint. He is an admirable writer, but far less
+simple than Villehardouin; the good King Louis tries in vain to make him
+share his own rather high-flown devotion. Joinville is shrewd,
+practical, there is even a touch of the Voltairean about him; but he,
+unlike his predecessor, has political ideas and antiquarian curiosity,
+and his descriptions are often very creditable pieces of deliberate
+literature.
+
+
+  Froissart.
+
+It is very remarkable that each of the three last centuries of feudalism
+should have had one specially and extraordinarily gifted chronicler to
+describe it. What Villehardouin is to the 12th and Joinville to the 13th
+century, that Jean Froissart (1337-1410) is to the 14th. His picture is
+the most famous as it is the most varied of the three, but it has
+special drawbacks as well as special merits. French critics have indeed
+been scarcely fair to Froissart, because of his early partiality to our
+own nation in the great quarrel of the time, forgetting that there was
+really no reason why he as a Hainaulter should take the French side. But
+there is no doubt that if the duty of an historian is to take in all the
+political problems of his time, Froissart certainly comes short of it.
+Although the feudal state in which knights and churchmen were alone of
+estimation was at the point of death, and though new orders of society
+were becoming important, though the distress and confusion of a
+transition state were evident to all, Froissart takes no notice of them.
+Society is still to him all knights and ladies, tournaments, skirmishes
+and feasts. He depicts these, not like Joinville, still less like
+Villehardouin, as a sharer in them, but with the facile and picturesque
+pen of a sympathizing literary onlooker. As the comparison of the
+_Conquete de Constantinoble_ with a chanson de geste is inevitable, so
+is that of Froissart's _Chronique_ with a roman d'aventures.
+
+For Provencal Literature see the separate article under that heading.
+
+_15th Century._--The 15th century holds a peculiar and somewhat disputed
+position in the history of French literature, as, indeed, it does in the
+history of the literature of all Europe, except Italy. It has sometimes
+been regarded as the final stage of the medieval period, sometimes as
+the earliest of the modern, the influence of the Renaissance in Italy
+already filtering through. Others again have taken the easy step of
+marking it as an age of transition. There is as usual truth in all these
+views. Feudality died with Froissart and Eustache Deschamps. The modern
+spirit can hardly be said to arise before Rabelais and Ronsard. Yet the
+15th century, from the point of view of French literature, is much more
+remarkable than its historians have been wont to confess. It has not the
+strongly marked and compact originality of some periods, and it
+furnishes only one name of the highest order of literary interest; but
+it abounds in names of the second rank, and the very difference which
+exists between their styles and characters testifies to the existence of
+a large number of separate forces working in their different manners on
+different persons. Its theatre we have already treated by anticipation,
+and to it we shall afterwards recur. It was the palmy time of the early
+French stage, and all the dramatic styles which we have enumerated then
+came to perfection. Of no other kind of literature can the same be said.
+The century which witnessed the invention of printing naturally devoted
+itself at first more to the spreading of old literature than to the
+production of new. Yet as it perfected the early drama, so it produced
+the prose tale. Nor, as regards individual and single names, can the
+century of Charles d'Orleans, of Alain Chartier, of Christine de Pisan,
+of Coquillart, of Comines, and, above all, of Villon, be said to lack
+illustrations.
+
+
+  Christine de Pisan.
+
+  Alain Chartier.
+
+  Charles d'Orleans.
+
+  Villon.
+
+  Cretin.
+
+First among the poets of the period falls to be mentioned the shadowy
+personality of Olivier Basselin. Modern criticism has attacked the
+identity of the jovial miller, who was once supposed to have written and
+perhaps invented the songs called _vaux de vire_, and to have also
+carried on a patriotic warfare against the English. But though Jean le
+Houx may have written the poems published under Basselin's name two
+centuries later, it is taken as certain that an actual Olivier wrote
+actual vaux de vire at the beginning of the 15th century. About
+Christine de Pisan (1363-1430) and Alain Chartier (1392-c. 1430) there
+is no such doubt. Christine was the daughter of an Italian astrologer
+who was patronized by Charles V. She was born in Italy but brought up in
+France, and she enriched the literature of her adopted country with much
+learning, good sense and patriotism. She wrote history, devotional works
+and poetry; and though her literary merit is not of the highest, it is
+very far from despicable. Alain Chartier, best known to modern readers
+by the story of _Margaret of Scotland's Kiss_, was a writer of a
+somewhat similar character. In both Christine and Chartier there is a
+great deal of rather heavy moralizing, and a great deal of rather
+pedantic erudition. But it is only fair to remember that the intolerable
+political and social evils of the day called for a good deal of
+moralizing, and that it was the function of the writers of this time to
+fill up as well as they could the scantily filled vessels of medieval
+science and learning. A very different person is Charles d'Orleans
+(1391-1465), one of the greatest of _grands seigneurs_, for he was the
+father of a king of France, and heir to the duchies of Orleans and
+Milan. Charles, indeed, if not a Roland or a Bayard, was an admirable
+poet. He is the best-known and perhaps the best writer of the graceful
+poems in which an artificial versification is strictly observed, and
+helps by its recurrent lines and modulated rhymes to give to poetry
+something of a musical accompaniment even without the addition of music
+properly so called. His ballades are certainly inferior to those of
+Villon, but his rondels are unequalled. For fully a century and a half
+these forms engrossed the attention of French lyrical poets. Exercises
+in them were produced in enormous numbers, and of an excellence which
+has only recently obtained full recognition even in France. Charles
+d'Orleans is himself sufficient proof of what can be done in them in the
+way of elegance, sweetness, and grace which some have unjustly called
+effeminacy. But that this effeminacy was no natural or inevitable fault
+of the ballades and the rondeaux was fully proved by the most remarkable
+literary figure of the 15th century in France. To Francois Villon
+(1431-1463?), as to other great single writers, no attempt can be made
+to do justice in this place. His remarkable life and character
+especially lie outside our subject. But he is universally recognized as
+the most important single figure of French literature before the
+Renaissance. His work is very strange in form, the undoubtedly genuine
+part of it consisting merely of two compositions, known as the great and
+little Testament, written in stanzas of eight lines of eight syllables
+each, with lyrical compositions in ballade and rondeau form
+interspersed. Nothing in old French literature can compare with the best
+of these, such as the "Ballade des dames du temps jadis," the "Ballade
+pour sa mere," "La Grosse Margot," "Les Regrets de la belle Heaulmiere,"
+and others; while the whole composition is full of poetical traits of
+the most extraordinary vigour, picturesqueness and pathos. Towards the
+end of the century the poetical production of the time became very
+large. The artificial measures already alluded to, and others far more
+artificial and infinitely less beautiful, were largely practised. The
+typical poet of the end of the 15th century is Guillaume Cretin (d.
+1525), who distinguished himself by writing verses with punning rhymes,
+verses ending with double or treble repetitions of the same sound, and
+many other tasteless absurdities, in which, as Pasquier remarks, "il
+perdit toute la grace et la liberte de la composition." The other
+favourite direction of the poetry of the time was a vein of allegorical
+moralizing drawn from the _Roman de la rose_ through the medium of
+Chartier and Christine, which produced "Castles of Love," "Temples of
+Honour," and such like. The combination of these drifts in verse-writing
+produced a school known in literary history, from a happy phrase of the
+satirist Coquillart (_v. inf._), as the "Grands Rhetoriqueurs." The
+chief of these besides Cretin were Jean Molinet (d. 1507); Jean
+Meschinot (c. 1420-1491), author of the _Lunettes des princes_;
+Florimond Robertet (d. 1522); Georges Chastellain (1404-1475), to be
+mentioned again; and Octavien de Saint-Gelais (1466-1502), father of a
+better poet than himself. Yet some of the minor poets of the time are
+not to be despised. Such are Henri Baude (1430-1490), a less pedantic
+writer than most, Martial d'Auvergne (1440-1508), whose principal work
+is _L'Amant rendu cordelier au service de l'amour_, and others, many of
+whom formed part of the poetical court which Charles d'Orleans kept up
+at Blois after his release.
+
+
+  Coquillart.
+
+While the serious poetry of the age took this turn, there was no lack of
+lighter and satirical verse. Villon, indeed, were it not for the depth
+and pathos of his poetical sentiment, might be claimed as a poet of the
+lighter order, and the patriotic diatribes against the English to which
+we have alluded easily passed into satire. The political quarrels of the
+latter part of the century also provoked much satirical composition. The
+disputes of the Bien Public and those between Louis XI. and Charles of
+Burgundy employed many pens. The most remarkable piece of the light
+literature of the first is "Les Anes Volants," a ballad on some of the
+early favourites of Louis. The battles of France and Burgundy were waged
+on paper between Gilles des Ormes and the above-named Georges
+Chastelain, typical representatives of the two styles of 15th-century
+poetry already alluded to--Des Ormes being the lighter and more graceful
+writer, Chastelain a pompous and learned allegorist. The most remarkable
+representative of purely light poetry outside the theatre is Guillaume
+Coquillart (1421-1510), a lawyer of Champagne, who resided for the
+greater part of his life in Reims. This city, like others, suffered from
+the pitiless tyranny of Louis XI. The beginnings of the standing army
+which Charles VII. had started were extremely unpopular, and the use to
+which his son put them by no means removed this unpopularity. Coquillart
+described the military man of the period in his _Monologue du gendarme
+casse_. Again, when the king entertained the idea of unifying the taxes
+and laws of the different provinces, Coquillart, who was named
+commissioner for this purpose, wrote on the occasion a satire called
+_Les Droits nouveaux_. A certain kind of satire, much less good-tempered
+than the earlier forms, became indeed common at this epoch. M. Lenient
+has well pointed out that a new satirical personification dominates this
+literature. It is no longer Renart with his cynical gaiety, or the
+curiously travestied and almost amiable Devil of the Middle Ages. Now it
+is Death as an incident ever present to the imagination, celebrated in
+the thousand repetitions of the _Danse Macabre_, sculptured all over the
+buildings of the time, even frequently performed on holidays and in
+public. With the usual tendency to follow pattern, the idea of the
+"dance" seems to have been extended, and we have a _Danse aux aveugles_
+(1464) from Pierre Michaut, where the teachers are fortune, love and
+death, all blind. All through the century, too, anonymous verse of the
+lighter kind was written, some of it of great merit. The folk-songs
+already alluded to, published by Gaston Paris, show one side of this
+composition, and many of the pieces contained in M. de Montaiglon's
+extensive _Recueil des anciennes poesies francaises_ exhibit others.
+
+The 15th century was perhaps more remarkable for its achievements in
+prose than in poetry. It produced, indeed, no prose writer of great
+distinction, except Comines; but it witnessed serious, if not extremely
+successful, efforts at prose composition. The invention of printing
+finally substituted the reader for the listener, and when this
+substitution has been effected, the main inducement to treat unsuitable
+subjects in verse is gone. The study of the classics at first hand
+contributed to the same end. As early as 1458 the university of Paris
+had a Greek professor. But long before this time translations in prose
+had been made. Pierre Bercheure (Bersuire) (1290-1352) had already
+translated Livy. Nicholas Oresme (c. 1334-1382), the tutor of Charles
+V., gave a version of certain Aristotelian works, which enriched the
+language with a large number of terms, then strange enough, now
+familiar. Raoul de Presles (1316-1383) turned into French the _De
+civitate Dei_ of St Augustine. These writers or others composed _Le
+Songe du vergier_, an elaborate discussion of the power of the pope. The
+famous chancellor, Jean Charlier or Gerson (1363-1429), to whom the
+_Imitation_ has among so many others been attributed, spoke constantly
+and wrote often in the vulgar tongue, though he attacked the most famous
+and popular work in that tongue, the _Roman de la rose_. Christine de
+Pisan and Alain Chartier were at least as much prose writers as poets;
+and the latter, while he, like Gerson, dealt much with the reform of the
+church, used in his _Quadriloge invectif_ really forcible language for
+the purpose of spurring on the nobles of France to put an end to her
+sufferings and evils. These moral and didactic treatises were but
+continuations of others, which for convenience sake we have hitherto
+left unnoticed. Though verse was in the centuries prior to the 15th the
+favourite medium for literary composition, it was by no means the only
+one; and moral and educational treatises--some referred to
+above--already existed in pedestrian phrase. Certain household books
+(_Livres de raison_) have been preserved, some of which date as far back
+as the 13th century. These contain not merely accounts, but family
+chronicles, receipts and the like. Accounts of travel, especially to the
+Holy Land, culminated in the famous _Voyage_ of Mandeville which, though
+it has never been of so much importance in French as in English, perhaps
+first took vernacular form in the French tongue. Of the 14th century, we
+have a _Menagier de Paris_, intended for the instruction of a young
+wife, and a large number of miscellaneous treatises of art, science and
+morality, while private letters, mostly as yet unpublished, exist in
+considerable numbers, and are generally of the moralizing character;
+books of devotion, too, are naturally frequent.
+
+
+  Early sermon-writers.
+
+  Comines.
+
+But the most important divisions of medieval energy in prose composition
+are the spoken exercises of the pulpit and the bar. The beginnings of
+French sermons have been much discussed, especially the question whether
+St Bernard, whose discourses we possess in ancient, but doubtfully
+contemporary French, pronounced them in that language or in Latin.
+Towards the end of the 12th century, however, the sermons of Maurice de
+Sully (1160-1196) present the first undoubted examples of homiletics in
+the vernacular, and they are followed by many others--so many indeed
+that the 13th century alone counts 261 sermon-writers, besides a large
+body of anonymous work. These sermons were, as might indeed be expected,
+chiefly cast in a somewhat scholastic form--theme, exordium,
+development, example and peroration following in regular order. The
+14th-century sermons, on the other hand, have as yet been little
+investigated. It must, however, be remembered that this age was the most
+famous of all for its scholastic illustrations, and for the early vigour
+of the Dominican and Franciscan orders. With the end of the century and
+the beginning of the 15th, the importance of the pulpit begins to
+revive. The early years of the new age have Gerson for their
+representative, while the end of the century sees the still more famous
+names of Michel Menot (1450-1518), Olivier Maillard (c. 1430-1502), and
+Jean Rauhn (1443-1514), all remarkable for the practice of a vigorous
+and homely style of oratory, recoiling before no aid of what we should
+nowadays style buffoonery, and manifesting a creditable indifference to
+the indignation of principalities and powers. Louis XI. is said to have
+threatened to throw Maillard into the Seine, and many instances of the
+boldness of these preachers and the rough vigour of their oratory have
+been preserved. Froissart had been followed as a chronicler by
+Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1390-1453) and by the historiographers of
+the Burgundian court, Chastelain, already mentioned, whose interesting
+_Chronique de Jacques de Lalaing_ is much the most attractive part of
+his work, and Olivier de la Marche. The memoir and chronicle writers,
+who were to be of so much importance in French literature, also begin to
+be numerous at this period. Juvenal des Ursins (1388-1473), an anonymous
+bourgeois de Paris (two such indeed), and the author of the _Chronique
+scandaleuse_, may be mentioned as presenting the character of minute
+observation and record which has distinguished the class ever since.
+Jean le maire de (not _des_) Belges (1473-c. 1525) was historiographer
+to Louis XII. and wrote _Illustrations des Gaules_. But Comines
+(1445-1509) is no imitator of Froissart or of any one else. The last of
+the quartette of great French medieval historians, he does not yield to
+any of his three predecessors in originality or merit, but he is very
+different from them. He fully represents the mania of the time for
+statecraft, and his book has long ranked with that of Machiavelli as a
+manual of the art, though he has not the absolutely non-moral character
+of the Italian. His memoirs, considered merely as literature, show a
+style well suited to their purport,--not, indeed, brilliant or
+picturesque, but clear, terse and thoroughly well suited to the
+expression of the acuteness, observation and common sense of their
+author.
+
+
+  The Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles.
+
+  Antoine de la Salle.
+
+  Influence of the Renaissance.
+
+But prose was not content with the domain of serious literature. It had
+already long possessed a respectable position as a vehicle of romance,
+and the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries were
+pre-eminently the time when the epics of chivalry were re-edited and
+extended in prose. Few, however, of these extensions offer much literary
+interest. On the other hand, the best prose of the century, and almost
+the earliest which deserves the title of a satisfactory literary medium,
+was employed for the telling of romances in miniature. The _Cent
+Nouvelles Nouvelles_ is undoubtedly the first work of prose
+belles-lettres in French, and the first, moreover, of a long and most
+remarkable class of literary work in which French writers may challenge
+all comers with the certainty of victory--the short prose tale of a
+comic character. This remarkable work has usually been attributed, like
+the somewhat similar but later _Heptameron_, to a knot of literary
+courtiers gathered round a royal personage, in this case the dauphin
+Louis, afterwards Louis XI. Some evidence has recently been produced
+which seems to show that this tradition, which attributed some of the
+tales to Louis himself, is erroneous, but the question is still
+undecided. The subjects of the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ are by no
+means new. They are simply the old themes of the fabliaux treated in the
+old way. The novelty is in the application of prose to such a purpose,
+and in the crispness, the fluency and the elegance of the prose used.
+The fortunate author or editor to whom these admirable tales have of
+late been attributed is Antoine de la Salle (1398-1461), who, if this
+attribution and certain others be correct, must be allowed to be one of
+the most original and fertile authors of early French literature. La
+Salle's one acknowledged work is the story of _Petit Jehan de Saintre_,
+a short romance exhibiting great command of character and abundance of
+delicate draughtsmanship. To this not only the authorship,
+part-authorship or editorship of the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_ has been
+added; but the still more famous and important work of _L'Avocat
+Patelin_ has been assigned by respectable, though of course
+conjecturing, authority to the same paternity. The generosity of critics
+towards La Salle has not even stopped here. A fourth masterpiece of the
+period, _Les Quinze Joies de mariage_, has also been assigned to him.
+This last work, like the other three, is satirical in subject, and shows
+for the time a wonderful mastery of the language. Of the fifteen joys of
+marriage, or, in other words, the fifteen miseries of husbands, each has
+a chapter assigned to it, and each is treated with the peculiar mixture
+of gravity and ridicule which it requires. All who have read the book
+confess its infinite wit and the grace of its style. It is true that it
+has been reproached with cruelty and with a lack of the moral sentiment.
+But humanity and morality were not the strong point of the 15th century.
+There is, it must be admitted, about most of its productions a lack of
+poetry and a lack of imagination, produced, it may be, partly by
+political and other conditions outside literature, but very observable
+in it. The old forms of literature itself had lost their interest, and
+new ones possessing strength to last and power to develop themselves had
+not yet appeared. It was impossible, even if the taste for it had
+survived, to spin out the old themes any longer. But the new forces
+required some time to set to work, and to avail themselves of the
+tremendous weapon which the press had put into their hands. When these
+things had adjusted themselves, literature of a varied and vigorous kind
+became once more possible and indeed necessary, nor did it take long to
+make its appearance.
+
+_16th Century._--In no country was the literary result of the
+Renaissance more striking and more manifold than in France. The double
+effect of the study of antiquity and the religious movement produced an
+outburst of literary developments of the most diverse kinds, which even
+the fierce and sanguinary civil dissensions of the Reformation did not
+succeed in checking. While the Renaissance in Italy had mainly exhausted
+its effects by the middle of the 16th century, while in Germany those
+effects only paved the way for a national literature, and did not
+themselves greatly contribute thereto, while in England it was not till
+the extreme end of the period that a great literature was
+forthcoming--in France almost the whole century was marked by the
+production of capital works in every branch of literary effort. Not even
+the 17th century, and certainly not the 18th, can show such a group of
+prose writers and poets as is formed by Calvin, St Francis de Sales,
+Montaigne, du Vair, Bodin, d'Aubigne, the authors of the _Satire
+Menippee_, Monluc, Brantome, Pasquier, Rabelais, des Periers, Herberay
+des Essarts, Amyot, Garnier, Marot, Ronsard and the rest of the
+"Pleiade," and finally Regnier. These great writers are not merely
+remarkable for the vigour and originality of their thoughts, the
+freshness, variety and grace of their fancy, the abundance of their
+learning and the solidity of their arguments in the cases where argument
+is required. Their great merit is the creation of a language and a style
+able to give expression to these good gifts. The foregoing account of
+the medieval literature of France will have shown sufficiently that it
+is not lawful to despise the literary capacities and achievements of the
+older French. But the old language, with all its merits, was ill-suited
+to be a vehicle for any but the simpler forms of literary composition.
+Pleasant or affecting tales could be told in it with interest and
+pathos. Songs of charming _naivete_ and grace could be sung; the
+requirements of the epic and the chronicle were suitably furnished. But
+it was barren of the terms of art and science; it did not readily lend
+itself to sustained eloquence, to impassioned poetry or to logical
+discussion. It had been too long accustomed to leave these things to
+Latin as their natural and legitimate exponent, and it bore marks of its
+original character as a _lingua rustica_, a tongue suited for homely
+conversation, for folk-lore and for ballads, rather than for the
+business of the forum and the court, the speculations of the study, and
+the declamation of the theatre. Efforts had indeed been made,
+culminating in the heavy and tasteless erudition of the schools of
+Chartier and Cretin, to supply the defect; but it was reserved for the
+16th century completely to efface it. The series of prose writers from
+Calvin to Montaigne, of poets from Marot to Regnier, elaborated a
+language yielding to no modern tongue in beauty, richness, flexibility
+and strength, a language which the reactionary purism of succeeding
+generations defaced rather than improved, and the merits of which have
+in still later days been triumphantly vindicated by the confession and
+the practice of all the greatest writers of modern France.
+
+
+  Marot.
+
+  Ronsard.
+
+  The Pleiade.
+
+_16th-Century Poetry._--The first few years of the 16th century were
+naturally occupied rather with the last developments of the medieval
+forms than with the production of the new model. The clerks of the
+Bazoche and the Confraternity of the Passion still produced and acted
+mysteries, moralities and farces. The poets of the "Grands
+Rhetoriqueurs" school still wrote elaborate allegorical poetry. Chansons
+de geste, rhymed romances and fabliaux had long ceased to be written.
+But the press was multiplying the contents of the former in the prose
+form which they had finally assumed, and in the _Cent Nouvelles
+Nouvelles_ there already existed admirable specimens of the short prose
+tale. There even were signs, as in some writers already mentioned and in
+Roger de Collerye, a lackpenny but light-hearted singer of the early
+part of the century, of definite enfranchisement in verse. But the first
+note of the new literature was sounded by Clement Marot (1496/7-1544).
+The son of an elder poet, Jehan des Mares called Marot (1463-1523),
+Clement at first wrote, like his father's contemporaries, allegorical
+and mythological poetry, afterwards collected in a volume with a
+charming title, _L'Adolescence clementine_. It was not till he was
+nearly thirty years old that his work became really remarkable. From
+that time forward till his death, about twenty years afterwards, he was
+much involved in the troubles and persecutions of the Huguenot party to
+which he belonged; nor was the protection of Marguerite d'Angouleme, the
+chief patroness of Huguenots and men of letters, always efficient. But
+his troubles, so far from harming, helped his literary faculties; and
+his epistles, epigrams, _blasons_ (descendants of the medieval _dits_),
+and _coq-a-l'ane_ became remarkable for their easy and polished style,
+their light and graceful wit, and a certain elegance which had not as
+yet been even attempted in any modern tongue, though the Italian
+humanists had not been far from it in some of their Latin compositions.
+Around Marot arose a whole school of disciples and imitators, such as
+Victor Brodeau (1470?-1540), the great authority on rondeaux, Maurice
+Sceve, a fertile author of blasons, Salel, Marguerite herself
+(1492-1549), of whom more hereafter, and Mellin de Saint Gelais
+(1491-1558). The last, son of the bishop named above, is a courtly
+writer of occasional pieces, who sustained as well as he could the
+_style marotique_ against Ronsard, and who has the credit of introducing
+the regular sonnet into French. But the inventive vigour of the age was
+so great that one school had hardly become popular before another pushed
+it from its stool, and even of the Marotists just mentioned Sceve and
+Salel are often regarded as chief and member respectively of a Lyonnese
+coterie, intermediate between the schools of Marot and of Ronsard,
+containing other members of repute such as Antoine Heroet and Charles
+Fontaine and claiming Louise Labe (_v. inf._) herself. Pierre de Ronsard
+(1524-1585) was the chief of this latter. At first a courtier and a
+diplomatist, physical disqualification made him change his career. He
+began to study the classics under Jean Daurat (1508-1588), and with his
+master and five other writers, Etienne Jodelle (1532-1573), Remy Belleau
+(1528-1577), Joachim du Bellay (1525-1560), Jean Antoine de Baif
+(1532-1589), and Pontus de Tyard (d. 1605, bishop of Chalons-sur-Saone),
+composed the famous "Pleiade." The object of this band was to bring the
+French language, in vocabulary, constructions and application, on a
+level with the classical tongues by borrowings from the latter. They
+would have imported the Greek licence of compound words, though the
+genius of the French language is but little adapted thereto; and they
+wished to reproduce in French the regular tragedy, the Pindaric and
+Horatian ode, the Virgilian epic, &c. But it is an error (though one
+which until recently was very common, and which perhaps requires pretty
+thorough study of their work completely to extirpate it) to suppose that
+they advocated or practised _indiscriminate_ borrowing. On the contrary
+both in du Bellay's famous manifesto, the _Deffense et illustration de
+la langue francaise_, and in Ronsard's own work, caution and attention
+to the genius and the tradition of French are insisted upon. Being all
+men of the highest talent, and not a few of them men of great genius,
+they achieved much that they designed, and even where they failed
+exactly to achieve it, they very often indirectly produced results as
+important and more beneficial than those which they intended. Their
+ideal of a separate poetical language distinct from that intended for
+prose use was indeed a doubtful if not a dangerous one. But it is
+certain that Marot, while setting an example of elegance and grace not
+easily to be imitated, set also an example of trivial and, so to speak,
+pedestrian language which was only too imitable. If France was ever to
+possess a literature containing something besides fabliaux and farces,
+the tongue must be enriched and strengthened. This accession of wealth
+and vigour it received from Ronsard and the Ronsardists. Doubtless they
+went too far and provoked to some extent the reaction which Malherbe
+led. Their importations were sometimes unnecessary. It is almost
+impossible to read the _Franciade_ of Ronsard, and not too easy to read
+the tragedies of Jodelle and Garnier, fine as the latter are in parts.
+But the best of Ronsard's sonnets and odes, the finest of du Bellay's
+_Antiquites de Rome_ (translated into English by Spenser), the exquisite
+_Vanneur_ of the same author, and the _Avril_ of Belleau, even the finer
+passages of d'Aubigne and du Bartas, are not only admirable in
+themselves, and of a kind not previously found in French literature, but
+are also such things as could not have been previously found, for the
+simple reason that the medium of expression was wanting. They
+constructed that medium for themselves, and no force of the reaction
+which they provoked was able to undo their work. Adverse criticism and
+the natural course of time rejected much that they had added. The
+charming diminutives they loved so much went out of fashion; their
+compounds (sometimes it must be confessed, justly) had their letters of
+naturalization promptly cancelled; many a gorgeous adjective, including
+some which could trace their pedigree to the earliest ages of French
+literature, but which bore an unfortunate likeness to the new-comers,
+was proscribed. But for all that no language has ever had its destiny
+influenced more powerfully and more beneficially by a small literary
+clique than the language of France was influenced by the example and
+disciples of that Ronsard whom for two centuries it was the fashion to
+deride and decry.
+
+
+  The Ronsardists.
+
+  Du Bartas.
+
+  D'Aubigne.
+
+In a sketch such as the present it is impossible to give a separate
+account of individual writers, the more important of whom will be found
+treated under their own names. The effort of the "Pleiade" proper was
+continued and shared by a considerable number of minor poets, some of
+them, as has been already noted, belonging to different groups and
+schools. Olivier de Magny (d. 1560) and Louise Labe (b. 1526) were poets
+and lovers, the lady deserving far the higher rank in literature. There
+is more depth of passion in the writings of "La Belle Cordiere," as this
+Lyonnese poetess was called, than in almost any of her contemporaries.
+Jacques Tahureau (1527-1555) scarcely deserves to be called a minor
+poet. There is less than the usual hyperbole in the contemporary
+comparison of him to Catullus, and he reminds an Englishman of the
+school represented nearly a century later by Carew, Randolph and
+Suckling. The title of a part of his poem--_Mignardises amoureuses de
+l'admiree_--is characteristic both of the style and of the time. Jean
+Doublet (c. 1528-c. 1580), Amadis Jamyn (c. 1530-1585), and Jean de la
+Taille (1540-1608) deserve mention at least as poets, but two other
+writers require a longer allusion. Guillaume de Salluste, seigneur du
+Bartas (1544-1590), whom Sylvester's translation, Milton's imitation,
+and the copious citations of Southey's _Doctor_, have made known if not
+familiar in England, was partly a disciple and partly a rival of
+Ronsard. His poem of _Judith_ was eclipsed by his better-known _La
+Divine Sepmaine_ or epic of the Creation. Du Bartas was a great user and
+abuser of the double compounds alluded to above, but his style possesses
+much stateliness, and has a peculiar solemn eloquence which he shared
+with the other French Calvinists, and which was derived from the study
+partly of Calvin and partly of the Bible. Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne
+(1552-1630), like du Bartas, was a Calvinist. His genius was of a more
+varied character. He wrote sonnets and odes as became a Ronsardist, but
+his chief poetical work is the satirical poem of _Les Tragiques_, in
+which the author brands the factions, corruptions and persecutions of
+the time, and in which there are to be found alexandrines of a strength,
+vigour and original cadence hardly to be discovered elsewhere, save in
+Corneille and Victor Hugo. Towards the end of the century, Philippe
+Desportes (1546-1606) and Jean Bertaut (1552-1611), with much enfeebled
+strength, but with a certain grace, continue the Ronsardizing tradition.
+Among their contemporaries must be noticed Jean Passerat (1534-1602), a
+writer of much wit and vigour and rather resembling Marot than Ronsard,
+and Vauquelin de la Fresnaye (1536-1607), the author of a valuable _Ars
+poetica_ and of the first French satires which actually bear that title.
+Jean le Houx (fl. c. 1600) continued, rewrote or invented the vaux de
+vire, commonly known as the work of Olivier Basselin, and already
+alluded to, while a still lighter and more eccentric verse style was
+cultivated by Etienne Tabourot des Accords (1549-1590), whose epigrams
+and other pieces were collected under odd titles, _Les Bigarrures, Les
+Touches_, &c. A curious pair are Guy du Faur de Pibrac (1529-1584) and
+Pierre Mathieu (b. 1563), authors of moral quatrains, which were learnt
+by heart in the schools of the time, replacing the distichs of the
+grammarian Cato, which, translated into French, had served the same
+purpose in the middle ages.
+
+
+  Regnier.
+
+The nephew of Desportes, Mathurin Regnier (1573-1613), marks the end,
+and at the same time perhaps the climax, of the poetry of the century. A
+descendant at once of the older Gallic spirit of Villon and Marot, in
+virtue of his consummate acuteness, terseness and wit, of the school of
+Ronsard by his erudition, his command of language, and his scholarship,
+Regnier is perhaps the best representative of French poetry at the
+critical time when it had got together all its materials, had lost none
+of its native vigour and force, and had not yet submitted to the
+cramping and numbing rules and restrictions which the next century
+introduced. The satirical poems of Regnier, and especially the admirable
+epistle to Rapin, in which he denounces and rebuts the critical dogmas
+of Malherbe, are models of nervous strength, while some of the elegies
+and odes contain expression not easily to be surpassed of the softer
+feelings of affection and regret. No poet has had more influence on the
+revival of French poetry in the last century than Regnier, and he had
+imitators in his own time, the chief of whom was Courval-Sonnet (Thomas
+Sonnet, sieur de Courval) (1577-1635), author of satires of some value
+for the history of manners.
+
+
+  Regular tragedy and comedy.
+
+  Garnier.
+
+  Larivey.
+
+_16th-Century Drama._--The change which dramatic poetry underwent during
+the 16th century was at least as remarkable as that undergone by poetry
+proper. The first half of the period saw the end of the religious
+mysteries, the licence of which had irritated both the parliament and
+the clergy. Louis XII., at the beginning of the century, was far from
+discouraging the disorderly but popular and powerful theatre in which
+the Confraternity of the Passion, the clerks of the Bazoche, and the
+Enfans sans souci enacted mysteries, moralities, soties and farces. He
+made them, indeed, an instrument in his quarrel with the papacy, just as
+Philippe le Bel had made use of the allegorical poems of Jehan de Meung
+and his fellows. Under his patronage were produced the chief works of
+Gringore or Gringoire (c. 1480-1547), by far the most remarkable writer
+of this class of composition. His _Prince des sots_ and his _Mystere de
+St Louis_ are among the best of their kind. An enormous volume of
+composition of this class was produced between 1500 and 1550. One
+morality by itself, _L'Homme juste et l'homme mondain_, contains some
+36,000 lines. But in 1548, when the Confraternity was formally
+established at the Hotel de Bourgogne, leave to play sacred subjects was
+expressly refused it. Moralities and soties dragged on under
+difficulties till the end of the century, and the farce, which is
+immortal, continually affected comedy. But the effect of the Renaissance
+was to sweep away all other vestiges of the medieval drama, at least in
+the capital. An entirely new class of subjects, entirely new modes of
+treatment, and a different kind of performers were introduced. The
+change naturally came from Italy. In the close relationship with that
+country which France had during the early years of the century, Italian
+translations of the classical masterpieces were easily imported. Soon
+French translations were made afresh of the _Electra_, the _Hecuba_, the
+_Iphigenia in Aulis_, and the French humanists hastened to compose
+original tragedies on the classical model, especially as exhibited in
+the Latin tragedian Seneca. It was impossible that the "Pleiade" should
+not eagerly seize such an opportunity of carrying out its principles,
+and one of its members, Jodelle (1532-1573), devoting himself mainly to
+dramatic composition, fashioned at once the first tragedy, _Cleopatre_,
+and the first comedy, _Eugene_, thus setting the example of the style of
+composition which for two centuries and a half Frenchmen were to regard
+as the highest effort of literary ambition. The amateur performance of
+these dramas by Jodelle and his friends was followed by a Bacchic
+procession after the manner of the ancients, which caused a great deal
+of scandal, and was represented by both Catholics and Protestants as a
+pagan orgy. The _Cleopatre_ is remarkable as being the first French
+tragedy, nor is it destitute of merit. It is curious that in this first
+instance the curt antithetic [Greek: stichomuthia], which was so long
+characteristic of French plays and plays imitated from them, and which
+Butler ridicules in his _Dialogue of Cat and Puss_, already appears.
+There appears also the grandiose and smooth but stilted declamation
+which came rather from the imitation of Seneca than of Sophocles, and
+the tradition of which was never to be lost. _Cleopatre_ was followed by
+_Didon_, which, unlike its predecessor, is entirely in alexandrines, and
+observes the regular alternation of masculine and feminine rhymes.
+Jodelle was followed by Jacques Grevin (1540?-1570) with a _Mort de
+Cesar_, which shows an improvement in tragic art, and two still better
+comedies, _Les Ebahis_ and _La Tresoriere_ by Jean de la Taille
+(1540-1608), who made still further progress towards the accepted French
+dramatic pattern in his _Saul furieux_ and his _Corrivaux_, Jacques, his
+brother (1541-1562), and Jean de la Peruse (1529-1554), who wrote a
+_Medee_. A very different poet from all these is Robert Garnier
+(1545-1601). Garnier is the first tragedian who deserves a place not too
+far below Rotrou, Corneille, Racine, Voltaire and Hugo, and who may be
+placed in the same class with them. He chose his subjects indifferently
+from classical, sacred and medieval literature. _Sedecie_, a play
+dealing with the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, is held to be
+his masterpiece, and _Bradamante_ deserves notice because it is the
+first tragi-comedy of merit in French, and because the famous confidant
+here makes his first appearance. Garnier's successor, Antoine de
+Monchretien or Montchrestien (c. 1576-1621), set the example of
+dramatizing contemporary subjects. His masterpiece is _L'Ecossaise_, the
+first of many dramas on the fate of Mary, queen of Scots. While tragedy
+thus clings closely to antique models, comedy, as might be expected in
+the country of the fabliaux, is more independent. Italy had already a
+comic school of some originality, and the French farce was too vigorous
+and lively a production to permit of its being entirely overlooked. The
+first comic writer of great merit was Pierre Larivey (c. 1550-c. 1612),
+an Italian by descent. Most if not all of his plays are founded on
+Italian originals, but the translations or adaptations are made with the
+greatest freedom, and almost deserve the title of original works. The
+style is admirable, and the skilful management of the action contrasts
+strongly with the languor, the awkward adjustment, and the lack of
+dramatic interest found in contemporary tragedians. Even Moliere found
+something to use in Larivey.
+
+_16th-Century Prose Fiction._--Great as is the importance of the 16th
+century in the history of French poetry, its importance in the history
+of French prose is greater still. In poetry the middle ages could fairly
+hold their own with any of the ages that have succeeded them. The epics
+of chivalry, whether of the cycles of Charlemagne, Arthur, or the
+classic heroes, not to mention the miscellaneous romans d'aventures,
+have indeed more than held their own. Both relatively and absolutely the
+_Franciade_ of the 16th century, the _Pucelle_ of the 17th, the
+_Henriade_ of the 18th, cut a very poor figure beside _Roland_ and
+_Percivale_, _Gerard de Roussillon_, and _Parthenopex de Blois_. The
+romances, ballads and pastourelles, signed and unsigned, of medieval
+France were not merely the origin, but in some respects the superiors,
+of the lyric poetry which succeeded them. Thibaut de Champagne, Charles
+d'Orleans and Villon need not veil their crests in any society of bards.
+The charming forms of the rondel, the rondeau and the ballade have won
+admiration from every competent poet and critic who has known them. The
+fabliaux give something more than promise of La Fontaine, and the two
+great compositions of the _Roman du Renart_ and the _Roman de la rose_,
+despite their faults and their alloy, will always command the admiration
+of all persons of taste and judgment who take the trouble to study them.
+But while poetry had in the middle ages no reason to blush for her
+French representatives, prose (always the younger and less forward
+sister) had far less to boast of. With the exception of chronicles and
+prose romances, no prose works of any real importance can be quoted
+before the end of the 15th century, and even then the chief if not the
+only place of importance must be assigned to the _Cent Nouvelles
+Nouvelles_, a work of admirable prose, but necessarily light in
+character, and not yet demonstrating the efficacy of the French language
+as a medium of expression for serious and weighty thought. Up to the
+time of the Renaissance and the consequent reformation, Latin had, as we
+have already remarked, been considered the sufficient and natural organ
+for this expression. In France as in other countries the disturbance in
+religious thought may undoubtedly claim the glory of having repaired
+this disgrace of the vulgar tongue, and of having fitted and taught it
+to express whatever thoughts the theologian, the historian, the
+philosopher, the politician and the savant had occasion to utter. But
+the use of prose as a vehicle for lighter themes was more continuous
+with the literature that preceded, and serves as a natural transition
+from poetry and the drama to history and science. Among the prose
+writers, therefore, of the 16th century we shall give the first place to
+the novelists and romantic writers.
+
+
+  Rabelais.
+
+Among these there can be no doubt of the precedence, in every sense of
+the word, of Francois Rabelais (c. 1490-1553), the one French writer (or
+with Moliere one of the two) whom critics the least inclined to
+appreciate the characteristics of French literature have agreed to place
+among the few greatest of the world. With an immense erudition
+representing almost the whole of the knowledge of his time, with an
+untiring faculty of invention, with the judgment of a philosopher, and
+the common sense of a man of the world, with an observation that let no
+characteristic of the time pass unobserved, and with a tenfold portion
+of the special Gallic gift of good-humoured satire, Rabelais united a
+height of speculation and depth of insight and a vein of poetical
+imagination rarely found in any writer, but altogether portentous when
+taken in conjunction with his other characteristics. His great work has
+been taken for an exercise of transcendental philosophy, for a concealed
+theological polemic, for an allegorical history of this and that
+personage of his time, for a merely literary utterance, for an attempt
+to tickle the popular ear and taste. It is all of these, and it is
+none--all of them in parts, none of them in deliberate and exclusive
+intention. It may perhaps be called the exposition and commentary of all
+the thoughts, feelings, aspirations and knowledge of a particular time
+and nation put forth in attractive literary form by a man who for once
+combined the practical and the literary spirit, the power of knowledge
+and the power of expression. The work of Rabelais is the mirror of the
+16th century in France, reflecting at once its comeliness and its
+uncomeliness, its high aspirations, its voluptuous tastes, its political
+and religious dissensions, its keen criticism, its eager appetite and
+hasty digestion of learning, its gleams of poetry, and its ferocity of
+manners. In Rabelais we can divine the "Pleiade" and Marot, the
+_Cymbalum mundi_ and Montaigne, Amyot and the _Amadis_, even Calvin and
+Duperron.
+
+
+  Des Periers.
+
+  The Heptameron.
+
+It was inevitable that such extraordinary works as _Gargantua_ and
+_Pantagruel_ should attract special imitators in the direction of their
+outward form. It was also inevitable that this imitation should
+frequently fix upon these Rabelaisian characteristics which are least
+deserving of imitation, and most likely to be depraved in the hands of
+imitators. It fell within the plan of the master to indulge in what has
+been called _fatrasie_, the huddling together, that is to say, of a
+medley of language and images which is best known to English readers in
+the not always successful following of Sterne. It pleased him also to
+disguise his naturally terse, strong and nervous style in a burlesque
+envelope of redundant language, partly ironical, partly the result of
+superfluous erudition, and partly that of a certain childish wantonness
+and exuberance, which is one of his raciest and pleasantest
+characteristics. In both these points he was somewhat corruptly
+followed. But fortunately the romancical writers of the 16th century had
+not Rabelais for their sole model, but were also influenced by the
+simple and straightforward style of the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_. The
+joint influence gives us some admirable work. Nicholas of Troyes, a
+saddler of Champagne, came too early (his _Grand Parangon des nouvelles
+nouvelles_ appeared in 1536) to copy Rabelais. But Noel du Fail (d. c.
+1585?), a judge at Rennes, shows the double influence in his _Propos
+rustiques_ and _Contes d'Eutrapel_, both of which, especially the
+former, are lively and well-written pictures of contemporary life and
+thought, as the country magistrate actually saw and dealt with them. In
+1558, however, appeared two works of far higher literary and social
+interest. These are the _Heptameron_ of the queen of Navarre, and the
+_Contes et joyeux devis_ of Bonaventure des Periers (c. 1500-1544). Des
+Periers, who was a courtier of Marguerite's, has sometimes been thought
+to have had a good deal to do with the first-named work as well as with
+the second, and was also the author of a curious Lucianic satire,
+strongly sceptical in cast, the _Cymbalum mundi_. Indeed, not merely the
+queen's prose works, but also the poems gracefully entitled _Les
+Marguerites de la Marguerite_, are often attributed to the literary men
+whom the sister of Francis I. gathered round her. However this may be,
+some single influence of power enough to give unity and distinctness of
+savour evidently presided over the composition of the _Heptameron_.
+Composed as it is on the model of Boccaccio, its tone and character are
+entirely different, and few works have a more individual charm. The
+_Tales_ of des Periers are shorter, simpler and more homely; there is
+more wit in them and less refinement. But both works breathe, more
+powerfully perhaps than any others, the peculiar mixture of cultivated
+and poetical voluptuousness with a certain religiosity and a vigorous
+spirit of action which characterizes the French Renaissance. Later in
+time, but too closely connected with Rabelais in form and spirit to be
+here omitted, came the _Moyen de parvenir_ of Beroalde de Verville
+(1558?-1612?), a singular _fatrasie_, uniting wit, wisdom, learning and
+indecency, and crammed with anecdotes which are always amusing though
+rarely decorous.
+
+
+  Amadis of Gaul.
+
+At the same time a fresh vogue was given to the chivalric romance by
+Herberay's translation of _Amadis de Gaula_. French writers have
+supposed a French original for the _Amadis_ in some lost roman
+d'aventures. It is of course impossible to say that this is not the
+case, but there is not one tittle of evidence to show that it is. At any
+rate the adventures of Amadis were prolonged in Spanish through
+generation after generation of his descendants. This vast work Herberay
+des Essarts in 1540 undertook to translate or retranslate, but it was
+not without the assistance of several followers that the task was
+completed. Southey has charged Herberay with corrupting the simplicity
+of the original, a charge which does not concern us here. It is
+sufficient to say that the French _Amadis_ is an excellent piece of
+literary work, and that Herberay deserves no mean place among the
+fathers of French prose. His book had an immense popularity; it was
+translated into many foreign languages, and for some time it served as a
+favourite reading book for foreigners studying French. Nor is it to be
+doubted that the romancers of the Scudery and Calprenede type in the
+next century were much more influenced both for good and harm by these
+Amadis romances than by any of the earlier tales of chivalry.
+
+_16th-Century Historians._--As in the case of the tale-tellers, so in
+that of the historians, the writers of the 16th century had traditions
+to continue. It is doubtful indeed whether many of them can risk
+comparison as artists with the great names cf Villehardouin and
+Joinville, Froissart and Comines. The 16th century, however, set the
+example of dividing the functions of the chronicler, setting those of
+the historian proper on one side, and of the anecdote-monger and
+biographer on the other. The efforts at regular history made in this
+century were not of the highest value. But on the other hand the
+practice of memoir-writing, in which the French were to excel every
+nation in the world, and of literary correspondence, in which they were
+to excel even their memoirs, was solidly founded.
+
+One of the earliest historical writers of the century was Claude de
+Seyssel (1450-1520), whose history of Louis XII. aims not unsuccessfully
+at style. De Thou (1553-1617) wrote in Latin, but Bernard de Girard,
+sieur du Haillan (1537-1610), composed a _Histoire de France_ on
+Thucydidean principles as transmitted through the successive mediums of
+Polybius, Guicciardini and Paulus Aemilius. The instance invariably
+quoted, after Thierry, of du Haillan's method is his introduction, with
+appropriate speeches, of two Merovingian statesmen who argue out the
+relative merits of monarchy and oligarchy on the occasion of the
+election of Pharamond. Besides du Haillan, la Popeliniere (c.
+1540-1608), who less ambitiously attempted a history of Europe during
+his own time, and expended immense labour on the collection of
+information and materials, deserves mention.
+
+
+  Brantome.
+
+There is no such poverty of writers of memoirs. Robert de la Mark, du
+Bellay, Marguerite de Valois (the youngest or third Marguerite, first
+wife of Henri IV., 1553-1615), Villars, Tavannes, La Tour d'Auvergne,
+and many others composed commentaries and autobiographies. The
+well-known and very agreeable _Histoire du gentil seigneur de Bayart_
+(1524) is by an anonymous "Loyal Serviteur." Vincent Carloix (fl. 1550),
+the secretary of the marshal de Vielleville, composed some memoirs
+abounding in detail and incident. The _Lettres_ of Cardinal d'Ossat
+(1536-1604) and the _Negociations_ of Pierre Jeannin (1540-1622) have
+always had a high place among documents of their kind. But there are
+four collections of memoirs concerning this time which far exceed all
+others in interest and importance. The turbulent dispositions of the
+time, the loose dependence of the nobles and even the smaller gentry on
+any single or central authority, the rapid changes of political
+situations, and the singularly active appetite, both for pleasure and
+for business, for learning and for war, which distinguished the French
+gentleman of the 16th century, place the memoirs of Francois de Lanoue
+(1531-1591), Blaise de Mon[t]luc (1503-1577), Agrippa d'Aubigne and
+Pierre de Bourdeille[s] Brantome (1540-1614) almost at the head of the
+literature of their class. The name of Brantome is known to all who have
+the least tincture of French literature, and the works of the others are
+not inferior in interest, and perhaps superior in spirit and conception,
+to the _Dames Galantes_, the _Grands Capitaines_ and the _Hommes
+illustres_. The commentaries of Montluc, which Henri Quatre is said to
+have called the soldier's Bible, are exclusively military and deal with
+affairs only. Montluc was governor in Guienne, where he repressed the
+savage Huguenots of the south with a savagery worse than their own. He
+was, however, a partisan of order, not of Catholicism. He hung and shot
+both parties with perfect impartiality, and refused to have anything to
+do with the massacre of St Bartholomew. Though he was a man of no
+learning, his style is excellent, being vivid, flexible and
+straightforward. Lanoue, who was a moderate in politics, has left his
+principles reflected in his memoirs. D'Aubigne, so often to be
+mentioned, gives the extreme Huguenot side as opposed to the royalist
+partisanship of Montluc and the _via media_ of Lanoue. Brantome, on the
+other hand, is quite free from any political or religious
+prepossessions, and, indeed, troubles himself very little about any such
+matters. He is the shrewd and somewhat cynical observer, moving through
+the crowd and taking note of its ways, its outward appearance, its
+heroisms and its follies. It is really difficult to say whether the
+recital of a noble deed of arms or the telling of a scandalous story
+about a court lady gave him the most pleasure, and impossible to say
+which he did best. Certainly he had ample material for both exercises in
+the history of his time.
+
+The branches of literature of which we have just given an account may be
+fairly connected, from the historical point of view, with work of the
+same kind that went before as well as with work of the same kind that
+followed them. It was not so with the literature of theology, law,
+politics and erudition, which the 16th century also produced, and with
+which it for the first time enlarged the range of composition in the
+vulgar tongue. Not only had Latin been invariably adopted as the
+language of composition on such subjects, but the style of the treatises
+dealing with such matters had been traditional rather than original. In
+speculative philosophy or metaphysics proper even this century did not
+witness a great development; perhaps, indeed, such a development was not
+to be expected until the minds of men had in some degree settled down
+from their agitation on more practical matters. It is not without
+significance that Calvin (1509-1564) is the great figure in serious
+French prose in the first half of the century, Montaigne the
+corresponding figure in the second half. After Calvin and Montaigne we
+expect Descartes.
+
+
+  Calvin.
+
+_16th-Century Theologians._--In France, as in all other countries, the
+Reformation was an essentially popular movement, though from special
+causes, such as the absence of political homogeneity, the nobles took a
+more active part both with pen and sword in it than was the case in
+England. But the great textbook of the French Reformation was not the
+work of any noble. Jean Calvin's _Institution of the Christian Religion_
+is a book equally remarkable in matter and in form, in circumstances and
+in result. It is the first really great composition in argumentative
+French prose. Its severe logic and careful arrangement had as much
+influence on the manner of future thought, both in France and the other
+regions whither its widespread popularity carried it, as its style had
+on the expression of such thought. It was the work of a man of only
+seven-and-twenty, and it is impossible to exaggerate the originality of
+its manner when we remember that hardly any models of French prose then
+existed except tales and chronicles, which required and exhibited
+totally different qualities of style. It is indeed probable that had not
+the _Institution_ been first written by its author in Latin, and
+afterwards translated by him, it might have had less dignity and vigour;
+but it must at the same time be remembered that this process of
+composition was at least equally likely, in the hands of any but a great
+genius, to produce a heavy and pedantic style neither French nor Latin
+in character. Something like this result was actually produced in some
+of Calvin's minor works, and still more in the works of many of his
+followers, whose lumbering language gained for itself, in allusion to
+their exile from France, the title of "style refugie." Nevertheless, the
+use of the vulgar tongue on the Protestant side, and the possession of a
+work of such importance written therein, gave the Reformers an immense
+advantage which their adversaries were some time in neutralizing. Even
+before the _Institution_, Lefevre d'Etaples (1455-1537) and Guillaume
+Farel (1489-1565) saw and utilized the importance of the vernacular.
+Calvin (1509-1564) was much helped by Pierre Viret (1511-1571), who
+wrote a large number of small theological and moral dialogues, and of
+satirical pamphlets, destined to captivate as well as to instruct the
+lower people. The more famous Beza (Theodore de Beze) (1519-1605) wrote
+chiefly in Latin, but he composed in French an ecclesiastical history of
+the Reformed churches and some translations of the Psalms. Marnix de
+Sainte Aldegonde (1530-1593), a gentleman of Brabant, followed Viret as
+a satirical pamphleteer on the Protestant side. On the other hand, the
+Catholic champions at first affected to disdain the use of the vulgar
+tongue, and their pamphleteers, when they did attempt it, were unequal
+to the task. Towards the end of the century a more decent war was waged
+with Philippe du Plessis Mornay (1549-1623) on the Protestant side,
+whose work is at least as much directed against freethinkers and enemies
+of Christianity in general as against the dogmas and discipline of Rome.
+His adversary, the redoubtable Cardinal du Perron (1556-1618), who,
+originally a Calvinist, went over to the other side, employed French
+most vigorously in controversial works, chiefly with reference to the
+eucharist. Du Perron was celebrated as the first controversialist of the
+time, and obtained dialectical victories over all comers. At the same
+time the bishop of Geneva, St Francis of Sales (1567-1622), supported
+the Catholic side, partly by controversial works, but still more by his
+devotional writings. The _Introduction to a Devout Life_, which, though
+actually published early in the next century, had been written some time
+previously, shares with Calvin's _Institution_ the position of the most
+important theological work of the period, and is in remarkable contrast
+with it in style and sentiment as well as in principles and plan. It has
+indeed been accused of a certain effeminacy, the appearance of which is
+in all probability mainly due to this very contrast. The 16th century
+does not, like the 17th, distinguish itself by literary exercises in the
+pulpit. The furious preachers of the League, and their equally violent
+opponents, have no literary value.
+
+
+  Montaigne.
+
+_16th-Century Moralists and Political Writers._--The religious
+dissensions and political disturbances of the time could not fail to
+exert an influence on ethical and philosophical thought. Yet, as we have
+said, the century was not prolific of pure philosophical speculation.
+The scholastic tradition, though long sterile, still survived, and with
+it the habit of composing in Latin all works in any way connected with
+philosophy. The _Logic_ of Ramus in 1555 is cited as the first departure
+from this rule. Other philosophical works are few, and chiefly express
+the doubt and the freethinking which were characteristic of the time.
+This doubt assumes the form of positive religious scepticism only in the
+_Cymbalum mundi_ of Bonaventure des Periers, a remarkable series of
+dialogues which excited a great storm, and ultimately drove the author
+to commit suicide. The _Cymbalum mundi_ is a curious anticipation of the
+18th century. The literature of doubt, however, was to receive its
+principal accession in the famous essays of Michel Eyguem, seigneur de
+Montaigne (1533-1592). It would be a mistake to imagine the existence of
+any sceptical propaganda in this charming and popular book. Its
+principle is not scepticism but egotism; and as the author was
+profoundly sceptical, this quality necessarily rather than intentionally
+appears. We have here to deal only very superficially with this as with
+other famous books, but it cannot be doubted that it expresses the
+mental attitude of the latter part of the century as completely as
+Rabelais expresses the mental attitude of the early part. There is
+considerably less vigour and life in this attitude. Inquiry and protest
+have given way to a placid conviction that there is not much to be found
+out, and that it does not much matter; the erudition though abundant is
+less indiscriminate, and is taken in and given out with less gusto;
+exuberant drollery has given way to quiet irony; and though neither
+business nor pleasure is decried, both are regarded rather as useful
+pastimes incident to the life of man than with the eager appetite of the
+Renaissance. From the purely literary point of view, the style is
+remarkable from its absence of pedantry In construction, and yet for its
+rich vocabulary and picturesque brilliancy. The follower and imitator of
+Montaigne, Pierre Charron (1541-1603), carried his master's scepticism
+to a somewhat more positive degree. His principal book, _De la sagesse_,
+scarcely deserves the comparative praise which Pope has given it. On the
+other hand Guillaume du Vair (1556-1621), a lawyer and orator, takes the
+positive rather than the negative side in morality, and regards the
+vicissitudes in human affairs from the religious and theological point
+of view in a series of works characterized by the special merit of the
+style of great orators.
+
+The revolutionary and innovating instinct which showed itself in the
+16th century with reference to church government and doctrine spread
+naturally enough to political matters. The intolerable disorder of the
+religious wars naturally set the thinkers of the age speculating on the
+doctrines of government in general. The favourite and general study of
+antiquity helped this tendency, and the great accession of royal power
+in all the monarchies of Europe invited a speculative if not a practical
+reaction. The persecutions of the Protestants naturally provoked a
+republican spirit among them, and the violent antipathy of the League to
+the houses of Valois and Bourbon made its partisans adopt almost openly
+the principles of democracy and tyrannicide.
+
+
+  Bodin.
+
+The greatest political writer of the age is Jean Bodin (1530-1596),
+whose _Republique_ is founded partly on speculative considerations like
+the political theories of the ancients, and partly on an extended
+historical inquiry. Bodin, like most lawyers who have taken the royalist
+side, is for unlimited monarchy, but notwithstanding this, he condemns
+religious persecution and discourages slavery. In his speculations on
+the connexion between forms of government and natural causes, he serves
+as a link between Aristotle and Montesquieu. On the other hand, the
+causes which we have mentioned made a large number of writers adopt
+opposite conclusions. Etienne de la Boetie (1530-1563), the friend of
+Montaigne's youth, composed the _Contre un or Discours de la servitude
+volontaire_, a protest against the monarchical theory. The boldness of
+the protest and the affectionate admiration of Montaigne have given la
+Boetie a much higher reputation than any extant work of his actually
+deserves. The _Contre un_ is a kind of prize essay, full of empty
+declamation borrowed from the ancients, and showing no grasp of the
+practical conditions of politics. Not much more historically based, but
+far more vigorous and original, is the _Franco-Gallia_ of Francois
+Hotmann (1524-1590), a work which appeared both in Latin and French,
+which extols the authority of the states-general, represents them as
+direct successors of the political institutions of Gauls and Franks, and
+maintains the right of insurrection. In the last quarter of the century
+political animosity knew no bounds. The Protestants beheld a divine
+instrument in Poltrot de Mere, the Catholics in Jacques Clement. The
+Latin treatises of Hubert Languet (1518-1581) and Buchanan formally
+vindicated--the first, like Hotmann, the right of rebellion based on an
+original contract between prince and people, the second the right of
+tyrannicide. Indeed, as Montaigne confesses, divine authorization for
+political violence was claimed and denied by both parties according as
+the possession or the expectancy of power belonged to each, and the
+excesses of the preachers and pamphleteers knew no bounds.
+
+
+  Satire Menippee.
+
+Every one, however, was not carried away. The literary merits of the
+chancellor Michel de l'Hopital (1507-1573) are not very great, but his
+efforts to promote peace and moderation were unceasing. On the other
+side Lanoue, with far greater literary gifts, pursued the same ends, and
+pointed out the ruinous consequences of continued dissension. Du Plessis
+Mornay took a part in political discussion even more important than that
+which he bore in religious polemics, and was of the utmost service to
+Henri Quatre in defending his cause against the League, as was also
+Hurault, another author of state papers. Du Vair, already mentioned,
+powerfully assisted the same cause by his successful defence of the
+Salic law, the disregard of which by the Leaguer states-general was
+intended to lead to the admission of the Spanish claim to the crown. But
+the foremost work against the League was the famous _Satire Menippee_
+(1594), in a literary point of view one of the most remarkable of
+political books. The _Menippee_ was the work of no single author, but
+was due, it is said, to the collaboration of five, Pierre Leroi, who has
+the credit of the idea, Jacques Gillot, Florent Chretien, Nicolas Rapin
+(1541-1596) and Pierre Pithou (1539-1596), with some assistance in verse
+from Passerat and Gilles Durand. The book is a kind of burlesque report
+of the meeting of the states-general, called for the purpose of
+supporting the views of the League in 1593. It gives an account of the
+procession of opening, and then we have the supposed speeches of the
+principal characters--the duc de Mayenne, the papal legate, the rector
+of the university (a ferocious Leaguer) and others. But by far the most
+remarkable is that attributed to Claude d'Aubray, the leader of the
+_Tiers Etat_, and said to be written by Pithou, in which all the evils
+of the time and the malpractices of the leaders of the League are
+exposed and branded. The satire is extraordinarily bitter and yet
+perfectly good-humoured. It resembles in character rather that of
+Butler, who unquestionably imitated it, than any other. The style is
+perfectly suited to the purpose, having got rid of almost all vestiges
+of the cumbrousness of the older tongue without losing its picturesque
+quaintness. It is no wonder that, as we are told by contemporaries, it
+did more for Henri Quatre than all other writings in his cause. In
+connexion with politics some mention of legal orators and writers may be
+necessary. In 1539 the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets enjoined the
+exclusive use of the French language in legal procedure. The bar and
+bench of France during the century produced, however, besides those
+names already mentioned in other connexions, only one deserving of
+special notice, that of Etienne Pasquier (1529-1615), author of a
+celebrated speech against the right of the Jesuits to take part in
+public teaching. This he inserted in his great work, _Recherches de la
+France_, a work dealing with almost every aspect of French history
+whether political, antiquarian or literary.
+
+
+  Amyot.
+
+_16th-Century Savants._--One more division, and only one, that of
+scientific and learned writers pure and simple, remains. Much of the
+work of this kind during the period was naturally done in Latin, the
+vulgar tongue of the learned. But in France, as in other countries, the
+study of the classics led to a vast number of translations, and it so
+happened that one of the translators deserves as a prose writer a rank
+among the highest. Many of the authors already mentioned contributed to
+the literature of translation. Des Periers translated the Platonic
+dialogue _Lysis_, la Boetie some works of Xenophon and Plutarch, du Vair
+the _De corona_, the _In Ctesiphontem_ and the _Pro Milone_. Salel
+attempted the _Iliad_, Belleau the false _Anacreon_, Baif some plays of
+Plautus and Terence. Besides these Lefevre d'Etaples gave a version of
+the Bible, Saliat one of Herodotus, and Louis Leroi (1510-1577), not to
+be confounded with the part author of the _Menippee_, many works of
+Plato, Aristotle and other Greek writers. But while most if not all of
+these translators owed the merits of their work to their originals, and
+deserved, much more deserve, to be read only by those to whom those
+originals are sealed, Jacques Amyot (1513-1593), bishop of Auxerre,
+takes rank as a French classic by his translations of Plutarch, Longus
+and Heliodorus. The admiration which Amyot excited in his own time was
+immense. Montaigne declares that it was thanks to him that his
+contemporaries knew how to speak and to write, and the Academy in the
+next age, though not too much inclined to honour its predecessors,
+ranked him as a model. His Plutarch, which had an enormous influence at
+the time, and coloured perhaps more than any classic the thoughts and
+writings of the 16th century, both in French and English, was then
+considered his masterpiece. Nowadays perhaps, and from the purely
+literary standpoint, that position would be assigned to his exquisite
+version of the exquisite story of Daphnis and Chloe. It is needless to
+say that absolute fidelity and exact scholarship are not the pre-eminent
+merits of these versions. They are not philological exercises, but works
+of art.
+
+On the other hand, Claude Fauchet (1530-1601) in two antiquarian works,
+_Antiquites gauloises et francoises_ and _L'Origine de la langue et de
+la poesie francaise_, displays a remarkable critical faculty in sweeping
+away the fables which had encumbered history. Fauchet had the (for his
+time) wonderful habit of consulting manuscripts, and we owe to him
+literary notices of many of the trouveres. At the same time Francois
+Grude, sieur de la Croix du Maine (1552-1592), and Antoine Duverdier
+(1544-1600) founded the study of bibliography in France. Pasquier's
+_Recherches_, already alluded to, carries out the principles of Fauchet
+independently, and besides treating the history of the past in a true
+critical spirit, supplies us with voluminous and invaluable information
+on contemporary politics and literature. He has, moreover, the merit
+which Fauchet had not, of being an excellent writer. Henri Estienne
+[Stephanus] (1528-1598) also deserves notice in this place, both for
+certain treatises on the French language, full of critical crotchets,
+and also for his curious _Apologie pour Herodote_, a remarkable book not
+particularly easy to class. It consists partly of a defence of its
+nominal subject, partly of satirical polemics on the Protestant side,
+and is filled almost equally with erudition and with the buffoonery and
+_fatrasie_ of the time. The book, indeed, was much too Rabelaisian to
+suit the tastes of those in whose defence it was composed.
+
+The 16th century is somewhat too early for us to speak of science, and
+such science as was then composed falls for the most part outside French
+literature. The famous potter, Bernard Palissy (1510-1590), however, was
+not much less skilful as a fashioner of words than as a fashioner of
+pots, and his description of the difficulties of his experiments in
+enamelling, which lasted sixteen years, is well known. The great surgeon
+Ambrose Pare (c. 1510-1590) was also a writer, and his descriptions of
+his military experiences at Turin, Metz and elsewhere have all the charm
+of the 16th-century memoir. The only other writers who require special
+mention are Olivier de Serres (1539-1619), who composed, under the title
+of _Theatre d'agriculture_, a complete treatise on the various
+operations of rural economy, and Jacques du Fouilloux (1521-1580), who
+wrote on hunting (_La Venerie_). Both became extremely popular and were
+frequently reprinted.
+
+
+  Malherbe.
+
+_17th-Century Poetry._--It is not always easy or possible to make the
+end or the beginning of a literary epoch synchronize exactly with
+historical dates. It happens, however, that for once the beginning of
+the 17th century coincides almost exactly with an entire revolution in
+French literature. The change of direction and of critical standard
+given by Francois de Malherbe (1556-1628) to poetry was to last for two
+whole centuries, and to determine, not merely the language and
+complexion, but also the form of French verse during the whole of that
+time. Accidentally, or as a matter of logical consequence (it would not
+be proper here to attempt to decide the question), poetry became almost
+synonymous with drama. It is true, as we shall have to point out, that
+there were, in the early part of the 17th century at least, poets,
+properly so called, of no contemptible merit. But their merit, in itself
+respectable, sank in comparison with the far greater merit of their
+dramatic rivals. Theophile de Viau and Racan, Voiture and Saint-Amant
+cannot for a moment be mentioned in the same rank with Corneille. It is
+certainly curious, if it is not something more than curious, that this
+decline in poetry proper should have coincided with the so-called
+reforms of Malherbe. The tradition of respect for this elder and more
+gifted Boileau was at one time all-powerful in France, and,
+notwithstanding the Romantic movement, is still strong. In rejecting a
+large number of the importations of the Ronsardists, he certainly did
+good service. But it is difficult to avoid ascribing in great measure to
+his influence the origin of the chief faults of modern French poetry,
+and modern French in general, as compared with the older language. He
+pronounced against "poetic diction" as such, forbade the overlapping
+(_enjambement_) of verse, insisted that the middle pause should be of
+sense as well as sound, and that rhyme must satisfy eye as well as ear.
+Like Pope, he sacrificed everything to "correctness," and, unluckily for
+French, the sacrifice was made at a time when no writer of an absolutely
+supreme order had yet appeared in the language. With Shakespeare and
+Milton, not to mention scores of writers only inferior to them, safely
+garnered, Pope and his followers could do us little harm. Corneille and
+Moliere unfortunately came after Malherbe. Yet it would be unfair to
+this writer, however badly we may think of his influence, to deny him
+talent, and even a certain amount of poetical inspiration. He had not
+felt his own influence, and the very influences which he despised and
+proscribed produced in him much tolerable and some admirable verse,
+though he is not to be named as a poet with Regnier, who had the
+courage, the sense and the good taste to oppose and ridicule his
+innovations. Of Malherbe's school, Honorat de Bueil, marquis de Racan
+(1589-1670), and Francois de Maynard (1582-1646) were the most
+remarkable. The former was a true poet, though not a very strong one.
+Like his master, he is best when he follows the models whom that master
+contemned. Perhaps more than any other poet, he set the example of the
+classical alexandrine, the smooth and melodious but monotonous and
+rather effeminate measure which Racine was to bring to the highest
+perfection, and which his successors, while they could not improve its
+smoothness, were to make more and more monotonous until the genius of
+Victor Hugo once more broke up its facile polish, supplied its stiff
+uniformity, and introduced vigour, variety, colour and distinctness in
+the place of its feeble sameness and its pale indecision. But the
+vigour, not to say the licence, of the 16th century could not thus die
+all at once. In Theophile de Viau (1591-1626) the early years of the
+17th century had their Villon. The later poet was almost as unfortunate
+as the earlier, and almost as disreputable, but he had a great share of
+poetical and not a small one of critical power. The _etoile enragee_
+under which he complains that he was born was at least kind to him in
+this respect; and his readers, after he had been forgotten for two
+centuries, have once more done him justice. Racan and Theophile were
+followed in the second quarter of the century by two schools which
+sufficiently well represented the tendencies of each. The first was that
+of Vincent Voiture (1598-1648), Isaac de Benserade (1612-1691), and
+other poets such as Claude de Maleville (1597-1647), author of _La Belle
+Matineuse_, who were connected more or less with the famous literary
+coterie of the Hotel de Rambouillet. Theophile was less worthily
+succeeded by a class, it can hardly be called a school of poets, some of
+whom, like Gerard Saint-Amant (1594-1660), wrote drinking songs of merit
+and other light pieces; others, like Paul Scarron (1610-1660) and
+Sarrasin (1603? 4? 5?-1654), devoted themselves rather to burlesque of
+serious verse. Most of the great dramatic authors of the time also wrote
+miscellaneous poetry, and there was even an epic school of the most
+singular kind, in ridiculing and discrediting which Boileau for once did
+undoubtedly good service. The _Pucelle_ of Jean Chapelain (1595-1674),
+the unfortunate author who was deliberately trained and educated for a
+poet, who enjoyed for some time a sort of dictatorship in French
+literature on the strength of his forthcoming work, and at whom from the
+day of its publication every critic of French literature has agreed to
+laugh, was the most famous and perhaps the worst of these. But Georges
+de Scudery (1601-1667) wrote an _Alaric_, the Pere le Moyne (1602-1671)
+a _Saint Louis_, Jean Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a dramatist
+and critic of some note, a _Clovis_, and Saint-Amant a _Moise_, which
+were not much better, though Theophile Gautier in his _Grotesques_ has
+valiantly defended these and other contemporary versifiers. And indeed
+it cannot be denied that even the epics, especially _Saint Louis_,
+contain flashes of finer poetry than France was to produce for more than
+a century outside of the drama. Some of the lighter poets and classes of
+poetry just alluded to also produced some remarkable verse. The
+_Precieuses_ of the Hotel Rambouillet, with all their absurdities,
+encouraged if they did not produce good literary work. In their society
+there is no doubt that a great reformation of manners took place, if not
+of morals, and that the tendency to literature elegant and polished, yet
+not destitute of vigour, which marks the 17th century, was largely
+developed side by side with much scandal-mongering and anecdotage. Many
+of the authors whom these influences inspired, such as Voiture,
+Saint-Evremond and others, have been or will be noticed. But even such
+poets and wits as Antoine Baudouin de Senece (1643-1737), Jean de
+Segrais (1624-1701), Charles Faulure de Ris, sieur de Charleval
+(1612-1693), Antoine Godeau (1605-1672), Jean Ogier de Gombaud
+(1590-1666), are not without interest in the history of literature;
+while if Charles Cotin (1604-1682) sinks below this level and deserves
+Moliere's caricature of him as Trissotin in _Les Femmes savantes_,
+Gilles de Menage (1630-1692) certainly rises above it, notwithstanding
+the companion satire of Vadius. Menage's name naturally suggests the
+_Ana_ which arose at this time and were long fashionable, stores of
+endless gossip, sometimes providing instruction and often amusement. The
+_Guirlande de Julie_, in which most of the poets of the time celebrated
+Julie d'Angennes, daughter of the marquise de Rambouillet, is perhaps
+the best of all such albums, and Voiture, the typical poet of the
+coterie, was certainly the best writer of _vers de societe_ who is known
+to us. The poetical war which arose between the Uranistes, the followers
+of Voiture, and the Jobistes, those of Benserade, produced reams of
+sonnets, epigrams and similar verses. This habit of occasional
+versification continued long. It led as a less important consequence to
+the rhymed _Gazettes_ of Jean Loret (d. 1665), which recount in
+octosyllabic verse of a light and lively kind the festivals and court
+events of the early years of Louis XIV. It led also to perhaps the most
+remarkable non-dramatic poetry of the century, the _Contes_ and _Fables_
+of Jean de la Fontaine (1621-1695). No French writer is better known
+than la Fontaine, and there is no need to dilate on his merits. It has
+been well said that he completes Moliere, and that the two together give
+something to French literature which no other literature possesses. Yet
+la Fontaine is after all only a writer of fabliaux, in the language and
+with the manners of his own century.
+
+All the writers we have mentioned belong more or less to the first half
+of the century, and so do Valentin Conrart (1603-1675), Antoine
+Furetiere (1626-1688), Chapelle (Claude Emmanuel) l'Huillier
+(1626-1686), and others not worth special mention. The latter half of
+the century is far less productive, and the poetical quality of its
+production is even lower than the quantity. In it Boileau (1636-1711) is
+the chief poetical figure. Next to him can only be mentioned Madame
+Deshoulieres (1638-1694), Guillaume de Brebeuf (1618-1661), the
+translator of Lucan, Philippe Quinault (1635-1688), the composer of
+opera libretti. Boileau's satire, where it has much merit, is usually
+borrowed direct from Horace. He had a certain faculty as a critic of the
+slashing order, and might have profitably used it if he had written in
+prose. But of his poetry it must be said, not so much that it is bad, as
+that it is not, in strictness, poetry at all, and the same is generally
+true of all those who followed him.
+
+
+  Hardy.
+
+  Rotrou.
+
+  Corneille.
+
+  Moliere.
+
+  Racine.
+
+  The Academy.
+
+_17th-Century Drama._--We have already seen how the medieval theatre was
+formed, and how in the second half of the 16th century it met with a
+formidable rival in the classical drama of Jodelle and Garnier. In 1588
+mysteries had been prohibited, and with the prohibition of the mysteries
+the Confraternity of the Passion lost the principal part of its reason
+for existence. The other bodies and societies of amateur actors had
+already perished, and at length the Hotel de Bourgogne itself, the home
+of the confraternity, had been handed over to a regular troop of actors,
+while companies of strollers, whose life has been vividly depicted in
+the _Roman comique_ of Scarron and the _Capitaine Fracasse_ of Theophile
+Gautier, wandered all about the provinces. The old farce was for a time
+maintained or revived by Tabarin, a remarkable figure in dramatic
+history, of whom but little is known. The great dramatic author of the
+first quarter of the 17th century was Alexandre Hardy (1569-1631), who
+surpassed even Heywood in fecundity, and very nearly approached the
+portentous productiveness of Lope de Vega. Seven hundred is put down as
+the modest total of Hardy's pieces, but not much more than a twentieth
+of these exist in print. From these latter we can judge Hardy. They are
+hardly up to the level of the worst specimens of the contemporary
+Elizabethan theatre, to which, however, they bear a certain resemblance.
+Marston's _Insatiate Countess_ and the worst parts of Chapman's _Bussy
+d'Ambois_ may give English readers some notion of them. Yet Hardy was
+not totally devoid of merit. He imitated and adapted Spanish literature,
+which was at this time to France what Italian was in the century before
+and English in the century after, in the most indiscriminate manner. But
+he had a considerable command of grandiloquent and melodramatic
+expression, a sound theory if not a sound practice of tragic writing,
+and that peculiar knowledge of theatrical art and of the taste of the
+theatrical public which since his time has been the special possession
+of the French playwright. It is instructive to compare the influence of
+his irregular and faulty genius with that of the regular and precise
+Malherbe. From Hardy to Rotrou is, in point of literary interest, a
+great step, and from Rotrou to Corneille a greater. Yet the theory of
+Hardy only wanted the genius of Rotrou and Corneille to produce the
+latter. Jean de Rotrou (1610-1650) has been called the French Marlowe,
+and there is a curious likeness and yet a curious contrast between the
+two poets. The best parts of Rotrou's two best plays, _Venceslas_ and
+_St Genest_, are quite beyond comparison in respect of anything that
+preceded them, and the central speech of the last-named play will rank
+with anything in French dramatic poetry. Contemporary with Rotrou were
+other dramatic writers of considerable dramatic importance, most of them
+distinguished by the faults of the Spanish school, its declamatory
+rodomontade, its conceits, and its occasionally preposterous action.
+Jean de Schelandre (d. 1635) has left us a remarkable work in _Tyr et
+Sidon_, which exemplifies in practice, as its almost more remarkable
+preface by Francois Ogier defends in principle, the English-Spanish
+model. Theophile de Viau in _Pyrame et Thisbe_ and in _Pasiphae_
+produced a singular mixture of the classicism of Garnier and the
+extravagancies of Hardy. Scudery in _l'Amour tyrannique_ and other plays
+achieved a considerable success. The _Marianne_ of Tristan (1601-1655)
+and the _Sophonisbe_ of Jean de Mairet (1604-1686) are the chief pieces
+of their authors. Mairet resembles Marston in something more than his
+choice of subject. Another dramatic writer of some eminence is Pierre du
+Ryer (1606-1648). But the fertility of France at this moment in dramatic
+authors was immense; nearly 100 are enumerated in the first quarter of
+the century. The early plays of Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) showed all
+the faults of his contemporaries combined with merits to which none of
+them except Rotrou, and Rotrou himself only in part, could lay claim.
+His first play was _Melite_, a comedy, and in _Clitandre_, a tragedy, he
+soon produced what may perhaps be not inconveniently taken as the
+typical piece of the school of Hardy. A full account of Corneille may be
+found elsewhere. It is sufficient to say here that his importance in
+French literature is quite as great in the way of influence and example
+as in the way of intellectual excellence. The _Cid_ and the _Menteur_
+are respectively the first examples of French tragedy and comedy which
+can be called modern. But this influence and example did not at first
+find many imitators. Corneille was a member of Richelieu's band of five
+poets. Of the other four Rotrou alone deserves the title; the remaining
+three, the prolific abbe de Boisrobert, Guillaume Colletet (whose most
+valuable work, a MS. _Lives of Poets_, was never printed, and burnt by
+the Communards in 1871), and Claude de Lestoile (1597-1651), are as
+dramatists worthy of no notice, nor were they soon followed by others
+more worthy. Yet before many years had passed the examples which
+Corneille had set in tragedy and in comedy were followed up by
+unquestionably the greatest comic writer, and by one who long held the
+position of the greatest tragic writer of France. Beginning with mere
+farces of the Italian type, and passing from these to comedies still of
+an Italian character, it was in _Les Precieuses ridicules_, acted in
+1659, that Moliere (1622-1673), in the words of a spectator, hit at last
+on "la bonne comedie." The next fifteen years comprise the whole of his
+best known work, the finest expression beyond doubt of a certain class
+of comedy that any literature has produced. The tragic masterpieces of
+Racine (1639-1699) were not far from coinciding with the comic
+masterpieces of Moliere, for, with the exception of the remarkable
+aftergrowth of _Esther_ and _Athalie_, they were produced chiefly
+between 1667 and 1677. Both Racine and Moliere fall into the class of
+writers who require separate mention. Here we can only remark that both
+to a certain extent committed and encouraged a fault which distinguished
+much subsequent French dramatic literature. This was the too great
+individualizing of one point in a character, and the making the man or
+woman nothing but a blunderer, a lover, a coxcomb, a tyrant and the
+like. The very titles of French plays show this influence--they are _Le
+Grondeur_, _Le Joueur_, &c. The complexity of human character is
+ignored. This fault distinguishes both Moliere and Racine from writers
+of the very highest order; and in especial it distinguishes the comedy
+of Moliere and the tragedy of Racine from the comedy and tragedy of
+Shakespeare. In all probability this and other defects of the French
+drama (which are not wholly apparent in the work of Moliere and
+Corneille, are shown in their most favourable light in those of Racine,
+and appear in all their deformity in the successors of the latter) arise
+from the rigid adoption of the Aristotelian theory of the drama with its
+unities and other restrictions, especially as transmitted by Horace
+through Boileau. This adoption was very much due to the influence of the
+French Academy, which was founded unofficially by Conrart in 1629, which
+received official standing six years later, and which continued the
+tradition of Malherbe in attempting constantly to school and correct, as
+the phrase went, the somewhat disorderly instincts of the early French
+stage. Even the Cid was formally censured for irregularity by it. But it
+is fair to say that Francois Hedelin, abbe d'Aubignac (1604-1676), whose
+_Pratique du theatre_ is the most wooden of the critical treatises of
+the time, was not an academician. It is difficult to say whether the
+subordination of all other classes of composition to the drama, which
+has ever since been characteristic of French literature, was or was not
+due to the predilection of Richelieu, the main protector if not exactly
+the founder of the Academy, for the theatre. Among the immediate
+successors and later contemporaries of the three great dramatists we do
+not find any who deserve high rank as tragedians, though there are some
+whose comedies are more than respectable. It is at least significant
+that the restrictions imposed by the academic theory on the comic drama
+were far less severe than those which tragedy had to undergo. The latter
+was practically confined, in respect of sources of attraction, to the
+dexterous manipulation of the unities; the interest of a plot attenuated
+as much as possible, and intended to produce, instead of pity a mild
+sympathy, and instead of terror a mild alarm (for the purists decided
+against Corneille that "admiration was not a tragic passion"); and
+lastly the composition of long tirades of smooth but monotonous verses,
+arranged in couplets tipped with delicately careful rhymes. Only Thomas
+Corneille (1625-1709), the inheritor of an older tradition and of a
+great name, deserves to be excepted from the condemnation to be passed
+on the lesser tragedians of this period. He was unfortunate in
+possessing his brother's name, and in being, like him, too voluminous in
+his compositions; but _Camma_, _Ariane_, _Le Comte d'Essex_, are not
+tragedies to be despised. On the other hand, the names of Jean de
+Campistron (1656-1723) and Nicolas Pradon (1632-1698) mainly serve to
+point injurious comparisons; Joseph Francois Duche (1668-1704) and
+Antoine La Fosse (1653-1708) are of still less importance, and
+Quinault's tragedies are chiefly remarkable because he had the good
+sense to give up writing them and to take to opera. The general
+excellence of French comedy, on the other hand, was sufficiently
+vindicated. Besides the splendid sum of Moliere's work, the two great
+tragedians had each, in _Le Menteur_ and _Les Plaideurs_, set a capital
+example to their successors, which was fairly followed. David Augustin
+de Brueys (1640-1723) and Jean Palaprat (1650-1721) brought out once
+more the ever new _Advocat Patelin_ besides the capital _Grondeur_
+already referred to. Quinault and Campistron wrote fair comedies.
+Florent Carton Dancourt (1661-1726), Charles Riviere Dufresny (c.
+1654-1724), Edmond Boursault (1638-1701), were all comic writers of
+considerable merit. But the chief comic dramatist of the latter period
+of the 17th century was Jean Francois Regnard (1655-1709), whose
+_Joueur_ and _Legataire_ are comedies almost of the first rank.
+
+
+  Heroic Romance.
+
+_17th-Century Fiction._--In the department of literature which comes
+between poetry and prose, that of romance-writing, the 17th century,
+excepting one remarkable development, was not very fertile. It devoted
+itself to so many new or changed forms of literature that it had no time
+to anticipate the modern novel. Yet at the beginning of the century one
+very curious form of romance-writing was diligently cultivated, and its
+popularity, for the time immense, prevented the introduction of any
+stronger style. It is remarkable that, as the first quarter of the 17th
+century was pre-eminently the epoch of Spanish influence in France, the
+distinctive satire of Cervantes should have been less imitated than the
+models which Cervantes satirized. However this may be, the romances of
+1600 to 1650 form a class of literature vast, isolated, and, perhaps, of
+all such classes of literature most utterly obsolete and extinct. Taste,
+affectation or antiquarian diligence have, at one time or another,
+restored to a just, and sometimes a more than just, measure of
+reputation most of the literary relics of the past. Romances of
+chivalry, fabliaux, early drama, Provencal poetry, prose chronicles,
+have all had, and deservedly, their rehabilitators. But _Polexandre_ and
+_Cleopatre_, _Clelie_ and the _Grand Cyrus_, have been too heavy for all
+the industry and energy of literary antiquarians. As we have already
+hinted, the nearest ancestry which can be found for them is the romances
+of the _Amadis_ type. But the _Amadis_, and in a less degree its
+followers, although long, are long in virtue of incident. The romances
+of the _Clelie_ type are long in virtue of interminable discourse,
+moralizing and description. Their manner is not unlike that of the
+_Arcadia_ and the _Euphues_ which preceded them in England; and they
+express in point of style the tendency which simultaneously manifested
+itself all over Europe at this period, and whose chief exponents were
+Gongora in Spain, Marini in Italy, and Lyly in England. Everybody knows
+the _Carte de Tendre_ which originally appeared in _Clelie_, while most
+people have heard of the shepherds and shepherdesses who figure in the
+_Astree_ of Honore D'Urfe (1568-1625), on the borders of the Lignon; but
+here general knowledge ends, and there is perhaps no reason why it
+should go much further. It is sufficient to say that Madeleine de
+Scudery (1607-1701) principally devotes herself in the books above
+mentioned to laborious gallantry and heroism, La Calprenede (1610-1663)
+in _Cassandre et Cleopatre_ to something which might have been the
+historical novel if it had been constructed on a less preposterous
+scale, and Marin le Roy de Gomberville (1600-1647) in _Polexandre_ to
+moralizings and theological discussions on Jansenist principles, while
+Pierre Camus, bishop of Belley (1582-1652), in _Palombe_ and others,
+approached still nearer to the strictly religious story. In the latter
+part of the century, the example of La Fontaine, though he himself wrote
+in poetry, helped to recall the tale-tellers of France to an occupation
+more worthy of them, more suitable to the genius of the literature, and
+more likely to last. The reaction against the _Clelie_ school produced
+first Madame de Villedieu (Catherine Desjardins) (1632-1692), a fluent
+and facile novelist, who enjoyed great but not enduring popularity. The
+form which the prose tale took at this period was that of the fairy
+story. Perrault (1628-1703) and Madame d'Aulnoy (d. 1705) composed
+specimens of this kind which have never ceased to be popular since.
+Hamilton (1646-1720), the author of the well-known _Memoires du comte de
+Gramont_, wrote similar stories of extraordinary merit in style and
+ingenuity. There is yet a third class of prose writing which deserves to
+be mentioned. It also may probably be traced to Spanish influence, that
+is to say, to the picaresque romances which the 16th and 17th centuries
+produced in Spain in large numbers. The most remarkable example of this
+is the _Roman comique_ of the burlesque writer Scarron. The _Roman
+bourgeois_ of Antoine Furetiere (1619-1688) also deserves mention as a
+collection of pictures of the life of the time, arranged in the most
+desultory manner, but drawn with great vividness, observation and skill.
+A remarkable writer who had great influence on Moliere has also to be
+mentioned in this connexion rather than in any other. This is Cyrano de
+Bergerac (1619-1655), who, besides composing doubtful comedies and
+tragedies, writing political pamphlets, and exercising the task of
+literary criticism in objecting to Scarron's burlesques, produced in his
+_Histoires comiques des etats et empires de la lune et du soleil_, half
+romantic and half satirical compositions, in which some have seen the
+original of _Gulliver's Travels_, in which others have discovered only a
+not very successful imitation of Rabelais, and which, without attempting
+to decide these questions, may fairly be ranked in the same class of
+fiction with the masterpieces of Swift and Rabelais, though of course at
+an immense distance below them. One other work, and in literary
+influence perhaps the most remarkable of its kind in the century,
+remains. Madame de Lafayette, Marie de la Vergne (1634-1692), the friend
+of La Rochefoucauld and of Madame de Sevigne, though she did not exactly
+anticipate the modern novel, showed the way to it in her stories, the
+principal of which are _Zaide_ and still more La _Princesse de Cleves_.
+The latter, though a long way from _Manon Lescaut_, _Clarissa_, or
+_Tom Jones_, is a longer way still from _Polexandre_ or the _Arcadia_.
+The novel becomes in it no longer a more or less fictitious chronicle,
+but an attempt at least at the display of character. _La Princesse de
+Cleves_ has never been one of the works widely popular out of their own
+country, nor perhaps does it deserve such popularity, for it has more
+grace than strength; but as an original effort in an important direction
+its historical value is considerable. But with this exception, the art
+of fictitious prose composition, except on a small scale, is certainly
+not one in which the century excelled, nor are any of the masterpieces
+which it produced to be ranked in this class.
+
+
+  J. G. de Balzac and modern French prose.
+
+_17th-Century Prose._--If, however, this was the case, it cannot be said
+that French prose as a whole was unproductive at this time. On the
+contrary, it was now, and only now, that it attained the strength and
+perfection for which it has been so long renowned, and which has
+perhaps, by a curious process of compensation, somewhat deteriorated
+since the restoration of poetry proper in France. The prose Malherbe of
+French literature was Jean Guez de Balzac (1594-1654). The writers of
+the 17th century had practically created the literary language of prose,
+but they had not created a prose style. The charm of Rabelais, of Amyot,
+of Montaigne, and of the numerous writers of tales and memoirs whom we
+have noticed, was a charm of exuberance, of naivete, of picturesque
+effect--in short, of a mixture of poetry and prose, rather than of prose
+proper. Sixteenth-century French prose is a delightful instrument in the
+hands of men and women of genius, but in the hands of those who have not
+genius it is full of defects, and indeed is nearly unreadable. Now,
+prose is essentially an instrument of all work. The poet who has not
+genius had better not write at all; the prose writer often may and
+sometimes must dispense with this qualification. He has need, therefore,
+of a suitable machine to help him to perform his task, and this machine
+it is the glory of Balzac to have done more than any other person to
+create. He produced himself no great work, his principal writings being
+letters, a few discourses and dissertations, and a work entitled _Le
+Socrate chretien_, a sort of treatise on political theology. But if the
+matter of his work is not of the first importance, its manner is of a
+very different value. Instead of the endless diffuseness of the
+preceding century, its ill-formed or rather unformed sentences, and its
+haphazard periods, we find clauses, sentences and paragraphs distinctly
+planned, shaped and balanced, a cadence introduced which is rhythmical
+but not metrical, and, in short, prose which is written knowingly
+instead of the prose which is unwittingly talked. It has been well said
+of him that he "_ecrit pour ecrire_"; and such a man, it is evident, if
+he does nothing else, sets a valuable example to those who write because
+they have something to say. Voiture seconded Balzac without much
+intending to do so. His prose style, also chiefly contained in letters,
+is lighter than that of his contemporary, and helped to gain for French
+prose the tradition of vivacity and sparkle which it has always
+possessed, as well as that of correctness and grace.
+
+_17th-century History._--In historical composition, especially in the
+department of memoirs, this period was exceedingly rich. At last there
+was written, in French, an entire history of France. The author was
+Francois Eudes de Mezeray (1610-1683), whose work, though not exhibiting
+the perfection of style at which some of his contemporaries had already
+arrived, and though still more or less uncritical, yet deserves the title
+of history. The example was followed by a large number of writers, some
+of extended works, some of histories in part. Mezeray himself is said to
+have had a considerable share in the _Histoire du roi Henri le grand_ by
+the archbishop Perefixe (1605-1670); Louis Maimbourg (1610-1686) wrote
+histories of the Crusades and of the League; Paul Pellisson (1624-1693)
+gave a history of Louis XIV. and a more valuable _Memoire_ in defence of
+the superintendent Fouquet. Still later in the century, or at the
+beginning of the next, the Pere d'Orleans (1644-1698) wrote a history of
+the revolutions of England, the Pere Daniel (1649-1728), like d'Orleans a
+Jesuit, composed a lengthy history of France and a shorter one on the
+French military forces. Finally, at the end of the period, comes the
+great ecclesiastical history of Claude Fleury (1640-1723), a work which
+perhaps belongs more to the section of erudition than to that of history
+proper. Three small treatises, however, composed by different authors
+towards the middle part of the century, supply remarkable instances of
+prose style in its application to history. These are the _Conjurations du
+comte de Fiesque_, written by the famous Cardinal de Retz (1613-1679),
+the _Conspiration de Walstein_ of Sarrasin, and the _Conjuration des
+Espagnols contre Venise_, composed in 1672 by the abbe de Saint-Real
+(1639-1692), the author of various historical and critical works
+deserving less notice. These three works, whose similarity of subject and
+successive composition at short intervals leave little doubt that a
+certain amount of intentional rivalry animated the two later authors, are
+among the earliest and best examples of the monographs for which French,
+in point of grace of style and lucidity of exposition, has long been the
+most successful vehicle of expression among European languages. Among
+other writers of history, as distinguished from memoirs, need only be
+noticed Agrippa d'Aubigne, whose _Histoire universelle_ closed his long
+and varied list of works, and Varillas (1624-1696), a historian chiefly
+remarkable for his extreme untrustworthiness. In point of memoirs and
+correspondence the period is hardly less fruitful than that which
+preceded it. The _Registres-Journaux_ of Pierre de l'Etoile (1540-1611)
+consist of a diary something of the Pepys character, kept for nearly
+forty years by a person in high official employment. The memoirs of Sully
+(1560-1641), published under a curious title too long to quote, date also
+from this time.
+
+Henri IV. himself has left a considerable correspondence, which is not
+destitute of literary merit, though not equal to the memoirs of his
+wife. What are commonly called Richelieu's _Memoirs_ were probably
+written to his order; his _Testament politique_ may be his own. Henri de
+Rohan (1579-1638) has not memoirs of the first value. Both this and
+earlier times found chronicle in the singular _Historiettes_ of Gedeon
+Tallemant des Reaux (1619-1690), a collection of anecdotes, frequently
+scandalous, reaching from the times of Henri IV. to those of Louis XIV.,
+to which may be joined the letters of Guy Patin (1602-1676). The early
+years of the latter monarch and the period of the Fronde had the
+cardinal de Retz himself, than whom no one was certainly better
+qualified for historian, not to mention a crowd of others, of whom we
+may mention Madame de Motteville (1621-1689), Jean Herault de Gourville
+(1625-1703), Mademoiselle de Montpensier ("La Grande Mademoiselle")
+(1627-1693), Conrart, Turenne and Mathieu Mole (1584-1663), Francois du
+Val, marquis de Fontenay-Mareuil (1594-1655), Arnauld d'Andilly
+(1588-1670). From this time memoirs and memoir writers were ever
+multiplying. The queen of them all is Madame de Sevigne (1626-1696), on
+whom, as on most of the great and better-known writers whom we have had
+and shall have to mention, it is impossible here to dwell at length. The
+last half of the century produced crowds of similar but inferior
+writers. The memoirs of Roger de Bussy-Rabutin (1618-1693) (author of a
+kind of scandalous chronicle called _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_) and
+of Madame de Maintenon (1635-1719) perhaps deserve notice above the
+others. But this was in truth the style of composition in which the age
+most excelled. Memoir-writing became the occupation not so much of
+persons who made history, as was the case from Comines to Retz, as of
+those who, having culture, leisure and opportunity of observation,
+devoted themselves to the task of recording the deeds of others, and
+still more of regarding the incidents of the busy, splendid and
+cultivated if somewhat frivolous world of the court, in which, from the
+time of Louis XIV.'s majority, the political life of the nation and
+almost its whole history were centred. Many, if not most, of these
+writers were women, who thus founded the celebrity of the French lady
+for managing her mother-tongue, and justified by results the taste and
+tendencies of the blue-stockings and precieuses of the Hotel Rambouillet
+and similar coteries. The life which these writers saw before them
+furnished them with a subject to be handled with the minuteness and care
+to which they had been accustomed in the ponderous romances of the
+_Clelie_ type, but also with the wit and terseness hereditary in France,
+and only temporarily absent in those ponderous compositions. The efforts
+of Balzac and the Academy supplied a suitable language and style, and
+the increasing tendency towards epigrammatic moralizing, which reached
+its acme in La Rochefoucauld (1663-1680) and La Bruyere (1639-1696),
+added in most cases point and attractiveness to their writings.
+
+
+  Descartes.
+
+  Malebranche.
+
+  Bayle.
+
+_17th-Century Philosophers and Theologians._--To these moralists we
+might, perhaps, not inappropriately pass at once. But it seems better to
+consider first the philosophical and theological developments of the
+age, which must share with its historical experiences and studies the
+credit of producing these writers. Philosophy proper, as we have already
+had occasion to remark, had hitherto made no use of the vulgar tongue.
+The 16th century had contributed a few vernacular treatises on logic, a
+considerable body of political and ethical writing, and a good deal of
+sceptical speculation of a more or less vague character, continued into
+our present epoch by such writers as Francois de la Mothe le Vayer
+(1588-1672), the last representative of the orthodox doubt of Montaigne
+and Charron. But in metaphysics proper it had not dabbled. The 17th
+century, on the contrary, was to produce in Rene Descartes (1596-1650),
+at once a master of prose style, the greatest of French philosophers,
+and one of the greatest metaphysicians, not merely of France and of the
+17th century, but of all countries and times. Even before Descartes
+there had been considerable and important developments of metaphysical
+speculation in France. The first eminent philosopher of French birth was
+Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). Gassendi devoted himself to the maintenance
+of a modernized form of the Epicurean doctrines, but he wrote mainly, if
+not entirely, in Latin. Another sceptical philosopher of a less
+scientific character was the physicist Gabriel Naude (1600-1653), who,
+like many others of the philosophers of the time, was accused of
+atheism. But as none of these could approach Descartes in philosophical
+power and originality, so also none has even a fraction of his
+importance in the history of French literature. Descartes stands with
+Plato, and possibly Berkeley and Malebranche, at the head of all
+philosophers in respect of style; and in his case the excellence is far
+more remarkable than in others, inasmuch as he had absolutely no models,
+and was forced in a great degree to create the language which he used.
+The _Discours de la methode_ is not only one of the epoch-making books
+of philosophy, it is also one of the epoch-making books of French style.
+The tradition of his clear and perfect expression was taken up, not
+merely by his philosophical disciples, but also by Blaise Pascal
+(1623-1662) and the school of Port Royal, who will be noticed presently.
+The very genius of the Cartesian philosophy was intimately connected
+with this clearness, distinctness and severity of style; and there is
+something more than a fanciful contrast between these literary
+characteristics of Descartes, on the one hand, and the elaborate
+splendour of Bacon, the knotty and crabbed strength of Hobbes, and the
+commonplace and almost vulgar slovenliness of Locke. Of the followers of
+Descartes, putting aside the Port Royalists, by far the most
+distinguished, both in philosophy and in literature, is Nicolas
+Malebranche (1638-1715). His _Recherche de la verite_, admirable as it
+is for its subtlety and its consecutiveness of thought, is equally
+admirable for its elegance of style. Malebranche cannot indeed, like his
+great master, claim absolute originality. But his excellence as a writer
+is as great as, if not greater than, that of Descartes, and the
+_Recherche_ remains to this day the one philosophical treatise of great
+length and abstruseness which, merely as a book, is delightful to
+read--not like the works of Plato and Berkeley, because of the
+adventitious graces of dialogue or description, but from the purity and
+grace of the language, and its admirable adjustment to the purposes of
+the argument. Yet, for all this, philosophy hardly flourished in France.
+It was too intimately connected with theological and ecclesiastical
+questions, and especially with Jansenism, to escape suspicion and
+persecution. Descartes himself was for much of his life an exile in
+Holland and Sweden; and though the unquestionable orthodoxy of
+Malebranche, the strongly religious cast of his works, and the
+remoteness of the abstruse region in which he sojourned from that of the
+controversies of the day, protected him, other followers of Descartes
+were not so fortunate. Holland, indeed, became a kind of city of refuge
+for students of philosophy, though even in Holland itself they were by
+no means entirely safe from persecution. By far the most remarkable of
+French philosophical sojourners in the Netherlands was Pierre Bayle
+(1647-1706), a name not perhaps of the first rank in respect of literary
+value, but certainly of the first as regards literary influence. Bayle,
+after oscillating between the two confessions, nominally remained a
+Protestant in religion. In philosophy he in the same manner oscillated
+between Descartes and Gassendi, finally resting in an equally nominal
+Cartesianism. Bayle was, in fact, both in philosophy and in religion,
+merely a sceptic, with a scepticism at once like and unlike that of
+Montaigne, and differenced both by temperament and by circumstance--the
+scepticism of the mere student, exercised more or less in all histories,
+sciences and philosophies, and intellectually unable or unwilling to
+take a side. His style is hardly to be called good, being diffuse and
+often inelegant. But his great dictionary, though one of the most
+heterogeneous and unmethodical of compositions, exercised an enormous
+influence. It may be called the Bible of the 18th century, and contains
+in the germ all the desultory philosophy, the ill-ordered scepticism,
+and the critical but negatively critical acuteness of the _Aufklarung_.
+
+
+  Jansenists.
+
+  Port Royal.
+
+  Pascal.
+
+We have said that the philosophical, theological and moral tendencies of
+the century, which produced, with the exception of its dramatic triumphs,
+all its greatest literary works, are almost inextricably intermingled.
+Its earliest years, however, bear in theological matters rather the
+complexion of the previous century. Du Perron and St Francis of Sales
+survived until nearly the end of its first quarter, and the most
+remarkable works of the latter bear the dates of 1608 and later. It was
+not, however, till some years had passed, till the counter-Reformation
+had reconverted the largest and most powerful portion of the Huguenot
+party, and till the influence of Jansenius and Descartes had time to
+work, that the extraordinary outburst of Gallican theology, both in
+pulpit and in press, took place. The Jansenist controversy may perhaps be
+awarded the merit of provoking this, as far as writing was concerned. The
+astonishing eloquence of contemporary pulpit oratory may be set down
+partly to the zeal for conversion of which du Perron and de Sales had
+given the example, partly to the same taste of the time which encouraged
+dramatic performances, for the sermon and the tirade have much in common.
+Jansenius himself, though a Dutchman by birth, passed much time in
+France, and it was in France that he found most disciples. These
+disciples consisted in the first place of the members of the society of
+Port Royal des Champs, a coterie after the fashion of the time, but one
+which devoted itself not to sonnets or madrigals but to devotional
+exercises, study and the teaching of youth. This coterie early adopted
+the Cartesian philosophy, and the Port Royal _Logic_ was the most
+remarkable popular handbook of that school. In theology they adopted
+Jansenism, and were in consequence soon at daggers drawn with the
+Jesuits, according to the polemical habits of the time. The most
+distinguished champions on the Jansenist side were Jean Duvergier de
+Hauranne, abbe de St Cyran (1581-1643), and Antoine Arnauld (1560-1619),
+but by far the most important literary results of the quarrel were the
+famous _Provinciales_ of Pascal, or, to give them their proper title,
+_Lettres ecrites a un provincial_. Their literary importance consists,
+not merely in their grace of style, but in the application to serious
+discussion of the peculiarly polished and quiet irony of which Pascal is
+the greatest master the world has ever seen. Up to this time controversy
+had usually been conducted either in the mere bludgeon fashion of the
+Scaligers and Saumaises--of which in the vernacular the Jesuit Francois
+Garasse (1585-1631) had already contributed remarkable examples to
+literary and moral controversy--or else in a dull and legal style, or
+lastly under an envelope of Rabelaisian buffoonery such as survives to a
+considerable extent in the _Satire Menippee_. Pascal set the example of
+combining the use of the most terribly effective weapons with good
+humour, good breeding and a polished style. The example was largely
+followed, and the manner of Voltaire and his followers in the 18th
+century owes at least as much to Pascal as their method and matter do to
+Bayle. The Jansenists, attacked and persecuted by the civil power, which
+the Jesuits had contrived to interest, were finally suppressed. But the
+_Provinciales_ had given them an unapproachable superiority in matter of
+argument and literature. Their other literary works were inferior, though
+still remarkable. Antoine Arnauld (the younger, often called "the great")
+(1612-1694) and Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) managed their native language
+with vigour if not exactly with grace. They maintained their orthodoxy by
+writings, not merely against the Jesuits, but also against the
+Protestants such as the _Perpetuite de la foi_ due to both, and the
+_Apologie des Catholiques_ written by Arnauld alone. The latter, besides
+being responsible for a good deal of the _Logic_ (_L'Art de penser_) to
+which we have alluded, wrote also much of a _Grammaire generale_ composed
+by the Port Royalists for the use of their pupils; but his principal
+devotion was to theology and theological polemics. To the latter Nicole
+also contributed _Les Visionnaires_, _Les Imaginaires_ and other works.
+The studious recluses of Port Royal also produced a large quantity of
+miscellaneous literary work, to which full justice has been done in
+Sainte-Beuve's well-known volumes.
+
+
+  Bossuet.
+
+  Fenelon.
+
+_17th-Century Preachers._--When we think of Gallican theology during the
+17th century, it is always with the famous pulpit orators of the period
+that thought is most busied. Nor is this unjust, for though the most
+prominent of them all, Jacques Benigne Bossuet (1627-1704) was
+remarkable as a writer of matter intended to be read, not merely as a
+speaker of matter intended to be heard, this double character is not
+possessed by most of the orthodox theologians of the time; and even
+Bossuet, great as is his genius, is more of a rhetorician than of a
+philosopher or a theologian. In no quarter was the advance of culture
+more remarkable in France than in the pulpit. We have already had
+occasion to notice the characteristics of French pulpit eloquence in the
+15th and 16th centuries. Though this was very far from destitute of
+vigour and imagination, the political frenzy of the preachers, and the
+habit of introducing anecdotic buffoonery, spoilt the eloquence of
+Maillard and of Raulin, of Boucher and of Rose. The powerful use which
+the Reformed ministers made of the pulpit stirred up their rivals; the
+advance in science and classical study added weight and dignity to the
+matter of their discourses. The improvement of prose style and language
+provided them with a suitable instrument, and the growth of taste and
+refinement purged their sermons of grossness and buffoonery, of personal
+allusions, and even, as the monarchy became more absolute, of direct
+political purpose. The earliest examples of this improved style were
+given by St Francis de Sales and by Fenouillet, bishop of Marseilles (d.
+1652); but it was not till the latter half of the century, when the
+troubles of the Fronde had completely subsided, and the church was
+established in the favour of Louis XIV., that the full efflorescence of
+theological eloquence took place. There were at the time pulpit orators
+of considerable excellence in England, and perhaps Jeremy Taylor,
+assisted by the genius of the language, has wrought a vein more precious
+than any which the somewhat academic methods and limitations of the
+French teachers allowed them to reach. But no country has ever been able
+to show a more magnificent concourse of orators, sacred or profane, than
+that formed by Bossuet, Fenelon (1651-1715), Esprit Flechier
+(1632-1710), Jules Mascaron (1634-1703), Louis Bourdaloue (1632-1704),
+and Jean Baptiste Massillon (1663-1742), to whom may be justly added the
+Protestant divines, Jean Claude (1619-1687) and Jacques Saurin
+(1677-1730). The characteristics of all these were different. Bossuet,
+the earliest and certainly the greatest, was also the most universal. He
+was not merely a preacher; he was, as we have said, a controversialist,
+indeed somewhat too much of a controversialist, as his battle with
+Fenelon proved. He was a philosophical or at least a theological
+historian, and his _Discours sur l'histoire universelle_ is equally
+remarkable from the point of view of theology, philosophy, history and
+literature. Turning to theological politics, he wrote his _Politique
+tiree de l'ecriture sainte_, to theology proper his _Meditations sur les
+evangiles_ and his _Elevations sur les mysteres_. But his principal
+work, after all, is his _Oraisons funebres_. The funeral sermon was the
+special oratorical exercise of the time. Its subject and character
+invited the gorgeous if somewhat theatrical commonplaces, the display of
+historical knowledge and parallel, and the moralizing analogies, in
+which the age specially rejoiced. It must also be noticed, to the credit
+of the preachers, that such occasions gave them an opportunity, rarely
+neglected, of correcting the adulation which was but too frequently
+characteristic of the period. The spirit of these compositions is fairly
+reflected in the most famous and often quoted of their phrases, the
+opening "Mes freres, Dieu seul est grand" of Massillon's funeral
+discourse on Louis XIV.; and though panegyric is necessarily by no means
+absent, it is rarely carried beyond bounds. While Bossuet made himself
+chiefly remarkable in his sermons and in his writings by an almost
+Hebraic grandeur and rudeness, the more special characteristics of
+Christianity, largely alloyed with a Greek and Platonic spirit,
+displayed themselves in Fenelon. In pure literature he is not less
+remarkable than in theology, politics and morals. His practice in
+matters of style was admirable, as the universally known _Telemaque_
+sufficiently shows to those who know nothing else of his writing. But
+his taste, both in its correctness and its audacity, is perhaps more
+admirable still. Despite of Malherbe, Balzac, Boileau and the traditions
+of nearly a century, he dared to speak favourably of Ronsard, and
+plainly expressed his opinion that the practice of his own
+contemporaries and predecessors had cramped and impoverished the French
+language quite as much as they had polished or purified it. The other
+doctors whom we have mentioned were more purely theological than the
+accomplished archbishop of Cambray. Flechier is somewhat more archaic in
+style than Bossuet or Fenelon, and he is also more definitely a
+rhetorician than either. Mascaron has the older fault of prodigal and
+somewhat indiscriminate erudition. But the two latest of the series,
+Bourdaloue and Massillon, had far the greatest repute in their own time
+purely as orators, and perhaps deserved this preference. The difference
+between the two repeated that between du Perron and de Sales.
+Bourdaloue's great forte was vigorous argument and unsparing
+denunciation, but he is said to have been lacking in the power of
+influencing and affecting his hearers. His attraction was purely
+intellectual, and it is reflected in his style, which is clear and
+forcible, but destitute of warmth and colour. Massillon, on the other
+hand, was remarkable for his pathos, and for his power of enlisting and
+influencing the sympathies of his hearers. Of minor preachers on the
+same side, Charles de la Rue, a Jesuit (1643-1725), and the Pere
+Cheminais (1652-1680), according to a somewhat idle form of
+nomenclature, "the Racine of the pulpit," may be mentioned. The two
+Protestant ministers whom we have mentioned, though inferior to their
+rivals, yet deserve honourable mention among the ecclesiastical writers
+of the period. Claude engaged in a controversy with Bossuet, in which
+victory is claimed for the invincible eagle of Meaux. Saurin, by far the
+greater preacher of the two, long continued to occupy, and indeed still
+occupies, in the libraries of French Protestants, the position given to
+Bossuet and Massillon on the other side.
+
+_17th-Century Moralists._--It is not surprising that the works of
+Montaigne and Charron, with the immense popularity of the former, should
+have inclined the more thoughtful minds in France to moral reflection,
+especially as many other influences, both direct and indirect,
+contributed to produce the same result. The constant tendency of the
+refinements in French prose was towards clearness, succinctness and
+precision, the qualities most necessary in the moralist. The
+characteristics of the prevailing philosophy, that of Descartes, pointed
+in the same direction. It so happened, too, that the times were more
+favourable to the thinker and writer on ethical subjects than to the
+speculator in philosophy proper, in theology or in politics. Both the
+former subjects exposed their cultivators, as we have seen, to the
+suspicion of unorthodoxy; and to political speculation of any kind the
+rule of Richelieu, and still more that of Louis XIV., were in the
+highest degree unfavourable. No successors to Bodin and du Vair
+appeared; and even in the domain of legal writings, which comes nearest
+to that of politics, but few names of eminence are to be found.
+
+
+  Pascal and pensee-writing.
+
+  Saint-Evremond.
+
+  La Rochefoucauld.
+
+  La Bruyere.
+
+Only the name of Omer-Talon (1595-1652) really illustrates the legal
+annals of France at this period on the bench, and that of Olivier Patru
+(1604-1681) at the bar. Thus it happened that the interests of many
+different classes of persons were concentrated upon moralizings, which
+took indeed very different forms in the hands of Pascal and other grave
+and serious thinkers of the Jansenist complexion in theology, and in
+those of literary courtiers like Saint-Evremond (1613-1703) and La
+Rochefoucauld, whose chief object was to depict the motives and
+characters prominent in the brilliant and not altogether frivolous
+society in which they moved. Both classes, however, were more or less
+tempted by the cast of their thoughts and the genius of the language to
+adopt the tersest and most epigrammatic form of expression possible, and
+thus to originate the "_pensee_" in which, as its greatest later writer,
+Joubert, has said, "the ambition of the author is to put a book into a
+page, a page into a phrase, and a phrase into a word." The great genius
+and admirable style of Pascal are certainly not less shown in his
+_Pensees_ than in his _Provinciales_, though perhaps the literary form
+of the former is less strikingly supreme than that of the latter. The
+author is more dominated by his subject and dominates it less. Nicole, a
+far inferior writer as well as thinker, has also left a considerable
+number of _Pensees_, which have about them something more of the essay
+and less of the aphorism. They are, however, though not comparable to
+Pascal, excellent in matter and style, and go far to justify Bayle in
+calling their author "l'une des plus belles plumes de l'Europe." In
+sharp contrast with these thinkers, who are invariably not merely
+respecters of religion but ardently and avowedly religious, who treat
+morality from the point of view of the Bible and the church, there arose
+side by side with them, or only a little later, a very different group
+of moralists, whose writings have been as widely read, and who have had
+as great a practical and literary influence as perhaps any other class
+of authors. The earliest to be born and the last to die of these was
+Charles de Saint-Denis, seigneur de saint-Evremond (1613-1703).
+Saint-Evremond was long known rather as a conversational wit, some of
+whose good things were handed about in manuscript, or surreptitiously
+printed in foreign lands, than as a writer, and this is still to a
+certain extent his reputation. He was at least as cynical as his still
+better known contemporary La Rochefoucauld, if not more so, and he had
+less intellectual force and less nobility of character. But his wit was
+very great, and he set the example of the brilliant societies of the
+next century. Many of Saint-Evremond's printed works are nominally works
+of literary criticism, but the moralizing spirit pervades all of them.
+No writer had a greater influence on Voltaire, and through Voltaire on
+the whole course of French literature after him. In direct literary
+value, however, no comparison can be made between Saint-Evremond and the
+author of the _Sentences et maximes morales_. Francois, duc de la
+Rochefoucauld (1613-1680), has other literary claims besides those of
+this famous book. His _Memoires_ were very favourably judged by his
+contemporaries, and they are still held to deserve no little praise even
+among the numerous and excellent works of the kind which that age of
+memoir-writers produced. But while the _Memoires_ thus invite
+comparison, the _Maximes et sentences_ stand alone. Even allowing that
+the mere publication of detached reflections in terse language was not
+absolutely new, it had never been carried, perhaps has never since been
+carried, to such a perfection. Beside La Rochefoucauld all other writers
+are diffuse, vacillating, unfinished, rough. Not only is there in him
+never a word too much, but there is never a word too little. The thought
+is always fully expressed, not compressed. Frequently as the metaphor of
+minting or stamping coin has been applied to the art of managing words,
+it has never been applied so appropriately as to the maxims of La
+Rochefoucauld. The form of them is almost beyond praise, and its
+excellencies, combined with their immense and enduring popularity, have
+had a very considerable share in influencing the character of subsequent
+French literature. Of hardly less importance in this respect, though of
+considerably less intellectual and literary individuality, was the
+translator of Theophrastus and the author of the _Caracteres_, La
+Bruyere. Jean de la Bruyere (1645-1696), though frequently epigrammatic,
+did not aim at the same incredible terseness as the author of the
+_Maximes_. His plan did not, indeed, render it necessary. Both in
+England and in France there had been during the whole of the century a
+mania for character writing, both of the general and Theophrastic kind,
+and of the historical and personal order. The latter, of which our own
+Clarendon is perhaps the greatest master, abound in the French memoirs
+of the period. The former, of which the naive sketches of Earle and
+Overbury are English examples, culminated in those of La Bruyere, which
+are not only light and easy in manner and matter, but also in style
+essentially amusing, though instructive as well. Both he and La
+Rochefoucauld had an enduring effect on the literature which followed
+them--an effect perhaps superior to that exercised by any other single
+work in French, except the _Roman de la rose_ and the _Essais_ of
+Montaigne.
+
+
+  Controversy between Ancients and Moderns.
+
+_17th-century Savants._--Of the literature of the 17th century there
+only remains to be dealt with the section of those writers who devoted
+themselves to scientific pursuits or to antiquarian erudition of one
+form or another. It was in this century that literary criticism of
+French and in French first began to be largely composed, and after this
+time we shall give it a separate heading. It was very far, however, from
+attaining the excellence or observing the form which it afterwards
+assumed. The institution of the Academy led to various linguistic works.
+One of the earliest of these was the _Remarques_ of the Savoyard Claude
+Favre de Vaugelas (1595-1650), afterwards re-edited by Thomas Corneille.
+Pellisson wrote a history of the Academy itself when it had as yet but a
+brief one. The famous _Examen du Cid_ was an instance of the literary
+criticism of the time which was afterwards represented by Rene Rapin
+(1621-1687), Dominique Bouhours (1628-1702) and Rene de Bossu
+(1631-1680), while Adrien Baillet (1649-1706) has collected the largest
+thesaurus of the subject in his _Jugemens des savants_. Boileau set the
+example of treating such subjects in verse, and in the latter part of
+the century _Reflexions_, _Discourses_, _Observations_, and the like, on
+particular styles, literary forms and authors, became exceedingly
+numerous. In earlier years France possessed a numerous band of classical
+scholars of the first rank, such as Scaliger and Casaubon, who did not
+lack followers. But all or almost all this sort of work was done in
+Latin, so that it contributed little to French literature properly
+so-called, though the translations from the classics of Nicolas Perrot
+d'Ablancourt (1606-1664) have always taken rank among the models of
+French style. On the other hand, mathematical studies were pursued by
+persons of far other and far greater genius, and, taking from this time
+forward a considerable position in education and literature in France,
+had much influence on both. The mathematical discoveries of Pascal and
+Descartes are well known. Of science proper, apart from mathematics,
+France did not produce many distinguished cultivators in this century.
+The philosophy of Descartes was not on the whole favourable to such
+investigations, which were in the next century to be pursued with
+ardour. Its tendencies found more congenial vent and are more thoroughly
+exemplified in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns.
+This, of Italian origin, was mainly started in France by Charles
+Perrault (1628-1703), who thereby rendered much less service to
+literature than by his charming fairy tales. The opposite side was taken
+by Boileau, and the fight was afterwards revived by Antoine Houdar[d, t]
+de la Motte (1672-1731), a writer of little learning but much talent in
+various ways, and by the celebrated Madame Dacier, Anne Lefevre
+(1654-1720). The discussion was conducted, as is well known, without
+very much knowledge or judgment among the disputants on the one side or
+on the other. But at this very time there were in France students and
+scholars of the most profound erudition. We have already mentioned
+Fleury and his ecclesiastical history. But Fleury is only the last and
+the most popular of a race of omnivorous and untiring scholars, whose
+labours have ever since, until the modern fashion of first-hand
+investigations came in, furnished the bulk of historical and scholarly
+references and quotations. To this century belong le Nain de Tillemont
+(1637-1698), whose enormous _Histoire des empereurs_ and _Memoires pour
+servir a l'histoire ecclesiastique_ served Gibbon and a hundred others
+as quarry; Charles Dufresne, seigneur de Ducange (1614-1688), whose
+well-known glossary was only one of numerous productions; Jean Mabillon
+(1632-1707), one of the most voluminous of the voluminous Benedictines;
+and Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741), chief of all authorities of the
+dry-as-dust kind on classical archaeology and art.
+
+_Opening of the 18th Century._--The beginning of the 18th century is
+among the dead seasons of French literature. All the greatest men whose
+names had illustrated the early reign of Louis XIV. in profane
+literature passed away long before him, and the last if the least of
+them, Boileau and Thomas Corneille, only survived into the very earliest
+years of the new age. The political and military disasters of the last
+years of the reign were accompanied by a state of things in society
+unfavourable to literary development. The devotion to pure literature
+and philosophy proper which Descartes and Corneille had inspired had
+died out, and the devotion to physical science, to sociology, and to a
+kind of free-thinking optimism which was to inspire Voltaire and the
+Encyclopedists had not yet become fashionable. Fenelon and Malebranche
+still survived, but they were emphatically men of the last age, as was
+Massillon, though he lived till nearly the middle of the century. The
+characteristic literary figures of the opening years of the period are
+d'Aguesseau, Fontenelle, Saint-Simon, personages in many ways
+interesting and remarkable, but purely transitional in their
+characteristics. Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657-1757) is, indeed,
+perhaps the most typical figure of the time. He was a dramatist, a
+moralist, a philosopher, physical and metaphysical, a critic, an
+historian, a poet and a satirist. The manner of his works is always easy
+and graceful, and their matter rarely contemptible.
+
+
+  J. B. Rousseau.
+
+  Voltaire (poetry).
+
+_18th-Century Poetry._--The dispiriting signs shown during the 17th
+century by French poetry proper received entire fulfilment in the
+following age. The two poets who were most prominent at the opening of
+the period were the abbe de Chaulieu (1639-1720) and the marquis de la
+Fare (1644-1712), poetical or rather versifying twins who are always
+quoted together. They were both men who lived to a great age, yet their
+characteristics are rather those of their later than of their earlier
+contemporaries. They derive on the one hand from the somewhat trifling
+school of Voiture, on the other from the Bacchic sect of Saint-Amant;
+and they succeed in uniting the inferior qualities of both with the
+cramped and impoverished though elegant style of which Fenelon had
+complained. Their compositions are as a rule lyrical, as lyrical poetry
+was understood after the days of Malherbe--that is to say, quatrains of
+the kind ridiculed by Moliere, and Pindaric odes, which have been justly
+described as made up of alexandrines after the manner of Boileau cut up
+into shorter or longer lengths. They were followed, however, by the one
+poet who succeeded in producing something resembling poetry in this
+artificial style, J. B. Rousseau (1671-1741). Rousseau, who in some
+respects was nothing so little as a religious poet, was nevertheless
+strongly influenced, as Marot had been, by the Psalms of David. His
+_Odes_ and his _Cantates_ are perhaps less destitute of that spirit than
+the work of any other poet of the century excepting Andre Chenier.
+Rousseau was also an extremely successful epigrammatist, having in this
+respect, too, resemblances to Marot. Le Franc de Pompignan (1700-1784),
+to whom Voltaire's well-known sarcasms are not altogether just, and
+Louis Racine (1692-1763), who wrote pious and altogether forgotten
+poems, belonged to the same poetical school; though both the style and
+matter of Racine are strongly tinctured by his Port Royalist sympathies
+and education. Lighter verse was represented in the 18th century by the
+long-lived Saint-Aulaire (1643-1742), by Gentil Bernard (1710-1775), by
+the abbe (afterwards cardinal) de Bernis (1715-1794), by Claude Joseph
+Dorat (1734-1780), by Antoine Bertin (1752-1790) and by Evariste de
+Parny (1753-1814), the last the most vigorous, but all somewhat
+deserving the term applied to Dorat of _ver luisant du Parnasse_. The
+jovial traditions of Saint-Amant begat a similar school of anacreontic
+songsters, which, represented in turn by Charles Francois Panard
+(1674-1765), Charles Colle (1709-1783), Armand Gouffe (1775-1845), and
+Marc-Antoine-Madeleine Desaugiers (1772-1827), led directly to the best
+of all such writers, Beranger. To this class Rouget de Lisle (1760-1836)
+perhaps also belongs; though his most famous composition, the
+_Marseillaise_, is of a different stamp. Nor is the account of the light
+verse of the 18th century complete without reference to a long
+succession of fable writers, who, in an unbroken chain, connect La
+Fontaine in the 17th century with Viennet in the 19th. None of the
+links, however, of this chain, with the exception of Jean Pierre Florian
+(1759-1794) deserve much attention. The universal faculty of Voltaire
+(1694-1778) showed itself in his poetical productions no less than in
+his other works, and it is perhaps not least remarkable in verse. It is
+impossible nowadays to regard the _Henriade_ as anything but a highly
+successful prize poem, but the burlesque epic of _La Pucelle_,
+discreditable as it may be from the moral point of view, is remarkable
+enough as literature.
+
+
+  Chenier.
+
+The epistles and satires are among the best of their kind, the verse
+tales are in the same way admirable, and the epigrams, impromptus, and
+short miscellaneous poems generally are the _ne plus ultra_ of verse
+which is not poetry. The Anglomania of the century extended into poetry,
+and the _Seasons_ of Thomson set the example of a whole library of
+tedious descriptive verse, which in its turn revenged France upon
+England by producing or helping to produce English poems of the Darwin
+school. The first of these descriptive performances was the _Saisons_ of
+Jean Francois de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803), identical in title with its
+model, but of infinitely inferior value. Saint-Lambert was followed by
+Jacques Delille (1738-1813) in _Les Jardins_, Antoine Marin le Mierre
+(1723-1793) in _Les Fastes_, and Jean Antoine Roucher (1745-1794) in
+_Les Mois_. Indeed, everything that could be described was seized upon
+by these describers. Delille also translated the _Georgics_, and for a
+time was the greatest living poet of France, the title being only
+disputed by Escouchard le Brun (1729-1807), a lyrist and ode writer of
+the school of J. B. Rousseau, but not destitute of energy. The only
+other poets until Chenier who deserve notice are Nicolas Gilbert
+(1751-1780)--the French Chatterton, or perhaps rather the French Oldham,
+who died in a workhouse at twenty-nine after producing some vigorous
+satires and, at the point of death, an elegy of great beauty; Jacques
+Charles Louis Clinchaut de Malfilatre (1732-1767), another short-lived
+poet whose "Ode to the Sun" has a certain stateliness; and Jean Baptiste
+Gresset (1709-1777), the author of _Ver-Vert_ and of other poems of the
+lighter order, which are not far, if at all, below the level of
+Voltaire. Andre Chenier (1762-1794) stands far apart from the art of his
+century, though the strong chain of custom, and his early death by the
+guillotine, prevented him from breaking finally through the restraints
+of its language and its versification. Chenier, half a Greek by blood,
+was wholly one in spirit and sentiment. The manner of his verses, the
+very air which surrounds them and which they diffuse, are different from
+those of the 18th century; and his poetry is probably the utmost that
+its language and versification could produce. To do more, the revolution
+which followed a generation after his death was required.
+
+
+  Diderot (plays).
+
+_18th-Century Drama._--The results of the cultivation of dramatic poetry
+at this time were even less individually remarkable than those of the
+attention paid to poetry proper. Here again the astonishing power and
+literary aptitude of Voltaire gave value to his attempts in a style
+which, notwithstanding that it counts Racine among its practitioners,
+was none the less predestined to failure. Voltaire's own efforts in this
+kind are indisputably as successful as they could be. Foreigners usually
+prefer _Mahomet_ and _Zaire_ to _Bajazet_ and _Mithridate_, though there
+is no doubt that no work of Voltaire's comes up to _Polyeucte_ and
+_Rodogune_, as certainly no single passage in any of his plays can
+approach the best passages of _Cinna_ and _Les Horaces_. But the
+remaining tragic writers of the century, with the single exception of
+Crebillon _pere_, are scarcely third-rate. C. Jolyot de Crebillon
+(1674-1762) himself had genius, and there are to be found in his work
+evidences of a spirit which had seemed to die away with _Saint-Genest_,
+and was hardly to revive until _Hernani_. Of the imitators of Racine and
+Voltaire, La Motte in _Ines de Castro_ was not wholly unsuccessful.
+Francois Joseph de la Grange-Chancel (1677-1758) copied chiefly the
+worst side of the author of _Britannicus_, and Bernard Joseph Saurin
+(1706-1781) and Pierre-Laurent de Belloy (1727-1775) performed the same
+service for Voltaire. Le Mierre and La Harpe, mentioned and to be
+mentioned, were tragedians; but the _Iphigenie en Tauride_ of Guimond de
+la Touche (1725-1760) deserves more special mention than anything of
+theirs. There was an infinity of tragic writers and tragic plays in this
+century, but hardly any others of them even deserve mention. The muse of
+comedy was decidedly more happy in her devotees. Moliere was a far safer
+if a more difficult model than Racine, and the inexorable fashion which
+had bound down tragedy to a feeble imitation of Euripides did not
+similarly prescribe an undeviating adherence to Terence. Tragedy had
+never been, has scarcely been since, anything but an exotic in France;
+comedy was of the soil and native. Very early In the century Alain Rene
+le Sage (1668-1747), in the admirable comedy of _Turcaret_, produced a
+work not unworthy to stand by the side of all but his master's best.
+Philippe Destouches (1680-1754) was also a fertile comedy writer in the
+early years of the century, and in _Le Glorieux_ and _Le Philosophe
+marie_ achieved considerable success. As the age went on, comedy, always
+apt to lay hold of passing events, devoted itself to the great struggle
+between the Philosophes and their opponents. Curiously enough, the party
+which engrossed almost all the wit of France had the worst of it in this
+dramatic portion of the contest, if in no other. The _Mechant_ of
+Gresset and the _Metromanie_ of Alexis Piron (1689-1773) were far
+superior to anything produced on the other side, and the _Philosophes_
+of Charles Palissot de Montenoy (1730-1814), though scurrilous and
+broadly farcical, had a great success. On the other hand, it was to a
+Philosophe that the invention of a new dramatic style was due, and still
+more the promulgation of certain ideas on dramatic criticism and
+construction, which, after being filtered through the German mind, were
+to return to France and to exercise the most powerful influence on its
+dramatic productions. This was Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the most
+fertile genius of the century, but also the least productive in finished
+and perfect work. His chief dramas, the _Fils naturel_ and the _Pere de
+famille_, are certainly not great successes; the shorter plays, _Est-il
+bon? est-il mechant?_ and _La Piece et le prologue_, are better. But it
+was his follower Michel Jean Sedaine (1719-1797) who, in _Le Philosophe
+sans le savoir_ and other pieces, produced the best examples of the
+bourgeois as opposed to the heroic drama. Diderot is sometimes credited
+or discredited with the invention of the _Comedie Larmoyante_, a title
+which indeed his own plays do not altogether refuse, but this special
+variety seems to be, in its invention, rather the property of Pierre
+Claude Nivelle de la Chaussee (1692-1754). Comedy sustained itself, and
+even gained ground towards the end of the century; the _Jeune Indienne_
+of Nicolas Chamfort (1741-1794), if not quite worthy of its author's
+brilliant talent in other paths, is noteworthy, and so is the _Billet
+perdu_ of Joseph Francois Edouard de Corsembleu Desmahis (1722-1761),
+while at the extreme limit of our present period there appears the
+remarkable figure of Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais (1732-1799). The
+_Mariage de Figaro_ and the _Barbier de Seville_ are well known as
+having had attributed to them no mean place among the literary causes
+and forerunners of the Revolution. Their dramatic and literary value
+would itself have sufficed to obtain attention for them at any time,
+though there can be no doubt that their popularity was mainly due to
+their political appositeness. The most remarkable point about them, as
+about the school of comedy of which Congreve was the chief master in
+England at the beginning of the century, was the abuse and superfluity
+of wit in the dialogue, indiscriminately allotted to all characters
+alike. It is difficult to give particulars, but would be improper to
+omit all mention, of such dramatic or quasi-dramatic work as the
+libretti of operas, farces for performance at fairs and the like. French
+authors of the time from Le Sage downwards usually managed these with
+remarkable skill.
+
+
+  J. J. Rousseau.
+
+_18th-Century Fiction._--With prose fiction the case was altogether
+different. We have seen how the short tale of a few pages had already in
+the 16th century attained high if not the highest excellence; how at
+three different periods the fancy for long-winded prose narration
+developed itself in the prose rehandlings of the chivalric poems, in the
+_Amadis_ romances, and in the portentous recitals of Gomberville and La
+Calprenede; how burlesques of these romances were produced from Rabelais
+to Scarron; and how at last Madame de Lafayette showed the way to
+something like the novel of the day. If we add the fairy story, of which
+Perrault and Madame d'Aulnoy were the chief practitioners, and a small
+class of miniature romances, of which _Aucassin et Nicolette_ in the
+13th, and the delightful _Jehan de Paris_ (of the 15th or 16th, in which
+a king of England is patriotically sacrificed) are good representatives,
+we shall have exhausted the list. The 18th century was quick to develop
+the system of the author of the _Princesse de Cleves_, but it did not
+abandon the cultivation of the romance, that is to say, fiction dealing
+with incident and with the simpler passions, in devoting itself to the
+novel, that is to say, fiction dealing with the analysis of sentiment
+and character. Le Sage, its first great novelist, in his _Diable
+boiteux_ and _Gil Blas_, went to Spain not merely for his subject but
+also for his inspiration and manner, following the lead of the picaroon
+romance of Rojas and Scarron. Like Fielding, however, whom he much
+resembles, Le Sage mingled with the romance of incident the most careful
+attention to character and the most lively portrayal of it, while his
+style and language are such as to make his work one of the classics of
+French literature. The novel of character was really founded in France
+by the abbe Prevost d'Exilles (1697-1763), the author of _Cleveland_ and
+of the incomparable _Manon Lescaut_. The popularity of this style was
+much helped by the immense vogue in France of the works of Richardson.
+Side by side with it, however, and for a time enjoying still greater
+popularity, there flourished a very different school of fiction, of
+which Voltaire, whose name occupies the first or all but the first place
+in every branch of literature of his time, was the most brilliant
+cultivator. This was a direct development of the earlier _conte_, and
+consisted usually of the treatment, in a humorous, satirical, and not
+always over-decent fashion, of contemporary foibles, beliefs,
+philosophies and occupations. These tales are of every rank of
+excellence and merit both literary and moral, and range from the
+astonishing wit, grace and humour of _Candide_ and _Zadig_ to the book
+which is Diderot's one hardly pardonable sin, and the similar but more
+lively efforts of Crebillon _fils_ (1707-1777). These latter deeps led
+in their turn to the still lower depths of La Clos and Louvet. A third
+class of 18th-century fiction consists of attempts to return to the
+humorous _fatrasie_ of the 16th century, attempts which were as much
+influenced by Sterne as the sentimental novel was by Richardson. The
+_Homme aux quarante ecus_ of Voltaire has something of this character,
+but the most characteristic works of the style are the _Jacques le
+fataliste_ of Diderot, which shows it nearly at its best, and the
+_Compere Mathieu_, sometimes attributed to Pigault-Lebrun (1753-1835),
+but no doubt in reality due to Jacques du Laurens (1719-1797), which
+shows it at perhaps its worst. Another remarkable story-teller was
+Cazotte (1719-1792), whose _Diable amoureux_ displays much fantastic
+power, and connects itself with a singular fancy of the time for occult
+studies and _diablerie_, manifested later by the patronage shown to
+Cagliostro, Mesmer, St Germain and others. In this connexion, too, may
+perhaps also be mentioned most appropriately Restif de la Bretonne, a
+remarkably original and voluminous writer, who was little noticed by his
+contemporaries and successors for the best part of a century. Restif,
+who was nicknamed the "Rousseau of the gutter," _Rousseau du ruisseau_,
+presents to an English imagination many of the characteristics of a
+non-moral Defoe. While these various schools busied themselves more or
+less with real life seriously depicted or purposely travestied, the
+great vogue and success of _Telemaque_ produced a certain number of
+didactic works, in which moral or historical information was sought to
+be conveyed under a more or less thin guise of fiction. Such was the
+_Voyage du jeune Anacharsis_ of Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716-1795);
+such the _Numa Pompilius_ and _Gonzalve de Cordoue_ of Florian
+(1755-1794), who also deserves notice as a writer of pastorals, fables
+and short prose tales; such the _Belisaire_ and _Les Incas_ of Jean
+Francois Marmontel (1723-1799). Between this class and that of the novel
+of sentiment may perhaps be placed _Paul et Virginie_ and _La Chaumiere
+indienne_; though Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814) should more
+properly be noticed after Rousseau and as a moralist. Diderot's
+fiction-writing has already been referred to more than once, but his
+_Religieuse_ deserves citation here as a powerful specimen of the novel
+both of analysis and polemic; while his undoubted masterpiece, the
+_Neveu de Rameau_, though very difficult to class, comes under this head
+as well as under any other. There are, however, two of the novelists of
+this age, and of the most remarkable, who have yet to be noticed, and
+these are the author of _Marianne_ and the author of _Julie_. We do not
+mention Pierre de Marivaux (1688-1763) in this connexion as the equal of
+Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), but merely as being in his way almost
+equally original and equally remote from any suspicion of school
+influence. He began with burlesque writing, and was also the author of
+several comedies, of which _Les Fausses Confidences_ is the principal.
+But it is in prose fiction that he really excels. He may claim to have,
+at least in the opinion of his contemporaries, invented a style, though
+perhaps the term _marivaudage_, which was applied to it, has a not
+altogether complimentary connotation. He may claim also to have invented
+the novel without a purpose, which aims simply at amusement, and at the
+same time does not seek to attain that end by buffoonery or by satire.
+Gray's definition of happiness, "to lie on a sofa and read endless
+novels by Marivaux" (it is true that he added Crebillon), is well known,
+and the production of mere pastime by means more or less harmless has
+since become so well-recognized a function of the novelist that
+Marivaux, as one of the earliest to discharge it, deserves notice. The
+name, however, of Jean Jacques Rousseau is of far different importance.
+His two great works, the _Nouvelle Heloise_ and _Emile_, are as far as
+possible from being perfect as novels. But no novels in the world have
+ever had such influence as these. To a great extent this influence was
+due mainly to their attractions as novels, imperfect though they may be
+in this character, but it was beyond dispute also owing to the doctrines
+which they contained, and which were exhibited in novel form.
+
+Such are the principal developments of fiction during the century; but
+it is remarkable that, varied as they were, and excellent as was some of
+the work to which they gave rise, none of these schools was directly
+very fertile in results or successors. The period with which we shall
+next have to deal, that from the outbreak of the Revolution to the death
+of Louis XVIII., is curiously barren of fiction of any merit. It was not
+till English influence began again to assert itself in the later days of
+the Restoration that the prose romance began once more to be written.
+
+_18th-Century History._--It is not, however, in any of the departments
+of _belles-lettres_ that the real eminence of the 18th century as a time
+of literary production in France consists. In all serious branches of
+study its accomplishments were, from a literary point of view,
+remarkable, uniting as it did an extraordinary power of popular and
+literary expression with an ardent spirit of inquiry, a great
+speculative ability, and even a far more considerable amount of
+laborious erudition than is generally supposed. The historical studies
+and results of 18th-century speculation in France are of especial and
+peculiar importance. There is no doubt that what is called the science
+of history dates from this time, and though the beginning of it is
+usually assigned to the Italian Vico, its complete indication may
+perhaps with equal or greater justice be claimed by the Frenchman
+Turgot. Before Turgot, however, there were great names in French
+historical writing, and perhaps the greatest of all is that of Charles
+Secondat de Montesquieu (1689-1755). The three principal works of this
+great writer are all historical and at the same time political in
+character. In the _Lettres persanes_ he handled, with wit inferior to
+the wit of no other writer even in that witty age, the corruptions and
+dangers of contemporary morals and politics. The literary charm of this
+book--the plan of which was suggested by a work, the _Amusements serieux
+et comiques_, of Dufresny (1648-1724), a comic writer not destitute of
+merit--is very great, and its plan was so popular as to lead to a
+thousand imitations, of which all, except those of Voltaire and
+Goldsmith, only bring out the immense superiority of the original. Few
+things could be more different from this lively and popular book than
+Montesquieu's next work, the _Grandeur et decadence des Romains_, in
+which the same acuteness and knowledge of human nature are united with
+considerable erudition, and with a weighty though perhaps somewhat
+grandiloquent and rhetorical style. His third and greatest work, the
+_Esprit des lois_, is again different both in style and character, and
+such defects as it has are as nothing when compared with the merits of
+its fertility in ideas, its splendid breadth of view, and the felicity
+with which the author, in a manner unknown before, recognizes the laws
+underlying complicated assemblages of fact. The style of this great work
+is equal to its substance; less light than that of the _Lettres_, less
+rhetorical than that of the _Grandeur des Romains_, it is still a
+marvellous union of dignity and wit. Around Montesquieu, partly before
+and partly after him, is a group of philosophical or at least systematic
+historians, of whom the chief are Jean Baptiste Dubos (1670-1742), and
+G. Bonnot de Mably (1709-1785). Dubos, whose chief work is not
+historical but aesthetic (_Reflexions sur la poesie et la peinture_),
+wrote a so-called _Histoire critique de l'etablissement de la monarchie
+francaise_, which is as far as possible from being in the modern sense
+critical, inasmuch as, in the teeth of history, and in order to exalt
+the _Tiers etat_, it pretends an amicable coalition of Franks and Gauls,
+and not an irruption by the former. Mably (_Observations sur l'histoire
+de la France_) had a much greater influence than either of these
+writers, and a decidedly mischievous one, especially at the period of
+the Revolution. He, more than any one else, is responsible for the
+ignorant and childish extolling of Greek and Roman institutions, and the
+still more ignorant depreciation of the middle ages, which was for a
+time characteristic of French politicians. Montesquieu was, as we have
+said, followed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1727-1781), whose writings
+are few in number, and not remarkable for style, but full of original
+thought. Turgot in his turn was followed by Condorcet (1743-1794), whose
+tendency is somewhat more sociological than directly historical. Towards
+the end of the period, too, a considerable number of philosophical
+histories were written, the usual object of which was, under cover of a
+kind of allegory, to satirize and attack the existing institutions and
+government of France. The most famous of these was the _Histoire des
+Indes_, nominally written by the Abbe Guillaume Thomas Francois Raynal
+(1713-1796), but really the joint work of many members of the Philosophe
+party, especially Diderot. Side by side with this really or nominally
+philosophical school of history there existed another and less ambitious
+school, which contented itself with the older and simpler view of the
+science. The Abbe Rene de Vertot (1655-1735) belongs almost as much to
+the 17th as to the 18th century; but his principal works, especially the
+famous _Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte_, date from the later period,
+as do also the _Revolutions romaines_. Vertot is above all things a
+literary historian, and the well-known "Mon siege est fait," whether
+true or not, certainly expresses his system. Of the same school, though
+far more comprehensive, was the laborious Charles Rollin (1661-1741),
+whose works in the original, or translated and continued in the case of
+the _Histoire romaine_ by Jean Baptiste Louis Crevier (1693-1765), were
+long the chief historical manuals of Europe. The president Charles Jean
+Francois Henault (1685-1770), and Louis Pierre Anquetil (1723-1806) were
+praiseworthy writers, the first of French history, the second of that
+and much else. In the same class, too, far superior as is his literary
+power, must be ranked the historical works of Voltaire, _Charles XII_.,
+_Pierre le Grand_, &c. A very perfect example of the historian who is
+literary first of all is supplied by Claude Carloman de Rulhiere
+(1735-1791), whose _Revolution en Russie en 1762_ is one of the little
+masterpieces of history, while his larger and posthumous work on the
+last days of the Polish kingdom exhibits perhaps some of the defects of
+this class of historians. Lastly must be mentioned the memoirs and
+correspondence of the period, the materials of history if not history
+itself. The century opened with the most famous of all these, the
+memoirs of the duc de Saint-Simon (1675-1755), an extraordinary series
+of pictures of the court of Louis XIV. and the Regency, written in an
+unequal and incorrect style, but with something of the irregular
+excellence of the great 16th-century writers, and most striking in the
+sombre bitterness of its tone. The subsequent and less remarkable
+memoirs of the century are so numerous that it is almost impossible to
+select a few for reference, and altogether impossible to mention all. Of
+those bearing on public history the memoirs of Madame de Stael (Mlle
+Delaunay) (1684-1750), of Pierre Louis de Voyer, marquis d'Argenson
+(1694-1757), of Charles Pinot Duclos (1704-1772), of Stephanie Felicite
+de Saint-Aubin, Madame de Genlis (1746-1830), of Pierre Victor de
+Besenval (1722-1791), of Madame Campan (1752-1822) and of the cardinal
+de Bernis (1715-1794), may perhaps be selected for mention; of those
+bearing on literary and private history, the memoirs of Madame d'Epinay
+(1726-1783), those of Mathieu Marais (1664-1737) the so-called _Memoires
+secrets_ of Louis Petit de Bachaumont (1690-1770), and the innumerable
+writings having reference to Voltaire and to the Philosophe party
+generally. Here, too, may be mentioned a remarkable class of literature,
+consisting of purely private and almost confidential letters, which were
+written at this time with very remarkable literary excellence. As
+specimens may be selected those of Mademoiselle Aisse (1694-1757), which
+are models of easy and unaffected tenderness, and those of Mademoiselle
+de Lespinasse (1732-1776) the companion of Madame du Deffand and
+afterwards of d'Alembert. These latter, in their extraordinary fervour
+and passion, not merely contrast strongly with the generally languid and
+frivolous gallantry of the age, but also constitute one of its most
+remarkable literary monuments. It has been said of them that they "burn
+the paper," and the expression is not exaggerated. Madame du Deffand's
+(1697-1780) own letters, many of which were written to Horace Walpole,
+are noteworthy in a very different way. Of lighter letters the charming
+correspondence of Diderot with Mademoiselle Voland deserves special
+mention. But the correspondence, like the memoirs of this century,
+defies justice to be done to it in any cursory or limited mention. In
+this connexion, however, it may be well to mention some of the most
+remarkable works of the time, the _Confessions_, _Reveries_, and
+_Promenades d'un solitaire_ of Rousseau. In these works, especially in
+the _Confessions_, there is not merely exhibited passion as fervid
+though perhaps less unaffected than that of Mademoiselle de
+Lespinasse--there appear in them two literary characteristics which, if
+not entirely novel, were for the first time brought out deliberately by
+powers of the first order, were for the first time made the mainspring
+of literary interest, and thereby set an example which for more than a
+century has been persistently followed, and which has produced some of
+the finest results of modern literature. The first of these was the
+elaborate and unsparing analysis and display of the motives, the
+weaknesses and the failings of individual character. This process, which
+Rousseau unflinchingly performed on himself, has been followed usually
+in respect to fictitious characters by his successors. The other novelty
+was the feeling for natural beauty and the elaborate description of it,
+the credit of which latter must, it has been agreed by all impartial
+critics, be assigned rather to Rousseau than to any other writer. His
+influence in this direction was, however, soon taken up and continued by
+Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, the connecting link between Rousseau and
+Chateaubriand, some of whose works have been already alluded to. In
+particular the author of _Paul et Virginie_ set himself to develop the
+example of description which Rousseau had set, and his word-paintings,
+though less powerful than those of his model, are more abundant, more
+elaborate, and animated by a more amiable spirit.
+
+
+  Condillac.
+
+_18th-Century Philosophy._--The Anglomania which distinguished the time
+was nowhere more strongly shown than in the cast and direction of its
+philosophical speculations. As Montesquieu and Voltaire had imported
+into France a vivid theoretical admiration for the British constitution
+and for British theories in politics, so Voltaire, Diderot and a crowd
+of others popularized and continued in France the philosophical ideas of
+Hobbes and Locke and even Berkeley, the theological ideas of
+Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury and the English deists, and the physical
+discoveries of Newton. Descartes, Frenchman and genius as he was, and
+though his principles in physics and philosophy were long clung to in
+the schools, was completely abandoned by the more adventurous and
+progressive spirits. At no time indeed, owing to the confusion of
+thought and purpose to which we have already alluded, was the word
+philosophy used with greater looseness than at this time. Using it, as
+we have hitherto used it, in the sense of metaphysics, the majority of
+the Philosophes have very little claim to their title. There were some
+who manifested, however, an aptitude for purely philosophical argument,
+and one who confined himself strictly thereto. Among these the most
+remarkable are Julien Offroy de la Mettrie (1709-1751) and Denis
+Diderot. La Mettrie in his works _L'Homme machine_, _L'Homme plante_,
+&c., applied a lively and vigorous imagination, a considerable
+familiarity with physics and medicine, and a brilliant but unequal
+style, to the task of advocating materialistic ideas on the constitution
+of man. Diderot, in a series of early works, _Lettre sur les aveugles_,
+_Promenade d'un sceptique_, _Pensees philosophiques_, &c., exhibited a
+good acquaintance with philosophical history and opinion, and gave sign
+in this direction, as in so many others, of a far-reaching intellect. As
+in almost all his works, however, the value of the thought is extremely
+unequal, while the different pieces, always written in the hottest
+haste, and never duly matured or corrected, present but few specimens of
+finished and polished writing. Charles Bonnet (1720-1793), a Swiss of
+Geneva, wrote a large number of works, many of which are purely
+scientific. Others, however, are more psychological, and these, though
+advocating the materialistic philosophy generally in vogue, were
+remarkable for uniting materialism with an honest adherence to
+Christianity. The half mystical writer, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin
+(1743-1803) also deserves notice. But the French metaphysician of the
+century is undoubtedly Etienne Bonnot, abbe de Condillac (1714-1780),
+almost the only writer of the time in France who succeeded in keeping
+strictly to philosophy without attempting to pursue his system to its
+results in ethics, politics and theology. In the _Traite des
+sensations_, the _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances humaines_ and
+other works Condillac elaborated and continued the imperfect
+sensationalism of Locke. As his philosophical view, though perhaps more
+restricted, was far more direct, consecutive and uncompromising than
+that of the Englishman, so his style greatly exceeded Locke's in
+clearness and elegance and as a good medium of philosophical expression.
+
+
+  Voltaire (theology).
+
+  The "System of Nature."
+
+  Chamfort. Rivarol.
+
+_18th-Century Theology._--To devote a section to the history of the
+theological literature of the 18th century in France may seem something
+of a contradiction; for, indeed, all or most of such literature was
+anti-theological. The magnificent list of names which the church had been
+able to claim on her side in the 17th century was exhausted before the
+end of the second quarter of the 18th with Massillon, and none came to
+fill their place. Very rarely has orthodoxy been so badly defended as at
+this time. The literary championship of the church was entirely in the
+hands of the Jesuits, and of a few disreputable literary freelances like
+Elie Freron (1719-1776) and Pierre Francois Guyot, abbe Desfontaines
+(1685-1745). The Jesuits were learned enough, and their principal
+journal, that of Trevoux, was conducted with much vigour and a great deal
+of erudition. But they were in the first place discredited by the moral
+taint which has always hung over Jesuitism, and in the second place by
+the persecutions of the Jansenists and the Protestants, which were
+attributed to their influence. But one single work on the orthodox side
+has preserved the least reputation; while, on the other hand, the names
+of Pere Nonotte (1711-1793) and several of his fellows have been
+enshrined unenviably in the imperishable ridicule of Voltaire, one only
+of whose adversaries, the abbe Antoine Guenee (1717-1803), was able to
+meet him in the _Lettres de quelques Juifs_ with something like his own
+weapons. It has never been at all accurately decided how far what may be
+called the scoffing school of Voltaire represents a direct revolt against
+Christianity, and how far it was merely a kind of guerilla warfare
+against the clergy. It is positively certain that Voltaire was not an
+atheist, and that he did not approve of atheism. But his _Dictionnaire
+philosophique_, which is typical of a vast amount of contemporary and
+subsequent literature, consists of a heterogeneous assemblage of articles
+directed against various points of dogma and ritual and various
+characteristics of the sacred records. From the literary point of view,
+it is one of the most characteristic of all Voltaire's works, though it
+is perhaps not entirely his. The desultory arrangement, the light and
+lively style, the extensive but not always too accurate erudition, and
+the somewhat captious and quibbling objections, are intensely Voltairian.
+But there is little seriousness about it, and certainly no kind of
+rancorous or deep-seated hostility. With many, however, of Voltaire's
+pupils and younger contemporaries the case was altered. They were
+distinctively atheists and anti-supernaturalists. The atheism of Diderot,
+unquestionably the greatest of them all, has been keenly debated; but in
+the case of Etienne Damilaville (1723-1768), Jacques Andre Naigeon
+(1738-1810), Paul Henri Dietrich, baron d'Holbach, and others there is no
+room for doubt. By these persons a great mass of atheistic and
+anti-Christian literature was composed and set afloat. The characteristic
+work of this school, its last word indeed, is the famous _Systeme de la
+nature_, attributed to Holbach (1723-1789), but known to be, in part at
+least, the work of Diderot. In this remarkable work, which caps the
+climax of the metaphysical materialism or rather nihilism of the century,
+the atheistic position is clearly put. It made an immense sensation; and
+it so fluttered not merely the orthodox but the more moderate
+freethinkers, that Frederick of Prussia and Voltaire, perhaps the most
+singular pair of defenders that orthodoxy ever had, actually set
+themselves to refute it. Its style and argument are very unequal, as
+books written in collaboration are apt to be, and especially books in
+which Diderot, the paragon of inequality, had a hand. But there is an
+almost entire absence of the heterogeneous assemblage of anecdotes, jokes
+good and bad, scraps of accurate or inaccurate physical science, and
+other incongruous matter with which the Philosophes were wont to stuff
+their works; and lastly, there is in the best passages a kind of sombre
+grandeur which recalls the manner as well as the matter of Lucretius. It
+is perhaps well to repeat, in the case of so notorious a book, that this
+criticism is of a purely literary and formal character; but there is
+little doubt that the literary merits of the work considerably assisted
+its didactic influence. As the Revolution approached, and the victory of
+the Philosophe party was declared, there appeared for a brief space a
+group of cynical and accomplished phrase-makers presenting some
+similarity to that of which, a hundred years before, Saint-Evremond was
+the most prominent figure. The chief of this group were Nicolas Chamfort
+(1747-1794) on the republican side, and Antoine Rivarol (1753-1801) on
+that of the royalists. Like the older writer to whom we have compared
+them, neither can be said to have produced any one work of eminence, and
+in this they stand distinguished from moralists like La Rochefoucauld.
+The floating sayings, however, which are attributed to them, or which
+occur here and there in their miscellaneous work, yield in no respect to
+those of the most famous of their predecessors in wit and a certain kind
+of wisdom, though they are frequently more personal than aphoristic.
+
+
+  Helvetius.
+
+  Thomas.
+
+  Vauvenargues.
+
+_18th-Century Moralists and Politicians._--Not the least part, however,
+of the energy of the period in thought and writing was devoted to
+questions of a directly moral and political kind. With regard to
+morality proper the favourite doctrine of the century was what is
+commonly called the selfish theory, the only one indeed which was
+suitable to the sensationalism of Condillac and the materialism of
+Holbach. The pattern book of this doctrine was the _De l'esprit_ of
+Claude Adrien Helvetius (1715-1771), the most amusing book perhaps which
+ever pretended to the title of a solemn philosophical treatise. There is
+some analogy between the principles of this work and those of the
+_Systeme de la nature_. With the inconsistency--some would say with the
+questionable honesty--which distinguished the more famous members of the
+Philosophe party when their disciples spoke with what they considered
+imprudent outspokenness, Voltaire and even Diderot attacked Helvetius as
+the former afterwards attacked Holbach. But whatever may be the general
+value of _De l'esprit_, it is full of acuteness, though that acuteness
+is as desultory and disjointed as its style. As Helvetius may be taken
+as the representative author of the cynical school, so perhaps Alexandre
+Gerard Thomas (1732-1785) may be taken as representative of the votaries
+of noble sentiment to whom we have also alluded. The works of Thomas
+chiefly took the form of academic _eloges_ or formal panegyrics, and
+they have all the defects, both in manner and substance, which are
+associated with that style. Of yet a third school, corresponding in form
+to La Rochefoucauld and La Bruyere, and possessed of some of the antique
+vigour of preceding centuries, was Luc de Clapiers, marquis de
+Vauvenargues (1715-1747). This writer, who died very young, has produced
+maxims and reflections of considerable mental force and literary finish.
+From Voltaire downwards it has been usual to compare him with Pascal,
+from whom he is chiefly distinguished by a striking but somewhat empty
+stoicism. Between the moralists, of whom we have taken these three as
+examples, and the politicians may be placed Rousseau, who in his novels
+and miscellaneous works is of the first class, in his famous _Contrat
+social_ of the second. All his theories, whatever their originality and
+whatever their value, were made novel and influential by the force of
+their statement and the literary beauties of its form. Of direct and
+avowed political writings there were few during the century, and none of
+anything like the importance of the _Contrat social_, theoretical
+acceptance of the established French constitution being a point of
+necessity with all Frenchmen. Nevertheless it may be said that almost
+the whole of the voluminous writings of the Philosophes, even of those
+who, like Voltaire, were sincerely aristocratic and monarchic in
+predilection, were of more or less veiled political significance. There
+was one branch of political writing, moreover, which could be indulged
+in without much fear. Political economy and administrative theories
+received much attention. The earliest writer of eminence on these
+subjects was the great engineer Sebastien le Prestre, marquis de Vauban
+(1633-1707), whose _Oisivetes_ and _Dime royale_ exhibit both great
+ability and extensive observation. A more utopian economist of the same
+time was Charles Irenee Castel, abbe de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743), not to
+be confounded with the author of _Paul et Virginie_. Soon political
+economy in the hands of Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) took a regular
+form, and towards the middle of the century a great number of works on
+questions connected with it, especially that of free trade in corn, on
+which Ferdinand Galiani (1728-1787), Andre Morellet (1727-1819), both
+abbes, and above all Turgot, distinguished themselves. Of writers on
+legal subjects and of the legal profession, the century, though not less
+fertile than in other directions, produced few or none of any great
+importance from the literary point of view. The chief name which in this
+connexion is known is that of Chancellor Henri Francois d'Aguesseau
+(1668-1751), at the beginning of the century, an estimable writer of the
+Port Royal school, who took the orthodox side in the great disputes of
+the time, but failed to display any great ability therein. He was, as
+became his profession, more remarkable as an orator than a writer, and
+his works contain valuable testimonies to the especially perturbed and
+unquiet condition of his century--a disquiet which is perhaps also its
+chief literary note. There were other French magistrates, such as
+Montesquieu, Henault (1685-1770), de Brosses (1706-1773) and others, who
+made considerable mark in literature; but it was usually (except in the
+case of Montesquieu) in subjects not even indirectly connected with
+their profession. The _Esprit des lois_ stands alone; but as an example
+of work barristerial in kind, famous partly for political reasons but of
+some real literary merit, we may mention the _Memoire_ for Calas written
+by J. B. J. Elie de Beaumont (1732-1786).
+
+_18th-century Criticism and Periodical Literature._--We have said that
+literary criticism assumes in this century a sufficient importance to be
+treated under a separate heading. Contributions were made to it of many
+different kinds and from many different points of view. Periodical
+literature, the chief stimulus to its production, began more and more to
+come into favour. Even in the 17th century the _Journal des savants_,
+the Jesuit _Journal de Trevoux_, and other publications had set the
+example of different kinds of it. Just before the Revolution the
+_Gazette de France_ was in the hands of J. B. A. Suard (1734-1817), a
+man who was nothing if not a literary critic. Perhaps, however, the most
+remarkable contribution of the century to criticism of the periodical
+kind was the _Feuilles de Grimm_, a circular sent for many years to the
+German courts by Frederic Melchior Grimm (1723-1807), the comrade of
+Diderot and Rousseau, and containing a _compte rendu_ of the ways and
+works of Paris, literary and artistic as well as social. These _Leaves_
+not only include much excellent literary criticism by Diderot, but also
+gave occasion to the incomparable _salons_ or accounts of the exhibition
+of pictures from the same hand, essays which founded the art of picture
+criticism, and which have hardly been surpassed since. The prize
+competitions of the Academy were also a considerable stimulus to
+literary criticism, though the prevailing taste in such compositions
+rather inclined to elegant themes than to careful studies of analyses.
+The most characteristic critic of the mid-century was the abbe Charles
+Batteux (1713-1780) who illustrated a tendency of the time by beginning
+with a treatise on _Les Beaux Arts reduits a un meme principe_ (1746);
+reduced it and others into _Principes de la litterature_ (1764) and
+added in 1771 _Les Quatres Poetiques_ (Aristotle, Horace, Vida and
+Boileau). Batteux is a very ingenious critic and his attempt to
+conciliate "taste" and "the rules," though inadequate, is interesting.
+Works on the arts in general or on special divisions of them were not
+wanting, as, for instance, that of Dubos before alluded to, the _Essai
+sur la peinture_ of Diderot and others. Critically annotated editions of
+the great French writers also came into fashion, and were no longer
+written by mere pedants. Of these Voltaire's edition of Corneille was
+the most remarkable, and his annotations, united separately under the
+title of _Commentaire sur Corneille_, form not the least important
+portion of his works. Even older writers, looked down upon though they
+were by the general taste of the day, received a share of this critical
+interest. In the earlier portion of the century Nicolas
+Lenglet-Dufresnoy (1674-1755) and Bernard de la Monnoye (1641-1728)
+devoted their attention to Rabelais, Regnier, Villon, Marot and others.
+Etienne Barbazan (1696-1770) and P. J. B. Le Grand d'Aussy (1737-1800)
+gathered and brought into notice the long scattered and unknown rather
+than neglected fabliaux of the middle ages. Even the chansons de geste
+attracted the notice of the Comte de Caylus (1692-1765) and the Comte de
+Tressan (1705-1783). The latter, in his _Bibliotheque des romans_,
+worked up a large number of the old epics into a form suited to the
+taste of the century. In his hands they became lively tales of the kind
+suited to readers of Voltaire and Crebillon. But in this travestied form
+they had considerable influence both in France and abroad. By these
+publications attention was at least called to early French literature,
+and when it had been once called, a more serious and appreciative study
+became merely a matter of time. The method of much of the literary
+criticism of the close of this period was indeed deplorable enough. Jean
+Francois de la Harpe (1739-1803), who though a little later in time as
+to most of his critical productions is perhaps its most representative
+figure, shows criticism in one of its worst forms. The critic specially
+abhorred by Sterne, who looked only at the stop-watch, was a kind of
+prophecy of La Harpe, who lays it down distinctly that a beauty, however
+beautiful, produced in spite of rules is a "monstrous beauty" and cannot
+be allowed. But such a writer is a natural enough expression of an
+expiring principle. The year after the death of La Harpe Sainte-Beuve
+was born.
+
+
+  Buffon.
+
+  The Encyclopedie.
+
+_18th-Century Savants._--In science and general erudition the 18th
+century in France was at first much occupied with the mathematical
+studies for which the French genius is so peculiarly adapted, which the
+great discoveries of Descartes had made possible and popular, and which
+those of his supplanter Newton only made more popular still. Voltaire
+took to himself the credit, which he fairly deserves, of first
+introducing the Newtonian system into France, and it was soon widely
+popular--even ladies devoting themselves to the exposition of
+mathematical subjects, as in the case of Gabrielle de Breteuil, marquise
+du Chatelet (1706-1749) Voltaire's "divine Emilie." Indeed ladies played
+a great part in the literary and scientific activity of the century, by
+actual contribution sometimes, but still more by continuing and
+extending the tradition of "salons." The duchesse du Maine, Mesdames de
+Lambert, de Tencin, Geoffrin, du Deffand, Necker, and above all, the
+baronne d'Holbach (whose husband, however, was here the principal
+personage) presided over coteries which became more and more
+"philosophical." Many of the greatest mathematicians of the age, such as
+de Moivre and Laplace, were French by birth, while others like Euler
+belonged to French-speaking races, and wrote in French. The physical
+sciences were also ardently cultivated, the impulse to them being given
+partly by the generally materialistic tendency of the age, partly by the
+Newtonian system, and partly also by the extended knowledge of the world
+provided by the circumnavigatory voyage of Louis Antoine de Bougainville
+(1729-1811), and other travels. P. L. de Moreau Maupertuis (1698-1759)
+and C. M. de la Condamine (1701-1774) made long journeys for scientific
+purposes and duly recorded their experiences. The former, a
+mathematician and physicist of some ability but more oddity, is chiefly
+known to literature by the ridicule of Voltaire in the _Diatribe du
+Docteur Akakia_. Jean le Rond, called d'Alembert (1717-1783), a great
+mathematician and a writer of considerable though rather academic
+excellence, is principally known from his connexion with and
+introduction to the _Encyclopedie_, of which more presently. Chemistry
+was also assiduously cultivated, the baron d'Holbach, among others,
+being a devotee thereof, and helping to advance the science to the point
+where, at the conclusion of the century, it was illustrated by
+Berthollet and Lavoisier. During all this devotion to science in its
+modern acceptation, the older and more literary forms of erudition were
+not neglected, especially by the illustrious Benedictines of the abbey
+of St Maur. Dom Augustin Calmet (1672-1757) the author of the well-known
+_Dictionary of the Bible_, belonged to this order, and to them also (in
+particular to Dom Rivet) was due the beginning of the immense _Histoire
+litteraire de la France_, a work interrupted by the Revolution and long
+suspended, but diligently continued since the middle of the 19th
+century. Of less orthodox names distinguished for erudition, Nicolas
+Freret (1688-1749), secretary of the Academy, is perhaps the most
+remarkable. But in the consideration of the science and learning in the
+18th century from a literary point of view, there is one name and one
+book which require particular and, in the case of the book, somewhat
+extended mention. The man is Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon
+(1717-1788), the book the _Encyclopedie_. The immense _Natural History_
+of Buffon, though not entirely his own, is a remarkable monument of the
+union of scientific tastes with literary ability. As has happened in
+many similar instances, there is in parts more literature than science
+to be found in it; and from the point of view of the latter, Buffon was
+far too careless in observation and far too solicitous of perfection of
+style and grandiosity of view. The style of Buffon has sometimes been
+made the subject of the highest eulogy, and it is at its best admirable;
+but one still feels in it the fault of all serious French prose in this
+century before Rousseau--the presence, that is to say, of an artificial
+spirit rather than of natural variety and power. The _Encyclopedie_,
+unquestionably on the whole the most important French literary
+production of the century, if we except the works of Rousseau and
+Voltaire, was conducted for a time by Diderot and d'Alembert, afterwards
+by Diderot alone. It numbered among its contributors almost every
+Frenchman of eminence in letters. It is often spoken of as if, under the
+guise of an encyclopaedia, it had been merely a _plaidoyer_ against
+religion, but this is entirely erroneous. Whatever anti-ecclesiastical
+bent some of the articles may have, the book as a whole is simply what
+it professes to be, a dictionary--that is to say, not merely an
+historical and critical lexicon, like those of Bayle and Moreri (indeed
+history and biography were nominally excluded), but a dictionary of
+arts, sciences, trades and technical terms. Diderot himself had perhaps
+the greatest faculty of any man that ever lived for the literary
+treatment in a workman-like manner of the most heterogeneous and in some
+cases rebellious subjects; and his untiring labour, not merely in
+writing original articles, but in editing the contributions of others,
+determined the character of the whole work. There is no doubt that it
+had, quite independently of any theological or political influence, an
+immense share in diffusing and gratifying the taste for general
+information.
+
+
+  Maistre.
+
+  Joubert.
+
+  Courier.
+
+  Madame de Stael.
+
+  Chateaubriand.
+
+_1789-1830--General Sketch._--The period which elapsed between the
+outbreak of the Revolution and the accession of Charles X. has often
+been considered a sterile one in point of literature. As far as mere
+productiveness goes, this judgment is hardly correct. No class of
+literature was altogether neglected during these stirring
+five-and-thirty years, the political events of which have so engrossed
+the attention of posterity that it has sometimes been necessary for
+historians to remind us that during the height of the Terror and the
+final disasters of the empire the theatres were open and the
+booksellers' shops patronized. Journalism, parliamentary eloquence and
+scientific writing were especially cultivated, and the former in its
+modern sense may almost be said to have been created. But of the higher
+products of literature the period may justly be considered to have been
+somewhat barren. During the earlier part of it there is, with the
+exception of Andre Chenier, not a single name of the first or even
+second order of excellence. Towards the midst those of Chateaubriand
+(1768-1848) and Madame de Stael (1766-1817) stand almost alone; and at
+the close those of Courier, Beranger and Lamartine are not seconded by
+any others to tell of the magnificent literary burst which was to follow
+the publication of _Cromwell_. Of all departments of literature, poetry
+proper was worst represented during this period. Andre Chenier was
+silenced at its opening by the guillotine. Le Brun and Delille, favoured
+by an extraordinary longevity, continued to be admired and followed. It
+was the palmy time of descriptive poetry. Louis, marquis de Fontanes
+(1757-1821, who deserves rather more special notice as a critic and an
+official patron of literature), Castel, Boisjolin, Esmenard, Berchoux,
+Ricard, Martin, Gudin, Cournaud, are names which chiefly survive as
+those of the authors of scattered attempts to turn the Encyclopaedia
+into verse. Charles Julien de Chenedolle (1769-1833) owes his reputation
+rather to amiability, and to his association with men eminent in
+different ways, such as Rivarol and Joubert, than to any real power. He
+has been regarded as a precursor of Lamartine; but the resemblance is
+chiefly on Lamartine's weakest side; and the stress laid on him
+recently, as on Lamartine himself and even on Chenier, is part of a
+passing reaction against the school of Hugo. Even more ambitiously, Luce
+de Lancival, Campenon, Dumesnil and Parseval de Grand-Maison endeavoured
+to write epics, and succeeded rather worse than the Chapelains and
+Desmarets of the 17th century. The characteristic of all this poetry was
+the description of everything in metaphor and paraphrase, and the
+careful avoidance of anything like directness of expression; and the
+historians of the Romantic movement have collected many instances of
+this absurdity. Lamartine will be more properly noticed in the next
+division. But about the same time as Lamartine, and towards the end of
+the present period, there appeared a poet who may be regarded as the
+last important echo of Malherbe. This was Casimir Delavigne (1793-1843),
+the author of _Les Messeniennes_, a writer of very great talent, and,
+according to the measure of J. B. Rousseau and Lebrun, no mean poet. It
+is usual to reckon Delavigne as transitionary between the two schools,
+but in strictness he must be counted with the classicists. Dramatic
+poetry exhibited somewhat similar characteristics. The system of tragedy
+writing had become purely mechanical, and every act, almost every scene
+and situation, had its regular and appropriate business and language,
+the former of which the poet was not supposed to alter at all, and the
+latter only very slightly. Poinsinet, La Harpe, M. J. Chenier,
+Raynouard, de Jouy, Briffaut, Baour-Lormian, all wrote in this style. Of
+these Chenier (1764-1811) had some of the vigour of his brother Andre,
+from whom he was distinguished by more popular political principles and
+better fortune. On the other hand, Jean Francois Ducis (1733-1816), who
+passes with Englishmen as a feeble reducer of Shakespeare to classical
+rules, passed with his contemporaries as an introducer into French
+poetry of strange and revolutionary novelties. Comedy, on the other
+hand, fared better, as indeed it had always fared. Fabre d'Eglantine
+(1755-1794) (the companion in death of Danton), Collin d'Harleville
+(1755-1806), Francois G. J. S. Andrieux (1759-1833), Picard, Alexandre
+Duval, and Nepomucene Lemercier (1771-1840) (the most vigorous of all as
+a poet and a critic of mark) were the comic authors of the period, and
+their works have not suffered the complete eclipse of the contemporary
+tragedies which in part they also wrote. If not exactly worthy
+successors of Moliere, they are at any rate not unworthy children of
+Beaumarchais. In romance writing there is again, until we come to Madame
+de Stael, a great want of originality and even of excellence in
+workmanship. The works of Madame de Genlis (1746-1830) exhibit the
+tendencies of the 18th century to platitude and noble sentiment at their
+worst. Madame Cottin (1770-1807), Madame de Souza (1761-1836), and
+Madame de Krudener, exhibited some of the qualities of Madame de
+Lafayette and more of those of Madame de Genlis. Joseph Fievee
+(1767-1839), in _Le Dot de Suzette_ and other works, showed some power
+over the domestic story; but perhaps the most remarkable work in point
+of originality of the time was Xavier de Maistre's (1763-1852) _Voyage
+autour de ma chambre_, an attempt in quite a new style, which has been
+happily followed up by other writers. Turning to history we find
+comparatively little written at this period. Indeed, until quite its
+close, men were too much occupied in making history to have time to
+write it. There is, however, a considerable body of memoir writers,
+especially in the earlier years of the period, and some great names
+appear even in history proper. Many of Sismondi's (1773-1842) best works
+were produced during the empire. A. G. P. Brugiere, baron de Barante
+(1782-1866), though his best-known works date much later, belongs
+partially to this time. On the other hand, the production of
+philosophical writing, especially in what we may call applied
+philosophy, was considerable. The sensationalist views of Condillac were
+first continued as by Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836) and Laromiguiere
+(1756-1837) and subsequently opposed, in consequence partly of a
+religious and spiritualist revival, partly of the influence of foreign
+schools of thought, especially the German and the Scotch. The chief
+philosophical writers from this latter point of view were Pierre Paul
+Royer Collard (1763-1845), F. P. G. Maine de Biran (1776-1824), and
+Theodore Simon Jouffroy (1796-1842). Their influence on literature,
+however, was altogether inferior to that of the reactionist school, of
+whom Louis Gabriel, vicomte de Bonald (1754-1840), and Joseph de Maistre
+(1753-1821) were the great leaders. These latter were strongly political
+in their tendencies, and political philosophy received, as was natural,
+a large share of the attention of the time. In continuation of the work
+of the Philosophes, the most remarkable writer was Constantin Francois
+Chasseboeuf, comte de Volney (1757-1820), whose _Ruines_ are generally
+known. On the other hand, others belonging to that school, such as
+Necker and Morellet, wrote from the moderate point of view against
+revolutionary excesses. Of the reactionists Bonald is extremely
+royalist, and carries out in his _Legislations primitives_ somewhat the
+same patriarchal and absolutist theories as our own Filmer, but with
+infinitely greater genius. As Bonald is royalist and aristocratic, so
+Maistre is the advocate of a theocracy pure and simple, with the pope
+for its earthly head, and a vigorous despotism for its system of
+government. Pierre Simon Ballanche (1776-1847), often mentioned in the
+literary memoirs of his time, wrote among other things _Essais de
+palingenesie sociale_, good in style but vague in substance. Of theology
+proper there is almost necessarily little or nothing, the clergy being
+in the earlier period proscribed, in the latter part kept in a strict
+and somewhat discreditable subjection by the Empire. In moralizing
+literature there is one work of the very highest excellence, which,
+though not published till long afterwards, belongs in point of
+composition to this period. This is the _Pensees_ of Joseph Joubert
+(1754-1824), the most illustrious successor of Pascal and Vauvenargues,
+and to be ranked perhaps above both in the literary finish of his
+maxims, and certainly above Vauvenargues in the breadth and depth of
+thought which they exhibit. In pure literary criticism more
+particularly, Joubert, though exhibiting some inconsistencies due to his
+time, is astonishingly penetrating and suggestive. Of science and
+erudition the time was fruitful. At an early period of it appeared the
+remarkable work of Pierre Cabanis (1757-1808), the _Rapports du physique
+et du morale de l'homme_, a work in which physiology is treated from the
+extreme materialist point of view but with all the liveliness and
+literary excellence of the Philosophe movement at its best. Another
+physiological work of great merit at this period was the _Traite de la
+vie et de la mort_ of Bichat, and the example set by these works was
+widely followed; while in other branches of science Laplace, Lagrange,
+Hauy, Berthollet, &c., produced contributions of the highest value. From
+the literary point of view, however, the chief interest of this time is
+centred in two individual names, those of Chateaubriand and Madame de
+Stael, and in three literary developments of a more or less novel
+character, which were all of the highest importance in shaping the
+course which French literature has taken since 1824. One of these
+developments was the reactionary movement of Maistre and Bonald, which
+in its turn largely influenced Chateaubriand, then Lamennais and
+Montalembert, and was later represented in French literature in
+different guises, chiefly by Louis Veuillot (1815-1883) and Mgr
+Dupanloup (1802-1878). The second and third, closely connected, were the
+immense advances made by parliamentary eloquence and by political
+writing, the latter of which, by the hand of Paul Louis Courier
+(1773-1825), contributed for the first time an undoubted masterpiece to
+French literature. The influence of the two combined has since raised
+journalism to even a greater pitch of power in France than in any other
+country. It is in the development of these new openings for literature,
+and in the cast and complexion which they gave to its matter, that the
+real literary importance of the Revolutionary period consists; just as
+it is in the new elements which they supplied for the treatment of such
+subjects that the literary value of the authors of _Rene_ and _De
+l'Allemagne_ mainly lies. We have already alluded to some of the
+beginnings of periodical and journalistic letters in France. For some
+time, in the hands of Bayle, Basnage, Des Maizeaux, Jurieu, Leclerc,
+periodical literature consisted mainly of a series, more or less
+disconnected, of pamphlets, with occasional extracts from forthcoming
+works, critical _adversaria_ and the like. Of a more regular kind were
+the often-mentioned _Journal de Trevoux_ and _Mercure de France_, and
+later the _Annee litteraire_ of Freron and the like. The
+_Correspondance_ of Grimm also, as we have pointed out, bore
+considerable resemblance to a modern monthly review, though it was
+addressed to a very few persons. Of political news there was, under a
+despotism, naturally very little. 1789, however, saw a vast change in
+this respect. An enormous efflorescence of periodical literature at once
+took place, and a few of the numerous journals founded in that year or
+soon afterwards survived for a considerable time. A whole class of
+authors arose who pretended to be nothing more than journalists, while
+many writers distinguished for more solid contributions to literature
+took part in the movement, and not a few active politicians contributed.
+Thus to the original staff of the _Moniteur_, or, as it was at first
+called, _La Gazette Nationale_, La Harpe, Lacretelle, Andrieux,
+Dominique Joseph Garat (1749-1833) and Pierre Ginguene (1748-1826) were
+attached. Among the writers of the _Journal de Paris_ Andre Chenier had
+been ranked. Fontanes contributed to many royalist and moderate
+journals. Guizot and Morellet, representatives respectively of the 19th
+and the 18th century, shared in the _Nouvelles politiques_, while
+Bertin, Fievee and J. L. Geoffroy (1743-1814), a critic of peculiar
+acerbity, contributed to the _Journal de l'empire_, afterwards turned
+into the still existing _Journal des debats_. With Geoffroy, Francois
+Benoit Hoffman (1760-1828), Jean F. J. Dussault (1769-1824) and Charles
+F. Dorimond, abbe de Feletz (1765-1850), constituted a quartet of
+critics sometimes spoken of as "the _Debats_ four," though they were by
+no means all friends. Of active politicians Marat (_L'Ami du peuple_),
+Mirabeau (_Courrier de Provence_), Barere (_Journal des debats et des
+decrets_), Brissot (_Patriote francais_), Hebert (_Pere Duchesne_),
+Robespierre (_Defenseur de la constitution_), and Tallien (_La
+Sentinelle_) were the most remarkable who had an intimate connexion with
+journalism. On the other hand, the type of the journalist pure and
+simple is Camille Desmoulins (1759-1794), one of the most brilliant, in
+a literary point of view, of the short-lived celebrities of the time. Of
+the same class were Pelletier, Durozoir, Loustalot, Royou. As the
+immediate daily interest in politics drooped, there were formed
+periodicals of a partly political and partly literary character. Such
+had been the _decade philosophique_, which counted Cabanis, Chenier, and
+De Tracy among its contributors, and this was followed by the _Revue
+francaise_ at a later period, which was in its turn succeeded by the
+_Revue des deux mondes_. On the other hand, parliamentary eloquence was
+even more important than journalism during the early period of the
+Revolution. Mirabeau naturally stands at the head of orators of this
+class, and next to him may be ranked the well-known names of Malouet and
+Meunier among constitutionalists; of Robespierre, Marat and Danton, the
+triumvirs of the Mountain; of Maury, Cazales and the vicomte de
+Mirabeau, among the royalists; and above all of the Girondist speakers
+Barnave, Vergniaud, and Lanjuinais. The last named survived to take part
+in the revival of parliamentary discussion after the Restoration. But
+the permanent contributions to French literature of this period of
+voluminous eloquence are, as frequently happens in such cases, by no
+means large. The union of the journalist and the parliamentary spirit
+produced, however, in Paul Louis Courier a master of style. Courier
+spent the greater part of his life, tragically cut short, in translating
+the classics and studying the older writers of France, in which study he
+learnt thoroughly to despise the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century.
+It was not till he was past forty that he took to political writing, and
+the style of his pamphlets, and their wonderful irony and vigour, at
+once placed them on the level of the very best things of the kind. Along
+with Courier should be mentioned Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), who,
+though partly a romance writer and partly a philosophical author, was
+mainly a politician and an orator, besides being fertile in articles and
+pamphlets. Lamennais, like Lamartine, will best be dealt with later, and
+the same may be said of Beranger; but Chateaubriand and Madame de Stael
+must be noticed here. The former represents, in the influence which
+changed the literature of the 18th century into the literature of the
+19th, the vague spirit of unrest and "Weltschmerz," the affection for
+the picturesque qualities of nature, the religious spirit occasionally
+turning into mysticism, and the respect, sure to become more and more
+definite and appreciative, for antiquity. He gives in short the romantic
+and conservative element. Madame de Stael (1766-1817) on the other hand,
+as became a daughter of Necker, retained a great deal of the Philosophe
+character and the traditions of the 18th century, especially its
+liberalism, its _sensibilite_, and its thirst for general information;
+to which, however, she added a cosmopolitan spirit, and a readiness to
+introduce into France the literary and social, as well as the political
+and philosophical, peculiarities of other countries to which the 18th
+century, in France at least, had been a stranger, and which
+Chateaubriand himself, notwithstanding his excursions into English
+literature, had been very far from feeling. She therefore contributed to
+the positive and liberal side of the future movement. The absolute
+literary importance of the two was very different. Madame de Stael's
+early writings were of the critical kind, half aesthetic half ethical,
+of which the 18th century had been fond, and which their titles,
+_Lettres sur J. J. Rousseau_, _De l'influence des passions_, _De la
+litterature consideree dans ses rapports avec les institutions
+sociales_, sufficiently show. Her romances, _Delphine_ and _Corinne_,
+had immense literary influence at the time. Still more was this the case
+with _De l'Allemagne_, which practically opened up to the rising
+generation in France the till then unknown treasures of literature and
+philosophy, which during the most glorious half century of her literary
+history Germany had, sometimes on hints taken from France herself, been
+accumulating. The literary importance of Chateaubriand (1768-1848) is
+far greater, while his literary influence can hardly be exaggerated.
+Chateaubriand's literary father was Rousseau, and his voyage to America
+helped to develop the seeds which Rousseau had sown. In _Rene_ and other
+works of the same kind, the naturalism of Rousseau received a still
+further development. But it was not in mere naturalism that
+Chateaubriand was to find his most fertile and most successful theme. It
+was, on the contrary, in the rehabilitation of Christianity as an
+inspiring force in literature. The 18th century had used against
+religion the method of ridicule; Chateaubriand, by genius rather than by
+reasoning, set up against this method that of poetry and romance.
+"Christianity," says he, almost in so many words, "is the most poetical
+of all religions, the most attractive, the most fertile in literary,
+artistic and social results." This theme he develops with the most
+splendid language, and with every conceivable advantage of style, in the
+_Genie du Christianisme_ and the _Martyrs_. The splendour of
+imagination, the summonings of history and literature to supply
+effective and touching illustrations, analogies and incidents, the rich
+colouring so different from the peculiarly monotonous and grey tones of
+the masters of the 18th century, and the fervid admiration for nature
+which were Chateaubriand's main attractions and characteristics, could
+not fail to have an enormous literary influence. Indeed he has been
+acclaimed, with more reason than is usually found in such acclamations,
+as the founder of comparative _and_ imaginative literary criticism in
+France if not in Europe. The Romantic school acknowledged, and with
+justice, its direct indebtedness to him.
+
+_Literature since 1830._--In dealing with the last period of the history
+of French literature and that which was introduced by the literary
+revolution of 1830 and has continued, in phases of only partial change,
+to the present day, a slight alteration of treatment is requisite. The
+subdivisions of literature have lately become so numerous, and the
+contributions to each have reached such an immense volume, that it is
+impossible to give more than cursory notice, or indeed allusion, to most
+of them. It so happens, however, that the purely literary
+characteristics of this period, though of the most striking and
+remarkable, are confined to a few branches of literature. The character
+of the 19th century in France has hitherto been at least as strongly
+marked as that of any previous period. In the middle ages men of letters
+followed each other in the cultivation of certain literary forms for
+long centuries. The _chanson de geste_, the Arthurian legend, the _roman
+d'aventure_, the _fabliau_, the allegorical poem, the rough dramatic
+_jeu_, mystery and farce, served successively as moulds into which the
+thought and writing impulse of generations of authors were successively
+cast, often with little attention to the suitability of form and
+subject. The end of the 15th century, and still more the 16th, owing to
+the vast extension of thought and knowledge then introduced, finally
+broke up the old forms, and introduced the practice of treating each
+subject in a manner more or less appropriate to it, and whether
+appropriate or not, freely selected by the author. At the same time a
+vast but somewhat indiscriminate addition was made to the actual
+vocabulary of the language. The 17th and 18th centuries witnessed a
+process of restriction once more to certain forms and strict imitation
+of predecessors, combined with attention to purely arbitrary rules, the
+cramping and impoverishing effect of this (in Fenelon's words) being
+counterbalanced partly by the efforts of individual genius, and still
+more by the constant and steady enlargement of the range of thought, the
+choice of subjects, and the familiarity with other literature, both of
+the ancient and modern world. The literary work of the 19th century and
+of the great Romantic movement which began in its second quarter was to
+repeat on a far larger scale the work of the 16th, to break up and
+discard such literary forms as had become useless or hopelessly stiff,
+to give strength, suppleness and variety to such as were retained, to
+invent new ones where necessary, to enrich the language by importations,
+inventions and revivals, and, above all, to bring into prominence the
+principle of individualism. Authors and even books, rather than groups
+and kinds, demand principal attention.
+
+The result of this revolution is naturally most remarkable in the
+_belles-lettres_ and the kindred department of history. Poetry, not
+dramatic, has been revived; prose romance and literary criticism have
+been brought to a perfection previously unknown; and history has
+produced works more various, if not more remarkable, than at any
+previous stage of the language. Of all these branches we shall therefore
+endeavour to give some detailed account. But the services done to the
+language were not limited to the strictly literary branches of
+literature. Modern French, if it lacks, as it probably does lack, the
+statuesque precision and elegance of prose style to which between 1650
+and 1800 all else was sacrificed, has become a much more suitable
+instrument for the accurate and copious treatment of positive and
+concrete subjects. These subjects have accordingly been treated in an
+abundance corresponding to that manifested in other countries, though
+the literary importance of the treatment has perhaps proportionately
+declined. We cannot even attempt to indicate the innumerable directions
+of scientific study which this copious industry has taken, and must
+confine ourselves to those which come more immediately under the
+headings previously adopted. In philosophy proper France, like other
+nations, has been more remarkable for attention to the historical side
+of the matter than for the production of new systems; and the principal
+exception among her philosophical writers, Auguste Comte (1793-1857),
+besides inclining, as far as his matter went to the political and
+scientific rather than to the purely philosophical side (which indeed he
+regarded as antiquated), was not very remarkable merely as a man of
+letters. Victor Cousin (1792-1867), on the other hand, almost a
+brilliant man of letters and for a time regarded as something of a
+philosophical apostle preaching "eclecticism," betook himself latterly
+to biographical and other miscellaneous writing, especially on the
+famous French ladies of the 17th century, and is likely to be remembered
+chiefly in this department, though not to be forgotten in that of
+philosophical history and criticism. The same curious declension was
+observable in the much younger Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893), who,
+beginning with philosophical studies, and always maintaining a strong
+tincture of philosophical determinism, applied himself later, first to
+literary history and criticism in his famous _Histoire de la litterature
+anglaise_ (1864), and then to history proper in his still more famous
+and far more solidly based _Origines de la France contemporaine_ (1876).
+To him, however, we must recur under the head of literary criticism. And
+not dissimilar phenomena, not so much of inconstancy to philosophy as of
+a tendency towards the applied rather than the pure branches of the
+subject, are noticeable in Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), in Charles de
+Remusat (1797-1875), and in Ernest Renan (1823-1892), the first of whom
+began by translating Herder while the second and third devoted
+themselves early to scholastic philosophy, de Remusat dealing with
+Abelard (1845) and Anselm (1856), Renan with Averroes (1852). More
+single-minded devotion to at least the historical side was shown by Jean
+Philibert Damiron (1794-1862), who published in 1842 a _Cours de
+philosophie_ and many minor works at different times; but the
+inconstancy recurs in Jules Simon (1814-1896), who, in the earlier part
+of his life a professor of philosophy and a writer of authority on the
+Greek philosophers (especially in _Histoire de l'ecole d'Alexandrie_,
+1844-1845), began before long to take an active and, towards the close
+of his life-work, all but a foremost part in politics. In theology the
+chief name of great literary eminence in the earlier part of the century
+is that of Lamennais, of whom more presently, in the later, that of
+Renan again. But Charles Forbes de Montalembert (1810-1870), an
+historian with a strong theological tendency, deserves notice; and among
+ecclesiastics who have been orators and writers the pere Jean Baptiste
+Henri Lacordaire (1802-1861), a pupil of Lamennais who returned to
+orthodoxy but always kept to the Liberal side; the pere Celestin Joseph
+Felix (1810-1891), a Jesuit teacher and preacher of eminence; and the
+pere Didon (1840-1900), a very popular preacher and writer who, though
+thoroughly orthodox, did not escape collision with his superiors. On the
+Protestant side Athanase Coquerel (1820-1875) is the most remarkable
+name. Recently Paul Sabatier (b. 1858) has displayed, especially in
+dealing with Saint Francis of Assisi, much power of literary and
+religious sympathy and a style somewhat modelled on that of Renan, but
+less unctuous and effeminate. There are strong philosophical tendencies,
+and at least a revolt against the religious as well as philosophical
+ideas of the Encyclopedists, in the _Pensees_ of Joubert, while the
+hybrid position characteristic of the 19th century is particularly
+noticeable in Etienne Pivert de Senancour (1770-1846), whose principal
+work, _Obermann_ (1804), had an extraordinary influence on its own and
+the next generation in the direction of melancholy moralizing. This tone
+was notably taken up towards the other end of the century by Amiel
+(q.v.), who, however, does not strictly belong to _French_ literature:
+while in Ximenes Doudon (1800-1872), author of _Melanges et lettres_
+posthumously published, we find more of a return to the attitude of
+Joubert--literary criticism occupying a very large part of his
+reflections. Political philosophy and its kindred sciences have
+naturally received a large share of attention. Towards the middle of the
+century there was a great development of socialist and fanciful
+theorizing on politics, with which the names of Claude Henri, comte de
+Saint-Simon (1760-1825), Charles Fourier (1772-1837), Etienne Cabet
+(1788-1856), and others are connected. As political economists Frederic
+Bastiat (1801-1850), L. G. L. Guilhaud de Lavergne (1809-1880), Louis
+Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881), and Michel Chevalier (1806-1879) may be
+noticed. In Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) France produced a
+political observer of a remarkably acute, moderate and reflective
+character, and Armand Carrel (1800-1836), whose life was cut short in a
+duel, was a real man of letters, as well as a brilliant journalist and
+an honest if rather violent party politician. The name of Jean Louis
+Eugene Lerminier (1803-1857) is of wide repute for legal and
+constitutional writings, and that of Henri, baron de Jomini (1779-1869)
+is still more celebrated as a military historian; while that of Francois
+Lenormant (1837-1883) holds a not dissimilar position in archaeology.
+With the publications devoted to physical science proper we do not
+attempt to meddle. Philology, however, demands a brief notice. In
+classical studies France has till recently hardly maintained the
+position which might be expected of the country of Scaliger and
+Casaubon. She has, however, produced some considerable Orientalists,
+such as Champollion the younger, Burnouf, Silvestre de Sacy and
+Stanislas Julien. The foundation of Romance philology was due, indeed,
+to the foreigners Wolf and Diez. But early in the century the curiosity
+as to the older literature of France created by Barbazan, Tressan and
+others continued to extend. Dominique Martin Meon (1748-1829) published
+many unprinted fabliaux, gave the whole of the French _Renart_ cycle,
+with the exception of _Renart le contrefait_, and edited the _Roman de
+la rose_. Charles Claude Fauriel (1772-1844) and Francois Raynouard
+(1761-1836) dealt elaborately with Provencal poetry as well as partially
+with that of the trouveres; and the latter produced his comprehensive
+_Lexique romane_. These examples were followed by many other writers,
+who edited manuscript works and commented on them, always with zeal and
+sometimes with discretion. Foremost among these must be mentioned Paulin
+Paris (1800-1881) who for fifty years served the cause of old French
+literature with untiring energy, great literary taste, and a pleasant
+and facile pen. His selections from manuscripts, his _Romancero
+francais_, his editions of _Garin le Loherain_ and _Berte aus grans
+pies_, and his _Romans de la table ronde_ may especially be mentioned.
+Soon, too, the Benedictine _Histoire litteraire_, so long interrupted,
+was resumed under M. Paris's general management, and has proceeded
+nearly to the end of the 14th century. Among its contents M. Paris's
+dissertations on the later _chansons de gestes_ and the early song
+writers, M. Victor le Clerc's on the _fabliaux_, and M. Littre's on the
+_romans d'aventures_ may be specially noticed. For some time indeed the
+work of French editors was chargeable with a certain lack of critical
+and philological accuracy. This reproach, however, was wiped off by the
+efforts of a band of younger scholars, chiefly pupils of the Ecole des
+Chartes, with MM. Gaston Paris (1839-1903) and Paul Meyer at their head.
+Of M. Paris in particular it may be said that no scholar in the subject
+has ever combined literary and linguistic competence more admirably. The
+Societe des Anciens Textes Francais was formed for the purpose of
+publishing scholarly editions of inedited works, and a lexicon of the
+older tongue by M. Godefroy at last supplemented, though not quite with
+equal accomplishment, the admirable dictionary in which Emile Littre
+(1801-1881), at the cost of a life's labour, embodied the whole
+vocabulary of the classical French language. Meanwhile the period
+between the middle ages proper and the 17th century has not lacked its
+share of this revival of attention. To the literature between Villon and
+Regnier especial attention was paid by the early Romantics, and
+Sainte-Beuve's _Tableau historique et critique de la poesie et du
+theatre au seizieme siecle_ was one of the manifestoes of the school.
+Since the appearance of that work in 1828 editions with critical
+comments of the literature of this period have constantly multiplied,
+aided by the great fancy for tastefully produced works which exists
+among the richer classes in France; and there are probably now few
+countries in which works of old authors, whether in cheap reprints or in
+_editions de luxe_ can be more readily procured.
+
+
+  Beranger.
+
+  Lamartine.
+
+  Lamennais.
+
+_The Romantic Movement._--It is time, however, to return to the literary
+revolution itself, and its more purely literary results. At the
+accession of Charles X. France possessed three writers, and perhaps only
+three, of already remarkable eminence, if we except Chateaubriand, who
+was already of a past generation. These three were Pierre Jean de
+Beranger (1780-1857), Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), and Hugues
+Felicite Robert Lamennais (1782-1854). The first belongs definitely in
+manner, despite his striking originality of _nuance_, to the past. He
+has remnants of the old periphrases, the cumbrous mythological
+allusions, the poetical "properties" of French verse. He has also the
+older and somewhat narrow limitations of a French poet; foreigners are
+for him mere barbarians. At the same time his extraordinary lyrical
+faculty, his excellent wit, which makes him a descendant of Rabelais and
+La Fontaine, and his occasional touches of pathos made him deserve and
+obtain something more than successes of occasion. Beranger, moreover,
+was very far from being the mere improvisatore which those who cling to
+the inspirationist theory of poetry would fain see in him. His studies
+in style and composition were persistent, and it was long before he
+attained the firm and brilliant manner which distinguishes him.
+Beranger's talent, however, was still too much a matter of individual
+genius to have great literary influence, and he formed no school. It was
+different with Lamartine, who was, nevertheless, like Beranger, a
+typical Frenchman. The _Meditations_ and the _Harmonies_ exhibit a
+remarkable transition between the old school and the new. In going
+direct to nature, in borrowing from her striking outlines, vivid and
+contrasted tints, harmony and variety of sound, the new poet showed
+himself an innovator of the best class. In using romantic and religious
+associations, and expressing them in affecting language, he was the
+Chateaubriand of verse. But with all this he retained some of the vices
+of the classical school. His versification, harmonious as it is, is
+monotonous, and he does not venture into the bold lyrical forms which
+true poetry loves. He has still the horror of the _mot propre_; he is
+always spiritualizing and idealizing, and his style and thought have a
+double portion of the feminine and almost flaccid softness which had
+come to pass for grace in French. The last of the trio, Lamennais,
+represents an altogether bolder and rougher genius. Strongly influenced
+by the Catholic reaction, Lamennais also shows the strongest possible
+influence of the revolutionary spirit. His earliest work, the _Essai sur
+l'indifference en matiere de religion_ (1817 and 1818) was a defence of
+the church on curiously unecclesiastical lines. It was written in an
+ardent style, full of illustrations, and extremely ambitious in
+character. The plan was partly critical and partly constructive. The
+first part disposed of the 18th century; the second, adopting the theory
+of papal absolutism which Joseph de Maistre had already advocated,
+proceeded to base it on a supposed universal consent. The after history
+of Lamennais was perhaps not an unnatural recoil from this; but it is
+sufficient here to point out that in his prose, especially as afterwards
+developed in the apocalyptic _Paroles d'un croyant_ (1839) are to be
+discerned many of the tendencies of the Romantic school, particularly
+its hardy and picturesque choice of language, and the disdain of
+established and accepted methods which it professed. The signs of the
+revolution itself were, as was natural, first given in periodical
+literature. The feudalist affectations of Chateaubriand and the
+legitimists excited a sort of aesthetic affection for Gothicism, and
+Walter Scott became one of the most favourite authors in France. Soon
+was started the periodical _La Muse francaise_, in which the names of
+Hugo, Vigny, Deschamps and Madame de Girardin appear. Almost all the
+writers in this periodical were eager royalists, and for some time the
+battle was still fought on political grounds. There could, however, be
+no special connexion between classical drama and liberalism; and the
+liberal journal, the Globe, with no less a person than Sainte-Beuve
+among its contributors, declared definite war against classicism in the
+drama. The chief "classical" organs were the _Constitutionnel_, the
+_Journal des debats_, and after a time and not exclusively, the _Revue
+des deux mondes_. Soon the question became purely literary, and the
+Romantic school proper was born in the famous _cenacle_ or clique in
+which Hugo was chief poet, Sainte-Beuve chief critic, and Gautier,
+Gerard de Nerval, the brothers Emile (1791-1871) and Antony (1800-1869),
+Deschamps, Petrus Borel (1809-1859) and others were officers. Alfred de
+Vigny and Alfred de Musset stand somewhat apart, and so does Charles
+Nodier (1780-1844), a versatile and voluminous writer, the very variety
+and number of whose works have somewhat prevented the individual
+excellence of any of them from having justice done to it. The objects of
+the school, which was at first violently opposed, so much so that
+certain academicians actually petitioned the king to forbid the
+admission of any Romantic piece at the Theatre Francais, were, briefly
+stated, the burning of everything which had been adored, and the adoring
+of everything which had been burnt. They would have no unities, no
+arbitrary selection of subjects, no restraints on variety of
+versification, no academically limited vocabulary, no considerations of
+artificial beauty, and, above all, no periphrastic expression. The _mot
+propre_, the calling of a spade a spade, was the great commandment of
+Romanticism; but it must be allowed that what was taken away in
+periphrase was made up in adjectives. Musset, who was very much of a
+free-lance in the contest, maintained indeed that the _differentia_ of
+the Romantic was the copious use of this part of speech. All sorts of
+epithets were invented to distinguish the two parties, of which
+_flamboyant_ and _grisatre_ are perhaps the most accurate and expressive
+pair--the former serving to denote the gorgeous tints and bold attempts
+of the new school, the latter the grey colour and monotonous outlines of
+the old. The representation of _Hernani_ in 1830 was the culmination of
+the struggle, and during great part of the reign of Louis Philippe
+almost all the younger men of letters in France were Romantics. The
+representation of the _Lucrece_ of Francois Ponsard (1814-1867) in 1846
+is often quoted as the herald or sign of a classical reaction. But this
+was only apparent, and signified, if it signified anything, merely that
+the more juvenile excesses of the Romantics were out of date. All the
+greatest men of letters of France since 1830 have been on the innovating
+side, and all without exception, whether intentionally or not, have had
+their work coloured by the results of the movement, and of those which
+have succeeded it as developments rather than reactions.
+
+_Drama and Poetry since 1830._--Although the immediate subject on which
+the battles of Classics and Romantics arose was dramatic poetry, the
+dramatic results of the movement have not been those of greatest value
+or most permanent character. The principal effect in the long run has
+been the introduction of a species of play called _drame_, as opposed to
+regular comedy and tragedy, admitting of much freer treatment than
+either of these two as previously understood in French, and lending
+itself in some measure to the lengthy and disjointed action, the
+multiplicity of personages, and the absence of stock characters which
+characterized the English stage in its palmy days. All Victor Hugo's
+dramatic works are of this class, and each, as it was produced or
+published (_Cromwell_, _Hernani_, _Marion de l'Orme_, _Le Roi s'amuse_,
+_Lucrece Borgia_, _Marie Tudor_, _Ruy Blas_ and _Les Burgraves_), was a
+literary event, and excited the most violent discussion--the author's
+usual plan being to prefix a prose preface of a very militant character
+to his work. A still more melodramatic variety of _drame_ was that
+chiefly represented by Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870), whose _Henri III_
+and _Antony_, to which may be added later _La Tour de Nesle_ and
+_Mademoiselle de Belleisle_, were almost as much rallying points for the
+early Romantics as the dramas of Hugo, despite their inferior literary
+value. At the same time Alexandre Soumet (1788-1845), in _Norma_, _Une
+Fete de Neron_, &c., and Casimir Delavigne in _Marino Faliero_, _Louis
+XI_, &c., maintained a somewhat closer adherence to the older models.
+The classical or semi-classical reaction of the last years of Louis
+Philippe was represented in tragedy by Ponsard (_Lucrece_, _Agnes de
+Meranie_, _Charlotte Corday_, _Ulysse_, and several comedies), and on
+the comic side, to a certain extent, by Emile Augier (1820-1889) in
+_L'Aventuriere_, _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_, _Le Fils de Giboyer_, &c.
+During almost the whole period Eugene Scribe (1791-1861) poured forth
+innumerable comedies of the vaudeville order, which, without possessing
+much literary value, attained immense popularity. For the last
+half-century the realist development of Romanticism has had the upper
+hand in dramatic composition, its principal representatives being on the
+one side Victorien Sardou (1831-1909), who in _Nos Intimes_, _La Famille
+Benoiton_, _Rabagas_, _Dora_, &c., chiefly devoted himself to the
+satirical treatment of manners, and Alexandre Dumas _fils_ (1824-1895),
+author in 1852 of the famous _Dame aux camelias_, who in such pieces as
+_Les Idees de Madame Aubray_ and _L'Etrangere_ rather busied himself
+with morals and "problems," while his _Dame aux camelias_ (1852) is
+sometimes ranked as the first of such things in "modern" style. Certain
+isolated authors also deserve notice, such as Joseph Autran (1813-1877),
+a poet and academician having some resemblance to Lamartine, whose
+_Fille d'Aeschyle_ created for him a dramatic reputation which he did not
+attempt to follow up, and Gabriel Legouve (b. 1807), whose _Adrienne
+Lecouvreur_ was assisted to popularity by the admirable talent of
+Rachel. A special variety of drama of the first literary importance has
+also been cultivated in this century under the title of _scenes_ or
+_proverbes_, slight dramatic sketches in which the dialogue and style
+are of even more importance than the action. The best of all of these
+are those of Alfred de Musset (1810-1857), whose _Il faut qu'une porte
+soit ouverte ou fermee_, _On ne badine pas avec l'amour_, &c., are
+models of grace and wit. Among his followers may be mentioned especially
+Octave Feuillet (1821-1890). Few social dramas of the kind in modern
+times have attained a greater success than _Le Monde ou l'on s'ennuie_
+(1868) of Edouard Pailleron (1834-1899). (See also DRAMA.)
+
+
+  Victor Hugo.
+
+  Musset.
+
+  Gautier.
+
+In poetry proper, as in drama, Victor Hugo showed the way. In him all
+the Romantic characteristics were expressed and embodied--disregard of
+arbitrary critical rules, free choice of subject, variety and vigour of
+metre, splendour and sonorousness of diction, abundant "local colour,"
+and that irrepressible individualism which is one of the chief, though
+not perhaps the chief, of the symptoms. If the careful attention to form
+which is also characteristic of the movement is less apparent in him
+than in some of his followers, it is not because it is absent, but
+because the enthusiastic conviction with which he attacked every subject
+somewhat diverts attention from it. As with the merits so with the
+defects. A deficient sense of the ludicrous which characterized many of
+the Romantics was strongly apparent in their leader, as was also an
+equally representative grandiosity, and a fondness for the introduction
+of foreign and unfamiliar words, especially proper names, which
+occasionally produces an effect of burlesque. Victor Hugo's earliest
+poetical works, his chiefly royalist and political _Odes_, were cast in
+the older and accepted forms, but already displayed astonishing poetical
+qualities. But it was in the _Ballades_ (for instance, the splendid _Pas
+d'armes du roi Jean_, written in verses of three syllables) and the
+_Orientales_ (of which may be taken for a sample the sixth section of
+_Navarin_, a perfect torrent of outlandish terms poured forth in the
+most admirable verse, or _Les Djinns_, where some of the stanzas have
+lines of two syllables each) that the grand provocation was thrown to
+the believers in alexandrines, careful caesuras and strictly separated
+couplets. _Les Feuilles d'automne_, _Les Chants du crepuscule_, _Les
+Voix interieures_, _Les Rayons et les ombres_, the productions of the
+next twenty years, were quieter in style and tone, but no less full of
+poetical spirit. The Revolution of 1848, the establishment of the empire
+and the poet's exile brought about a fresh determination of his genius
+to lyrical subjects. _Les Chatiments_ and _La Legende des siecles_, the
+one political, the other historical, reach perhaps the high-water mark
+of French verse; and they were followed by the philosophical
+_Contemplations_, the lighter _Chansons des rues et des bois_, the
+_Annee terrible_, the second _Legende des siecles_, and the later work
+to be found noticed _sub nom_. We have been thus particular here because
+the literary productiveness of Victor Hugo himself has been the measure
+and sample of the whole literary productiveness of France on the
+poetical side. At five-and-twenty he was acknowledged as a master, at
+seventy-five he was a master still. His poetical influence has been
+represented in three different schools, from which very few of the
+poetical writers of the century can be excluded. These few we may notice
+first. Alfred de Musset, a writer of great genius, felt part of the
+Romantic inspiration very strongly, but was on the whole unfortunately
+influenced by Byron, and partly out of wilfulness, partly from a natural
+want of persevering industry and vigour, allowed himself to be careless
+and even slovenly in composition. Notwithstanding this, many of his
+lyrics are among the finest poems in the language, and his verse,
+careless as it is, has extraordinary natural grace. Auguste Barbier
+(1805-1882) whose _Iambes_ shows an extraordinary command of nervous and
+masculine versification, also comes in here; and the Breton poet,
+Auguste Brizeux (1803-1858), much admired by some, together with
+Hegesippe Moreau, an unequal writer possessing some talent, Pierre
+Dupont (1821-1870), one of much greater gifts, and Gustave Nadaud
+(1820-1893), a follower of Beranger, also deserve mention. Of the school
+of Lamartine rather than of Hugo are Alfred de Vigny (1799-1865) and
+Victor de Laprade (1812-1887), the former a writer of little bulk and
+somewhat over-fastidious, but possessing one of the most correct and
+elegant styles to be found in French, with a curious restrained passion
+and a complicated originality, the latter a meditative and philosophical
+poet, like Vigny an admirable writer, but somewhat deficient in pith and
+substance, as well as in warmth and colour. Madame Ackermann (1813-1890)
+is the chief philosophical poetess of France, and this style has
+recently been very popular; but for actual poetical powers, Marceline
+Desbordes-Valmore (1786-1859) perhaps excelled her, though in a looser
+and more sentimental fashion. The poetical schools which more directly
+derive from the Romantic movement as represented by Hugo are three in
+number, corresponding in point of time with the first outburst of the
+movement, with the period of reaction already alluded to, and with the
+closing years of the second empire. Of the first by far the most
+distinguished member was Theophile Gautier (1811-1872), the most perfect
+poet in point of form that France has produced. When quite a boy he
+devoted himself to the study of 16th-century masters, and though he
+acknowledged the supremacy of Hugo, his own talent was of an individual
+order, and developed itself more or less independently. _Albertus_ alone
+of his poems has much of the extravagant and grotesque character which
+distinguished early romantic literature. The _Comedie de la mort_, the
+_Poesies diverses_, and still more the _Emaux et camees_, display a
+distinctly classical tendency--classical, that is to say, not in the
+party and perverted sense, but in its true acceptation. The tendency to
+the fantastic and horrible may be taken as best shown by Petrus Borel
+(1809-1859), a writer of singular power almost entirely wasted. Gerard
+Labrunie or de Nerval (1808-1855) adopted a manner also fantastic but
+more idealistic than Borel's, and distinguished himself by his Oriental
+travels and studies, and by his attention to popular ballads and
+traditions, while his style has an exquisite but unaffected strangeness
+hardly inferior to Gautier's. This peculiar and somewhat quintessenced
+style is also remarkable in the _Gaspard de la nuit_ of Louis Bertrand
+(1807-1841), a work of rhythmical prose almost unique in its character.
+One famous sonnet preserves the name of Felix Arvers (1806-1850). The
+two Deschamps were chiefly remarkable as translators. The next
+generation produced three remarkable poets, to whom may perhaps be added
+a fourth. Theodore de Banville (1823-1891), adopting the principles of
+Gautier, and combining with them a considerable satiric faculty,
+composed a large amount of verse, faultless in form, delicate and
+exquisite in shades and colours, but so entirely neutral in moral and
+political tone that it has found fewer admirers than it deserved.
+Charles Marie Rene Leconte de Lisle (1818-1894), carrying out the
+principle of ransacking foreign literature for subjects, went to Celtic,
+classical or even Oriental sources for his inspiration, and despite a
+science in verse not much inferior to Banville's, and a far wider range
+and choice of subject, diffused an air of erudition, not to say
+pedantry, over his work which disgusted some readers, and a pessimism
+which displeased others, but has left poetry only inferior to that of
+the greatest of his countrymen. Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), by his
+choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of his analysis,
+revolted not a few of those who, in the words of an English critic,
+cannot take pleasure in the representation if they do not take pleasure
+in the thing represented, and who thus miss his extraordinary command of
+the poetical appeal in sound, in imagery and in suggestion generally.
+Thus, by a strange coincidence, each of the three representatives of the
+second Romantic generation was for a time disappointed of his due fame.
+A fourth poet of this time, Josephin Soulary (1815-1891), produced
+sonnets of rare beauty and excellence. A fifth, Louis Bouilhet
+(1822-1869), an intimate friend of Flaubert, pushed even farther the
+fancy for strange subjects, but showed powers in _Melaenis_ and other
+things. In 1866 a collection of poems, entitled after an old French
+fashion _Le Parnasse contemporain_, appeared. It included contributions
+by many of the poets just mentioned, but the mass of the contributors
+were hitherto unknown to fame. A similar collection appeared in 1869,
+and was interrupted by the German war, but continued after it, and a
+third in 1876.
+
+The first _Parnasse_ had been projected by MM. Xavier de Ricard (b.
+1843) and Catulle Mendes (1841-1909) as a sort of manifesto of a school
+of young poets: but its contents were largely coloured by the inclusion
+among them of work by representatives of older generations--Gautier,
+Laprade, Leconte de Lisle, Banville, Baudelaire and others. The
+continuation, however, of the title in the later issues, rather than
+anything else, led to the formation and promulgation of the idea of a
+"Parnassien" or an "Impassible" school which was supposed to adopt as
+its watchword the motto of "Art for Art's sake," to pay especial
+attention to form, and also to aim at a certain objectivity. As a matter
+of fact the greater poets and the greater poems of the Parnasse admit of
+no such restrictive labelling, which can only be regarded as
+mischievous, though (or very mainly because) it has been continued.
+Another school, arising mainly in the later 'eighties and calling itself
+that of "Symbolism," has been supposed to indicate a reaction against
+Parnassianism and even against the main or Hugonic Romantic tradition
+generally; with a throwing back to Lamartine and perhaps Chenier. This
+idea of successive schools ("Decadents," "Naturists," "Simplists," &c.)
+has even been reduced to such an _absurdum_ as the statement that
+"France sees a new school of poetry every fifteen years." Those who have
+studied literature sufficiently widely, and from a sufficient elevation,
+know that these systematisings are always more or less delusive.
+Parnassianism, symbolism and the other things are merely phases of the
+Romantic movement itself--as may be proved to demonstration by the
+simple process of taking, say, Hugo and Verlaine on the one hand,
+Delille or Escouchard Lebrun on the other, and comparing the two first
+mentioned with each other and with the older poet. The differences in
+the first case will be found to be differences at most of individuality:
+in the other of kind. We shall not, therefore, further refer to these
+dubious classifications: but specify briefly the most remarkable poets
+whom they concern, and all the older of whom, it may be observed, were
+represented in the _Parnasse_ itself. Of these the most remarkable were
+Sully Prudhomme (1839-1907), Francois Coppee (1842-1908) and Paul
+Verlaine (1844-1896). The first (_Stances et poemes_, 1865, _Vaines
+Tendresses_, 1875, _Bonheur_, 1888, &c.) is a philosophical and rather
+pessimistic poet who has very strongly rallied the suffrages of the
+rather large present public who care for the embodiment of these
+tendencies in verse; the second (_La Greve des forgerons_, 1869, _Les
+Humbles_, 1872, _Contes et vers_, 1881-1887, &c.) a dealer with more
+generally popular subjects in a more sentimental manner; and the third
+(_Sagesse_, 1881, _Parallelement_, 1889, _Poemes saturniens_, including
+early work, 1867-1890), by far the most original and remarkable poet of
+the three, starting with Baudelaire and pushing farther the fancy for
+forbidden subjects, but treating both these and others with wonderful
+command of sound and image-suggestion. Verlaine in fact (he was actually
+well acquainted with English) endeavoured, and to a small extent
+succeeded in the endeavour, to communicate to French the vague
+suggestion of visual and audible appeal which has characterized English
+poetry from Blake through Coleridge. Others of the original Parnassiens
+who deserve mention are Albert Glatigny (1839-1873), a Bohemian poet of
+great talent who died young; Stephane Mallarme (1842-1898), afterwards
+chief of the Symbolists, also a true poet in his way, but somewhat
+barren, and the victim of pose and trick; Jose Maria de Heredia
+(1842-1905), a very exquisite practitioner of the sonnet but with
+perhaps more art than matter in him; Henri Cazalis (1840-1909), who long
+afterwards, under his name of Jean Lahor, appeared as a Symbolist
+pessimist; A. Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, another eccentric but with a
+spark of genius; Emmanuel des Essarts; Auguste de Chatillon (1810-1882);
+Leon Dierx (b. 1838) who, after producing even less than Mallarme,
+succeeded him as Symbolist chief; Jean Aicard (b. 1848), a southern bard
+of merit; and lastly Catulle Mendes himself, who has been a brilliant
+writer in verse and prose ever since, and whose _Mouvement poetique
+francais de 1867 a 1900_ (1903), an official report largely amplified so
+that it is in fact a history and dictionary of French poetry during the
+century, forms an almost unique work of reference on the subject. Among
+the later recruits the most specially noticeable was Armand Silvestre
+(1837-1901), whose verse (_La Chanson des heures_, 1878, _Ailes d'or_,
+1880, _La Chanson des etoiles_, 1885), of an ethereal beauty, was
+contrasted with prose admirably written and sometimes most amusing, but
+"Pantagruelist," and more, in manners and morals. This declension from
+poetry to prose fiction was also noticeable in Guy de Maupassant, Andre
+Theuriet, Anatole France and even Alphonse Daudet.
+
+Yet another flight of poets may be grouped as those specially
+representing the last quarter of the century and (whether Parnassian,
+Symbolist or what not) the latest development of French poetry. Verlaine
+and Mallarme already mentioned were in a manner the leaders of these.
+Perhaps something of the influence of Whitman may be detected in the
+irregular verses of Gustave Kahn (b. 1859), Francis Viele Griffin,
+actually an American by birth (b. 1864), Stuart Merrill, of like origin,
+and Paul Fort (b. 1872). But the whole tendency of the period has been
+to relax the stringency of French prosody. Albert Samain (1859-1900), a
+musical versifier enough; Jean Moreas (1856-1910) who began with a
+volume called _Les Syrtes_ in 1884; Laurent Tailhade (b. 1854) and
+others are more or less Symbolist, and contributed to the Symbolist
+periodical (one of many such since the beginning of the Romantic
+movement which would almost require an article to themselves), the
+_Mercure de France_. An older man than many of these, M. Jean Richepin
+(b. 1849), made for a time considerable noise with poetical work of a
+colour older even than his age, and harking back somewhat to the
+Jeune-France and "Bousingot" type of early Romanticism--_La Chanson des
+gueux_, _Les Blasphemes_, &c. Other writers of note are M. Paul
+Deroulede (b. 1846), a violently nationalist poet; M. Maurice Bouchor
+(b. 1864), who started his serious and respectable work with _Les
+Symboles_ in 1888; while M. Henri de Regnier, born in the same year, has
+received very high praise for work from _Lendemains_ in 1886 and other
+volumes up to _Les Jeux rustiques et divins_ (1897) and _Les Medailles
+d'argile_ (1900). The truth, however, perhaps is that this extraordinary
+abundance of verse (for we have not mentioned a quarter of the names
+which present themselves, or a twentieth part of those who figure in M.
+Mendes's catalogue for the last half-century) reminds the literary
+historian somewhat too much of similar phenomena in other times. There
+is undoubtedly a great diffusion of poetical dexterity, and not perhaps
+a small one of poetical spirit, but it requires the settling, clarifying
+and distinguishing effects of time to separate the poet from the minor
+poet. Still more perhaps must we look to time to decide whether the
+_vers libre_ as it is called--that is to say, the verse freed from the
+minute traditions of the elder prosody, admitting hiatus, neglecting to
+a greater or less extent _caesura_, and sometimes relying upon mere
+rhythm to the neglect of strict metre altogether--can hold its ground.
+It has as yet been practised by no poet at all approaching the first
+class, except Verlaine, and not by him in its extremer forms. And the
+whole history of prosody and poetry teaches us that though similar
+changes often come in as it were unperceived, they scarcely ever take
+root in the language unless a great poet adopts them. Or rather it
+should perhaps be said that when they are going to take root in the
+language a great poet always does adopt them before very long.
+
+
+  Dumas.
+
+  Balzac the younger.
+
+_Prose Fiction since 1830._--Even more remarkable, because more
+absolutely novel, was the outburst of prose fiction which followed 1830.
+Madame de Lafayette, Le Sage, Marivaux, Voltaire, the Abbe Prevost,
+Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre and Fievee had all of
+them produced work excellent in its way, and comprising in a more or
+less rudimentary condition most varieties of the novel. But none of them
+had, in the French phrase, made a school, and at no time had prose
+fiction been composed in any considerable quantities. The immense
+influence which Walter Scott exercised was perhaps the direct cause of
+the attention paid to prose fiction; the facility, too, with which all
+the fancies, tastes and beliefs of the time could be embodied in such
+work may have had considerable importance. But it is difficult on any
+theory of cause and effect to account for the appearance in less than
+ten years of such a group of novelists as Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Merimee,
+Balzac, George Sand, Jules Sandeau and Charles de Bernard, names to
+which might be added others scarcely inferior. There is hardly anything
+else resembling it in literature, except the great cluster of English
+dramatists in the beginning of the 17th century, and of English poets at
+the beginning of the 19th; and it is remarkable that the excellence of
+the first group was maintained by a fresh generation--Murger, About,
+Feuillet, Flaubert, Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbuliez and
+Gaboriau, forming a company of _diadochi_ not far inferior to their
+predecessors, and being themselves not unworthily succeeded almost up to
+the present day. The romance-writing of France during the period has
+taken two different directions--the first that of the novel of incident,
+the second that of analysis and character. The first, now mainly
+deserted, was that which, as was natural when Scott was the model, was
+formerly most trodden; the second required the genius of George Sand and
+of Balzac and the more problematical talent of Beyle to attract students
+to it. The novels of Victor Hugo are novels of incident, with a strong
+infusion of purpose, and considerable but rather ideal character
+drawing. They are in fact lengthy prose _drames_ rather than romances
+proper, and they have found no imitators. They display, however, the
+powers of the master at their fullest. On the other hand, Alexandre
+Dumas originally composed his novels in close imitation of Scott, and
+they are much less dramatic than narrative in character, so that they
+lend themselves to almost indefinite continuation, and there is often no
+particular reason why they should terminate even at the end of the score
+or so of volumes to which they sometimes actually extend. Of this purely
+narrative kind, which hardly even attempts anything but the boldest
+character drawing, the best of them, such as _Les Trois Mousquetaires_,
+_Vingt ans apres_, _La Reine Margot_, are probably the best specimens
+extant. Dumas possesses, almost alone among novelists, the secret of
+writing interminable dialogue without being tedious, and of telling the
+story by it. Of something the same kind, but of a far lower stamp, are
+the novels of Eugene Sue (1804-1857). Dumas and Sue were accompanied and
+followed by a vast crowd of companions, independent or imitative. Alfred
+de Vigny had already attempted the historical novel in _Cinq-Mars_.
+Henri de La Touche (1785-1851) (_Fragoletta_), an excellent critic who
+formed George Sand, but a mediocre novelist, may be mentioned: and
+perhaps also Roger de Beauvoir, whose real name was Eugene Auguste Roger
+de Bully (1806-1866) (_Le Chronique de Saint Georges_), and Frederic
+Soulie (_Les Memoires du diable_) (1800-1847). Paul Feval (_La Fee des
+greves_) (1817-1877) and Amedee Achard (_Belle-Rose_) (1814-1875) are of
+the same school, and some of the attempts of Jules Janin (1804-1874),
+more celebrated as a critic, may also be connected with it. By degrees,
+however, the taste for the novel of incident, at least of an historical
+kind, died out till it was revived in another form, and with an
+admixture of domestic interest, by MM. Erckmann-Chatrian. The last and
+one of the most splendid instances of the old style was _Le Capitaine
+Fracasse_, which Theophile Gautier began early and finished late as a
+kind of _tour de force_. The last-named writer in his earlier days had
+modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kind of writing for
+which French has always been famous, and in which Gautier's sketches are
+masterpieces. His only other long novel, _Mademoiselle de Maupin_,
+belongs rather to the class of analysis. With Gautier, as a writer whose
+literary characteristics even excel his purely tale-telling powers, may
+be classed Prosper Merimee (1803-1870), one of the most exquisite
+19th-century masters of the language. Already, however, in 1830 the tide
+was setting strongly in favour of novels of contemporary life and
+manners. These were of course susceptible of extremely various
+treatment. For many years Paul de Kock (1793-1871), a writer who did not
+trouble himself about Classics or Romantics or any such matter,
+continued the tradition of Marivaux, Crebillon _fils_, and Pigault
+Lebrun (1753-1835) in a series of not very moral or polished but lively
+and amusing sketches of life, principally of the bourgeois type. Later
+Charles de Bernard (1804-1850) (_Gerfaut_) with infinitely greater wit,
+elegance, propriety and literary skill, did the same thing for the
+higher classes of French society. But the two great masters of the novel
+of character and manners as opposed to that of history and incident are
+Honore de Balzac (1799-1850) and Aurore Dudevant, commonly called George
+Sand (1804-1876). Their influence affected the entire body of novelists
+who succeeded them, with very few exceptions. At the head of these
+exceptions may be placed Jules Sandeau (1811-1883), who, after writing a
+certain number of novels in a less individual style, at last made for
+himself a special subject in a certain kind of domestic novel, where the
+passions set in motion are less boisterous than those usually preferred
+by the French novelist, and reliance is mainly placed on minute
+character drawing and shades of colour sober in hue but very carefully
+adjusted (_Catherine_, _Mademoiselle de Penarvan_, _Mademoiselle de la
+Seigliere_). In the same class of the more quiet and purely domestic
+novelists may be placed X. B. Saintine (1798-1865) (_Picciola_), Madame
+C. Reybaud (1802-1871) (_Clementine_, _Le Cadet de Colobrieres_), J. T.
+de Saint-Germain (_Pour en epingle_, _La Feuille de coudrier_), Madame
+Craven (1808-1891) (_Recit d'une soeur_, _Fleurange_). Henri Beyle
+(1798-1865), who wrote under the _nom de plume_ of Stendhal and belongs
+to an older generation than most of these, also stands by himself. His
+chief book in the line of fiction is _La Chartreuse de Parme_, an
+exceedingly powerful novel of the analytical kind, and he also composed
+a considerable number of critical and miscellaneous works. Of little
+influence at first (though he had great power over Merimee) and never
+master of a perfect style, he has exercised ever increasing authority as
+a master of pessimist analysis. Indeed much of his work was never
+published till towards the close of the century. Last among the
+independents must be mentioned Henry Murger (1822-1861), the painter of
+what is called Bohemian life, that is to say, the struggles,
+difficulties and amusements of students, youthful artists, and men of
+letters. In this peculiar style, which may perhaps be regarded as an
+irregular descendant of the picaroon romance, Murger has no rival; and
+he is also, though on no extensive scale, a poet of great pathos. But
+with these exceptions, the influences of the two writers we have
+mentioned, sometimes combined, more often separate, may be traced
+throughout the whole of later novel literature. George Sand began with
+books strongly tinged with the spirit of revolt against moral and social
+arrangements, and she sometimes diverged into very curious paths of
+pseudo-philosophy, such as was popular in the second quarter of the
+century. At times, too, as in _Lucrezia Floriani_ and some other works,
+she did not hesitate to draw largely on her own personal adventures and
+experiences. But latterly she devoted herself rather to sketches of
+country life and manners, and to novels involving bold if not very
+careful sketches of character and more or less dramatic situations. She
+was one of the most fertile of novelists, continuing to the end of her
+long life to pour forth fiction at the rate of many volumes a year. Of
+her different styles may be mentioned as fairly characteristic, _Lelia_,
+_Lucrezia Floriani_, _Consuelo_, _La Mare au diable_, _La Petite
+Fadette_, _Francois le champi_, _Mademoiselle de la Quintinie_.
+Considering the shorter length of his life the productiveness of Balzac
+was almost more astonishing, especially if we consider that some of his
+early work was never reprinted, and that he left great stores of
+fragments and unfinished sketches. He is, moreover, the most remarkable
+example in literature of untiring work and determination to achieve
+success despite the greatest discouragements. His early work was worse
+than unsuccessful, it was positively bad. After more than a score of
+unsuccessful attempts, _Les Chouans_ at last made its mark, and for
+twenty years from that time the astonishing productions composing the
+so-called _Comedie humaine_ were poured forth successively. The
+sub-titles which Balzac imposed upon the different batches, _Scenes de
+la vie parisienne_, _de la vie de province_, _de la vie intime_, &c.,
+show, like the general title, a deliberate intention on the author's
+part to cover the whole ground of human, at least of French life. Such
+an attempt could not succeed wholly; yet the amount of success attained
+is astonishing. Balzac has, however, with some justice been accused of
+creating the world which he described, and his personages, wonderful as
+is the accuracy and force with which many of the characteristics of
+humanity are exemplified in them, are somehow not altogether human.
+Since these two great novelists, many others have arisen, partly to
+tread in their steps, partly to strike out independent paths. Octave
+Feuillet (1821-1890), beginning his career by apprenticeship to
+Alexandre Dumas and the historical novel, soon found his way in a very
+different style of composition, the _roman intime_ of fashionable life,
+in which, notwithstanding some grave defects, he attained much
+popularity and showed remarkable skill in keeping abreast of his time.
+The so-called realist side of Balzac was developed (but, as he himself
+acknowledged, with a double dose of intermixed if somewhat transformed
+Romanticism) by Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), who showed culture,
+scholarship and a literary power over the language inferior to that of
+no writer of the century. No novelist of his generation has attained a
+higher literary rank than Flaubert. _Madame Bovary_ and _L'Education
+sentimentale_ are studies of contemporary life; in _Salammbo_ and _La
+Tentation de Saint Antoine_ erudition and antiquarian knowledge furnish
+the subjects for the display of the highest literary skill. Of about the
+same date Edmond About (1828-1885), before he abandoned novel-writing,
+devoted himself chiefly to sketches of abundant but not always refined
+wit (_L'Homme a l'oreille cassee_, _Le Nez d'un notaire_), and sometimes
+to foreign scenes (_Tolla_, _Le Roi des montagnes_). Champfleury (Henri
+Husson, 1829-1889), a prolific critic, deserves notice for stories of
+the extravaganza kind. During the whole of the Second Empire one of the
+most popular writers was Ernest Feydeau (1821-1873), a writer of great
+ability, but morbid and affected in the choice and treatment of his
+subjects (_Fanny_, _Sylvie_, _Catherine d'Overmeire_). Emile Gaboriau
+(1833-1873), taking up that side of Balzac's talent which devoted itself
+to inextricable mysteries, criminal trials, and the like, produced _M.
+Le Coq_, _Le Crime d'Orcival_, _La Degringolade_, &c.; and Adolphe Belot
+(b. 1829) for a time endeavoured to out-Feydeau Feydeau in _La Femme de
+feu_ and other works. Eugene Fromentin (1820-1876), best known as a
+painter, wrote a novel, _Dominique_, which was highly appreciated by
+good judges.
+
+During the last decade of the Second Empire there arose, continuing for
+varying lengths of time till nearly the end of the century, another
+remarkable group of novelists, most of whom are dealt with under
+separate headings, but who must receive combined treatment here; with
+the warning that even more danger than in the case of the poets is
+incurred by classing them in "schools." Undoubtedly, however, the
+"Naturalist" tendency, starting from Balzac and continued through
+Flaubert, but taking quite a new direction under some of those to be
+mentioned, is in a manner dominant. Flaubert himself and Feuillet (an
+exact observer of manners but an anti-Naturalist) have already been
+mentioned. Victor Cherbuliez (1829-1899), a constant writer in the
+_Revue des deux mondes_ on politics and other subjects, also
+accomplished a long series of novels from _Le Comte Kostia_ (1863)
+onwards, of which the most remarkable are that just named, _Le Roman
+d'une honnete femme_ (1866), and _Meta Holdenis_ (1873). With something
+of Balzac and more of Feuillet, Cherbuliez mixed with his observation of
+society a dose of sentimental and popular romance which offended the
+younger critics of his day, but he had solid merits. Gustave Droz (b.
+1832) devoted himself chiefly to short stories sufficiently "free" in
+subject (_Monsieur, madame et bebe_, _Entre nous_, &c.) but full of
+fancy, excellently written, and of a delicate wit in one sense if not in
+all. Andre Theuriet (1833-1907) began with poetry but diverged to
+novels, in which the scenery of France and especially of its great
+forests is used with much skill; _Le Fils Maugars_ (1879) may be
+mentioned out of many as a specimen. Leon Cladel (1835-1892), whose most
+remarkable work was _Les Va-nu-pieds_ (1874), had, as this title of
+itself shows, Naturalist leanings; but with a quaint Romantic tendency
+in prose and verse.
+
+The Naturalists proper chiefly developed or seemed to develop one side
+of Balzac, but almost entirely abandoned his Romantic element. They
+aimed first at exact and almost photographic delineation of the
+accidents of modern life, and secondly at still more uncompromising
+non-suppression of the essential features and functions of that life
+which are usually suppressed. This school may be represented in chief by
+four novelists (really _three_, as two of them were brothers who wrote
+together till the rather early death of one of them), Emile Zola
+(1840-1903), Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897), and Edmond (1822-1897) and
+Jules (1830-1870) de Goncourt. The first, of Italian extraction and
+Marseillais birth, began by work of undecided kinds and was always a
+critic as well as a novelist. Of this first stage _Contes a Ninon_
+(1864) and _Therese Raquin_ (1867) deserve to be specified. But after
+1870 Zola entered upon a huge scheme (suggested no doubt by the _Comedie
+humaine_) of tracing the fortunes in every branch, legitimate and
+illegitimate, and in every rank of society of a family, _Les
+Rougon-Macquart_, and carried it out in a full score of novels during
+more than as many years. He followed this with a shorter series on
+places, _Paris_, _Rome_, _Lourdes_, and lastly by another of strangely
+apocalyptic tone, _Fecondite_, _Travail_, _Verite_, the last a story of
+the Dreyfus case, retrospective and, as it proved, prophetic. The
+extreme repulsiveness of much of his work, and the overdone detail of
+almost the whole of it, caused great prejudice against him, and will
+probably always prevent his being ranked among the greatest novelists;
+but his power is indubitable, and in passages, if not in whole books,
+does itself justice.
+
+MM. de Goncourt, besides their work in Naturalist (they would have
+preferred to call it "Impressionist") fiction, devoted themselves
+especially to study and collection in the fine arts, and produced many
+volumes on the historical side of these, volumes distinguished by
+accurate and careful research. This quality they carried, and the elder
+of them after his brother's death continued to carry, into novel-writing
+(_Renee Mauperin_, _Germinie Lacerteux_, _Cherie_, &c.) with the
+addition of an extraordinary care for peculiar and, as they called it,
+"personal" diction. On the other hand, Alphonse Daudet (who with the
+other three, Flaubert to some extent, and the Russian novelist
+Turgenieff, formed a sort of _cenacle_ or literary club) mixed with some
+Naturalism a far greater amount of fancy and wit than his companions
+allowed themselves or could perhaps attain; and in the _Tartarin_ series
+(dealing with the extravagances of his fellow-Provencaux) added not a
+little to the gaiety of Europe. His other novels (_Fromont jeune et
+Risler aine_, _Jack_, _Le Nabab_, &c.), also very popular, have been
+variously judged, there being something strangely like plagiarism in
+some of them, and in others, in fact in most, an excessive use of that
+privilege of the novelist which consists in introducing real persons
+under more or less disguise. It should be observed in speaking of this
+group that the Goncourts, or rather the survivor of them, left an
+elaborate _Journal_ disfigured by spite and bad taste, but of much
+importance for the appreciation of the personal side of French
+literature during the last half of the century.
+
+In 1880 Zola, who had by this time formed a regular school of disciples,
+issued with certain of them a collection of short stories, _Les Soirees
+de Medan_, which contains one of his own best things, _L'Attaque du
+moulin_, and also the capital story, _Boule de suif_, by Guy de
+Maupassant (1850-1893), who in the same year published poems, _Des
+vers_, of very remarkable if not strictly poetical quality. Maupassant
+developed during his short literary career perhaps the greatest powers
+shown by any French novelist since Flaubert (his sponsor in both senses)
+in a series of longer novels (_Une Vie_, _Bel Ami_, _Pierre et Jean_,
+_Fort comme la mort_) and shorter stories (_Monsieur Parent_, _Les
+Soeurs Rondoli_, _Le Horla_), but they were distorted by the Naturalist
+pessimism and grime, and perhaps also by the brain-disease of which
+their author died. M. J. K. Huysmans (b. 1848), also a contributor to
+_Les Soirees de Medan_, who had begun a little earlier with _Marthe_
+(1876) and other books, gave his most characteristic work in 1884 with
+_Au rebours_ and in 1891 with _La-bas_, stories of exaggerated and
+"satanic" pose, decorated with perhaps the extremest achievements of the
+school in mere ugliness and nastiness. Afterwards, by an obvious
+reaction, he returned to Catholicism. Of about the same date as these
+two are two other novelists of note, Julien Viaud ("Pierre Loti," b.
+1850), a naval officer who embodied his experiences of foreign service
+with a faint dose of story and character interest, and a far larger one
+of elaborate description, in a series of books (_Aziyade_, _Le Mariage
+de Loti_, _Madame Chrysantheme_, &c.), and M. Paul Bourget (b. 1852), an
+important critic as well as novelist who deflected the Naturalist
+current into a "psychological" channel, connecting itself higher with
+Stendhal, and composed in its books very popular in their way--_Cruelle
+Enigme_ (1885), _Le Disciple_, _Terre promise_, _Cosmopolis_. As a
+contrast or complement to Bourget's "psychological" novel may be taken
+the "ethical" novel of Edouard Rod (1857-1909)--_La Vie privee de Michel
+Tessier_ (1893), _Le Sens de la vie_, _Les Trois Coeurs_. Contemporary
+with these as a novelist though a much older man, and occupied at
+different times of his life with verse and with criticism, came Anatole
+France (b. 1844), who in _Le Crime de Silvestre Bonnard_, _La Rotisserie
+de la reine Pedauque_, _Le Lys rouge_, and others, has made a kind of
+novel as different from the ordinary styles as Pierre Loti's, but of far
+higher appeal in its wit, its subtle fancy, and its perfect French.
+Ferdinand Fabre (1830-1898) and Rene Bazin (b. 1853) represent the
+union, not too common in the French novel, of orthodoxy in morals and
+religion with literary ability. Further must be mentioned Paul Hervieu
+(b. 1857), a dramatist rather than a novelist; the brothers Margueritte
+(Paul, b. 1860, Victor, b. 1866), especially strong in short stories and
+passages; another pair of brothers of Belgian origin writing under the
+name of "J. H. Rosny"--Zolaists partly converted not to religion but to
+science and a sort of non-Christian virtue; the ingenious and amusing,
+if not exactly moral, brilliancy of Marcel Prevost (b. 1862); the
+contorted but rather attractive style and the perverse sentiment of
+Maurice Barres (b. 1862); and, above all, the audacious and inimitable
+dialogue pieces of "Gyp" (Madame de Martel, b. 1850), worthy of the best
+times of French literature for gaiety, satire, acuteness and style, and
+perhaps likely, with the work of Maupassant, Pierre Loti and Anatole
+France, to represent the capital achievement of their particular
+generation to posterity.
+
+
+  Sainte-Beuve.
+
+_Periodical Literature since 1830. Criticism._--One of the causes which
+led to this extensive composition of novels was the great spread of
+periodical literature in France, and the custom of including in almost
+all periodicals, daily, weekly or monthly, a _feuilleton_ or instalment
+of fiction. Of the contributors of these periodicals who were strictly
+journalists and almost political journalists only, the most remarkable
+after Carrel were his opponent in the fatal duel,--Emile de Girardin,
+Lucien A. Prevost-Paradol (1829-1870), Jean Hippolyte Cartier, called de
+Villemessant (1812-1879), and, above all, Louis Veuillot (1815-1883),
+the most violent and unscrupulous but by no means the least gifted of
+his class. The same spread of periodical literature, together with the
+increasing interest in the literature of the past, led also to a very
+great development of criticism. Almost all French authors of any
+eminence during nearly the last century have devoted themselves more or
+less to criticism of literature, of the theatre, or of art. And
+sometimes, as in the case of Janin and Gautier, the comparatively
+lucrative nature of journalism, and the smaller demands which it made
+for labour and intellectual concentration, have diverted to
+feuilleton-writing abilities which might perhaps have been better
+employed. At the same time it must be remembered that from this devotion
+of men of the best talents to critical work has arisen an immense
+elevation of the standard of such work. Before the romantic movement in
+France Diderot in that country, Lessing and some of his successors in
+Germany, Hazlitt, Coleridge and Lamb in England, had been admirable
+critics and reviewers. But the theory of criticism, though these men's
+principles and practice had set it aside, still remained more or less
+what it had been for centuries. The critic was merely the administrator
+of certain hard and fast rules. There were certain recognized kinds of
+literary composition; every new book was bound to class itself under one
+or other of these. There were certain recognized rules for each class;
+and the goodness or badness of a book consisted simply in its obedience
+or disobedience to these rules. Even the kinds of admissible subjects
+and the modes of admissible treatment were strictly noted and numbered.
+This was especially the case in France and with regard to French
+_belles-lettres_, so that, as we have seen, certain classes of
+composition had been reduced to unimportant variations of a registered
+pattern. The Romantic protest against this absurdity was specially loud
+and completely victorious. It is said that a publisher advised the
+youthful Lamartine to try "to be like somebody else" if he wished to
+succeed. The Romantic standard of success was, on the contrary, to be as
+individual as possible. Victor Hugo himself composed a good deal of
+criticism, and in the preface to his _Orientales_ he states the critical
+principles of the new school clearly. The critic, he says, has nothing
+to do with the subject chosen, the colours employed, the materials used.
+Is the work, judged by itself and with regard only to the ideal which
+the worker had in his mind, good or bad? It will be seen that as a
+legitimate corollary of this theorem the critic becomes even more of an
+interpreter than of a judge. He can no longer satisfy himself or his
+readers by comparing the work before him with some abstract and accepted
+standard, and marking off its shortcomings. He has to reconstruct, more
+or less conjecturally, the special ideal at which each of his authors
+aimed, and to do this he has to study their idiosyncrasies with the
+utmost care, and set them before his readers in as full and attractive a
+fashion as he can manage. The first writer who thoroughly grasped this
+necessity and successfully dealt with it was Charles Augustin
+Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869), who has indeed identified his name with the
+method of criticism just described. Sainte-Beuve's first remarkable work
+(his poems and novels we may leave out of consideration) was the sketch
+of 16th-century literature already alluded to, which he contributed to
+the _Globe_. But it was not till later that his style of criticism
+became fully developed and accentuated. During the first decade of Louis
+Philippe's reign his critical papers, united under the title of
+_Critiques et portraits litteraires_, show a gradual advance. During the
+next ten years he was mainly occupied with his studies of the writers of
+the Port Royal school. But it was during the last twenty years of his
+life, when the famous _Causeries du lundi_ appeared weekly in the
+columns of the _Constitutionnel_ and the _Moniteur_, that his most
+remarkable productions came out. Sainte-Beuve's style of criticism
+(which is the key to so much of French literature of the last
+half-century that it is necessary to dwell on it at some length),
+excellent and valuable as it is, lent itself to two corruptions. There
+is, in the first place, in making the careful investigations into the
+character and circumstances of each writer which it demands, a danger of
+paying too much attention to the man and too little to his work, and of
+substituting for a critical study a mere collection of personal
+anecdotes and traits, especially if the author dealt with belongs to a
+foreign country or a past age. The other danger is that of connecting
+the genius and character of particular authors too much with their
+conditions and circumstances, so as to regard them as merely so many
+products of the age. These faults, and especially the latter, have been
+very noticeable in many of Sainte-Beuve's successors, particularly in,
+perhaps, Hippolyte Taine, who, however, besides his work on English
+literature, did much of importance on French, and has been regarded as
+the first critic who did thorough honour to Balzac in his own country. A
+large number of other critics during the period deserve notice because,
+though acting more or less on the newer system of criticism, they have
+manifested considerable originality in its application. As far as merely
+critical faculty goes, and still more in the power of giving literary
+expression to criticism, Theophile Gautier yields to no one. His _Les
+Grotesques_, an early work dealing with Villon, the earlier "Theophile"
+de Viau, and other _enfants terribles_ of French literature, has served
+as a model to many subsequent writers, such as Charles Monselet
+(1825-1888), and Charles Asselineau (1820-1874), the affectionate
+historian, in his _Bibliographie romantique_ (1872-1874), of the less
+famous promoters of the Romantic movement. On the other hand, Gautier's
+picture criticisms, and his short reviews of books, obituary notices,
+and other things of the kind contributed to daily papers, are in point
+of style among the finest of all such fugitive compositions. Jules Janin
+(1804-1874), chiefly a theatrical critic, excelled in light and easy
+journalism, but his work has neither weight of substance nor careful
+elaboration of manner sufficient to give it permanent value. This sort
+of light critical comment has become almost a speciality of the French
+press, and among its numerous practitioners the names of Armand de
+Pontmartin (1811-1890) (an imitator and assailant of Sainte-Beuve),
+Arsene Houssaye, Pierangelo Fiorentino (1806-1864), may be mentioned.
+Edmond Scherer (1815-1889) and Paul de Saint-Victor (1827-1881)
+represent different sides of Sainte-Beuve's style in literary criticism,
+Scherer combining with it a martinet and somewhat prudish precision,
+while Saint-Victor, with great powers of appreciation, is the most
+flowery and "prose-poetical" of French critics. In theatrical censure
+Francisque Sarcey (1827-1899), an acute but somewhat severe and limited
+judge, succeeded to the good-natured sovereignty of Janin. The criticism
+of the _Revue des deux mondes_ has played a sufficiently important part
+in French literature to deserve separate notice in passing. Founded in
+1829, the _Revue_, after some vicissitudes, soon attained, under the
+direction of the Swiss Buloz, the character of being one of the first of
+European critical periodicals. Its style of criticism has, on the whole,
+inclined rather to the classical side--that is, to classicism as
+modified by, and possible after, the Romantic movement. Besides some of
+the authors already named, its principal critical contributors were
+Gustave Planche (1808-1857), an acute but somewhat truculent critic,
+Saint-Rene Taillandier (1817-1879), and Emile Montegut (1825-1895), a
+man of letters whom greater leisure would have made greater, but who
+actually combined much and varied critical power with an agreeable
+style. Lastly we must notice the important section of professorial or
+university critics, whose critical work has taken the form either of
+regular treatises or of courses of republished lectures, books somewhat
+academic and rhetorical in character, but often representing an amount
+of influence which has served largely to stir up attention to
+literature. The most prominent name among these is that of Abel
+Villemain (1790-1867), who was one of the earliest critics of the
+literature of his own country to obtain a hearing out of it. Desire
+Nisard (1806-1888) was perhaps more fortunate in his dealings with Latin
+than with French, and in his _History_ of the latter literature
+represents too much the classical tradition, but he had dignity,
+erudition and an excellent style. Alexandre Vinet (1797-1847), a Swiss
+critic of considerable eminence, Saint-Marc-Girardin (1801-1873), whose
+_Cours de litterature dramatique_ is his chief work, and Eugene Geruzez
+(1799-1865), the author not only of an extremely useful and well-written
+handbook to French literature before the Revolution, but also of other
+works dealing with separate portions of the subject, must also be
+mentioned. One remarkable critic, Ernest Hello (1818-1885), attracted
+during his life little attention even in France, and hardly any out of
+it, his work being strongly tinctured with the unpopular flavour and
+colour of uncompromising "clericalism," and his extremely bad health
+keeping him out of the ordinary fraternities of literary society. It
+was, however, as full of idiosyncrasy as of partisanship, and is
+exceedingly interesting to those who regard criticism as mainly valuable
+because it gives different aspects of the same thing.
+
+Perhaps in no branch of _belles-lettres_ did the last quarter of the
+century maintain the level at which predecessors had arrived better than
+in criticism; though whether this fact is connected with something of
+decadence in the creative branches, is a question which may be better
+posed than resolved here. A remarkable writer whose talent, approaching
+genius, was spoilt by eccentricity and pose, and who belonged to a more
+modern generation, Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly (1808-1889), poet, novelist
+and critic, produced much of his last critical work, and corrected more,
+in these later days. Not only did the critical work in various ways of
+Renan, Taine, Scherer, Sarcey and others continue during parts of it,
+but a new generation, hardly in this case inferior to the old, appeared.
+The three chiefs of this were the already mentioned Anatole France,
+Emile Faguet (b. 1847), and Ferdinand Brunetiere (1849-1906), to whom
+some would add Jules Lemaitre (b. 1853). The last, however, though a
+brilliant writer, was but an "interim" critic, beginning with poetry and
+other matters, and after a time turning to yet others, while, brilliant
+as he was, his criticism was often ill-informed. So too Anatole France,
+after compiling four volumes of _La Vie litteraire_ in his own
+inimitable style and with singular felicity of appreciation, also turned
+away. The phenomenon in both cases may be associated, though it must not
+be too intimately connected in the relation of cause and effect, with
+the fact that both were champions and practitioners of "impressionist
+criticism"--of the doctrine (unquestionably sound if not exaggerated)
+that the first duty of the critic is to reproduce the effect produced on
+his own mind by the author. Brunetiere and Faguet, on the other hand,
+are partisans of the older academic style of criticism by kind and on
+principle. Faguet, besides regular volumes on each of the four great
+centuries of French literature, has produced much other work--all of it
+somewhat "classical" in tendency and frequently exhibiting something of
+a want of comprehension of the Romantic side. Brunetiere was still more
+prolific on the same side but with still greater effort after system and
+"science." In the books definitely called _L'Evolution des genres_, in
+his _Manuel_ of French literature, and in a large number of other
+volumes of collected essays he enforced with great learning and power of
+argument, if with a somewhat narrow purview and with some prejudice
+against writers whom he disliked, a new form of the old doctrine that
+the "kind" not the individual author or book ought to be the main
+subject of the critic's attention. He did not escape the consequential
+danger of taking authors and books not as they are but as in relation to
+the kinds which they in fact constitute and to his general views. But he
+was undoubtedly at his death the first critic of France and a worthy
+successor of her best.
+
+Of others older and younger must be mentioned Paul Stapfer (b. 1840),
+professor of literature, and the author of divers excellent works from
+_Shakespeare et l'antiquite_ to volumes of the first value on Montaigne
+and Rabelais; Paul Bourget and Edouard Rod, already noticed; Augustin
+Filon (b. 1841), author of much good work on English literature and an
+excellent book on Merimee; Alexandre Beljame (1843-1906), another eminent
+student of English literature, in which subject J. A. Jusserand (b.
+1855), Legouis, K. A. J. Angellier (b. 1848), and others have recently
+distinguished themselves; Gustave Larroumet, especially an authority on
+Marivaux; Eugene Lintilhac (b. 1854); Georges Pellissier; Gustave Lanson,
+author of a compact history of French literature in French; Marcel
+Schwob, who had done excellent work on Villon and other subjects before
+his early death; Rene Doumic, a frequent writer in the _Revue des deux
+mondes_, who collected four volumes of _Etudes sur la litterature
+francaise_ between 1895 and 1900; and the Vicomte Melchior de Vogue (b.
+1848), whose interests have been more political-philosophical than
+strictly literary, but who has done much to familiarize the French public
+with that Russian literature to which Merimee had been the first to
+introduce them. But the body of recent critical literature in France is
+perhaps larger in actual proportion and of greater value when considered
+in relation to other kinds of literature than has been the case at any
+previous period.
+
+_History since 1830._--The remarkable development of historical studies
+which we have noticed as taking place under the Restoration was
+accelerated and intensified in the reigns of Charles X. and Louis
+Philippe. Both the scope and the method of the historian underwent a
+sensible alteration. For something like 150 years historians had been
+divided into two classes, those who produced elegant literary works
+pleasant to read, and those who produced works of laborious erudition,
+but not even intended for general perusal. The Vertots and Voltaires
+were on one side, the Mabillons and Tillemonts on another. Now, although
+the duty of a French historian to produce works of literary merit was
+not forgotten, it was recognized as part of that duty to consult
+original documents and impart original observation. At the same time, to
+the merely political events which had formerly been recognized as
+forming the historian's province were added the social and literary
+phenomena which had long been more or less neglected. Old chronicles and
+histories were re-read and re-edited; innumerable monographs on special
+subjects and periods were produced, and these latter were of immense
+service to romance writers at the time of the popularity of the
+historical novel. Not a few of the works, for instance, which were
+signed by Alexandre Dumas consist mainly of extracts or condensations
+from old chronicles, or modern monographs, ingeniously united by
+dialogue and varnished with a little description. History, however, had
+not to wait for this second-hand popularity, and its cultivators had
+fully sufficient literary talent to maintain its dignity. Sismondi, whom
+we have already noticed, continued during this period his great
+_Histoire des Francais_, and produced his even better-known _Histoire
+des republiques italiennes au moyen age_. The brothers Thierry devoted
+themselves to early French history, Amedee Thierry (1797-1873) producing
+a _Histoire des Gaulois_ and other works concerning the Roman period,
+and Augustin Thierry (1795-1856) the well-known history of the Norman
+Conquest, the equally attractive _Recits des temps Merovingiens_ and
+other excellent works. Philippe de Segur (1780-1873) gave a history of
+the Russian campaign of Napoleon, and some other works chiefly dealing
+with Russian history. The voluminous _Histoire de France_ of Henri
+Martin (1810-1883) is perhaps the best and most impartial work dealing
+in detail with the whole subject. A. G. P. Brugiere, baron de Barante
+(1782-1866), after beginning with literary criticism, turned to history,
+and in his _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne_ produced a work of capital
+importance. As was to be expected, many of the most brilliant results of
+this devotion to historical subjects consisted of works dealing with the
+French Revolution. No series of historical events has ever perhaps
+received treatment at the same time from so many different points of
+view, and by writers of such varied literary excellence, among whom it
+must, however, be said that the purely royalist side is hardly at all
+represented. One of the earliest of these histories is that of Francois
+Mignet (1796-1884), a sober and judicious historian of the older school,
+also well known for his _Histoire de Marie Stuart_. About the same time
+was begun the brilliant if not extremely trustworthy work of Adolphe
+Thiers (1797-1877) on the Revolution, which established the literary
+reputation of the future president of the French republic, and was at a
+later period completed by the _Histoire du consulat et de l'empire_. The
+downfall of the July monarchy and the early years of the empire
+witnessed the publication of several works of the first importance on
+this subject. Barante contributed histories of the Convention and the
+Directory, but the three books of greatest note were those of Lamartine,
+Jules Michelet (1798-1874), and Louis Blanc (1811-1882). Lamartine's
+_Histoire des Girondins_ is written from the constitutional-republican
+point of view, and is sometimes considered to have had much influence in
+producing the events of 1848. It is, perhaps, rather the work of an
+orator and poet than of an historian. The work of Michelet is of a more
+original character. Besides his history of the Revolution, Michelet
+wrote an extended history of France, and a very large number of smaller
+works on historical, political and social subjects. His imaginative
+powers are of the highest order, and his style stands alone in French
+for its strangely broken and picturesque character, its turbid abundance
+of striking images, and its somewhat sombre magnificence, qualities
+which, as may easily be supposed, found full occupation in a history of
+the Revolution. The work of Louis Blanc was that of a sincere but ardent
+republican, and is useful from this point of view, but possesses no
+extraordinary literary merit. The principal contributions to the history
+of the Revolution of the third quarter of the century were those of
+Quinet, Lanfrey and Taine. Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), like Louis Blanc a
+devotee of the republic and an exile for its sake, brought to this one
+of his latest works a mind and pen long trained to literary and
+historical studies; but _La Revolution_ is not considered his best work.
+P. Lanfrey devoted himself with extraordinary patience and acuteness to
+the destruction of the Napoleonic legend, and the setting of the
+character of Napoleon I. in a new, authentic and very far from
+favourable light. And Taine, after distinguishing himself, as we have
+mentioned, in literary criticism (_Histoire de la litterature
+anglaise_), and attaining less success in philosophy (_De
+l'intelligence_), turned in _Les Origines de la France moderne_ to an
+elaborate discussion of the Revolution, its causes, character and
+consequences, which excited some commotion among the more ardent
+devotees of the principles of '89. To return from this group, we must
+notice J. F. Michaud (1767-1839), the historian of the crusades, and
+Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot (1787-1874), who, like his rival
+Thiers, devoted himself much to historical study. His earliest works
+were literary and linguistic, but he soon turned to political history,
+and for the last half-century of his long life his contributions to
+historical literature were almost incessant and of the most various
+character. The most important are the histories _Des Origines du
+gouvernement representatif_, _De la revolution d'Angleterre_, _De la
+civilisation en France_, and latterly a _Histoire de France_, which he
+was writing at the time of his death. Among minor historians of the
+earlier century may be mentioned Prosper Duvergier de Hauranne
+(1798-1881) (_Gouvernement parlementaire en France_), J. J. Ampere
+(1800-1864) (_Histoire romaine a Rome_), Auguste Arthur Beugnot
+(1797-1865) (_Destruction du paganisme d'occident_), J. O. B. de Cleron,
+comte d'Haussonville (_La Reunion de la Lorraine a la France_), Achille
+Tendelle de Vaulabelle (1799-1870) (_Les Deux Restaurations_). In the
+last quarter of the century, under the department of history, the most
+remarkable names were still those of Taine and Renan, the former being
+distinguished for thought and matter, the latter for style. Indeed it
+may be here proper to remark that Renan, in the kind of elaborated
+semi-poetic style which has most characterized the prose of the 19th
+century in all countries of Europe, takes pre-eminence among French
+writers even in the estimation of critics who are not enamoured of his
+substance and tone. But, under the influence of Taine to some extent and
+of a general European tendency still more, France during this period
+attained or recovered a considerable place for what is called
+"scientific" history--the history which while, in some cases, though not
+in all, not neglecting the development of style attaches itself
+particularly to "the document," on the one hand, and to philosophical
+arrangement on the other. The chief representative of the school was
+probably Albert Sorel (1842-1906), whose various handlings of the
+Revolutionary period (including an excursion into partly literary
+criticism in the shape of an admirable monograph on Madame de Stael)
+have established themselves once for all. In a wider sweep Ernest
+Lavisse (b. 1842), who has dealt mainly with the 18th century, may hold
+a similar position. Of others, older and younger, the duc de Broglie
+(1821-1901), who devoted himself also to the 18th century and especially
+to its secret diplomacy; Gaston Boissier (b. 1823), a classical scholar
+rather than an historian proper, and one of the latest masters of the
+older French academic style; Thureau-Dangin (b. 1837), a student of mid
+19th-century history; Henri Houssaye (b. 1848), one of the Napoleonic
+period; Gabriel Hanotaux (b. 1853), an historian of Richelieu and other
+subjects, and a practical politician, may be mentioned. A large
+accession has also been made to the publication of older memoirs--that
+important branch of French literature from almost the whole of its
+existence since the invention of prose.
+
+_Summary and Conclusion._--We have in these last pages given such an
+outline of the 19th-century literature of France as seemed convenient
+for the completion of what has gone before. It has been already remarked
+that the nearer approach is made to our own time the less is it possible
+to give exhaustive accounts of the individual cultivators of the
+different branches of literature. It may be added, perhaps, that such
+exhaustiveness becomes, as we advance, less and less necessary, as well
+as less and less possible. The individual poet of to-day may and does
+produce work that is in itself of greater literary value than that of
+the individual trouvere. As a matter of literary history his
+contribution is less remarkable because of the examples he has before
+him and the circumstances which he has around him. Yet we have
+endeavoured to draw such a sketch of French literature from the _Chanson
+de Roland_ onwards that no important development and hardly any
+important partaker in such development should be left out. A few lines
+may, perhaps, be now profitably given to summing up the aspects of the
+whole, remembering always that, as in no case is generalization easier
+than in the case of the literary aspects and tendencies of periods and
+nations, so in no case is it apt to be more delusive unless corrected
+and supported by ample information of fact and detail.
+
+At the close of the 11th century and at the beginning of the 12th we
+find the vulgar tongue in France not merely in fully organized use for
+literary purposes, but already employed in most of the forms of poetical
+writing. An immense outburst of epic and narrative verse has taken
+place, and lyrical poetry, not limited as in the case of the epics to
+the north of France, but extending from Roussillon to the Pas de Calais,
+completes this. The 12th century adds to these earliest forms the
+important development of the mystery, extends the subjects and varies
+the manner of epic verse, and begins the compositions of literary prose
+with the chronicles of St Denis and of Villehardouin, and the prose
+romances of the Arthurian cycle. All this literature is so far connected
+purely with the knightly and priestly orders, though it is largely
+composed and still more largely dealt in by classes of men, trouveres
+and jongleurs, who are not necessarily either knights or priests, and in
+the case of the jongleurs are certainly neither. With a possible
+ancestry of Romance and Teutonic _cantilenae_, Breton _lais_, and
+vernacular legends, the new literature has a certain pattern and model
+in Latin and for the most part ecclesiastical compositions. It has the
+sacred books and the legends of the saints for examples of narrative,
+the rhythm of the hymns for a guide to metre, and the ceremonies of the
+church for a stimulant to dramatic performance. By degrees also, in this
+12th century, forms of literature which busy themselves with the
+unprivileged classes begin to be born. The fabliau takes every phase of
+life for its subject; the folk-song acquires elegance and does not lose
+raciness and truth. In the next century, the 13th, medieval literature
+in France arrives at its prime--a prime which lasts until the first
+quarter of the 14th. The early epics lose something of their savage
+charms, the polished literature of Provence quickly perishes. But in the
+provinces which speak the more prevailing tongue nothing is wanting to
+literary development. The language itself has shaken off all its
+youthful incapacities, and, though not yet well adapted for the
+requirements of modern life and study, is in every way equal to the
+demands made upon it by its own time. The dramatic germ contained in the
+fabliau and quickened by the mystery produces the profane drama.
+Ambitious works of merit in the most various kinds are published;
+_Aucassin et Nicolette_ stands side by side with the _Vie de Saint
+Louis_, the _Jeu de la feuillie_ with _Le Miracle de Theophile_, the
+_Roman de la rose_ with the _Roman du Renart_. The earliest notes of
+ballads and rondeau are heard; endeavours are made with zeal, and not
+always without understanding, to naturalize the wisdom of the ancients
+in France, and in the graceful tongue that France possesses. Romance in
+prose and verse, drama, history, songs, satire, oratory and even
+erudition, are all represented and represented worthily. Meanwhile all
+nations of western Europe have come to France for their literary models
+and subjects, and the greatest writers in English, German, Italian,
+content themselves with adaptations of Chretien de Troyes, of Benoit de
+Sainte More, and of a hundred other known and unknown trouveres and
+fabulists. But this age does not last long. The language has been put to
+all the uses of which it is as yet capable; those uses in their sameness
+begin to pall upon reader and hearer; and the enormous evils of the
+civil and religious state reflect themselves inevitably in literature.
+The old forms die out or are prolonged only in half-lifeless travesties.
+The brilliant colouring of Froissart, and the graceful science of
+ballade and rondeau writers like Lescurel and Deschamps, alone maintain
+the literary reputation of the time. Towards the end of the 14th century
+the translators and political writers import many terms of art, and
+strain the language to uses for which it is as yet unhandy, though at
+the beginning of the next age Charles d'Orleans by his natural grace and
+the virtue of the forms he used emerges from the mass of writers.
+Throughout the 15th century the process of enriching or at least
+increasing the vocabulary goes on, but as yet no organizing hand appears
+to direct the process. Villon stands alone in merit as in peculiarity.
+But in this time dramatic literature and the literature of the floating
+popular broadsheet acquire an immense extension--all or almost all the
+vigour of spirit being concentrated in the rough farce and rougher
+lampoon, while all the literary skill is engrossed by insipid
+_rhetoriqueurs_ and pedants. Then comes the grand upheaval of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation. An immense influx of science, of
+thought to make the science living, of new terms to express the thought,
+takes place, and a band of literary workers appear of power enough to
+master and get into shape the turbid mass. Rabelais, Amyot, Calvin and
+Herberay fashion French prose; Marot, Ronsard and Regnier refashion
+French verse. The Pleiade introduces the drama as it is to be and the
+language that is to help the drama to express itself. Montaigne for the
+first time throws invention and originality into some other form than
+verse or than prose fiction. But by the end of the century the tide has
+receded. The work of arrangement has been but half done, and there are
+no master spirits left to complete it. At this period Malherbe and
+Balzac make their appearance. Unable to deal with the whole problem,
+they determine to deal with part of it, and to reject a portion of the
+riches of which they feel themselves unfit to be stewards. Balzac and
+his successors make of French prose an instrument faultless and
+admirable in precision, unequalled for the work for which it is fit, but
+unfit for certain portions of the work which it was once able to
+perform. Malherbe, seconded by Boileau, makes of French verse an
+instrument suited only for the purposes of the drama of Euripides, or
+rather of Seneca, with or without its chorus, and for a certain weakened
+echo of those choruses, under the name of lyrics. No French verse of the
+first merit other than dramatic is written for two whole centuries. The
+drama soon comes to its acme, and during the succeeding time usually
+maintains itself at a fairly high level until the death of Voltaire. But
+prose lends itself to almost everything that is required of it, and
+becomes constantly a more and more perfect instrument. To the highest
+efforts of pathos and sublimity its vocabulary and its arrangement
+likewise are still unsuited, though the great preachers of the 17th
+century do their utmost with it. But for clear exposition, smooth and
+agreeable narrative, sententious and pointed brevity, witty repartee, it
+soon proves itself to have no superior and scarcely an equal in Europe.
+In these directions practitioners of the highest skill apply it during
+the 17th century, while during the 18th its powers are shown to the
+utmost of their variety by Voltaire, and receive a new development at
+the hands of Rousseau. Yet, on the whole, it loses during this century.
+It becomes more and more unfit for any but trivial uses, and at last it
+is employed for those uses only. Then occurs the Revolution, repeating
+the mighty stir in men's minds which the Renaissance had given, but at
+first experiencing more difficulty in breaking up the ground and once
+more rendering it fertile. The faulty and incomplete genius of
+Chateaubriand and Madame de Stael gives the first evidence of a new
+growth, and after many years the Romantic movement completes the work.
+Whether the force of that movement is now, after three-quarters of a
+century, spent or not, its results remain. The poetical power of French
+has been once more triumphantly proved, and its productiveness in all
+branches of literature has been renewed, while in that of prose fiction
+there has been almost created a new class of composition. In the process
+of reform, however, not a little of the finish of French prose style has
+been lost, and the language itself has been affected in something the
+same way as it was affected by the less judicious innovations of the
+Ronsardists. The pedantry of the Pleiade led to the preposterous
+compounds of Du Bartas; the passion of the Romantics for foreign tongues
+and for the _mot propre_ has loaded French with foreign terms on the one
+hand and with _argot_ on the other, while it is questionable whether the
+_vers libre_ is really suited to the French genius. There is, therefore,
+room for new Malherbes and Balzacs, if the days for Balzacs and
+Malherbes had not to all appearance passed. Should they be once more
+forthcoming, they have the failure as well as the success of their
+predecessors to guide them.
+
+Finally, we may sum up even this summary. For volume and merit taken
+together the product of these eight centuries of literature excels that
+of any European nation, though for individual works of the supremest
+excellence they may perhaps be asked in vain. No French writer is lifted
+by the suffrages of other nations--the only criterion when sufficient
+time has elapsed--to the level of Homer, of Shakespeare, or of Dante,
+who reign alone. Of those of the authors of France who are indeed of the
+thirty but attain not to the first three Rabelais and Moliere alone
+unite the general suffrage, and this fact roughly but surely points to
+the real excellence of the literature which these men are chosen to
+represent. It is great in all ways, but it is greatest on the lighter
+side. The house of mirth is more suited to it than the house of
+mourning. To the latter, indeed, the language of the unknown marvel who
+told Roland's death, of him who gave utterance to Camilla's wrath and
+despair, and of Victor Hugo, who sings how the mountain wind makes mad
+the lover who cannot forget, has amply made good its title of entrance.
+But for one Frenchman who can write admirably in this strain there are a
+hundred who can tell the most admirable story, formulate the most
+pregnant reflection, point the acutest jest. There is thus no really
+great epic in French, few great tragedies, and those imperfect and in a
+faulty kind, little prose like Milton's or like Jeremy Taylor's, little
+verse (though more than is generally thought) like Shelley's or like
+Spenser's. But there are the most delightful short tales, both in prose
+and in verse, that the world has ever seen, the most polished jewelry of
+reflection that has ever been wrought, songs of incomparable grace,
+comedies that must make men laugh as long as they are laughing animals,
+and above all such a body of narrative fiction, old and new, prose and
+verse, as no other nation can show for art and for originality, for
+grace of workmanship in him who fashions, and for certainty of delight
+to him who reads.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most elaborate book on French literature as a whole
+  is that edited by Petit de Julleville, and composed of chapters by
+  different authors, _Histoire de la langue et de la litterature
+  francaises_ (8 vols., Paris, 1896-1899). Unfortunately these chapters,
+  some of which are of the highest excellence, are of very unequal
+  value: they require connexions which are not supplied, and there is
+  throughout a neglect of minor authors. The bibliographical indications
+  are, however, most valuable. For a survey in a single volume Lanson's
+  _Histoire_ has superseded the older but admirable manuals of Demogeot
+  and Geruzez, which, however, are still worth consulting. Brunetiere's
+  _Manuel_ (translated into English) is very valuable with the cautions
+  above given; and the large _Histoire de la langue francaise depuis le
+  seizieme siecle_ of Godefroy supplies copious and well-chosen extracts
+  with much biographical information. In English there is an extensive
+  _History_ by H. van Laun (3 vols., 1874, &c.); a _Short History_ by
+  Saintsbury (1882; 6th ed. continued to the end of the century, 1901);
+  and a _History_ by Professor Dowden (1895).
+
+  To pass to special periods--the fountain-head of the literature of the
+  middle ages is the ponderous _Histoire litteraire_ already referred
+  to, which, notwithstanding that it extended to 27 quarto volumes in
+  1906, and had occupied, with interruptions, 150 years in publication,
+  had only reached the 14th century. Many of the monographs which it
+  contains are the best authorities on their subjects, such as that of
+  P. Paris on the early chansonniers, of V. Leclerc on the fabliaux, and
+  of Littre on the romans d'aventures. For the history of literature
+  before the 11th century, the period mainly Latin, J. J. Ampere's
+  _Histoire litteraire de la France avant Charlemagne, sous Charlemagne,
+  et jusqu'au onzieme siecle_ is the chief authority. Leon Gautier's
+  _Epopees francaises_ (5 vols., 1878-1897) contains almost everything
+  known concerning the chansons de geste. P. Paris's _Romans de la table
+  ronde_ was long the main authority for this subject, but very much has
+  been written recently in France and elsewhere. The most important of
+  the French contributions, especially those by Gaston Paris (whose
+  _Histoire poetique de Charlemagne_ has been reprinted since his
+  death), will be found in the periodical _Romania_, which for more than
+  thirty years has been the chief receptacle of studies on old French
+  literature. On the cycle of Reynard the standard work is Rothe, _Les
+  Romans de Renart_. All parts of the lighter literature of old France
+  are excellently treated by Lenient, _Le Satire au moyen age_. The
+  early theatre has been frequently treated by the brothers Parfaict
+  (_Histoire du theatre francais_), by Fabre (_Les Clercs de la
+  Bazoche_), by Leroy (_Etude sur les mysteres_), by Aubertin (_Histoire
+  de la langue et de la litterature francaise au moyen age_). This
+  latter book will be found a useful summary of the whole medieval
+  period. The historical, dramatic and oratorical sections are
+  especially full. On a smaller scale but of unsurpassed authority is G.
+  Paris's _Litterature du moyen age_ translated into English.
+
+  On the 16th century an excellent handbook is that by Darmesteter and
+  Hatzfeld; and the recent _Literature of the French Renaissance_ of A.
+  Tilley (2 vols., 1904) is of high value. Sainte-Beuve's _Tableau_ has
+  been more than once referred to. Ebert (_Entwicklungsgeschichte der
+  franzosischen Tragodie vornehmlich im 16^ten Jahrhundert_) is the
+  chief authority for dramatic matters. Essays and volumes on periods
+  and sub-periods since 1600 are innumerable; but those who desire
+  thorough acquaintance with the literature of these three hundred years
+  should read as widely as possible in all the critical work of
+  Sainte-Beuve, of Scherer, of Faguet and Brunetiere--which may be
+  supplemented _ad libitum_ from that of other critics mentioned above.
+  The series of volumes entitled _Les grands ecrivains francais_, now
+  pretty extensive, is generally very good, and Catulle Mendes's
+  invaluable book on 19th-century poetry has been cited above. As a
+  companion to the study of poetry E. Crepet's _Poetes francais_ (4
+  vols., 1861), an anthology with introductions by Sainte-Beuve and all
+  the best critics of the day, cannot be surpassed, but to it may be
+  added the later _Anthologie des poetes francais du XIX^e siecle_
+  (1877-1879).     (G. Sa.)
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH POLISH, a liquid for polishing wood, made by dissolving shellac
+in methylated spirit. There are four different tints, brown, white,
+garnet and red, but the first named is that most extensively used. All
+the tints are made in the same manner, with the exception of the red,
+which is a mixture of the brown polish and methylated spirit with either
+Saunders wood or Bismarck brown, according to the strength of colour
+required. Some woods, and especially mahogany, need to be stained before
+they are polished. To stain mahogany mix some bichromate of potash in
+hot water according to the depth of colour required. After staining the
+wood the most approved method of filling the grain is to rub in fine
+plaster of Paris (wet), wiping off before it "sets." After this is dry
+it should be oiled with linseed oil and thoroughly wiped off. The wood
+is then ready for the polish, which is put on with a rubber made of
+wadding covered with linen rag and well wetted with polish. The
+polishing process has to be repeated gradually, and after the work has
+hardened, the surface is smoothed down with fine glass-paper, a few
+drops of linseed oil being added until the surface is sufficiently
+smooth. After a day or two the surface can be cleared by using a fresh
+rubber with a double layer of linen, removing the top layer when it is
+getting hard and finishing off with the bottom layer.
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE. Among the many revolutions which from time to
+time have given a new direction to the political development of nations
+the French Revolution stands out as at once the most dramatic in its
+incidents and the most momentous in its results. This exceptional
+character is, indeed, implied in the name by which it is known; for
+France has experienced many revolutions both before and since that of
+1789, but the name "French Revolution," or simply "the Revolution,"
+without qualification, is applied to this one alone. The causes which
+led to it: the gradual decay of the institutions which France had
+inherited from the feudal system, the decline of the centralized
+monarchy, and the immediate financial necessities that compelled the
+assembling of the long neglected states-general in 1789, are dealt with
+in the article on FRANCE: _History_. The successive constitutions, and
+the other legal changes which resulted from it, are also discussed in
+their general relation to the growth of the modern French polity in the
+article FRANCE (_Law and Institutions_). The present article deals with
+the progress of the Revolution itself from the convocation of the
+states-general to the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire which placed
+Napoleon Bonaparte in power.
+
+
+  Opening of the States-General.
+
+The elections to the states-general of 1789 were held in unfavourable
+circumstances. The failure of the harvest of 1788 and a severe winter
+had caused widespread distress. The government was weak and despised,
+and its agents were afraid or unwilling to quell outbreaks of disorder.
+At the same time the longing for radical reform and the belief that it
+would be easy were almost universal. The _cahiers_ or written
+instructions given to the deputies covered well-nigh every subject of
+political, social or economic interest, and demanded an amazing number
+of changes. Amid this commotion the king and his ministers remained
+passive. They did not even determine the question whether the estates
+should act as separate bodies or deliberate collectively. On the 5th of
+May the states-general were opened by Louis in the Salle des Menus
+Plaisirs at Versailles. Barentin, the keeper of the seals, informed them
+that they were free to determine whether they would vote by orders or
+vote by head. Necker, as director-general of the finances, set forth the
+condition of the treasury and proposed some small reforms. The Tiers
+Etat (Third Estate) was dissatisfied that the question of joint or
+separate deliberation should have been left open. It was aware that some
+of the nobles and many of the inferior clergy agreed with it as to the
+need for comprehensive reform. Joint deliberation would ensure a
+majority to the reformers and therefore the abolition of privileges and
+the extinction of feudal rights of property. Separate deliberation would
+enable the majority among the nobles and the superior clergy to limit
+reform. Hence it became the first object of the Tiers Etat to effect the
+amalgamation of the three estates.
+
+
+  Conflict between the Three Estates.
+
+The conflict between those who desired and those who resisted
+amalgamation took the form of a conflict over the verification of the
+powers of the deputies. The Tiers Etat insisted that the deputies of all
+three estates should have their powers verified in common as the first
+step towards making them all members of one House. It resolved to hold
+its meetings in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs, whereas the nobles and the
+clergy met in smaller apartments set aside for their exclusive use. It
+refrained from taking any step which might have implied that it was an
+organized assembly, and persevered in regarding itself as a mere crowd
+of individual members incapable of transacting business. Meanwhile the
+clergy and the nobles began a separate verification of their powers.
+But a few of the nobles and a great many of the clergy voted against
+this procedure. On the 7th the Tiers Etat sent deputations to exhort the
+other estates to union, while the clergy sent a deputation to it with
+the proposal that each estate should name commissioners to discuss the
+best method of verifying powers. The Tiers Etat accepted the proposal
+and conferences were held, but without result. It then made another
+appeal to the clergy which was almost successful. The king interposed
+with a command for the renewal of the conferences. They were resumed
+under the presidency of Barentin, but again to no purpose.
+
+On the 10th of June Sieyes moved that the Tiers Etat should for the last
+time invite the First and Second Estates to join in the verification of
+powers and announce that, whether they did or not, the work of verifying
+would begin forthwith. The motion was carried by an immense majority. As
+there was no response, the Tiers Etat on the 12th named Bailly
+provisional president and commenced verification. Next day three cures
+of Poitou came to have their powers verified. Other clergymen followed
+later. When the work of verification was over, a title had to be found
+for the body thus created, which would no longer accept the style of the
+Tiers Etat. On the 15th Sieyes proposed that they should entitle
+themselves the Assembly of the known and verified representatives of the
+French nation. Mirabeau, Mounier and others proposed various
+appellations. But success was reserved for Legrand, an obscure deputy
+who proposed the simple name of National Assembly. Withdrawing his own
+motion, Sieyes adopted Legrand's suggestion, which was carried by 491
+votes to 90. The Assembly went on to declare that it placed the debts of
+the crown under the safeguard of the national honour and that all
+existing taxes, although illegal as having been imposed without the
+consent of the people, should continue to be paid until the day of
+dissolution.
+
+
+  The National Assembly.
+
+  Oath of the Tennis Court.
+
+By these proceedings the Tiers Etat and a few of the clergy declared
+themselves the national legislature. Then and thereafter the National
+Assembly assumed full sovereign and constituent powers. Nobles and
+clergy might come in if they pleased, but it could do without them. The
+king's assent to its measures would be convenient, but not necessary.
+This boldness was rewarded, for on the 19th the clergy decided by a
+majority of one in favour of joint verification. On the same day the
+nobles voted an address to the king condemning the action of the Tiers
+Etat. Left to himself, Louis might have been too inert for resistance.
+But the queen and his brother, the count of Artois, with some of the
+ministers and courtiers, urged him to make a stand. A Seance Royale was
+notified for the 22nd and workmen were sent to prepare the Salle des
+Menus Plaisirs for the ceremony. On the 20th Bailly and the deputies
+proceeded to the hall and found it barred against their entrance.
+Thereupon they adjourned to a neighbouring tennis court, where Mounier
+proposed that they should swear not to separate until they had
+established the constitution. With a solitary exception they swore and
+the Oath of the Tennis Court became an era in French history. As the
+ministers could not agree on the policy which the king should announce
+in the Seance Royale, it was postponed to the 23rd. The Assembly found
+shelter in the church of St Louis, where it was joined by the main body
+of the clergy and by the first of the nobles.
+
+At the Seance Royale Louis made known his will that the Estates should
+deliberate apart, and declared that if they should refuse to help him he
+would do by his sole authority what was necessary for the happiness of
+his people. When he quitted the hall, some of the clergy and most of the
+nobles retired to their separate chambers. But the rest, together with
+the Tiers Etat, remained, and Mirabeau declared that, as they had come
+by the will of the nation, force only should make them withdraw.
+"Gentlemen," said Sieyes, "you are to-day what you were yesterday." With
+one voice the Assembly proclaimed its adhesion to its former decrees and
+the inviolability of its members. In Versailles and in Paris popular
+feeling was clamorous for the Assembly and against the court. During the
+next few days many of the clergy and nobles, including the archbishop
+of Paris and the duke of Orleans, joined the Assembly. Louis tamely
+accepted his defeat. He recalled Necker, who had resigned after the
+Seance Royale. On the 27th he wrote to those clerical and noble deputies
+who still held out, urging submission. By the 2nd of July the joint
+verification of powers was completed. The last trace of the historic
+States-General disappeared and the National Assembly was perfect. On the
+same day it claimed an absolute discretion by a decree that the mandates
+of the electors were not binding on its members.
+
+
+  Dismissal of Necker.
+
+Having failed in their first attempt on the Assembly, the Court party
+resolved to try what force could do. A large number of troops, chiefly
+foreign regiments in the service of France, were concentrated near Paris
+under the command of the marshal de Broglie. On Mirabeau's motion the
+Assembly voted an address to the king asking for their withdrawal. The
+king replied that the troops were not meant to act against the Assembly,
+but intimated his purpose of transferring the session to some provincial
+town. On the same day he dismissed Necker and ordered him to quit
+Versailles. These acts led to the first insurrection of Paris. The
+capital had long been in a dangerous condition. Bread was dear and
+employment was scarce. The measures taken to relieve distress had
+allured a multitude of needy and desperate men from the surrounding
+country. Among the middle class there already existed a party,
+consisting of men like Danton or Camille Desmoulins, which was prepared
+to go much further than any of the leaders of the Assembly. The rich
+citizens were generally fund-holders, who regarded the Assembly as the
+one bulwark against a public bankruptcy. The duke of Orleans, a weak and
+dissolute but ambitious man, had conceived the hope of supplanting his
+cousin on the throne. He strained his wealth and influence to recruit
+followers and to make mischief. The gardens of his residence, the Palais
+Royal, became the centre of political agitation. Ever since the
+elections virtual freedom of the press and freedom of speech had
+prevailed in Paris. Clubs were multiplied and pamphlets came forth every
+hour. The municipal officers who were named by the Crown had little
+influence with the citizens. The police were a mere handful. Of the two
+line regiments quartered in the capital, one was Swiss and therefore
+trusty; but the other, the Gardes Francaises, shared all the feelings of
+the populace.
+
+
+  Rioting in Paris.
+
+  Fall of the Bastille, July 14, 1789.
+
+On the 12th of July Camille Desmoulins announced the dismissal of Necker
+to the crowd in the Palais Royal. Warmed by his eloquence, they sallied
+into the street. Part of Broglie's troops occupied the Champs Elysees
+and the Place Louis Quinze. After one or two petty encounters with the
+mob they were withdrawn, either because their temper was uncertain or
+because their commanders shunned responsibility. Paris was thus left to
+the rioters, who seized arms wherever they could find them, broke open
+the jails, burnt the octroi barriers and soon had every man's life and
+goods at their discretion. Citizens with anything to lose were driven to
+act for themselves. For the purpose of choosing its representatives in
+the states-general the Third Estate of Paris had named 300 electors.
+Their function once discharged, these men had no public character, but
+they resolved that they would hold together in order to watch over the
+interests of the city. After the Seance Royale the municipal authority,
+conscious of its own weakness, allowed them to meet at the Hotel de
+Ville, where they proceeded to consider the formation of a civic guard.
+On the 13th, when all was anarchy in Paris, they were joined by
+Flesselles, Provost of the Merchants, and other municipal officers. The
+project of a civic guard was then adopted. The insurrection, however,
+ran its course unchecked. Crowds of deserters from the regular troops
+swelled the ranks of the insurgents. They attacked the Hotel des
+Invalides and carried off all the arms which were stored there. With the
+same object they assailed the Bastille. The garrison was small and
+disheartened, provisions were short, and after some hours' fighting De
+Launay the governor surrendered on promise of quarter. He and several of
+his men were, notwithstanding, butchered by the mob before they could be
+brought to the Hotel de Ville. As all Paris was in the hands of the
+insurgents, the king saw the necessity of submission. On the morning of
+the 15th he entered the hall of the Assembly to announce that the troops
+would be withdrawn. Immediately afterwards he dismissed his new
+ministers and recalled Necker. Thereupon the princes and courtiers most
+hostile to the National Assembly, the count of Artois, the prince of
+Conde, the duke of Bourbon and many others, feeling themselves no longer
+safe, quitted France. Their departure is known as the first emigration.
+
+
+  New municipality of Paris and National Guard.
+
+  Revolution in the provinces.
+
+The capture of the Bastille was hailed throughout Europe as symbolizing
+the fall of absolute monarchy, and the victory of the insurgents had
+momentous consequences. Recognizing the 300 electors as a temporary
+municipal government, the Assembly sent a deputation to confer with them
+at the Hotel de Ville, and on a sudden impulse one of these deputies,
+Bailly, lately president of the Assembly, was chosen to be mayor of
+Paris. The marquis Lafayette, doubly popular as a veteran of the
+American War and as one of the nobles who heartily upheld the cause of
+the Assembly, was chosen commandant of the new civic force,
+thenceforwards known as the National Guard. On the 17th Louis himself
+visited Paris and gave his sanction to the new authorities. In the
+course of the following weeks the example of Paris was copied throughout
+France. All the cities and towns set up new elective authorities and
+organized a National Guard. At the same time the revolution spread to
+the country districts. In most of the provinces the peasants rose and
+stormed and burnt the houses of the _seigneurs_, taking peculiar care to
+destroy their title-deeds. Some of the _seigneurs_ were murdered and the
+rest were driven into the towns or across the frontier. Amid the
+universal confusion the old administrative system vanished. The
+intendants and sub-delegates quitted or were driven from their posts.
+The old courts of justice, whether royal or feudal, ceased to act. In
+many districts there was no more police, public works were suspended and
+the collection of taxes became almost impossible. The insurrection of
+July really ended the _ancien regime_.
+
+
+  The 4th of August.
+
+Disorder in the provinces led directly to the proceedings on the famous
+night of the 4th of August. While the Assembly was considering a
+declaration which might calm revolt, the vicomte de Noailles and the duc
+d'Aiguillon moved that it should proclaim equality of taxation and the
+suppression of feudal burdens. Other deputies rose to demand the repeal
+of the game laws, the enfranchisement of such serfs as were still to be
+found in France, and the abolition of tithes and of feudal courts and to
+renounce all privileges, whether of classes, of cities, or of provinces.
+Amid indescribable enthusiasm the Assembly passed resolution after
+resolution embodying these changes. The resolutions were followed by
+decrees sometimes hastily and unskilfully drawn. In vain Sieyes remarked
+that in extinguishing tithes the Assembly was making a present to every
+landed proprietor. In vain the king, while approving most of the
+decrees, tendered some cautious criticisms of the rest. The majority did
+not, indeed, design to confiscate property wholesale. They drew a
+distinction between feudal claims which did and did not carry a moral
+claim to compensation. But they were embarrassed by the wording of their
+own decrees and forestalled by the violence of the people. The
+proceedings of the 4th of August issued in a wholesale transfer of
+property from one class to another without any indemnity for the losers.
+
+
+  Parties in the Assembly.
+
+The work of drafting a constitution for France had already been begun.
+Parties in the Assembly were numerous and ill-defined. The Extreme
+Right, who desired to keep the government as it stood, were a mere
+handful. The Right who wanted to revive, as they said, the ancient
+constitution, in other words, to limit the king's power by periodic
+States-General of the old-fashioned sort, were more numerous and had
+able chiefs in Cazales and Maury, but strove in vain against the spirit
+of the time. The Right Centre, sometimes called the Monarchiens, were a
+large body and included several men of talent, notably Mounier and
+Malouet, as well as many men of rank and wealth. They desired a
+constitution like that of England which should reserve a large
+executive power to the king, while entrusting the taxing and legislative
+powers to a modern parliament. The Left or Constitutionals, known
+afterwards as the Feuillants, among whom Barnave and Charles and
+Alexander Lameth were conspicuous, also wished to preserve monarchy but
+disdained English precedent. They were possessed with feelings then
+widespread, weariness of arbitrary government, hatred of ministers and
+courtiers, and distrust not so much of Louis as of those who surrounded
+him and influenced his judgment. Republicans without knowing it, they
+grudged every remnant of power to the Crown. The Extreme Left, still
+more republican in spirit, of whom Robespierre was the most noteworthy,
+were few and had little power. Mirabeau's independence of judgment
+forbids us to place him in any party.
+
+
+  Declaration of the Rights of Man.
+
+  The royal veto.
+
+The first Constitutional Committee, elected on the 14th of July, had
+Mounier for its reporter. It was instructed to begin with drafting a
+Declaration of the Rights of Man. Six weeks were spent by the Assembly
+in discussing this document. The Committee then presented a report which
+embodied the principle of two Chambers. This principle contradicted the
+extreme democratic theories so much in fashion. It also offended the
+self-love of most of the nobles and the clergy who were loath that a few
+of their number should be erected into a House of Lords. The Assembly
+rejected the principle of two Chambers by nearly 10 to 1. The question
+whether the king should have a veto on legislation was next raised.
+Mounier contended that he should have an absolute veto, and was
+supported by Mirabeau, who had already described the unlimited power of
+a single Chamber as worse than the tyranny of Constantinople. The Left
+maintained that the king, as depositary of the executive, should be
+wholly excluded from the legislative power. Lafayette, who imagined
+himself to be copying the American constitution, proposed that the king
+should have a suspensive veto. Thinking that it would be politic to
+claim no more, Necker persuaded the king to intimate that he was
+satisfied with Lafayette's proposal. The suspensive veto was therefore
+adopted. As the king had no power of dissolution, it was an idle form.
+Mounier and his friends having resigned their places in the
+Constitutional Committee, it came to an end and the Assembly elected a
+new Committee which represented the opinions of the Left.
+
+
+  Removal of the royal family and Assembly to Paris.
+
+Soon afterwards a fresh revolt in Paris caused the king and the Assembly
+to migrate thither. The old causes of disorder were still working in
+that city. The scarcity of bread was set down to conspirators against
+the Revolution. Riots were frequent and persons supposed hostile to the
+Assembly and the nation were murdered with impunity. The king still had
+counsellors who wished for his departure as a means to regaining freedom
+of action. At the end of September the Flanders regiment came to
+Versailles to reinforce the Gardes du Corps. The officers of the Gardes
+du Corps entertained the officers of the Flanders regiment and of the
+Versailles National Guard at dinner in the palace. The king, queen and
+dauphin visited the company. There followed a vehement outbreak of
+loyalty. Rumour enlarged the incident into a military plot against
+freedom. Those who wanted a more thorough revolution wrought up the
+crowd and even respectable citizens wished to have the king among them
+and amenable to their opinion. On the 5th of October a mob which had
+gathered to assault the Hotel de Ville was diverted into a march on
+Versailles. Lafayette was slow to follow it and, when he arrived, took
+insufficient precautions. At daybreak on the 6th some of the rioters
+made their way into the palace and stormed the apartment of the queen
+who escaped with difficulty. At length the National Guards arrived and
+the mob was quieted by the announcement that the king had resolved to go
+to Paris. The Assembly declared itself inseparable from the king's
+person. Louis and his family reached Paris on the same evening and took
+up their abode in the Tuileries. A little later the Assembly established
+itself in the riding school of the palace. Thenceforward the king and
+queen were to all intents prisoners. The Assembly itself was subject to
+constant intimidation. Many members of the Right gave up the struggle
+and emigrated, or at least withdrew from attendance, so that the Left
+became supreme.
+
+
+  Mirabeau and the court.
+
+Mirabeau had already taken alarm at the growing violence of the
+Revolution. In September he had foretold that it would not stop short of
+the death of both king and queen. After the insurrection of October he
+sought to communicate with them through his friend the comte de la
+Marck. In a remarkable correspondence he sketched a policy for the king.
+The abolition of privilege and the establishment of a parliamentary
+system were, he wrote, unalterable facts which it would be madness to
+dispute. But a strong executive authority was essential, and a king who
+frankly adopted the Revolution might still be powerful. In order to
+rally the sound part of the nation Louis should leave Paris, and, if
+necessary, he should prepare for a civil war; but he should never appeal
+to foreign powers. Neither the king nor the queen could grasp the wisdom
+of this advice. They distrusted Mirabeau as an unscrupulous adventurer,
+and were confirmed in this feeling by his demands for money. His
+correspondence with the court, although secret, was suspected. The
+politicians who envied his talents and believed him a rascal raised the
+cry of treason. In the Assembly Mirabeau, though sometimes successful on
+particular questions, never had a chance of giving effect to his policy
+as a whole. Whether even he could have controlled the Revolution is
+highly doubtful; but his letters and minutes drawn up for the king form
+the most striking monument of his genius (see MIRABEAU and MONTMORIN DE
+SAINT-HEREM).
+
+
+  The Assembly and the royal power.
+
+  Reorganization of France.
+
+Early in the year 1790 a dispute with England concerning the frontier in
+North America induced the Spanish government to claim the help of France
+under the Family Compact. This demand led the Assembly to consider in
+what hands the power of concluding alliances and of making peace and war
+should be placed. Mirabeau tried to keep the initiative for the king,
+subject to confirmation by the Chamber. On Barnave's motion the Assembly
+decreed that the legislature should have the power of war and peace and
+the king a merely advisory power. Mirabeau was defeated on another point
+of the highest consequence, the inclusion of ministers in the National
+Assembly. His colleagues generally adhered to the principle that the
+legislative and executive powers should be totally separate. The Left
+assumed that, if deputies could hold office, the king would have the
+means of corrupting the ablest and most influential. It was decreed that
+no deputy should be minister while sitting in the House or for two years
+after. Ministers excluded from the House being necessarily objects of
+suspicion, the Assembly was careful to allow them the least possible
+power. The old provinces were abolished, and France was divided anew
+into eighty departments. Each department was subdivided into districts,
+cantons and communes. The main business of administration, even the
+levying of taxes, was entrusted to the elective local authorities. The
+judicature was likewise made elective. The army and the navy were so
+organized as to leave the king but a small share in appointing officers
+and to leave the officers but scanty means of maintaining discipline.
+Even the cases in which the sovereign might be deposed were foreseen and
+expressly stated. Monarchy was retained, but the monarch was regarded as
+a possible traitor and every precaution was taken to render him harmless
+even at the cost of having no effective national government.
+
+
+  Executive committees of the Assembly.
+
+  Confiscation of church property.
+
+  The assignats.
+
+The distrust which the Assembly felt for the actual ministers led it to
+undertake the business of government as well as the business of reform.
+There were committees for all the chief departments of state, a
+committee for the army, a committee for the navy, another for diplomacy,
+another for finance. These committees sometimes asked the ministers for
+information, but rarely took their advice. Even Necker found the
+Assembly heedless of his counsels. The condition of the treasury became
+worse day by day. The yield of the indirect taxes fell off through the
+interruption of business, and the direct taxes were in large measure
+withheld, for want of an authority to enforce payment. With some trouble
+Necker induced the Assembly to sanction first a loan of 30,000,000
+livres and then a loan of 80,000,000 livres. The public having shown no
+eagerness to subscribe, Necker proposed that every man should be invited
+to make a patriotic contribution of one-fourth of his income. This
+expedient also failed. On the 10th of October 1789 Talleyrand, bishop of
+Autun, proposed that the Assembly should take possession of the lands of
+the church. In November the Assembly enacted that they should be at the
+disposal of the nation, which would provide for the maintenance of the
+clergy. Since the church lands were supposed to occupy one-fifth of
+France, the Assembly thought that it had found an inexhaustible source
+of public wealth. On the security of the church lands it based a paper
+currency (the famous assignats). In December it ordered an issue to the
+amount of 400,000,000 livres. As the revenue still declined and the
+reforms enacted by the Assembly involved a heavy outlay, it recurred
+again and again to this expedient. Before its dissolution the Assembly
+had authorized the creation of 1,800,000,000 livres of assignats and the
+depreciation of its paper had begun. Finding that he had lost all credit
+with the Assembly, Necker resigned office and left France in September
+1790.
+
+
+  Power of the municipalities and popular clubs.
+
+  Disaffection in the army.
+
+Even the committees of the Assembly had far less power than the new
+municipal authorities throughout France. They really governed so far as
+there was any government. Often full of public spirit, they lacked
+experience and in a time of peculiar difficulty had no guide save their
+own discretion. They opened letters, arrested suspects, controlled the
+trade in corn, and sent their National Guards on such errands as they
+thought proper. The political clubs which sprang up all over the country
+often presumed to act as though they were public authorities (see
+JACOBINS). The revolutionary journalists, Desmoulins in his _Revolutions
+de France et de Brabant_, Loustallot in his _Revolutions de Paris_,
+Marat in his _Ami du peuple_, continued to feed the fire of discord.
+Amid this anarchy it became a practice for the National Guards of
+different districts to form federations, that is, to meet and swear
+loyalty to each other and obedience to the laws made by the National
+Assembly. At the suggestion of the municipality of Paris the Assembly
+decreed a general federation of all France, to be held on the
+anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. The ceremony took place in the
+Champ de Mars (July 14, 1790) in presence of the king, the queen, the
+Assembly, and an enormous concourse of spectators. It was attended by
+deputations from the National Guards in every part of the kingdom, from
+the regular regiments, and from the crews of the fleet. Talleyrand
+celebrated Mass, and Lafayette was the first to swear fidelity to the
+Assembly and the nation. In this gathering the provincial deputations
+caught the revolutionary fever of Paris. Still graver was the effect
+upon the regular army. It had been disaffected since the outbreak of the
+Revolution. The rank and file complained of their food, their lodging
+and their pay. The non-commissioned officers, often intelligent and
+hard-working, were embittered by the refusal of promotion. The officers,
+almost all nobles, rarely showed much concern for their men, and were
+often mere courtiers and triflers. After the festival of the federation
+the soldiers were drawn into the political clubs, and named regimental
+committees to defend their interests. Not content with asking for
+redress of grievances, they sometimes seized the regimental chest or
+imprisoned their officers. In August a formidable outbreak at Nancy was
+only quelled with much loss of life. Desertion became more frequent than
+ever, and the officers, finding their position unbearable, began to
+emigrate. Similar causes produced an even worse effect upon the navy.
+
+
+  Civil constitution of the clergy.
+
+By its rough handling of the church the Assembly brought fresh trouble
+upon France. The suppression of tithe and the confiscation of church
+lands had reduced the clergy to live on whatever stipend the legislature
+might think fit to give them. A law of February 1790 suppressed the
+religious orders not engaged in education or in works of charity, and
+forbade the introduction of new ones. Monastic vows were deprived of
+legal force and a pension was granted to the religious who were cast
+upon the world. These measures aroused no serious discontent; but the
+so-called civil constitution of the clergy went much further. Old
+ecclesiastical divisions were set aside. Henceforth the diocese was to
+be conterminous with the department, and the parish with the commune.
+The electors of the commune were to choose the cure, the electors of the
+department the bishop. Every cure was to receive at least 1200 livres
+(about L50) a year. Relatively modest stipends were assigned to bishops
+and archbishops. French citizens were forbidden to acknowledge any
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction outside the kingdom. The Assembly not only
+adopted this constitution but decreed that all beneficed ecclesiastics
+should swear to its observance. As the constitution implicitly abrogated
+the papal authority and entrusted the choice of bishops and cures to
+electors who often were not Catholics, most of the clergy declined to
+swear and lost their preferments. Their places were filled by election.
+Thenceforwards the clergy were divided into hostile factions, the
+Constitutionals and the Nonjurors. As the generality of Frenchmen at
+that time were orthodox although not zealous Catholics, the Nonjurors
+carried with them a large part of the laity. The Assembly was misled by
+its Jansenist, Protestant and Free-thinking members, natural enemies of
+an established church which had persecuted them to the best of its
+power.
+
+
+  The Assembly, the colonies, and foreign powers.
+
+In colonial affairs the Assembly acted with the same imprudence. Eager
+to set an example of suppressing slavery, it took measures which
+prepared a terrible negro insurrection in St Domingo. With regard to
+foreign relations the Assembly showed itself well-meaning but
+indiscreet. It protested in good faith that it desired no conquests and
+aimed only at peace. Yet it laid down maxims which involved the utmost
+danger of war. It held that no treaty could be binding without the
+national consent. As this consent had not been given to any existing
+treaty, they were all liable to be revised by the French government
+without consulting the other parties. Thus the Assembly treated the
+Family Compact as null and void. Similarly, when it abolished feudal
+tenures in France, it ignored the fact that the rights of certain German
+princes over lands in Alsace were guaranteed by the treaties of
+Westphalia. It offered them compensation in money, and when this was
+declined, took no heed of their protests. Again, in the papal territory
+of Avignon a large number of the inhabitants declared for union with
+France. The Assembly could hardly be restrained by Mirabeau from acting
+upon their vote and annexing Avignon. Some time after his death it was
+annexed. The other states of Europe did not admit the doctrines of the
+Assembly, but peace was not broken. Foreign statesmen who flattered
+themselves that France was sinking into anarchy and therefore into decay
+were content to follow their respective ambitions without the dread of
+French interference.
+
+
+  Attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from Paris.
+
+Deprived of authority and in fact a prisoner, Louis had for many months
+acquiesced in the decrees of the Assembly however distasteful. But the
+civil constitution of the clergy wounded him in his conscience as well
+as in his pride. From the autumn of 1790 onwards he began to scheme for
+his liberation. Himself incapable of strenuous effort, he was spurred on
+by Marie Antoinette, who keenly felt her own degradation and the
+curtailment of that royal prerogative which her son would one day
+inherit. The king and queen failed to measure the forces which had
+caused the Revolution. They ascribed all their misfortunes to the work
+of a malignant faction, and believed that, if they could escape from
+Paris, a display of force by friendly powers would enable them to
+restore the supremacy of the crown. But no foreign ruler, not even the
+emperor Leopold II., gave the king or queen any encouragement. Whatever
+secrecy they might observe, the adherents of the Revolution divined
+their wish to escape. When Louis tried to leave the Tuileries for St
+Cloud at Easter 1791, in order to enjoy the ministrations of a nonjuring
+priest, the National Guards of Paris would not let him budge. Mirabeau,
+who had always dissuaded the king from seeking foreign help, died on the
+2nd of April. Finally the king and queen resolved to fly to the army of
+the East, which the marquis de Bouille had in some measure kept under
+discipline. Sheltered by him they could await foreign succour or a
+reaction at home. On the evening of the 20th of June they escaped from
+the Tuileries. Louis left behind him a declaration complaining of the
+treatment which he had received and revoking his assent to all measures
+which had been laid before him while under restraint. On the following
+day the royal party was captured at Varennes and sent back to Paris. The
+king's eldest brother, the count of Provence, who had laid his plans
+much better, made his escape to Brussels and joined the _emigres_.
+
+It was no longer possible to pretend that the Revolution had been made
+with the free consent of the king. Some Republicans called for his
+deposition. Afraid to take a course which involved danger both at home
+and abroad, the Assembly decreed that Louis should be suspended from his
+office. The club of the Cordeliers (q.v.), led by Danton, demanded not
+only his deposition but his trial. A petition to that effect having been
+exposed for signature on the altar in the Champ de Mars, a disturbance
+ensued and the National Guard fired on the crowd, killing a few and
+wounding many. This incident afterwards became known as the massacre of
+the Champ de Mars. On the other hand, the leaders of the Left, Barnave
+and the Lameths, felt that they had weakened the executive power too
+much. They would gladly have come to an understanding with the king and
+revised the constitution so as to strengthen his prerogative. They
+failed in both objects. Louis and still more Marie Antoinette regarded
+them with incurable distrust. The Constitutional Act without any
+material change was voted on the 3rd of September. On the 14th Louis
+swore to the Constitution, thus regaining his nominal sovereignty. The
+National Assembly was dissolved on the 30th. Upon Robespierre's motion
+it had decreed that none of its members should be capable of sitting in
+the next legislature.
+
+
+  Review of the work of the National Assembly.
+
+If we view the work of the National Assembly as a whole, we are struck
+by the immense demolition which it effected. No other legislature has
+ever destroyed so much in the same time. The old form of government, the
+old territorial divisions, the old fiscal system, the old judicature,
+the old army and navy, the old relations of Church and State, the old
+law relating to property in land, all were shattered. Such a destruction
+could not have been effected without the support of popular opinion.
+Most of what the Assembly did had been suggested in the _cahiers_, and
+many of its decrees were anticipated by actual revolt. In its
+constructive work many sound maxims were embodied. It asserted the
+principles of civil equality and freedom of conscience, it reformed the
+criminal law, and laid down a just scheme of taxation. Not intelligence
+and public spirit but political wisdom was lacking to the National
+Assembly. Its members did not suspect how limited is the usefulness of
+general propositions in practical life. Nor did they perceive that new
+ideas can be applied only by degrees in an old world. The Constitution
+of 1791 was impracticable and did not last a year. The civil
+constitution of the clergy was wholly mischievous. In the attempt to
+govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty
+treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, a people debauched by safe and
+successful riot.
+
+
+  The Legislative Assembly.
+
+At the elections of 1791 the party which desired to carry the Revolution
+further had a success out of all keeping with its numbers. This was due
+partly to a weariness of politics which had come over the majority of
+French citizens, partly to downright intimidation exercised by the
+Jacobin Club and by its affiliated societies throughout the kingdom. The
+Legislative Assembly met on the 1st of October. It consisted of 745
+members. Few were nobles, very few were clergymen, and the great body
+was drawn from the middle class. The members were generally young, and,
+since none had sat in the previous Assembly, they were wholly without
+experience. The Right consisted of the Feuillants (q.v.). They numbered
+about 160, and among them were some able men, such as Matthieu Dumas and
+Bigot de Preamenau, but they were guided chiefly by persons outside the
+House, because incapable of re-election, Barnave, Duport and the
+Lameths. The Left consisted of the Jacobins, a term which still included
+the party afterwards known as the Girondins or Girondists (q.v.)--so
+termed because several of their leaders came from the region of the
+Gironde in southern France. They numbered about 330. Among the extreme
+Left sat Cambon, Couthon, Merlin de Thionville. The Girondins could
+claim the most brilliant orators, Vergniaud, Guadet, Isnard. Inferior to
+these men in talent, Brissot de Warville, a restless pamphleteer,
+exerted more influence over the party which has sometimes gone by his
+name. The Left as a whole was republican, although it did not care to
+say so. Strong in numbers, it was reinforced by the disorderly elements
+in Paris and throughout France. The remainder of the House, about 250
+deputies, scarcely belonged to any definite party, but voted oftenest
+with the Left, as the Left was the most powerful.
+
+
+  The court and the emigres.
+
+The Left had three objects of enmity: first, the king, the queen and the
+royal family; secondly, the _emigres_; and thirdly, the clergy. The king
+could not like the new constitution, although, if left to himself,
+indolence and good nature might have rendered him passive. The queen
+throughout had only one thought, to shake off the impotence and
+humiliation of the crown; and for this end she still clung to the hope
+of foreign succour and corresponded with Vienna. Those _emigres_ who had
+assembled in arms on the territories of the electors of Mainz and Treves
+(Trier) and in the Austrian Netherlands had put themselves in the
+position of public enemies. Their chiefs were the king's brothers, who
+affected to consider Louis as a captive and his acts as therefore
+invalid. The count of Provence gave himself the airs of a regent and
+surrounded himself with a ministry. The _emigres_ were not, however,
+dangerous. They were only a few thousand strong; they had no competent
+leader and no money; they were unwelcome to the rulers whose hospitality
+they abused. The nonjuring clergy, although harassed by the local
+authorities, kept the respect and confidence of most Catholics. No acts
+of disloyalty were proved against them, and commissioners of the
+National Assembly reported to its successor that their flocks only
+desired to be let alone. But the anti-clerical bias of the Legislative
+Assembly was too strong for such a policy.
+
+The king's ministers, named by him and excluded from the Assembly, were
+mostly persons of little mark. Montmorin gave up the portfolio of
+foreign affairs on the 31st of October and was succeeded by De Lessart.
+Cahier de Gerville was minister of the interior; Tarbe, minister of
+finance; and Bertrand de Molleville, minister of marine. But the only
+minister who influenced the course of affairs was the comte de Narbonne,
+minister of war.
+
+
+  The king and the nonjurors.
+
+  Declaration of Pillnitz.
+
+On the 9th of November the Assembly decreed that the _emigres_ assembled
+on the frontiers should be liable to the penalties of death and
+confiscation unless they returned to France by the 1st of January
+following. Louis did not love his brothers, and he detested their
+policy, which without rendering him any service made his liberty and
+even his life precarious; yet, loath to condemn them to death, he vetoed
+the decree. On the 29th of November the Assembly decreed that every
+nonjuring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath,
+substantially the same as the oath previously administered, on pain of
+losing his pension and, if any troubles broke out, of being deported.
+This decree Louis vetoed as a matter of conscience. In either case his
+resistance only served to give a weapon to his enemies in the Assembly.
+But foreign affairs were at this time the most critical. The armed
+bodies of _emigres_ on the territory of the Empire afforded matter of
+complaint to France. The persistence of the French in refusing more than
+a money compensation to the German princes who had claims in Alsace
+afforded matter of complaint to the Empire. Foreign statesmen noticed
+with alarm the effect of the French Revolution upon opinion in their own
+countries, and they resented the endeavours of French revolutionists to
+make converts there. Of these statesmen, the emperor Leopold was the
+most intelligent. He had skilfully extricated himself from the
+embarrassments at home and abroad left by his predecessor Joseph. He was
+bound by family ties to Louis, and he was obliged, as chief of the Holy
+Roman Empire, to protect the border princes. On the other hand, he
+understood the weakness of the Habsburg monarchy. He knew that the
+Austrian Netherlands, where he had with difficulty restored his
+authority, were full of friends of the Revolution and that a French army
+would be welcomed by many Belgians. He despised the weakness and the
+folly of the _emigres_ and excluded them from his councils. He earnestly
+desired to avoid a war which might endanger his sister or her husband.
+In August 1791 he had met Frederick William II. of Prussia at Pillnitz
+near Dresden, and the two monarchs had joined in a declaration that they
+considered the restoration of order and of monarchy in France an object
+of interest to all sovereigns. They further declared that they would be
+ready to act for this purpose in concert with the other powers. This
+declaration appears to have been drawn from Leopold by pressure of
+circumstances. He well knew that concerted action of the powers was
+impossible, as the English government had firmly resolved not to meddle
+with French affairs. After Louis had accepted the constitution, Leopold
+virtually withdrew his declaration. Nevertheless it was a grave error of
+judgment and contributed to the approaching war.
+
+In France many persons desired war for various reasons. Narbonne trusted
+to find in it the means of restoring a certain authority to the crown
+and limiting the Revolution. He contemplated a war with Austria only.
+The Girondins desired war in the hope that it would enable them to
+abolish monarchy altogether. They desired a general war because they
+believed that it would carry the Revolution into other countries and
+make it secure in France by making it universal. The extreme Left had
+the same objects, but it held that a war for those objects could not
+safely be entrusted to the king and his ministers. Victory would revive
+the power of the crown; defeat would be the undoing of the Revolution.
+Hence Robespierre and those who thought with him desired peace. The
+French nation generally had never approved of the Austrian alliance, and
+regarded the Habsburgs as traditional enemies. The king and queen,
+however, who looked for help from abroad and especially from Leopold,
+dreaded a war with Austria and had no faith in the schemes of Narbonne.
+Nor was France in a condition to wage a serious war. The constitution
+was unworkable and the governing authorities were mutually hostile. The
+finances remained in disorder, and assignats of the face value of
+900,000,000 livres were issued by the Legislative Assembly in less than
+a year. The army had been thinned by desertion and was enervated by long
+indiscipline. The fortresses were in bad condition and short of
+supplies.
+
+In October Leopold ordered the dispersion of the _emigres_ who had
+mustered in arms in the Austrian Netherlands. His example was followed
+by the electors of Treves and Mainz. At the same time they implored the
+emperor's protection, and the Austrian chancellor Kaunitz informed
+Noailles the French ambassador that this protection would be given if
+necessary. Narbonne demanded a credit of 20,000,000 livres, which the
+Assembly granted. He made a tour of inspection in the north of France
+and reported untruly to the Assembly that all was in readiness for war.
+On the 14th of January 1792 the diplomatic committee reported to the
+Assembly that the emperor should be required to give satisfactory
+assurances before the 10th of February. The Assembly put off the term to
+the 1st of March. In February Leopold concluded a defensive treaty with
+Frederick William. But there was no mutual confidence between the
+sovereigns, who were at that very time pursuing opposite policies with
+regard to Poland. Leopold still hesitated and still hoped to avoid war.
+He died on the 1st of March, and the imperial dignity became vacant. The
+hereditary dominions of Austria passed to his son Francis, afterwards
+the emperor Francis II., a youth of small abilities and no experience.
+The real conduct of affairs fell, therefore, to the aged Kaunitz. In
+France Narbonne failed to carry the king or his colleagues along with
+him. The king took courage to dismiss him on the 9th of March,
+whereupon the assembly testified its confidence in Narbonne. De Lessart
+having incurred its anger by the tameness of his replies to Austrian
+dictation, the Assembly voted his impeachment.
+
+
+  War declared against Austria.
+
+The king, seeing no other course open, formed a new ministry which was
+chiefly Girondin. Roland became minister of the interior, Claviere of
+finance, De Grave of war, and Lacoste of marine. Far abler and more
+resolute than any of these men was Dumouriez, the new minister for
+foreign affairs. A soldier by profession, he had been employed in the
+secret diplomacy of Louis XV. and had thus gained a wide knowledge of
+international politics. He stood aloof from parties and had no rigid
+principles, but held views closely resembling those of Narbonne. He
+wished for a war with Austria which should restore some influence to the
+crown and make himself the arbiter of France. The king bent to
+necessity, and on the 20th of April came to the Assembly with the
+proposal that war should be declared against Austria. It was carried by
+acclamation. Dumouriez intended to begin with an invasion of the
+Austrian Netherlands. As this would awaken English jealousy, he sent
+Talleyrand to London with assurances that, if victorious, the French
+would annex no territory.
+
+It was designed that the French should invade the Netherlands at three
+points simultaneously. Lafayette was to march against Namur, Biron
+against Mons, and Dillon against Tournay. But the first movement
+disclosed the miserable state of the army. Smitten with panic, Dillon's
+force fled at sight of the enemy, and Dillon, after receiving a wound
+from one of his own soldiers, was murdered by the mob of Lille. Biron
+was easily routed before Mons. On hearing of these disasters Lafayette
+found it necessary to retreat. This shameful discomfiture quickened all
+the suspicion and jealousy fermenting in France. De Grave had to resign
+and was succeeded by Servan. The Austrian forces in the Netherlands
+were, however, so weak that they could not take the offensive. Austria
+demanded help from Prussia under the recent alliance, and the claim was
+admitted. Prussia declared war against France, and the duke of Brunswick
+was chosen to command the allied forces, but various causes delayed
+action. Austrian and Prussian interests clashed in Poland. The Austrian
+government wished to preserve a harmless neighbour. The Prussian
+government desired another partition and a large tract of Polish
+territory. Only after long discussion was it agreed that Prussia should
+be free to act in Poland, while Austria might find compensation in
+provinces conquered from France.
+
+
+  Emeute of the 20th of June 1792.
+
+A respite was thus given and something was done to improve the army.
+Meantime the Assembly passed three decrees: one for the deportation of
+nonjuring priests, another to suppress the king's Constitutional Guard,
+and a third for the establishment of a camp of _federes_ near Paris.
+Louis consented to sacrifice his guard, but vetoed the other decrees.
+Roland having addressed to him an arrogant letter of remonstrance, the
+king with the support of Dumouriez dismissed Roland, Servan and
+Claviere. Dumouriez then took the ministry of war, and the other places
+were filled with such men as could be had. Dumouriez, who cared only for
+the successful prosecution of the war, urged the king to accept the
+decrees. As Louis was obstinate, he felt that he could do no more,
+resigned office on the 15th of June and went to join the army of the
+north. Lafayette, who remained faithful to the constitution of 1791,
+ventured on a letter of remonstrance to the Assembly. It paid no
+attention, for Lafayette could no longer sway the people. The Jacobins
+tried to frighten the king into accepting the decrees and recalling his
+ministers. On the 20th of June the armed populace invaded the hall of
+the Assembly and the royal apartments in the Tuileries. For some hours
+the king and queen were in the utmost peril. With passive courage Louis
+refrained from making any promise to the insurgents.
+
+The failure of the insurrection encouraged a movement in favour of the
+king. Some twenty thousand Parisians signed a petition expressing
+sympathy with Louis. Addresses of like tenour poured in from the
+departments and the provincial cities. Lafayette himself came to Paris
+in the hope of rallying the constitutional party, but the king and
+queen eluded his offers of assistance. They had always disliked and
+distrusted Lafayette and the Feuillants, and preferred to rest their
+hopes of deliverance on the foreigner. Lafayette returned to his troops
+without having effected anything. The Girondins made a last advance to
+Louis, offering to save the monarchy if he would accept them as
+ministers. His refusal united all the Jacobins in the project of
+overturning the monarchy by force. The ruling spirit of this new
+revolution was Danton, a barrister only thirty-two years of age, who had
+not sat in either Assembly, although he had been the leader of the
+Cordeliers, an advanced republican club, and had a strong hold on the
+common people of Paris. Danton and his friends were assisted in their
+work by the fear of invasion, for the allied army was at length
+mustering on the frontier. The Assembly declared the country in danger.
+All the regular troops in or near Paris were sent to the front.
+Volunteers and _federes_ were constantly arriving in Paris, and,
+although most went on to join the army, the Jacobins enlisted those who
+were suitable for their purpose, especially some 500 whom Barbaroux, a
+Girondin, had summoned from Marseilles. At the same time the National
+Guard was opened to the lowest class. Brunswick's famous declaration of
+the 25th of July, announcing that the allies would enter France to
+restore the royal authority and would visit the Assembly and the city of
+Paris with military execution if any further outrage were offered to the
+king, heated the republican spirit to fury. It was resolved to strike
+the decisive blow on the 10th of August.
+
+
+  Rising of the 10th of August.
+
+On the night of the 9th a new revolutionary Commune took possession of
+the hotel de ville, and early on the morning of the 10th the insurgents
+assailed the Tuileries. As the preparations of the Jacobins had been
+notorious, some measures of defence had been taken. Beside a few
+gentlemen in arms and a number of National Guards the palace was
+garrisoned by the Swiss Guard, about 950 strong. The disparity of force
+was not so great as to make resistance altogether hopeless. But Louis
+let himself be persuaded into betraying his own cause and retiring with
+his family under the shelter of the Assembly. The National Guards either
+dispersed or fraternized with the assailants. The Swiss Guard stood
+firm, and, possibly by accident, a fusillade began. The enemy were
+gaining ground when the Swiss received an order from the king to cease
+firing and withdraw. They were mostly shot down as they were retiring,
+and of those who surrendered many were murdered in cold blood next day.
+The king and queen spent long hours in a reporter's box while the
+Assembly discussed their fate and the fate of the French monarchy.
+Little more than a third of the deputies were present and they were
+almost all Jacobins. They decreed that Louis should be suspended from
+his office and that a convention should be summoned to give France a new
+constitution. An executive council was formed by recalling Roland,
+Claviere and Servan to office and joining with them Danton as minister
+of justice, Lebrun as minister of foreign affairs, and Monge as minister
+of marine.
+
+
+  The revolutionary Commune of Paris.
+
+  The September massacres.
+
+When Lafayette heard of the insurrection in Paris he tried to rally his
+troops in defence of the constitution, but they refused to follow him.
+He was driven to cross the frontier and surrender himself to the
+Austrians. Dumouriez was named his successor. But the new government was
+still beset with danger. It had no root in law and little hold on public
+opinion. It could not lean on the Assembly, a mere shrunken remnant,
+whose days were numbered. It remained dependent on the power which had
+set it up, the revolutionary Commune of Paris. The Commune could
+therefore extort what concessions it pleased. It got the custody of the
+king and his family who were imprisoned in the Temple. Having obtained
+an indefinite power of arrest, it soon filled the prisons of Paris. As
+the elections to the Convention were close at hand, the Commune resolved
+to strike the public with terror by the slaughter of its prisoners. It
+found its opportunity in the progress of invasion. On the 19th Brunswick
+crossed the frontier. On the 22nd Longwy surrendered. Verdun was
+invested and seemed likely to fall. On the 1st of September the Commune
+decreed that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all
+able-bodied citizens convened in the Champs de Mars, and 60,000
+volunteers enrolled for the defence of the country. While this assembly
+was in progress gangs of assassins were sent to the prisons and began a
+butchery which lasted four days and consumed 1400 victims. The Commune
+addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them
+to follow the example. A number of state prisoners awaiting trial at
+Orleans were ordered to Paris and on the way were murdered at
+Versailles. The Assembly offered a feeble resistance to these crimes.
+Danton can hardly be acquitted of connivance at them. Roland hinted
+disapproval, but did not venture more. He with many other Girondins had
+been marked for slaughter in the original project.
+
+
+  The National Convention.
+
+  Abolition of the monarchy.
+
+The elections to the Convention were by almost universal suffrage, but
+indifference or intimidation reduced the voters to a small number. Many
+who had sat in the National, and many more who had sat in the
+Legislative Assembly were returned. The Convention met on the 20th of
+September. Like the previous assemblies, it did not fall into
+well-defined parties. The success of the Jacobins in overthrowing the
+monarchy had ended their union. Thenceforwards the name of Jacobin was
+confined to the smaller and more fanatical group, while the rest came to
+be known as the Girondins. The Jacobins, about 100 strong, formed the
+Left of the Convention, afterwards known from the raised benches on
+which they sat as the Mountain (q.v.). The Girondins, numbering perhaps
+180, formed the Right. The rest of the House, nearly 500 members, voted
+now on one side now on the other, until in the course of the Terror they
+fell under the Jacobin domination. This neutral mass is often termed the
+Plain, in allusion to its seats on the floor of the House. The
+Convention as a whole was Republican, if not on principle, from the
+feeling that no other form of government could be established. It
+decreed the abolition of monarchy on the 21st of September. A committee
+was named to draft a new constitution, which was presented and decreed
+in the following June, but never took effect and was superseded by a
+third constitution in 1795. The actual government of France was by
+committees of the Convention, but some months passed before it could be
+fully organized.
+
+
+  Jacobins and Girondins.
+
+The inner history of the Convention was strange and terrible. It turned
+on the successive schisms in the ruling minority. Whichever side
+prevailed destroyed its adversaries only to divide afresh and renew the
+strife until the victors were at length so reduced that their yoke was
+shaken off and the mass of the Convention, hitherto benumbed by fear,
+resumed its freedom and the government of France. The first and most
+memorable of these contests was the quarrel between Jacobin and
+Girondin. Both parties were republican and democratic; both wished to
+complete the Revolution; both were determined to maintain the integrity
+of France. But they differed in circumstances and temperament. Although
+the leaders on both sides were of the middle class, the Girondins
+represented the _bourgeoisie_, the Jacobins represented the populace.
+The Girondins desired a speedy return to law and order; the Jacobins
+thought that they could keep power only by violence. The Jacobins leant
+on the revolutionary commune and the mob of Paris; the Girondins leant
+on the thriving burghers of the provincial cities. Despite their smaller
+number the Jacobins were victors. They were the more resolute and
+unscrupulous. The Girondins numbered many orators, but not one man of
+action. The Jacobins controlled the parent club with its affiliated
+societies and the whole machinery of terror. The Girondins had no
+organized force at their disposal. The Jacobins perpetuated in a new
+form the old centralization of power to which France was accustomed. The
+Girondins addressed themselves to provincials who had lost the power of
+initiative. They were termed federalists by their enemies and accused,
+unjustly enough, of wishing to dissolve the national unity.
+
+Even in the first days of the Convention the feud broke out. The
+Girondins condemned the September massacres and dreaded the Parisian
+populace. Barbaroux accused Robespierre of aiming at a dictatorship, and
+Buzot demanded a guard recruited in the departments to protect the
+Convention. In October Louvet reiterated the charge against Robespierre,
+and Barbaroux called for the dissolution of the Commune of Paris. But
+the Girondins gained no tangible result from this wordy warfare. For a
+time the question how to dispose of the king diverted the thoughts of
+all parties. It was approached in a political, not in a judicial spirit.
+The Jacobins desired the death of Louis, partly because they hated kings
+and deemed him a traitor, partly because they wished to envenom the
+Revolution, defy Europe and compromise their more temperate colleagues.
+The Girondins wished to spare Louis, but were afraid of incurring the
+reproach of royalism. At this critical moment the discovery of the
+famous iron chest, containing papers which showed that many public men
+had intrigued with the court, was disastrous for Louis. Members of the
+Convention were anxious to be thought severe lest they should be thought
+corrupt. Robespierre frankly demanded that Louis as a public enemy
+should be put to death without form of trial. The majority shrank from
+such open injustice and decreed on the 3rd of December that Louis should
+be tried by the Convention.
+
+
+  Trial and execution of Louis XVI.
+
+A committee of twenty-one was chosen to frame the indictment against
+Louis, and on the 11th of December he was brought to the bar for the
+first time to hear the charges read. The most essential might be summed
+up in the statement that he had plotted against the Constitution and
+against the safety of the kingdom. On the 26th Louis appeared at the bar
+a second time, and the trial began. The advocates of Louis could plead
+that all his actions down to the dissolution of the National Assembly
+came within the amnesty then granted, and that the Constitution had
+proclaimed his person inviolable, while enacting for certain offences
+the penalty of deposition which he had already undergone. Such arguments
+were not likely to weigh with such a tribunal. The Mountain called for
+immediate sentence of death; the Girondins desired an appeal to the
+people of France. The galleries of the Convention were packed with
+adherents of the Jacobins, whose fury, not confined to words, struck
+terror into all who might incline towards mercy. In Paris unmistakable
+signs announced a new insurrection, to be followed perhaps by new
+massacres. On the question whether Louis was guilty none ventured to
+give a negative vote. The motion for an appeal to the people was
+rejected by 424 votes to 283. The penalty of death was adopted by 361
+votes against 360 in favour of other penalties or of postponing at least
+the execution of the sentence. On the 21st of January 1793 Louis was
+beheaded in the Place de la Revolution, now the Place de la Concorde.
+
+
+  Battle of Valmy.
+
+Between the deposition and the death of Louis the war had run a
+surprising course. Accompanied by King Frederick William, Brunswick had
+entered France with 80,000 men, of whom more than half were Prussians,
+the best soldiers in Europe. The disorder of France was such that many
+expected a triumphal march to Paris. But the Allies had opened the
+campaign late; they moved slowly; the weather broke, and sickness began
+to waste their ranks. Dumouriez succeeded in rousing the spirit of the
+French; he occupied the defiles of the forest of Argonne, thus causing
+the enemy to lose many valuable days, and when at last they turned his
+position, he retreated without loss. At Valmy on the 20th of September
+the two armies came in contact. The affair was only a cannonade, but the
+French stood firm and the advance of the Allies was stayed. Brunswick
+had no heart for his work; the king was ill satisfied with the
+Austrians, and both were alarmed by the ravages of disease among the
+soldiers. Within ten days after the affair of Valmy they began their
+retreat. Dumouriez, who still hoped to detach Prussia from Austria, left
+them unmolested. When the enemy had quitted France, he invaded Hainaut
+and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes on the 6th of November. In
+Belgium a large party regarded the French as deliverers. Dumouriez
+entered Brussels without further resistance, and was soon master of the
+whole country. Elsewhere the French were equally successful. With a
+slight force Custine assailed the electorate of Mainz. The common
+people were friendly, and he had no trouble in occupying the country as
+far as the Rhine. The king of Sardinia having shown a hostile temper,
+Montesquiou made an easy conquest of Savoy. At the close of 1792 the
+relative position of France and her enemies had been reversed. It was
+seen that the French were still able to wage war, and that the
+revolutionary spirit had permeated the adjoining countries, while the
+old governments of Europe, jealous of one another and uncertain of the
+loyalty of their subjects, were ill qualified for resistance.
+
+
+  The first coalition against France.
+
+Intoxicated with these victories, the Convention abandoned itself to the
+fervour of propaganda and conquest. The river Scheldt had been closed to
+commerce by various treaties to which England and Holland, neutral
+powers, were parties. Without a pretence of negotiation the French
+government declared on the 16th of November that the Scheldt was
+thenceforwards open. On the 19th a decree of the Convention offered the
+aid of France to all nations which were striving after freedom--in other
+words, to the malcontents in every neighbouring state. Not long
+afterwards the Convention annexed Savoy, with the consent, it should be
+added, of many Savoyards. On the 15th of December the Convention decreed
+that all peoples freed by its assistance should carry out a revolution
+like that which had been made in France on pain of being treated as
+enemies. Towards Great Britain the executive council and the Convention
+behaved with singular folly. There, in spite of a growing antipathy to
+the Revolution, Pitt earnestly desired to maintain peace. The conquest
+of the Netherlands and the symptoms of a wish to annex that country made
+his task most difficult. But the French government underrated the
+strength of Great Britain, imagining that all Englishmen who desired
+parliamentary reform desired revolution, and that a few democratic
+societies represented the nation. When Monge announced the intention of
+attacking Great Britain on behalf of the English republicans, the
+British government and nation were thoroughly alarmed and roused; and
+when the news of the execution of Louis XVI. was received, Chauvelin,
+the French envoy, was ordered to quit England. France declared war
+against England and Holland on the 1st of February and soon afterwards
+against Spain. In the course of the year 1793 the Empire, the kings of
+Portugal and Naples and the grand-duke of Tuscany declared war against
+France. Thus was formed the first coalition.
+
+France was not prepared to encounter so many enemies. Administrative
+confusion had been heightened by the triumph of the Jacobins. Servan was
+succeeded as minister of war by Pache who was incapable and dishonest.
+The army of Dumouriez was left in such want that it dwindled rapidly.
+The commissioners of the Convention plundered the Netherlands with so
+little remorse that the people became bitterly hostile. The attempt to
+enforce a revolution of the French sort on the Catholic and conservative
+Belgians drove them to fury. By every unfair means the commissioners
+extorted the semblance of a popular vote in favour of incorporation, and
+France annexed the Netherlands. This was the last outrage. When a new
+Austrian army under the prince of Coburg entered the country, Dumouriez,
+who had invaded Holland, was unable to defend Belgium. On the 18th of
+March he was defeated at Neerwinden, and a few days later he was driven
+back to the frontier. Alike on public and personal grounds Dumouriez was
+the enemy of the government. Trusting in his influence over the army he
+resolved to lead it against the Convention, and, in order to secure his
+rear, he negotiated with the enemy. But he could make no impression on
+his soldiers, and deserted to the Austrians. Events followed a similar
+course in the Rhine valley. There also the French wore out the goodwill
+at first shown to them. They summoned a convention and obtained a vote
+for incorporation with France. But they were unable to hold their ground
+on the approach of a Prussian army. By April they had lost the country
+with the exception of Mainz, which was invested. France thus lay open to
+invasion from the east and the north. The Convention decreed a levy of
+300,000 men.
+
+
+  Rising in La Vendee.
+
+About the same time began the first formidable uprising against the
+Revolution, the War of La Vendee, the region lying to the south of the
+lower Loire and facing the Atlantic. Its inhabitants differed in many
+ways from the mass of the nation. Living far from large towns and busy
+routes of commerce, they remained primitive in all their thoughts and
+ways. The peasants had always been on friendly terms with the gentry,
+and the agrarian changes made by the Revolution had not been appreciated
+so highly as elsewhere. The people were ardent Catholics, who venerated
+the nonjuring clergy and resented the measures taken against them. But
+they remained passive until the enforcement of the decree for the levy
+of 300,000 men. Caring little for the Convention and knowing nothing of
+events on the northern or eastern frontier, the peasants were determined
+not to serve and preferred to fight the Republic at home. When once they
+had taken up arms they found gentlemen to lead and priests to exhort,
+and their rebellion became Royalist and Catholic. The chiefs were drawn
+from widely different classes. If Bonchamps and La Roche-jacquelin were
+nobles, Stofflet was a gamekeeper and Cathelineau a mason. As the
+country was favourable to guerilla warfare, and the government could not
+spare regular troops from the frontiers, the rebels were usually
+successful, and by the end of May had almost expelled the Republicans
+from La Vendee.
+
+
+  The Committee of Public Safety.
+
+Danger without and within prompted the Convention to strengthen the
+executive authority. That the executive and legislative powers ought to
+be absolutely separate had been an axiom throughout the Revolution.
+Ministers had always been excluded from a seat in the legislature. But
+the Assemblies were suspicious of the executive and bent on absorbing
+the government. They had nominated committees of their own members to
+control every branch of public affairs. These committees, while reducing
+the ministers to impotence, were themselves clumsy and ineffectual. It
+may be said that since the first meeting of the states-general the
+executive authority had been paralysed in France. The Convention in
+theory maintained the separation of powers. Even Danton had been forced
+to resign office when he was elected a member. But unity of government
+was restored by the formation of a central committee. In January the
+first Committee of General Defence was formed of members of the
+committees for the several departments of state. Too large and too much
+divided for strenuous labour, it was reduced in April to nine members
+and re-named the Committee of Public Safety. It deliberated in secret
+and had authority over the ministers; it was entrusted with the whole of
+the national defence and empowered to use all the resources of the
+state, and it quickly became the supreme power in the republic. Under it
+the ministers were no more than head clerks. About the same time were
+instituted the deputies on mission in the provinces, who could overrule
+any local authority, and who corresponded regularly with the Committee.
+France thus returned under new forms to its traditional government: a
+despotic authority in Paris with all-powerful agents in the provinces.
+Against disaffection the government was armed with formidable weapons:
+the Committee of General Security and the Revolutionary Tribunal. The
+Committee of General Security, first established in October 1792, was
+several times remodelled. In September 1793 the Convention decreed that
+its members should be nominated by the Committee of Public Safety. The
+Committee of General Security had unlimited powers for the prevention or
+discovery of crime against the state. The Revolutionary Tribunal was
+decreed on the 10th of March. It was an extraordinary Court, destined to
+try all offences against the Revolution without appeal. The jury, which
+received wages, voted openly, so that condemnation was almost certain.
+The director of the jury or public prosecutor was Fouquier Tinville. The
+first condemnation took place on the 11th of April.
+
+
+  Fall of the Girondins.
+
+Enmity between Girondin and Jacobin grew fiercer as the perils of the
+Republic increased. Danton strove to unite all partisans of the
+Revolution in defence of the country; but the Girondins, detesting his
+character and fearing his ambition, rejected all advances. The Commune
+of Paris and the journalists who were its mouthpieces, Hebert and Marat,
+aimed frankly at destroying the Girondins. In April the Girondins
+carried a decree that Marat should be sent before the Revolutionary
+Tribunal for incendiary writings, but his acquittal showed that a
+Jacobin leader was above the law. In May they proposed that the Commune
+of Paris should be dissolved, and that the _suppleants_, the persons
+elected to fill vacancies occurring in the Convention, should assemble
+at Bourges, where they would be safe from that violence which might be
+applied to the Convention itself. Barere, who was rising into notice by
+the skill with which he trimmed between parties, opposed this motion,
+and carried a decree appointing a Committee of Twelve to watch over the
+safety of the Convention. Then the Commune named as commandant of the
+National Guard, Hanriot, a man concerned in the September massacres. It
+raised an insurrection on the 31st of May. On Barere's proposal the
+Convention stooped to dissolving the Committee of Twelve. The Commune,
+which had hoped for the arrest of the Girondin leaders, was not
+satisfied. It undertook a new and more formidable outbreak on the 2nd of
+June. Enclosed by Hanriot's troops and thoroughly cowed, the Convention
+decreed the arrest of the Committee of Twelve and of twenty-two
+principal Girondins. They were put under confinement in their own
+houses. Thus the Jacobins became all-powerful.
+
+
+  Revolt of the provinces.
+
+A tremor of revolt ran through the cities of the south which chafed
+under the despotism of the Parisian mob. These cities had their own
+grievances. The Jacobin clubs menaced the lives and properties of all
+who were guilty of wealth or of moderate opinions, while the
+representatives on mission deposed the municipal authorities and placed
+their own creatures in power. At the end of April the citizens of
+Marseilles closed the Jacobin club, put its chiefs on their trial and
+drove out the representatives on mission. In May Lyons rose. The Jacobin
+municipality was overturned, and Challier, their fiercest demagogue, was
+arrested. In June the citizens of Bordeaux declared that they would not
+acknowledge the authority of the Convention until the imprisoned
+deputies were set free. In July Toulon rebelled. But in the north the
+appeals of such Girondins as escaped from Paris were of no avail. Even
+the southern uprising proved far less dangerous than might have been
+expected. The peasants, who had gained more by the Revolution than any
+other class, held aloof from the citizens. The citizens lacked the
+qualities necessary for the successful conduct of civil war. Bordeaux
+surrendered almost without waiting to be summoned. Marseilles was taken
+in August and treated with great cruelty. Lyons, where the Royalists
+were strong, defended itself with courage, for the trial and execution
+of Challier made the townsmen hopeless of pardon. Toulon, also largely
+Royalist, invited the English and Spanish admirals, Hood and Langara,
+who occupied the port and garrisoned the town. At the same time the
+Vendean War continued formidable. In June the insurgents took the
+important town of Saumur, although they failed in an attempt upon
+Nantes. At the end of July the Republicans were still unable to make any
+impression upon the revolted territory.
+
+
+  Disunion of the allied powers.
+
+Thus in the summer of 1793 France seemed to be falling to pieces. It was
+saved by the imbecility and disunion of the hostile powers. In the north
+the French army after the treason of Dumouriez could only attempt to
+cover the frontier. The Austrians were joined by British, Dutch and
+Prussian forces. Had the Allies pushed straight upon Paris, they might
+have ended the war. But the desire of each ally to make conquests on his
+own account led them to spend time and strength in sieges. When Conde
+and Valenciennes had been taken, the British went off to assail Dunkirk
+and the Prussians retired into Luxemburg. In the east the Prussians and
+Austrians took Mainz at the end of July, allowing the garrison to depart
+on condition of not serving against the Allies for a year. Then they
+invaded Alsace, but their mutual jealousy prevented them from going
+farther. Thus the summer passed away without any decisive achievement of
+the coalition. Meanwhile the Committee of Public Safety, inspired by
+Danton, strove to rebuild the French administrative system. In July the
+Committee was renewed and Danton fell out; but soon afterwards it was
+reinforced by two officers, Carnot, who undertook the organization of
+the army, and Prieur of the Cote d'Or, who undertook its equipment.
+Administrators of the first rank, these men renovated the warlike power
+of France, and enabled her to deal those crushing blows which broke up
+the coalition.
+
+
+  The reign of terror.
+
+The Royalist and Girondin insurrections and the critical aspect of the
+war favoured the establishment of what is known as the reign of terror.
+Terrorism had prevailed more or less since the beginning of the
+Revolution, but it was the work of those who desired to rule, not of the
+nominal rulers. It had been lawless and rebellious. It ended by becoming
+legal and official. While Danton kept power Terrorism remained
+imperfect, for Danton, although unscrupulous, did not love cruelty and
+kept in view a return to normal government. But soon after Danton had
+ceased to be a member of the Committee of Public Safety Robespierre was
+elected, and now became the most powerful man in France. Robespierre was
+an acrid fanatic, and unlike Danton, who only cared to secure the
+practical results of the Revolution, he had a moral and religious ideal
+which he intended to force on the nation. All who rejected his ideal
+were corrupt; all who resented his ascendancy were traitors. The death
+of Marat, who was stabbed by Charlotte Corday (q.v.) to avenge the
+Girondins, gave yet another pretext for terrible measures of repression.
+In Paris the armed ruffians who had long preyed upon respectable
+citizens were organized as a revolutionary army, and other revolutionary
+armies were established in the provinces. Two new laws placed almost
+everybody at the mercy of the government. The Law of the Maximum, passed
+on the 17th of September, fixed the price of food and made it capital to
+ask for more. The Law of Suspects, passed at the same time, declared
+suspect every person who was of noble birth, or had held office before
+the Revolution, or had any connexion with an _emigre_, or could not
+produce a card of _civisme_ granted by the local authority, which had
+full discretion to refuse. Any suspect might be arrested and imprisoned
+until the peace or sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal. An earlier
+law had established in every commune an elective committee of
+surveillance. These bodies, better known as revolutionary committees,
+were charged with the enforcement of the Law of Suspects. On the 10th of
+October the new constitution was suspended and the government declared
+revolutionary until the peace.
+
+
+  Execution of the queen.
+
+The spirit of those in power was shown by the massacres which followed
+on the surrender of Lyons in that month. In Paris the slaughter of
+distinguished victims began with the trial of Marie Antoinette, who was
+guillotined on the 16th. Twenty-one Girondin deputies were next brought
+to the bar and, with the exception of Valaze who stabbed himself, were
+beheaded on the last day of October, Madame Roland and other Girondins
+of note suffered later. In November the duke of Orleans, who had styled
+himself Philippe Egalite, had sat in the Convention, and had voted for
+the king's death, went to the scaffold. Bailly, Barnave and many others
+of note followed before the end of the year. As the bloody work went on
+the pretence of trial became more and more hollow, the chance of
+acquittal fainter and fainter. The Revolutionary Tribunal was a mere
+instrument of state. Knowing the slight foundation of its power the
+government deliberately sought to destroy all whose birth, political
+connexions or past career might mark them out as leaders of opposition.
+At the same time it took care to show that none was so obscure or so
+impotent as to be safe when its policy was to destroy.
+
+The disastrous effects of the Terror were heightened by the financial
+mismanagement of the Jacobins. Assignats were issued with such reckless
+profusion that the total for the three years of the Convention has been
+estimated at 7250 millions of francs. Enormous depreciation ensued and,
+although penalties rising to death itself were denounced against all who
+should refuse to take them at par, they fell to little more than 1% of
+their nominal value. What were known as revolutionary taxes were
+imposed at discretion by the representatives on mission and the local
+authorities. A forced loan of 1000 millions was exacted from those
+citizens who were reputed to be prosperous. Immense supplies of all
+kinds were requisitioned for the armies, and were sometimes allowed to
+rot unused. Anarchy and state interference having combined to check the
+trade in necessaries, the government undertook to feed the people, and
+spent huge sums, especially on bread for the starving inhabitants of
+Paris. As no regular budget was attempted, as accounts were not kept,
+and as audit was unknown, the opportunities for fraud and embezzlement
+were endless. Even when due allowance has been made for the financial
+disorder which the Convention inherited from previous assemblies, and
+for the war which it had to wage against a formidable alliance, it
+cannot be acquitted of reckless and wasteful maladministration.
+
+
+  Revolutionary legislation. The new calendar.
+
+Notwithstanding the disorder of the time, the mass of new laws produced
+by the Convention was extraordinary. A new system of weights and
+measures, a new currency, a new chronological era (that of the
+Republic), and a new calendar were introduced (see the section
+_Republican Calendar_ below). A new and elaborate system of education
+was decreed. Two drafts of a complete civil code were made and, although
+neither was enacted, particular changes of great moment were decreed.
+Many of the new laws were stamped with the passions of the time. Such
+were the laws which suppressed all the remaining bodies corporate, even
+the academies, and which extinguished all manorial rights without any
+indemnity to the owners. Such too were the laws which took away the
+power of testation, placed natural children upon an absolute equality
+with legitimate, and gave a boundless freedom of divorce. It would be
+absurd, however, to dismiss all the legislative work of the Convention
+as merely partisan or eccentric. Much of it was enlightened and skilful,
+the product of the best minds in the assembly. To compete for power or
+even to express an opinion on public affairs was dangerous, and wholly
+to refrain from attendance might be construed as disaffection. Able men
+who wished to be useful without hazarding their lives took refuge in the
+committees where new laws were drafted and discussed. The result of
+their labours was often decreed as a matter of course. Whether the
+decree would be carried into effect was always uncertain.
+
+
+  Overthrow of the Paris Commune. Fall of the Dantonists.
+
+The ruling faction was still divided against itself. The Commune of
+Paris, which had overthrown the Girondins, was jealous of the Committee
+of Public Safety, which meant to be supreme. Robespierre, the leading
+member of the committee, abhorred the chiefs of the Commune, not merely
+because they conflicted with his ambition but from difference of
+character. He was orderly and temperate, they were gross and debauched;
+he was a deist, they were atheists. In November the Commune fitted up
+Notre Dame as a temple of Reason, selected an opera girl to impersonate
+the goddess, and with profane ceremony installed her in the choir. All
+the churches in Paris were closed. Danton, when he felt power slipping
+from his hands, had retired from public business to his native town of
+Arcis-sur-Aube. When he became aware of the feud between Robespierre and
+the Commune, he conceived the hope of limiting the Terror and guiding
+the Revolution into a sane course. He returned to Paris and joined with
+Robespierre in carrying the law of 14 Frimaire (December 4), which gave
+the Committee of Public Safety absolute control over all municipal
+authorities. He became the advocate of mercy, and his friend Camille
+Desmoulins pleaded for the same cause in the _Vieux Cordelier_. Then the
+oppressed nation took courage and began to demand pardon for the
+innocent and even justice upon murderers. A sharp contest ensued between
+the Dantonists and the Commune, Robespierre inclining now to this side,
+now to that, for he was really a friend to neither. His friend St Just,
+a younger and fiercer man, resolved to destroy both. Hebert and his
+followers in despair planned a new insurrection, but they were deserted
+by Hanriot, their military chief. Their doom was thus fixed. Twenty
+leaders of the Commune were arrested on the 17th of March 1794 and
+guillotined a week later. It was then Danton's turn. He had several
+warnings, but either through over-confidence or weariness of life he
+scorned to fly. On the 30th he was arrested along with his friends
+Desmoulins, Delacroix, Philippeaux and Westermann. St Just read to the
+Convention a report on their case pre-eminent even in that day for its
+shameless disregard of truth, nay, of plausibility. Before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal Danton defended himself with such energy that St
+Just took means to have him silenced. Danton and his friends were
+executed on the 5th of April.
+
+
+  Supremacy of Robespierre.
+
+For a moment the conflict of parties seemed at an end. None could
+presume to challenge the authority of the Committee of Public Safety,
+and in the committee none disputed the leadership of Robespierre.
+Robespierre was at last free to establish the republic of virtue. On the
+7th of May he persuaded the Convention to decree that the French people
+acknowledged the existence of a Supreme Being and the immortality of the
+soul. On the 4th of June he was elected president of the Convention, and
+from that time forward he appeared to be dictator of France. On the 8th
+the festival of the Supreme Being was solemnized, Robespierre acting as
+pontiff amid the outward deference and secret jeers of his colleagues.
+But Robespierre knew what a gulf parted him from almost all his
+countrymen. He knew that he could be safe only by keeping power and
+powerful only by making the Terror more stringent. Two days after the
+festival his friend Couthon presented the crowning law of the Terror,
+known as the Law of 22 Prairial. As the Revolutionary Tribunal was said
+to be paralysed by forms and delays, this law abolished the defence of
+prisoners by counsel and the examination of witnesses. Thenceforward the
+impressions of judges and jurors were to decide the fate of the accused.
+For all offences the penalty was to be death. The leave of the
+Convention was no longer required for the arrest of a member. In spite
+of some murmurs even this law was adopted. Its effect was fearful. The
+Revolutionary Tribunal had hitherto pronounced 1200 death sentences. In
+the next six weeks it pronounced 1400. With Robespierre's approval St
+Just sketched at this time the plan of an ideal society in which every
+man should have just enough land to maintain him; in which domestic life
+should be regulated by law and all children over seven years should be
+educated by the state. Pending this regeneration of society St Just
+advised the rule of a dictator.
+
+
+  The Revolutionary War. Republican successes.
+
+The growing ferocity of the Terror appeared more hideous as the dangers
+threatening the government receded. The surrender of Toulon in December
+1793 closed the south of France to foreign enemies. The war in La Vendee
+turned against the insurgents from the time when the veteran garrison of
+Mainz came to reinforce the Republican army. After a severe defeat at
+Cholet on the 16th of October the Royalists determined to cross the
+Loire and raise Brittany and Anjou, where the Chouans, or Royalist
+partisans, were already stirring. They failed in an attempt on the
+little seaport of Granville and in another upon Angers. In December they
+were defeated with immense loss at Le Mans and at Savenay. The rebellion
+would probably have died out but for the measures of the new Republican
+general Turreau, who wasted La Vendee so horribly with his "infernal
+columns" that he drove the peasants to take up arms once more. Yet
+Turreau's crimes were almost surpassed by Carrier, the representative on
+mission at Nantes, who, finding the guillotine too slow in the
+destruction of his prisoners, adopted the plan of drowning them
+wholesale. In the autumn of 1793 the war against the coalition took a
+turn favourable to France. The energy of Danton, the organizing skill of
+Carnot, and the high spirit of the French nation, resolute at all costs
+to avoid dismemberment, had well employed the respite given by the
+sluggishness of the Allies. In Flanders the English were defeated at
+Hondschoote (September 8) and the Austrians at Wattignies (October 15).
+In the east Hoche routed the Austrians at Weissenburg and forced them to
+recross the Rhine before the end of 1793. The summer of 1794 saw France
+victorious on all her frontiers. Jourdan won the battle of Fleurus
+(June 25), which decided the fate of the Belgian provinces. The
+Prussians were driven out of the eastern departments. Against the
+Spaniards and the Sardinians the French were also successful.
+
+
+  Fall of Robespierre. The 9th Thermidor.
+
+Under these circumstances government by terror could not endure.
+Robespierre was not a man of action; he knew not how to form or lead a
+party; he lived not with his fellows but with his own thoughts and
+ambitions. He was hated and feared by most of the oligarchy. They
+laughed at his religion, resented his puritanism, and felt themselves in
+daily peril. His only loyal friends in the Committee of Public Safety,
+Couthon and St Just, were themselves unpopular. Robespierre professed
+consideration for the deputies of the Plain, who were glad to buy safety
+by conforming to his will; but he could not reckon on their help in time
+of danger. By degrees a coalition against Robespierre was formed in the
+Mountain. It included old followers of Danton like Taillen, independent
+Jacobins like Cambon, some of the worst Terrorists like Fouche, and such
+a consummate time-server as Barere. In the course of July its influence
+began to be felt. When St Just proposed Robespierre to the committees as
+dictator, he found no response. On the 8th Thermidor (26th of July)
+Robespierre addressed the Convention, deploring the invectives against
+himself and the Revolutionary Tribunal and demanding the purification of
+the committees and the punishment of traitors. His enemies took the
+speech as a declaration of war and thwarted a proposal that it should be
+circulated in the departments. Robespierre felt his ascendancy totter.
+He repeated his speech with more success to the Jacobin Club. His
+friends determined to strike, and Hanriot ordered the National Guards to
+hold themselves in readiness. Robespierre's enemies called on the
+Committee of Public Safety to arrest the traitors, but the committee was
+divided. On the morning of the 9th Thermidor St Just was beginning to
+speak in the Convention when Tallien cut him short. Robespierre and all
+who tried to speak in his behalf were shouted down. The Plain was deaf
+to Robespierre's appeal. Finally the Convention decreed the arrest of
+Robespierre, of his brother Augustin, of Couthon and of St Just. But the
+Commune and the Jacobin Club were on the alert. They sounded the tocsin,
+mustered their partisans, and released the prisoners. The Convention
+outlawed Robespierre and his friends and sent out commissioners to rally
+the citizens. It named Barras, a deputy who had served in the royal
+army, to lead its forces. Had Robespierre possessed Danton's energy, the
+result might have been doubtful. He did nothing himself and benumbed his
+followers. Without an effort Barras captured the Hotel de Ville.
+Robespierre, whose jaw had been shattered by a pistol shot, was left in
+agony for the night. On the next morning he was beheaded along with his
+brother, Couthon, St Just, Hanriot and seventeen more of his adherents.
+On the day after seventy-one members of the Commune followed them to the
+scaffold. Such was the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (27th of July
+1794) which ended the Reign of Terror.
+
+In a period of fifteen months, it has been calculated, about 17,000
+persons had been executed in France under form of law. The number of
+those who were shot, drowned or otherwise massacred without the pretence
+of a trial can never be accurately known, but must be reckoned far
+greater. The number of persons arrested and imprisoned reached hundreds
+of thousands, of whom many died in their crowded and filthy jails. The
+names on the list of _emigres_ at the close of the Terror were about
+150,000. Of these a small proportion had borne arms against their
+country. The rest were either harmless fugitives from destruction or had
+never quitted France and had been placed on the list simply in order
+that they might incur the penalties of emigration. Every one of this
+multitude was liable to instant death if found in French territory.
+Their relatives were subjected to various pains and penalties. All the
+property of those condemned to death and of _emigres_ was confiscated.
+The carnage of the Terror spread far beyond the clergy and the nobility,
+beyond even the middle class, for peasants and artisans were among the
+victims. It spread far beyond those who could conspire or rebel, for
+bedridden old men and women and young boys and girls were often
+sacrificed. It made most havoc in the flower of the nation, since every
+kind of eminence marked men for death. By imbuing Frenchmen with such a
+mutual hatred as nothing but the arm of despotic power could control the
+Reign of Terror rendered political liberty impossible for many years.
+The rule of the Terrorists made inevitable the reign of Napoleon.
+
+
+  Reaction after the Terror.
+
+The fall of Robespierre had consequences unforeseen by his destroyers.
+Long kept mute by fear, the mass of the nation found a voice and
+demanded a total change of government. When once the reaction against
+Jacobin tyranny had begun, it was impossible to halt. Great numbers of
+prisoners were set at liberty. The Commune of Paris was abolished and
+the office of commandant of the National Guard was suppressed. The
+Revolutionary Tribunal was reorganized, and thenceforwards condemnations
+were rare. The Committees of Public Safety and General Security were
+remodelled, in virtue of a law that one-fourth of their number should
+retire at the end of every month and not be re-eligible until another
+month had elapsed. Somewhat later the Convention declared itself to be
+the only centre of authority, and executive business was parcelled out
+among sixteen committees. Most of the representatives on mission were
+recalled, and many office-holders were displaced. The trial of 130
+prisoners sent up from Nantes led to so many terrible disclosures that
+public feeling turned still more fiercely against the Jacobins; Carrier
+himself was condemned and executed; and in November the Jacobin Club was
+closed. In December 73 members of the Convention who had been imprisoned
+for protesting against the violence done to the Girondins on the 2nd of
+June 1793 were allowed to resume their seats, and gave a decisive
+majority to the anti-Jacobins. Soon afterwards the law of the Maximum
+was repealed. A decree was passed in February 1795 severing the
+connexion of church and state and allowing general freedom of worship.
+At the beginning of March those Girondin deputies who survived came back
+to their places in the Convention.
+
+
+  Parties in the Assembly after Thermidor.
+
+But the return to normal life after the Jacobin domination was not
+destined to be smooth or continuous. Beside the remnant of Terrorists,
+such as Billaud Varennes and Collot d'Herbois, who had joined in the
+revolt against Robespierre, there were in the Convention at that time
+three principal factions. The so-called Independents, such as Barras and
+Merlin of Douai, who were all Jacobins, but had stood aloof from the
+internal conflicts of the party, hated Royalism as much as ever and
+desired the continuance of the war which was essential to their power.
+The Thermidorians, the immediate agents in Robespierre's overthrow, such
+as Tallien, had loudly professed Jacobinism, but wanted to make their
+peace with the nation. They sought for an understanding with the
+Girondins and Feuillants, and some went so far as to correspond with the
+exiled princes. Lastly, those members who had never been Jacobins wanted
+a speedy return to legal government at home and therefore wished for
+peace abroad. While bent on preserving the civil equality introduced by
+the Revolution, many of these men were indifferent as between
+constitutional monarchy and a republic. The government, mainly
+Thermidorian, trimmed between Moderates and Independents, and for this
+reason its actions were often inconsistent.
+
+
+  Progress of the reaction.
+
+The Jacobins were strong enough to carry a decree for keeping the
+anniversary of the execution of Louis XVI. as a national festival. They
+could count on the populace, because work was still scarce, food was
+still dear, and a multitude of Parisians knew not where to find bread. A
+committee having recommended the indictment of Collot d'Herbois and
+three other Terrorists, there ensued the rising of the 12th Germinal
+(April 1). The mob forced their way into the hall of the Convention and
+remained there until the National Guards of the wealthy quarters drove
+them out. By a decree of the Convention the four accused persons were
+deported to Cayenne, a new mode of dealing with political offenders
+almost as effective as the guillotine, while less apt to excite
+compassion. The National Guard was reorganized so as to exclude the
+lowest class. The property of persons executed since the 10th of March
+1793 was restored to their families. The signs of reaction daily became
+more unmistakable. Worshippers crowded to the churches; the _emigres_
+returned by thousands; and Anti-Jacobin outbreaks, followed by massacre,
+took place in the south. The despair of the Jacobins produced a second
+rising in Paris on the 1st Prairial (May 20). Again the mob invaded the
+Convention, murdered a deputy named Feraud who attempted to shield the
+president, and set his head on a pike. The ultra-Jacobin members took
+possession and embodied their wishes in decrees. Again the hall was
+cleared by the National Guards, but order was restored in Paris only by
+employing regular troops, a new precedent in the history of the
+Revolution. Paris was disarmed, and several leaders of the insurrection
+were sentenced to death. The Revolutionary Tribunal was suppressed.
+Toleration was proclaimed for all priests who would declare their
+obedience to the laws of the state. Royalists began to count upon the
+restoration of young Louis the Dauphin, otherwise Louis XVII.; but his
+health had been ruined by persevering cruelty, and he died on the 10th
+of June.
+
+
+  Progress of the war.
+
+The Thermidorian government also endeavoured to pacify the rebels of the
+west. Its best adviser, Hoche, recommended an amnesty and the assurance
+of religious freedom. On these terms peace was made with the Vendeans at
+La Jaunaie in February and with the Chouans at La Mabilais in April.
+Some of the Vendean leaders persevered in resistance until May, and even
+after their submission the peace was ill observed, for the Royalists
+hearkened to the solicitations of the princes and their advisers. In the
+hope of rekindling the civil war a body of _emigres_ sailed under cover
+of the British fleet and landed on the peninsula of Quiberon. They were
+presently hemmed in by Hoche, and all who could not make their escape to
+the ships were forced to surrender at discretion (July 20). Nearly 700
+were executed by court-martial. Yet the spirit of revolt lingered in the
+west and broke out time after time. Against the coalition the Republic
+was gloriously successful. (See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) In the
+summer of 1794 the French invaded Spain at both ends of the Pyrenees,
+and at the close of the year they made good their footing in Catalonia
+and Navarre. By the beginning of 1795 the Rhine frontier had been won.
+Against the king of Sardinia alone they accomplished little. At sea the
+French had sustained a severe defeat from Lord Howe, and several of
+their colonies had been taken by the British. But Great Britain, when
+the Netherlands were lost, could do little for her allies. Even before
+the close of 1794 the king of Prussia retired from any active part in
+the war, and on the 5th of April 1795 he concluded with France the
+treaty of Basel, which recognized her occupation of the left bank of the
+Rhine. The new democratic government which the French had established in
+Holland purchased peace by surrendering Dutch territory to the south of
+that river. A treaty of peace between France and Spain followed in July.
+The grand duke of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The
+coalition thus fell into ruin and France occupied a more commanding
+position than in the proudest days of Louis XIV.
+
+
+  Constitution of the year III. The Directory.
+
+But this greatness was unsure so long as France remained without a
+stable government. A constitutional committee was named in April. It
+resolved that the constitution of 1793 was impracticable and proceeded
+to frame a new one. The draft was submitted to the Convention in June.
+In its final shape the constitution established a parliamentary system
+of two houses: a Council of Five Hundred and a Council of Ancients, 250
+in number. Members of the Five Hundred were to be at least thirty years
+of age, members of the Ancients at least forty. The system of indirect
+election was maintained but universal suffrage was abandoned. A moderate
+qualification was required for electors in the first degree, a higher
+one for electors in the second degree.
+
+When the 750 persons necessary had been elected they were to choose the
+Ancients out of their own body. A legislature was to last for three
+years, and one-third of the members were to be renewed every year. The
+Ancients had a suspensory veto, but no initiative in legislation. The
+executive was to consist of five directors chosen by the Ancients out of
+a list elected by the Five Hundred. One director was to retire every
+year. The directors were aided by ministers for the various departments
+of State. These ministers did not form a council and had no general
+powers of government. Provision was made for the stringent control of
+all local authorities by the central government. Since the separation of
+powers was still deemed axiomatic, the directors had no voice in
+legislation or taxation, nor could directors or ministers sit in either
+house. Freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of labour
+were guaranteed. Armed assemblies and even public meetings of political
+societies were forbidden. Petitions were to be tendered only by
+individuals or through the public authorities. The constitution was not,
+however, allowed free play from the beginning. The Convention was so
+unpopular that, if its members had retired into private life, they would
+not have been safe and their work might have been undone. It was
+therefore decreed that two-thirds of the first legislature must be
+chosen out of the Convention.
+
+
+  Insurrection of 13 Vendemiaire.
+
+When the constitution was submitted to the primary assemblies, most
+electors held aloof, 1,050,000 voting for and only 5,000 voting against
+it. On the 23rd of September it was declared to be law. Then all the
+parties which resented the limit upon freedom of election combined to
+rise in Paris. The government entrusted its defence to Barras; but its
+true man of action was young General Bonaparte, who could dispose of a
+few thousand regular troops and a powerful artillery. The Parisians were
+ill-equipped and ill-led, and on the 13th of Vendemiaire (October 5)
+their insurrection was quelled almost without loss to the victors. No
+further resistance was possible. The Convention dissolved itself on the
+26th of October.
+
+
+  Balance of parties in the new legislature.
+
+The feeling of the nation was clearly shown in the elections. Among
+those who had sat in the Convention the anti-Jacobins were generally
+preferred. A leader of the old Right was sometimes chosen by many
+departments at once. Owing to this circumstance, 104 places reserved to
+members of the Convention were left unfilled. When the persons elected
+met they had no choice but to co-opt the 104 from the Left of the
+Convention. The new one-third were, as a rule, enemies of the Jacobins,
+but not of the Revolution. Many had been members of the Constituent or
+of the Legislative Assembly. When the new legislature was complete, the
+Jacobins had a majority, although a weak one. After the Council of the
+Ancients had been chosen by lot, it remained to name the directors. For
+its own security the Left resolved that all five must be old members of
+the Convention and regicides. The persons chosen were Rewbell, Barras,
+La Revelliere Lepeaux, Carnot and Letourneur. Rewbell was an able,
+although unscrupulous, man of action, Barras a dissolute and shameless
+adventurer, La Revelliere Lepeaux the chief of a new sect, the
+Theophilanthropists, and therefore a bitter foe to other religions,
+especially the Catholic. Severe integrity and memorable public services
+raised Carnot far above his colleagues, but he was not a statesman and
+was hampered by his past. Letourneur, a harmless insignificant person,
+was his admirer and follower. The division in the legislature was
+reproduced in the Directory. Rewbell, Barras and La Revelliere Lepeaux
+had a full measure of the Jacobin spirit; Carnot and Letourneur favoured
+a more temperate policy.
+
+
+  Character of the Directory.
+
+With the establishment of the Directory the Revolution might seem
+closed. The nation only desired rest and the healing of its many wounds.
+Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII. and the _ancien regime_ and
+those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in
+number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the
+failure of the coalition. Nevertheless the four years of the Directory
+were a time of arbitrary government and chronic disquiet. The late
+atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible.
+The same instinct of self-preservation which had led the members of the
+Convention to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole
+of the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance. As the
+majority of Frenchmen wanted to be rid of them, they could achieve their
+purpose only by extraordinary means. They habitually disregarded the
+terms of the constitution, and, when the elections went against them,
+appealed to the sword. They resolved to prolong the war as the best
+expedient for prolonging their power. They were thus driven to rely upon
+the armies, which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic
+in temper. Other reasons influenced them in this direction. The finances
+had been so thoroughly ruined that the government could not have met its
+expenses without the plunder and the tribute of foreign countries. If
+peace were made, the armies would return home and the directors would
+have to face the exasperation of the rank and file who had lost their
+livelihood, as well as the ambition of generals who could in a moment
+brush them aside. Barras and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt themselves
+and screened corruption in others. The patronage of the directors was
+ill bestowed, and the general maladministration heightened their
+unpopularity.
+
+
+  Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte.
+
+The constitutional party in the legislature desired a toleration of the
+nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives of the
+_emigres_, and some merciful discrimination toward the _emigres_
+themselves. The directors baffled all such endeavours. On the other
+hand, the socialist conspiracy of Babeuf was easily quelled (see BABEUF,
+FRANCOIS N.). Little was done to improve the finances, and the
+_assignats_ continued to fall in value. But the Directory was sustained
+by the military successes of the year 1796. Hoche again pacified La
+Vendee. Bonaparte's victories in Italy more than compensated for the
+reverses of Jourdan and Moreau in Germany. The king of Sardinia made
+peace in May, ceding Nice and Savoy to the Republic and consenting to
+receive French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses. By the treaty of
+San Ildefonso, concluded in August, Spain became the ally of France. In
+October Naples made peace. In 1797 Bonaparte finished the conquest of
+northern Italy and forced Austria to make the treaty of Campo Formio
+(October), whereby the emperor ceded Lombardy and the Austrian
+Netherlands to the Republic in exchange for Venice and undertook to urge
+upon the Diet the surrender of the lands beyond the Rhine.
+Notwithstanding the victory of Cape St Vincent, England was brought into
+such extreme peril by the mutinies in the fleet that she offered to
+acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands and to restore the
+French colonies. The selfishness of the three directors threw away this
+golden opportunity. In March and April the election of a new third of
+the Councils had been held. It gave a majority to the constitutional
+party. Among the directors the lot fell on Letourneur to retire, and he
+was succeeded by Barthelemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself
+with Carnot. The political disabilities imposed upon the relatives of
+_emigres_ were repealed. Priests who would declare their submission to
+the Republic were restored to their rights as citizens. It seemed likely
+that peace would be made and that moderate men would gain power.
+
+
+  Coup d'etat of the 18th Fructidor.
+
+Barras, Rewbell and La Revelliere-Lepeaux then sought help from the
+armies. Although Royalists formed but a petty fraction of the majority,
+they raised the alarm that it was seeking to restore monarchy and undo
+the work of the Revolution. Hoche, then in command of the army of the
+Sambre and Meuse, visited Paris and sent troops. Bonaparte sent General
+Augereau, who executed the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor
+(September 4). The councils were purged, the elections in forty-nine
+departments were cancelled, and many deputies and other men of note were
+arrested. Some of them, including Barthelemy, were deported to Cayenne.
+Carnot made good his escape. The two vacant places in the Directory were
+filled by Merlin of Douai and Francois of Neufchateau. Then the
+government frankly returned to Jacobin methods. The law against the
+relatives of _emigres_ was reenacted, and military tribunals were
+established to condemn _emigres_ who should return to France. The
+nonjuring priests were again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent
+to Cayenne or imprisoned in the hulks of Re and Oleron. La Revelliere
+Lepeaux seized the opportunity to propagate his religion. Many churches
+were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The government strained its
+power to secure the recognition of the _decadi_ as the day of public
+worship and the non-observance of Sunday. Liberty of the press ceased.
+Newspapers were confiscated and journalists were deported wholesale. It
+was proposed to banish from France all members of the old _noblesse_.
+Although the proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be
+foreigners and were forced to obtain naturalization if they would enjoy
+the rights of other citizens. A formal bankruptcy of the state, the
+cancelling of two-thirds of the interest on the public debt, crowned the
+misgovernment of this disastrous time.
+
+In the spring of 1798 not only a new third of the legislature had to be
+chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution of
+Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had been rendered
+helpless, and the mass of the electors were indifferent. But among the
+Jacobins themselves there had arisen an extreme party hostile to the
+directors. With the support of many who were not Jacobins but detested
+the government, it bade fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies
+could take their seats the directors forced through the councils the law
+of the 22nd Floreal (May 11), annulling or perverting the elections in
+thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies by name. Even this
+_coup d'etat_ did not secure harmony between the executive and the
+legislature. In the councils the directors were loudly charged with
+corruption and misgovernment. The retirement of Francois of Neufchateau
+and the choice of Treilhard as his successor made no difference in the
+position of the Directory.
+
+While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were doubly bound
+to husband the national strength and practise moderation towards other
+states. Since December 1797 a congress had been sitting at Rastadt to
+regulate the future of Germany. That it should be brought to a
+successful conclusion was of the utmost import for France. But the
+directors were driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad.
+Bonaparte was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors
+were anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris; they therefore
+sanctioned the expedition to Egypt which deprived the Republic of its
+best army and most renowned captain. Coveting the treasures of Bern,
+they sent Brune to invade Switzerland and remodel its constitution; in
+revenge for the murder of General Duphot, they sent Berthier to invade
+the papal states and erect the Roman Republic; they occupied and
+virtually annexed Piedmont. In all these countries they organized such
+an effective pillage that the French became universally hateful. As the
+armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded
+conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of conscription was passed
+in the summer of 1798. The attempt to enforce it caused a revolt of the
+peasants in the Belgian departments. The priests were made responsible
+and some eight thousand were condemned in a mass to deportation,
+although much the greater part escaped by the goodwill of the people.
+Few soldiers were obtained by the conscription, for the government was
+as weak as it was tyrannical.
+
+
+  The second coalition.
+
+Under these circumstances Nelson's victory of Aboukir (1st of August),
+which gave the British full command of the Mediterranean and secluded
+Bonaparte in Egypt, was the signal for a second coalition. Naples,
+Austria, Russia and Turkey joined Great Britain against France.
+Ferdinand of Naples, rashly taking the offensive before his allies were
+ready, was defeated and forced to seek a refuge in Sicily. In January
+1799 the French occupied Naples and set up the Parthenopean republic.
+But the consequent dispersion of their weak forces only exposed them to
+greater peril. At home the Directory was in a most critical position. In
+the elections of April 1799 a large number of Jacobins gained seats. A
+little later Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his place with a
+man of ability and influence. The choice fell upon Sieyes, who had kept
+aloof from office and retained not only his immeasurable self-conceit
+but the respect of the public. Sieyes felt that the Directory was
+bankrupt of reputation, and he intended to be far more than a mere
+member of a board. He hoped to concentrate power in his own hands, to
+bridle the Jacobins, and to remodel the constitution. With the help of
+Barras he proceeded to rid himself of the other directors. An
+irregularity having been discovered in Treilhard's election, he retired,
+and his place was taken by Gohier. Merlin of Douai and La Revelliere
+Lepeaux were driven to resign in June. They were succeeded by Moulin and
+Ducos. The three new directors were so insignificant that they could
+give no trouble, but for the same reason they were of little service.
+
+
+  French reverses. The Directory discredited.
+
+Such a government was ill fitted to cope with the dangers then gathering
+round France. The directors having resolved on the offensive in Germany,
+the French crossed the Rhine early in March, but were defeated by the
+archduke Charles at Stockach on the 25th. The congress at Rastadt, which
+had sat for fifteen months without doing anything, broke up in April and
+the French envoys were murdered by Austrian hussars. In Italy the allies
+took the offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly Russian under
+the command of Suvarov. After defeating Moreau at Cassano on the 27th of
+April, he occupied Milan and Turin. The republics established by the
+French in Italy were overthrown, and the French army retreating from
+Naples was defeated by Suvarov on the Trebbia. Thus threatened with
+invasion on her German and Italian frontiers, France was disabled by
+anarchy within. The finances were in the last distress; the
+anti-religious policy of the government kept many departments on the
+verge of revolt; and commerce was almost suspended by the decay of roads
+and the increase of bandits. There was no real political freedom, yet
+none of the ease or security which enlightened despotism can bestow. The
+Terrorists lifted their heads in the Council of Five Hundred. A Law of
+Hostages, which was really a new Law of Suspects, and a progressive
+income tax showed the temper of the majority. The Jacobin Club was
+reopened and became once more the focus of disorder. The Jacobin press
+renewed the licence of Hebert and Marat. Never since the outbreak of the
+Revolution had the public temper been so gloomy and desponding.
+
+In this extremity Sieyes chose as minister of police the old Terrorist
+Fouche, who best understood how to deal with his brethren. Fouche closed
+the Jacobin Club and deported a number of journalists. But like his
+predecessors Sieyes felt that for the revolution which he meditated he
+must have the help of a soldier. As his man of action he chose General
+Joubert, one of the most distinguished among French officers. Joubert
+was sent to restore the fortune of the war in Italy. At Novi on the 15th
+of August he encountered Suvarov. He was killed at the outset of the
+battle and his men were defeated. After this disaster the French held
+scarcely anything south of the Alps save Genoa. The Russian and Austrian
+governments then agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to
+invade France from the east. At the same time Holland was assailed by
+the joint forces of Great Britain and Russia. But the second coalition,
+like the first, was doomed to failure by the narrow views and
+conflicting interests of its members. The invasion of Switzerland was
+baffled by want of concert between Austrians and Russians and by
+Massena's victory at Zurich on the 25th and 26th of September. In
+October the British and the Russians were forced to evacuate Holland.
+All immediate danger to France was ended, but the issue of the war was
+still in suspense. The directors had been forced to recall Bonaparte
+from Egypt. He anticipated their order and on the 9th of October landed
+at Frejus.
+
+
+  Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire.
+
+Dazzled by his victories in the East the public forgot that the Egyptian
+expedition was ending in calamity. It received him with an ardour which
+convinced Sieyes that he was the indispensable soldier. Bonaparte was
+ready to act, but at his own time and for his own ends. Since the close
+of the Convention affairs at home and abroad had been tending more and
+more surely to the establishment of a military dictatorship. Feeling his
+powers equal to such an office he only hesitated about the means of
+attainment. At first he thought of becoming a director; finally he
+decided upon a partnership with Sieyes. They resolved to end the actual
+government by a fresh _coup d'etat_. Means were to be taken for removing
+the councils from Paris to St Cloud, where pressure could more easily be
+applied. Then the councils would be induced to decree a provisional
+government by three consuls and the appointment of a commission to
+revise the constitution. The pretext for this irregular proceeding was
+to be a vast Jacobin conspiracy. Perhaps the gravest obstacles were to
+be expected from the army. Of the generals, some, like Jourdan, were
+honest republicans; others, like Bernadotte, believed themselves capable
+of governing France. With perfect subtlety Bonaparte worked on the
+feelings of all and kept his own intentions secret.
+
+On the morning of the 18th Brumaire (November 9) the Ancients, to whom
+that power belonged, decreed the transference of the councils to St
+Cloud. Of the directors, Sieyes and his friend Ducos had arranged to
+resign; Barras was cajoled and bribed into resigning; Gohier and
+Moulins, who were intractable, found themselves imprisoned in the
+Luxemburg palace and helpless. So far all had gone well. But when the
+councils met at St Cloud on the following day, the majority of the Five
+Hundred showed themselves bent on resistance, and even the Ancients gave
+signs of wavering. When Bonaparte addressed the Ancients, he lost his
+self-possession and made a deplorable figure. When he appeared among the
+Five Hundred, they fell upon him with such fury that he was hardly
+rescued by his officers. A motion to outlaw him was only baffled by the
+audacity of the president, his brother Lucien. At length driven to
+undisguised violence, he sent in his grenadiers, who turned out the
+deputies. Then the Ancients passed a decree which adjourned the Councils
+for three months, appointed Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos provisional
+consuls, and named the Legislative Commission. Some tractable members of
+the Five Hundred were afterwards swept up and served to give these
+measures the confirmation of their House. Thus the Directory and the
+Councils came to their unlamented end. A shabby compound of brute force
+and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay
+applauded, by the French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more
+than to be wisely and firmly governed.
+
+
+  General estimate of the Revolution.
+
+Although the French Revolution seemed to contemporaries a total break in
+the history of France, it was really far otherwise. Its results were
+momentous and durable in proportion as they were the outcome of causes
+which had been working long. In France there had been no historic
+preparation for political freedom. The desire for such freedom was in
+the main confined to the upper classes. During the Revolution it was
+constantly baffled. No Assembly after the states-general was freely
+elected and none deliberated in freedom. After the Revolution Bonaparte
+established a monarchy even more absolute than the monarchy of Louis
+XIV. But the desire for uniformity, for equality and for what may be
+termed civil liberty was the growth of ages, had been in many respects
+nurtured by the action of the crown and its ministers, and had become
+intense and general. Accordingly it determined the principal results of
+the Revolution. Uniformity of laws and institutions was enforced
+throughout France. The legal privileges formerly distinguishing
+different classes were suppressed. An obsolete and burthensome agrarian
+system was abolished. A number of large estates belonging to the crown,
+the clergy and the nobles were broken up and sold at nominal prices to
+men of the middle or lower class. The new jurisprudence encouraged the
+multiplication of small properties. The new fiscal system taxed men
+according to their means and raised no obstacle to commerce within the
+national boundaries. Every calling and profession was made free to all
+French citizens, and in the public service the principle of an open
+career for talent was adopted. Religious disabilities vanished, and
+there was well-nigh complete liberty of thought. It was because Napoleon
+gave a practical form to these achievements of the Revolution and
+ensured the public order necessary to their continuance that the
+majority of Frenchmen endured so long the fearful sacrifices which his
+policy exacted.
+
+That a revolution largely inspired by generous and humane feeling should
+have issued in such havoc and such crimes is a paradox which astounded
+spectators and still perplexes the historian. Something in the cruelty
+of the French Revolution may be ascribed to national character. From the
+time when Burgundians and Armagnacs strove for dominion down to the last
+insurrection of Paris, civil discord in France has always been cruel.
+More, however, was due to the total dissolution of society which
+followed the meeting of the states-general. In the course of the
+Revolution we can discover no well-organized party, no governing mind.
+Mirabeau had the stuff of a great statesman, and Danton was capable of
+statesmanship. But these men were not followed or obeyed save by
+accident or for a moment. Those who seemed to govern were usually the
+sport of chance, often the victims of their colleagues. Neither
+Royalists nor Feuillants nor Girondins had the instinct of government.
+In the chaotic state of France all ferocious and destructive passions
+found ample scope. The same conditions explain the triumph of the
+Jacobins. Devoid of wisdom and virtue in the highest sense, they at
+least understood how power might be seized and kept. The Reign of Terror
+was the expedient of a party which knew its weakness and unpopularity.
+It was not necessary either to secure the lasting benefits of the
+Revolution or to save France from dismemberment; for nine Frenchmen out
+of ten were agreed on both of these points and were ready to lay down
+their lives for the national cause.
+
+In the history of the French Revolution the influence which it exerted
+upon the surrounding countries demands peculiar attention. The French
+professed to act upon principles of universal authority, and from an
+early date they began to seek converts outside their own limits. The
+effect was slight upon England, which had already secured most of the
+reforms desired by the French, and upon Spain, where the bulk of the
+people were entirely submissive to church and king. But in the
+Netherlands, in western Germany and in northern Italy, countries which
+had attained a degree of civilization resembling that of France, where
+the middle and lower classes had grievances and aspirations not very
+different from those of the French, the effect was profound. Fear of
+revolution at home was one of the motives which led continental
+sovereigns to attack revolution in France. Their incoherent efforts only
+confirmed the Jacobin supremacy. Wherever the victorious French extended
+their dominion, they remodelled institutions in the French manner. Their
+sway proved so oppressive that the very classes which had welcomed them
+with most fervour soon came to long for their expulsion. But
+revolutionary ideas kept their charm. Under Napoleon the essential part
+of the changes made by the Republic was preserved in these countries
+also. Moreover the effacement of old boundaries, the overthrow of
+ancestral governments, and the invocation, however hollow, of the
+sovereignty of the people, awoke national feeling which had slumbered
+long and prepared the struggle for national union and independence in
+the 19th century.
+
+  See also FRANCE, sections _History_ and _Law and Institutions_. For
+  the leading figures in the Revolution see their biographies under
+  separate headings. Particular phases, facts, and institutions of the
+  period are also separately dealt with, e.g. ASSIGNATS, CONVENTION, THE
+  NATIONAL, JACOBINS.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The MS. authorities for the history of the French
+  Revolution are exceedingly copious. The largest collection is in the
+  Archives Nationales in Paris, but an immense number of documents are
+  to be found in other collections in Paris and the provinces. The
+  printed materials are so abundant and varied that any brief notice of
+  them must be imperfect.
+
+  The condition of France and the state of public opinion at the
+  beginning of the Revolution may be studied in the printed collections
+  of _Cahiers_. The _Cahiers_ were the statements of grievances drawn up
+  for the guidance of deputies to the States-General by those who had
+  elected them. In every _bailliage_ and _senechaussee_ each estate drew
+  up its own cahier and the cahiers of the Third Estate were condensed
+  from separate cahiers drawn up by each parish in the district. Thus
+  the cahiers of the Third Estate number many thousands, the greater
+  part of which have not yet been printed. Among the collections printed
+  we may mention _Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789_, by C.
+  L. Chassin (4 vols., Paris, 1888); _Cahiers de plaintes et doleances
+  des paroisses de la province de Maine_, by A. Bellee and V. Duchemin
+  (4 vols., Le Mans, 1881-1893); _Cahiers de doleances de 1789 dans le
+  departement du Pas-de-Calais_, by H. Loriquet (2 vols., Arras, 1891);
+  _Cahiers des paroisses et communautes du bailliage d'Autun_, by A.
+  Charmasse (Autun, 1895). New collections are printed from time to
+  time. A more general collection of cahiers than any above named is
+  given in vols. i.-vi. of the _Archives parlementaires_. The cahiers
+  must not be read in a spirit of absolute faith, as they were
+  influenced by certain models circulated at the time of the elections
+  and by popular excitement, but they remain an authority of the utmost
+  value and a mine of information as to old France. Reference should
+  also be made to the works of travellers who visited France at the
+  outbreak of the Revolution. Among these Arthur Young's _Travels in
+  France during the years 1787, 1788 and 1789_ (2 vols., Bury St
+  Edmunds, 1792-1794) are peculiarly instructive.
+
+  For the history of the Assemblies during the Revolution a main
+  authority is their _Proces verbaux_ or Journals; those of the
+  Constituent Assembly in 75 vols., those of the Legislative Assembly in
+  16 vols.; those of the Convention in 74 vols., and those of the
+  Councils under the Directory in 99 vols. See also the _Archives
+  parlementaires_ edited by J. Mavidal and E. Laurent (Paris, 1867, and
+  the following years); the _Histoire parlementaire de la Revolution_,
+  by P. J. B. Buchez and P. C. Roux (Paris, 1838), and the _Histoire de
+  la Revolution par deux amis de la liberte_ (Paris, 1792-1803).
+
+  The newspapers, of which a few have been mentioned in the text, were
+  numerous. They are useful chiefly as illustrating the ideas and
+  passions of the time, for they give comparatively little information
+  as to facts and that little is peculiarly inaccurate. The ablest of
+  the Royalist journals was Mallet du Pan's _Mercure de France_.
+  Pamphlets of the Revolution period number many thousands. Such
+  pamphlets as Mounier's _Nouvelles Observations sur les Etats-Generaux
+  de France_ and Sieyes's _Qu'est-ce que le Tiers Etat_ had a notable
+  influence on opinion. The richest collections of Revolution pamphlets
+  are in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris and in the British Museum.
+
+  The contemporary memoirs, &c., already published are numerous and
+  fresh ones are always coming forth. A few of the best known and most
+  useful are, for the Constituent Assembly, the memoirs of Bailly, of
+  Ferrieres, of Malouet. The _Correspondence of Mirabeau with the Count
+  de la Marck_, edited by Bacourt (3 vols., Paris, 1851), is especially
+  valuable. Dumont's _Recollections of Mirabeau_ and the _Diary and
+  Letters of Gouverneur Morris_ give the impressions of foreigners with
+  peculiar advantages for observing. For the Legislative Assembly and
+  the Convention the memoirs of Madame Roland, of Bertrand de
+  Molleville, of Barbaroux, of Buzot, of Louvet, of Dumouriez are
+  instructive. For the Directory the memoirs of Barras, of La Revelliere
+  Lepeaux and of Thibaudeau deserve mention. The memoirs of Lafayette
+  are useful. Those of Talleyrand are singularly barren, the result, no
+  doubt, of deliberate suppression. The memoirs of the marquise de La
+  Rochejacquelein are important for the war of La Vendee. The most
+  notable Jacobins have seldom left memoirs, but the works of
+  Robespierre and St Just enable us to form a clearer conception of the
+  authors. The correspondence of the count of Mercy-Argenteau, the
+  imperial ambassador, with Joseph II. and Kaunitz, and the
+  correspondence of Mallet du Pan with the court of Vienna, are also
+  instructive. But the contemporary literature of the French Revolution
+  requires to be read in an unusually critical spirit. At no other
+  historical crisis have passions been more fiercely excited; at none
+  have shameless disregard of truth and blind credulity been more
+  common.
+
+  Among later works based on these original materials the first place
+  belongs to general histories. In French Louis Blanc's _Histoire de la
+  Revolution_ (12 vols., Paris, 1847-1862), and Michelet's _Histoire de
+  la Revolution Francaise_ (9 vols., Paris, 1847-1853), are the most
+  elaborate of the older works. Michelet's book is marked by great
+  eloquence and power. In H. Taine's _Origines de la France
+  contemporaine_ (Paris, 1876-1894) three volumes are devoted to the
+  Revolution. They show exceptional talent and industry, but their value
+  is impaired by the spirit of system and by strong prepossessions. F.
+  A. M. Mignet's _Histoire de la Revolution Francaise_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1861), short and devoid of literary charm, has the merits of learning
+  and judgment and is still useful. F. A. Aulard's _Histoire politique
+  de la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris, 1901) is a most valuable precis of
+  political history, based on deep knowledge and lucidly set forth,
+  although not free from bias. The volume on the Revolution in Lavisse
+  and Rambaud's _Histoire generale de l'Europe_ (Paris, 1896) is the
+  work of distinguished scholars using the latest information. In
+  English, general histories of the Revolution are few. Carlyle's famous
+  work, published in 1837, is more of a prose epic than a history,
+  omitting all detail which would not heighten the imaginative effect
+  and tinged by all the favourite ideas of the author. Some fifty years
+  later H. M. Stephens published the first (1886) and second (1892)
+  volumes of a _History of the French Revolution_. They are marked by
+  solid learning and contain much information. Volume viii. of the
+  _Cambridge Modern History_, published in 1904, contains a general
+  survey of the Revolution.
+
+  The most notable German work is H. von Sybel's _Geschichte der
+  Revolutionszeit_ (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1853-1879). It is strongest in
+  those carts which relate to international affairs and foreign policy.
+  There is an English translation.
+
+  None of the general histories of the Revolution above named is really
+  satisfactory. The immense mass of material has not yet been thoroughly
+  sifted; and the passions of that age still disturb the judgment of the
+  historian. More successful have been the attempts to treat particular
+  aspects of the Revolution.
+
+  The foreign relations of France during the Revolution have been most
+  ably unravelled by A. Sorel in _L'Europe et la Revolution Francaise_
+  (8 vols., Paris, 1885-1904) carrying the story down to the settlement
+  of Vienna. Five volumes cover the years 1789-1799.
+
+  The financial history of the Revolution has been traced by C. Gomel,
+  _Histoire financiere de l'Assemblee Constituante_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1897), and R. Stourm, _Les Finances de l'Ancien Regime et de la
+  Revolution_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885).
+
+  The relations of Church and State are sketched in E. Pressense's
+  _L'Eglise et la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris, 1889).
+
+  The general legislation of the period has been discussed by Ph.
+  Sagnac, _La Legislation civile de la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris,
+  1898). The best work upon the social life of the period is the
+  _Histoire de la societe francaise sous la Revolution_, by E. and J. de
+  Goncourt (Paris, 1889). For military history see A. Duruy, _L'Armee
+  royale en 1789_ (Paris, 1888); E. de Hauterive, _L'Armee sous la
+  Revolution, 1789-1794_ (Paris, 1894); A. Chuquet, _Les Guerres de la
+  Revolution_ (Paris, 1886, &c.). See also the memoirs and biographies
+  of the distinguished soldiers of the Republic and Empire, too numerous
+  for citation here.
+
+  Modern lives of the principal actors in the Revolution are numerous.
+  Among the most important are _Memoires de Mirabeau_, by L. de Montigny
+  (Paris, 1834); _Les Mirabeau_, by L. de Lomenie (Paris, 1889-1891); H.
+  L. de Lanzac de Laborie's _Jean Joseph Mounier_ (Paris, 1889); B.
+  Mallet's _Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution_ (London, 1902);
+  Robinet's _Danton_ (Paris, 1889); Hamel's _Histoire de Robespierre_
+  (Paris, 1865-1867) and _Histoire de St-Just_ (2 vols., Brussels,
+  1860); A. Bigeon, _Sieyes_ (Paris, 1893); _Memoirs of Carnot_, by his
+  son (2 vols., Paris, 1861-1864).
+
+  For fuller information see M. Tourneux, _Les Sources bibliographiques
+  de l'histoire de la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris, 1898, etc.), and
+  _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Revolution_ (Paris,
+  1890, etc.).     (F. C. M.)
+
+
+_French Republican Calendar._--Among the changes made during the
+Revolution was the substitution of a new calendar, usually called the
+revolutionary or republican calendar, for the prevailing Gregorian
+system. Something of the sort had been suggested in 1785 by a certain
+Riboud, and a definite scheme had been promulgated by Pierre Sylvain
+Marechal (1750-1803) in his _Almanach des honnetes gens_ (1788). The
+objects which the advocates of a new calendar had in view were to strike
+a blow at the clergy and to divorce all calculations of time from the
+Christian associations with which they were loaded, in short, to abolish
+the Christian year; and enthusiasts were already speaking of "the first
+year of liberty" and "the first year of the republic" when the national
+convention took up the matter in 1793. The business of drawing up the
+new calendar was entrusted to the president of the committee of public
+instruction, Charles Gilbert Romme (1750-1795), who was aided in the
+work by the mathematicians Gaspard Monge and Joseph Louis Lagrange, the
+poet Fabre d'Eglantine and others. The result of their labours was
+submitted to the convention in September; it was accepted, and the new
+calendar became law on the 5th of October 1793. The new arrangement was
+regarded as beginning on the 22nd of September 1792, this day being
+chosen because on it the republic was proclaimed and because it was in
+this year the day of the autumnal equinox.
+
+By the new calendar the year of 365 days was divided into twelve months
+of thirty days each, every month being divided into three periods of ten
+days, each of which were called _decades_, and the tenth, or last, day
+of each decade being a day of rest. It was also proposed to divide the
+day on the decimal system, but this arrangement was found to be highly
+inconvenient and it was never put into practice. Five days of the 365
+still remained to be dealt with, and these were set aside for national
+festivals and holidays and were called _Sans-culottides_. They were to
+fall at the end of the year, i.e. on the five days between the 17th and
+the 21st of September inclusive, and were called the festivals of
+virtue, of genius, of labour, of opinion and of rewards. A similar
+course was adopted with regard to the extra day which occurred once in
+every four years, but the first of these was to fall in the year III.,
+i.e. in 1795, and not in 1796, the leap year in the Gregorian calendar.
+This day was set apart for the festival of the Revolution and was to be
+the last of the _Sans-culottides_. Each period of four years was to be
+called a _Franciade_.
+
+  +----------------------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  |               AN II.             |     AN III.    |     AN IV.    |     AN V.    |     AN VI.    |     AN VII.    |     AN VIII.    |     AN IX.    |
+  |             1793-1794            |   1794-1795.   |   1795-1796.  |  1796-1797.  |   1797-1798.  |   1798-1799.   |    1799-1800.   |   1800-1801.  |
+  +-----------------+----------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  | 1 Vendemiaire   | 22 Sept. 1793  | 22 Sept. 1794  | 23 Sept. 1795 | 22 Sept. 1796| 22 Sept. 1797 |  22 Sept. 1798 |  23 Sept. 1799  | 23 Sept. 1800 |
+  | 1 Brumaire      | 22 Oct.   "    | 22 Oct.    "   | 23 Oct.    "  | 22 Oct.    " | 22 Oct.    "  |  22 Oct.    "  |  23 Oct.    "   | 23 Oct.   "   |
+  | 1 Frimaire      | 21 Nov.   "    | 21 Nov.    "   | 22 Nov.    "  | 21 Nov.    " | 21 Nov.    "  |  21 Nov.    "  |  22 Nov.    "   | 22 Nov.   "   |
+  | 1 Nivose        | 21 Dec.   "    | 21 Dec.    "   | 22 Dec.    "  | 21 Dec.    " | 21 Dec.    "  |  21 Dec.    "  |  22 Dec.    "   | 22 Dec.   "   |
+  | 1 Pluviose      | 20 Janv. 1794  | 20 Janv. 1795  | 21 Janv. 1796 | 20 Janv. 1797| 20 Janv. 1798 |  20 Janv. 1799 |  21 Janv. 1800  | 21 Janv. 1801 |
+  | 1 Ventose       | 19 Fevr.  "    | 19 Fevr.   "   | 20 Fevr.   "  | 19 Fevr.   " | 19 Fev.    "  |  19 Fev.    "  |  20 Fev.    "   | 20 Fev.   "   |
+  | 1 Germinal      | 21 Mars   "    | 21 Mars    "   | 21 Mars    "  | 21 Mars    " |  1 Mars    "  |  21 Mars    "  |  22 Mars    "   | 22 Mars   "   |
+  | 1 Floreal       | 20 Avr.   "    | 20 Avr.    "   | 20 Avr.    "  | 20 Avr.    " | 20 Avr.    "  |  20 Avr.    "  |  21 Avr.    "   | 21 Avr.   "   |
+  | 1 Prairial      | 20 Mai    "    | 20 Mai     "   | 20 Mai     "  | 20 Mai     " | 20 Mai     "  |  20 Mai     "  |  21 Mai     "   | 21 Mai    "   |
+  | 1 Messidor      | 19 Juin   "    | 19 Juin    "   | 19 Juin    "  | 19 Juin    " | 19 Juin    "  |  19 Juin    "  |  20 Juin    "   | 20 Juin   "   |
+  | 1 Thermidor     | 19 Juil.  "    | 19 Juil.   "   | 19 Juil.   "  | 19 Juil.   " | 19 Juil.   "  |  19 Juil.   "  |  20 Juil.   "   | 20 Juil.  "   |
+  | 1 Fructidor     | 18 Aout   "    | 18 Aout    "   | 18 Aout    "  | 18 Aout    " | 18 Aout    "  |  18 Aout    "  |  19 Aout    "   | 19 Aout   "   |
+  +-----------------+----------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+  |1 Sans-culottides| 17 Sept. 1794  | 17 Sept. 1795  | 17 Sept. 1796 | 17 Sept. 1797| 17 Sept. 1798 |  17 Sept. 1799 |  18 Sept. 1800  | 18 Sept. 1801 |
+  |6       "        |                | 22  "      "   |               |              |               |  22   "     "  |                 |               |
+  +-----------------+----------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+---------------+----------------+-----------------+---------------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  |                 AN X.                 |       AN XI.      |      AN XII.      |      AN XIII.     |      AN XIV.      |
+  |               1801-1802.              |     1802-1803.    |     1803-1804.    |     1804-1805.    |       1805.       |
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | 1 Vendemiaire     | 23 Septembre 1801 | 23 Septembre 1802 | 24 Septembre 1803 | 23 Septembre 1804 | 23 Septembre 1805 |
+  | 1 Brumaire        | 23 Octobre    "   | 23 Octobre     "  | 24 Octobre    "   | 23 Octobre    "   | 23 Octobre     "  |
+  | 1 Frimaire        | 22 Novembre   "   | 22 Novembre    "  | 23 Novembre   "   | 22 Novembre   "   | 22 Novembre    "  |
+  | 1 Nivose          | 22 Decembre   "   | 22 Decembre    "  | 23 Decembre   "   | 22 Decembre   "   | 22 Decembre    "  |
+  | 1 Pluviose        | 21 Janvier   1802 | 21 Janvier   1803 | 22 Janvier   1804 | 21 Janvier   1805 |                   |
+  | 1 Ventose         | 20 Fevrier    "   | 20 Fevrier     "  | 21 Fevrier    "   | 20 Fevrier    "   |                   |
+  | 1 Germinal        | 22 Mars       "   | 22 Mars        "  | 22 Mars       "   | 22 Mars       "   |                   |
+  | 1 Floreal         | 21 Avril      "   | 21 Avril       "  | 21 Avril      "   | 21 Avril      "   |                   |
+  | 1 Prairial        | 21 Mai        "   | 21 Mai         "  | 21 Mai        "   | 21 Mai        "   |                   |
+  | 1 Messidor        | 20 Juin       "   | 20 Juin        "  | 20 Juin       "   | 20 Juin       "   |                   |
+  | 1 Thermidor       | 20 Juillet    "   | 20 Juillet     "  | 20 Juillet    "   | 20 Juillet    "   |                   |
+  | 1 Fructidor       | 19 Aout       "   | 19 Aout        "  | 19 Aout       "   | 19 Aout       "   |                   |
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | 1 Sans-culottides | 18 Septembre 1802 | 18 Septembre 1803 | 18 Septembre 1804 | 18 Septembre 1805 |                   |
+  | 6          "      |                   | 23   "        "   |                   |                   |                   |
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+
+Some discussion took place about the nomenclature of the new divisions
+of time. Eventually this work was entrusted to Fabre d'Eglantine, who
+gave to each month a name taken from some seasonal event therein.
+Beginning with the new year on the 22nd of September the autumn months
+were _Vendemiaire_, the month of vintage, _Brumaire_, the months of fog,
+and _Frimaire_, the month of frost. The winter months were _Nivose_,
+the snowy, _Pluviose_, the rainy, and _Ventose_, the windy month; then
+followed the spring months, _Germinal_, the month of buds, _Floreal_,
+the month of flowers, and _Prairial_, the month of meadows; and lastly
+the summer months, _Messidor_, the month of reaping, _Thermidor_, the
+month of heat, and _Fructidor_, the month of fruit. To the days Fabre
+d'Eglantine gave names which retained the idea of their numerical order,
+calling them Primedi, Duodi, &c., the last day of the ten, the day of
+rest, being named Decadi. The new order was soon in force in France and
+the new method was employed in all public documents, but it did not last
+many years. In September 1805 it was decided to restore the Gregorian
+calendar, and the republican one was officially discontinued on the 1st
+of January 1806.
+
+  It will easily be seen that the connecting link between the old and
+  the new calendars is very slight indeed and that the expression of a
+  date in one calendar in terms of the other is a matter of some
+  difficulty. A simple method of doing this, however, is afforded by the
+  table on the preceding page, which is taken from the article by J.
+  Dubourdieu in _La Grande Encyclopedie_.
+
+  Thus Robespierre was executed on 10 Thermidor An II., i.e. the 28th of
+  July 1794. The insurrection of 12 Germinal An III. took place on the
+  1st of April 1795. The famous 18 Brumaire An VIII. fell on the 9th of
+  November 1799, and the _coup d'etat_ of 18 Fructidor An V. on the 4th
+  of September 1797.
+
+  For a complete concordance of the Gregorian and the republican
+  calendars see Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, tome iii. (Leiden, 1889);
+  also G. Villain, "Le Calendrier republicain," in _La Revolution
+  Francaise_ for 1884-1885.     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS (1792-1800), the general name for the first
+part of the series of French wars which went on continuously, except for
+some local and temporary cessations of hostilities, from the declaration
+of war against Britain in 1792 to the final overthrow of Napoleon in
+1815. The most important of these cessations--viz. the peace of
+1801-1803--closes the "Revolutionary" and opens the "Napoleonic" era of
+land warfare, for which see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, PENINSULAR WAR and
+WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. The naval history of the period is divided somewhat
+differently; the first period, treated below, is 1792-1799; for the
+second, 1799-1815, see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.
+
+France declared war on Austria on the 20th of April 1792. But Prussia
+and other powers had allied themselves with Austria in view of war, and
+it was against a coalition and not a single power that France found
+herself pitted, at the moment when the "emigration," the ferment of the
+Revolution, and want of material and of funds had thoroughly
+disorganized her army. The first engagements were singularly
+disgraceful. Near Lille the French soldiers fled at sight of the
+Austrian outposts, crying _Nous sommes trahis_, and murdered their
+general (April 29). The commanders-in-chief of the armies that were
+formed became one after another "suspects"; and before a serious action
+had been fought, the three armies of Rochambeau, Lafayette and Luckner
+had resolved themselves into two commanded by Dumouriez and Kellermann.
+Thus the disciplined soldiers of the Allies had apparently good reason
+to consider the campaign before them a military promenade. On the Rhine,
+a combined army of Prussians, Austrians, Hessians and _emigres_ under
+the duke of Brunswick was formed for the invasion of France, flanked by
+two smaller armies on its right and left, all three being under the
+supreme command of the king of Prussia. In the Netherlands the Austrians
+were to besiege Lille, and in the south the Piedmontese also took the
+field. The first step, taken against Brunswick's advice, was the issue
+(July 25) of a proclamation which, couched in terms in the last degree
+offensive to the French nation, generated the spirit that was afterwards
+to find expression in the "armed nation" of 1793-4, and sealed the fate
+of Louis XVI. The duke, who was a model sovereign in his own
+principality, sympathized with the constitutional side of the
+Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success of
+the enterprise. After completing its preparations in the leisurely
+manner of the previous generation, his army crossed the French frontier
+on the 19th of August. Longwy was easily captured; and the Allies slowly
+marched on to Verdun, which was more indefensible even than Longwy. The
+commandant, Colonel Beaurepaire, shot himself in despair, and the place
+surrendered on the 3rd of September. Brunswick now began his march on
+Paris and approached the defiles of the Argonne. But Dumouriez, who had
+been training his raw troops at Valenciennes in constant small
+engagements, with the purpose of invading Belgium, now threw himself
+into the Argonne by a rapid and daring flank march, almost under the
+eyes of the Prussian advanced guard, and barred the Paris road,
+summoning Kellermann to his assistance from Metz. The latter moved but
+slowly, and before he arrived the northern part of the line of defence
+had been forced. Dumouriez, undaunted, changed front so as to face
+north, with his right wing on the Argonne and his left stretching
+towards Chalons, and in this position Kellermann joined him at St
+Menehould on the 19th of September.
+
+
+  Valmy.
+
+Brunswick meanwhile had passed the northern defiles and had then swung
+round to cut off Dumouriez from Chalons. At the moment when the Prussian
+manoeuvre was nearly completed, Kellermann, commanding in Dumouriez's
+momentary absence, advanced his left wing and took up a position between
+St Menehould and Valmy. The result was the world-renowned Cannonade of
+Valmy (September 20, 1792). Kellermann's infantry, nearly all regulars,
+stood steady. The French artillery justified its reputation as the best
+in Europe, and eventually, with no more than a half-hearted infantry
+attack, the duke broke off the action and retired. This trivial
+engagement was the turning-point of the campaign and a landmark in the
+world's history. Ten days later, without firing another shot, the
+invading army began its retreat. Dumouriez's pursuit was not seriously
+pressed; he occupied himself chiefly with a series of subtle and curious
+negotiations which, with the general advance of the French troops,
+brought about the complete withdrawal of the enemy from the soil of
+France.
+
+
+  Jemappes.
+
+Meanwhile, the French forces in the south had driven back the
+Piedmontese and had conquered Savoy and Nice. Another French success was
+the daring expedition into Germany made by Custine from Alsace. Custine
+captured Mainz itself on the 21st of October and penetrated as far as
+Frankfurt. In the north the Austrian siege of Lille had completely
+failed, and Dumouriez now resumed his interrupted scheme for the
+invasion of the Netherlands. His forward movement, made as it was late
+in the season, surprised the Austrians, and he disposed of enormously
+superior forces. On the 6th of November he won the first great victory
+of the war at Jemappes near Mons and, this time advancing boldly, he
+overran the whole country from Namur to Antwerp within a month.
+
+Such was the prelude of what is called the "Great War" in England and
+the "Epopee" in France. Before going further it is necessary to
+summarize the special features of the French army--in leadership,
+discipline, tactics, organization and movement--which made these
+campaigns the archetype of modern warfare.
+
+  At the outbreak of the Revolution the French army, like other armies
+  in Europe, was a "voluntary" long-service army, augmented to some
+  extent in war by drafts of militia.
+
+
+    The French army, 1792-1796.
+
+  One of the first problems that the Constituent Assembly took upon
+  itself to solve was the nationalization of this strictly royal and
+  professional force, and as early as October 1789 the word
+  "Conscription" was heard in its debates. But it was decreed
+  nevertheless that free enlistment alone befitted a free people, and
+  the regular army was left unaltered in form. However, a National Guard
+  came into existence side by side with it, and the history of French
+  army organization in the next few years is the history of the fusion
+  of these two elements. The first step, as regards the regular army,
+  was the abolition of proprietary rights, the serial numbering of
+  regiments throughout the Army, and the disbandment of the _Maison du
+  roi_. The next was the promotion of deserving soldiers to fill the
+  numerous vacancies caused by the emigration. Along with these,
+  however, there came to the surface many incompetent leaders,
+  favourites in the political clubs of Paris, &c., and the old strict
+  discipline became impossible owing to the frequent intervention of the
+  civil authorities in matters affecting it, the denunciation of
+  generals, and especially the wild words and wild behaviour of
+  "Volunteer" (embodied national guard) battalions.
+
+  When war came, it was soon found that the regulars had fallen too low
+  in numbers and that the national guard demanded too high pay, to
+  admit of developing the expected field strength. Arms, discipline,
+  training alike were wanting to the new levies, and the repulse of
+  Brunswick was effected by manoeuvring and fighting on the old lines
+  and chiefly with the old army. The cry of _La patrie en danger_, after
+  giving, at the crisis, the highest moral support to the troops in the
+  front, dwindled away after victory, and the French government
+  contented itself with the half-measures that had, apparently, sufficed
+  to avert the peril. More, when the armies went into winter quarters,
+  the Volunteers claimed leave of absence and went home.
+
+  But in the spring of 1793, confronted by a far more serious peril, the
+  government took strong measures. Universal liability was asserted, and
+  passed into law. Yet even now whole classes obtained exemption and the
+  right of substitution as usual forced the burden of service on the
+  poorer classes, so that of the 100,000 men called on for the regular
+  army and 200,000 for the Volunteers, only some 180,000 were actually
+  raised. Desertion, generally regarded as the curse of professional
+  armies, became a conspicuous vice of the defenders of the Republic,
+  except at moments when a supreme crisis called forth supreme
+  devotion--moments which naturally were more or less prolonged in
+  proportion to the gravity of the situation. Thus, while it almost
+  disappeared in the great effort of 1793-1794, when the armies
+  sustained bloody reverses in distant wars of conquest, as in 1799, it
+  promptly rose again to an alarming height.
+
+
+    Universal service of the "Amalgam."
+
+  While this unsatisfactory general levy was being made, defeats,
+  defections and invasion in earnest came in rapid succession, and to
+  deal with the almost desperate emergency, the ruthless Committee of
+  Public Safety sprang into existence. "The levy is to be universal.
+  Unmarried citizens and widowers without children of ages from 18 to 25
+  are to be called up first," and 450,000 recruits were immediately
+  obtained by this single act. The complete amalgamation of the regular
+  and volunteer units was decided upon. The white uniforms of the line
+  gave place to the blue of the National Guard in all arms and services.
+  The titles of officers were changed, and in fact every relic of the
+  old regime, save the inherited solidity of the old regular battalions,
+  was swept away. This rough combination of line and volunteers
+  therefore--for the "Amalgam" was not officially begun until 1794--must
+  be understood when we refer to the French army of Hondschoote or of
+  Wattignies. It contained, by reason of its universality and also
+  because men were better off in the army than out of it--if they stayed
+  at home they went in daily fear of denunciation and the
+  guillotine--the best elements of the French nation. To some extent at
+  any rate the political _arrivistes_ had been weeded out, and though
+  the informer, here as elsewhere, struck unseen blows, the mass of the
+  army gradually evolved its true leaders and obeyed them. It was,
+  therefore, an army of individual citizen-soldiers of the best type,
+  welded by the enemy's fire, and conscious of its own solidarity in the
+  midst of the Revolutionary chaos.
+
+  After 1794 the system underwent but little radical change until the
+  end of the Revolutionary period. Its regiments grew in military value
+  month by month and attained their highest level in the great campaign
+  of 1796. In 1795 the French forces (now all styled National Guard)
+  consisted of 531,000 men, of whom 323,000 were infantry (100
+  3-battalion demi-brigades), 97,000 light infantry (30 demi-brigades),
+  29,000 artillery, 20,000 engineers and 59,000 cavalry. This novel army
+  developed novel fighting methods, above all in the infantry. This arm
+  had just received a new drill-book, as the result of a prolonged
+  controversy (see INFANTRY) between the advocates of "lines" and
+  "columns," and this drill-book, while retaining the principle of the
+  line, set controversy at rest by admitting battalion columns of
+  attack, and movements at the "quick" (100-120 paces to the minute)
+  instead of at the "slow" march (76). On these two prescriptions,
+  ignoring the rest, the practical troop leaders built up the new
+  tactics little by little, and almost unconsciously. The process of
+  evolution cannot be stated exactly, for the officers learned to use
+  and even to invent now one form, now another, according to ground and
+  circumstances. But the main stream of progress is easily
+  distinguishable.
+
+
+    Tactics.
+
+  The earlier battles were fought more or less according to the
+  drill-book, partly in line for fire action, partly in column for the
+  bayonet attack. But line movements required the most accurate drill,
+  and what was attainable after years of practice with regulars moving
+  at the slow march was wholly impossible for new levies moving at 120
+  paces to the minute. When, therefore, the line marched off, it broke
+  up into a shapeless swarm of individual firers. This was the form, if
+  form it can be called, of the tactics of 1793--"horde-tactics," as
+  they have quite justly been called--and a few such experiences as that
+  of Hondschoote sufficed to suggest the need of a remedy. This was
+  found in keeping as many troops as possible out of the firing line.
+  From 1794 onwards the latter becomes thinner and thinner, and instead
+  of the drill-book form, with half the army firing in line (practically
+  in hordes) and the other half in support in columns, we find the rear
+  lines becoming more and more important and numerous, till at last the
+  fire of the leading line (skirmishers) becomes insignificant, and the
+  decision rests with the bayonets of the closed masses in rear. Indeed,
+  the latter often used mixed line and column formations, which enabled
+  them not only to charge, but to fire close-order volleys--absolutely
+  regardless of the skirmishers in front. In other words, the bravest
+  and coolest marksmen were let loose to do what damage they could, and
+  the rest, massed in close order, were kept under the control of their
+  officers and only exposed to the dissolving influence of the fight
+  when the moment arrived to deliver, whether by fire or by shock, the
+  decisive blow.
+
+
+    Cavalry. Artillery. Engineers.
+
+  The cavalry underwent little change in its organization and tactics,
+  which remained as in the drill-books founded on Frederick's practice.
+  But except in the case of the hussars, who were chiefly Alsatians, it
+  was thoroughly disorganized by the emigration or execution of the
+  nobles who had officered it, and for long it was incapable of facing
+  the hostile squadrons in the open. Still, its elements were good, it
+  was fairly well trained, and mounted, and not overwhelmed with
+  national guard drafts, and like the other arms it duly evolved and
+  obeyed new leaders.
+
+  In artillery matters this period, 1792-1796, marks an important
+  progress, due above all to Gribeauval (q.v.) and the two du Teils,
+  Jean Pierre (1722-1794) and Jean (1733-1820) who were Napoleon's
+  instructors. The change was chiefly in organization and equipment--the
+  great tactical development of the arm was not to come until the time
+  of the _Grande Armee_--and may be summarized as the transition from
+  battalion guns and reserve artillery to batteries of "horse and
+  field."
+
+  The engineers, like the artillery, were a technical and non-noble
+  corps. They escaped, therefore, most of the troubles of the
+  Revolution--indeed the artillery and engineer officers, Napoleon and
+  Carnot amongst them, were conspicuous in the political regeneration of
+  France--and the engineers carried on with little change the traditions
+  of Vauban and Cormontaingne (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). Both
+  these corps were, after the Revolution as before it, the best in
+  Europe, other armies admitting their superiority and following their
+  precepts.
+
+  In all this the army naturally outgrew its old "linear" organization.
+  Temporary divisions, called for by momentary necessities, placed under
+  selected generals and released from the detailed supervision of the
+  commander-in-chief, soon became, though in an irregular and haphazard
+  fashion, permanent organisms, and by 1796 the divisional system had
+  become practically universal. The next step, as the armies became
+  fewer and larger, was the temporary grouping of divisions; this too in
+  turn became permanent, and bequeathed to the military world of to-day
+  both the army corps and the capable, self-reliant and enterprising
+  subordinate generals, for whom the old linear organization had no
+  room.
+
+
+    The starting point of modern warfare.
+
+  This subdivision of forces was intimately connected with the general
+  method of making war adopted by the "New French," as their enemies
+  called them. What astonished the Allies most of all was the number and
+  the velocity of the Republicans. These improvised armies had in fact
+  nothing to delay them. Tents were unprocurable for want of money,
+  untransportable for want of the enormous number of wagons that would
+  have been required, and also unnecessary, for the discomfort that
+  would have caused wholesale desertion in professional armies was
+  cheerfully borne by the men of 1793-1794. Supplies for armies of then
+  unheard-of size could not be carried in convoys, and the French soon
+  became familiar with "living on the country." Thus 1793 saw the birth
+  of the modern system of war--rapidity of movement, full development of
+  national strength, bivouacs and requisitions, and force, as against
+  cautious manoeuvring, small professional armies, tents and full
+  rations, and chicane. The first represented the decision-compelling
+  spirit, the second the spirit of risking little to gain a little.
+  Above all, the decision-compelling spirit was reinforced by the
+  presence of the emissaries of the Committee of Public Safety, the
+  "representatives on mission" who practically controlled the
+  guillotine. There were civil officials with the armies of the Allies
+  too, but their chief function was not to infuse desperate energy into
+  the military operations, but to see that the troops did not maltreat
+  civilians. Such were the fundamental principles of the "New French"
+  method of warfare, from which the warfare of to-day descends in the
+  direct line. But it was only after a painful period of trial and
+  error, of waste and misdirection, that it became possible for the
+  French army to have evolved Napoleon, and for Napoleon to evolve the
+  principles and methods of war that conformed to and profited to the
+  utmost by the new conditions.
+
+  Those campaigns and battles of this army which are described in detail
+  in the present article have been selected, some on account of their
+  historical importance--as producing great results; others from their
+  military interest--as typifying and illustrating the nature of the
+  revolution undergone by the art of war in these heroic years.
+
+
+CAMPAIGNS IN THE NETHERLANDS
+
+The year 1793 opened disastrously for the Republic. As a consequence of
+Jemappes and Valmy, France had taken the offensive both in Belgium,
+which had been overrun by Dumouriez's army, and in the Rhine countries,
+where Custine had preached the new gospel to the sentimental and
+half-discontented Hessians and Mainzers. But the execution of Louis XVI.
+raised up a host of new and determined enemies. England, Holland,
+Austria, Prussia, Spain and Sardinia promptly formed the First
+Coalition. England poured out money in profusion to pay and equip her
+Allies' land armies, and herself began the great struggle for the
+command of the sea (see _Naval Operations_, below).
+
+
+  Neerwinden.
+
+In the Low Countries, while Dumouriez was beginning his proposed
+invasion of Holland, Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg, the new Austrian
+commander on the Lower Rhine, advanced with 42,000 men from the region
+of Cologne, and drove in the various detachments that Dumouriez had
+posted to cover his right. The French general thereupon abandoned his
+advance into Holland, and, with what forces he could gather, turned
+towards the Meuse. The two armies met at Neerwinden (q.v.) on the 18th
+of March 1793. Dumouriez had only a few thousand men more than his
+opponent, instead of the enormous superiority he had had at Jemappes.
+Thus the enveloping attack could not be repeated, and in a battle on
+equal fronts the old generalship and the old armies had the advantage.
+Dumouriez was thoroughly defeated, the house of cards collapsed, and the
+whole of the French forces retreated in confusion to the strong line of
+border fortresses, created by Louis XIV. and Vauban.[1] Dumouriez,
+witnessing the failure of his political schemes, declared against the
+Republic, and after a vain attempt to induce his own army to follow his
+example, fled (April 5) into the Austrian lines. The leaderless
+Republicans streamed back to Valenciennes. There, however, they found a
+general. Picot (comte de) Dampierre was a regimental officer of the old
+army, who, in spite of his vanity and extravagance, possessed real
+loyalty to the new order of things, and brilliant personal courage. At
+the darkest hour he seized the reins without orders and without
+reference to seniority, and began to reconstruct the force and the
+spirit of the shattered army by wise administration and dithyrambic
+proclamations. Moreover, he withdrew it well behind Valenciennes out of
+reach of a second reverse. The region of Dunkirk and Cassel, the camp of
+La Madeleine near Lille, and Bouchain were made the rallying points of
+the various groups, the principal army being at the last-named. But the
+blow of Neerwinden had struck deep, and the army was for long incapable
+of service, what with the general distrust, the misconduct of the newer
+battalions, and the discontent of the old white-coated regiments that
+were left ragged and shoeless to the profit of the "patriot" corps.
+"Beware of giving horses to the 'Hussars of Liberty,'" wrote Carnot,
+"all these new corps are abominable."
+
+
+  Assembly of the Allies.
+
+France was in fact defenceless, and the opportunity existed for the
+military promenade to Paris that the allied statesmen had imagined in
+1792. But Coburg now ceased to be a purely Austrian commander, for one
+by one allied contingents, with instructions that varied with the
+political aims of the various governments, began to arrive. Moreover, he
+had his own views as to the political situation, fearing especially to
+be the cause of the queen's death as Brunswick had been of the king's,
+and negotiated for a settlement. The story of these negotiations should
+be read in Chuquet's _Valenciennes_--it gives the key to many mysteries
+of the campaign and shows that though the revolutionary spirit had
+already passed all understanding, enlightened men such as Coburg and his
+chief-of-staff Mack sympathized with its first efforts and thought the
+constitution of 1791 a gain to humanity. "If you come to Paris you will
+find 80,000 patriots ready to die," said the French negotiators. "The
+patriots could not resist the Austrian regulars," replied Coburg, "but I
+do not propose to go to Paris. I desire to see a stable government, with
+a chief, king or other, with whom we can treat." Soon, however, these
+personal negotiations were stopped by the emperor, and the idea of
+restoring order in France became little more than a pretext for a
+general intrigue amongst the confederate powers, each seeking to
+aggrandize itself at France's expense. "If you wish to deal with the
+French," observed Dumouriez ironically to Coburg, "talk 'constitution.'
+You may beat them but you cannot subdue them." And their subjugation was
+becoming less and less possible as the days went on and men talked of
+the partition of France as a question of the moment like the partition
+of Poland--a pretension that even the emigres resented.
+
+Coburg's plan of campaign was limited to the objects acceptable to all
+the Allies alike. He aimed at the conquest of a first-class
+fortress--Lille or Valenciennes--and chiefly for this reason. War meant
+to the burgher of Germany and the Netherlands a special form of _haute
+politique_ with which it was neither his business nor his inclination to
+meddle. He had no more compunction, therefore, in selling his worst
+goods at the best price to the army commissaries than in doing so to his
+ordinary customers. It followed that, owing to the distance between
+Vienna and Valenciennes, and the exorbitant prices charged by carters
+and horse-owners, a mere concentration of Austrian troops at the latter
+place cost as much as a campaign, and the transport expenses rose to
+such a figure that Coburg's first duty was to find a strong place to
+serve as a market for the country-side and a depot for the supplies
+purchased, and to have it as near as possible to the front to save the
+hire of vehicles. As for the other governments which Coburg served as
+best he could, the object of the war was material concessions, and it
+would be easy to negotiate for the cession of Dunkirk and Valenciennes
+when the British and Austrian colours already waved there. The Allies,
+therefore, instead of following up their advantage over the French field
+army and driving forward on the open Paris road, set their faces
+westward, intending to capture Valenciennes, Le Quesnoy, Dunkirk and
+Lille one after the other.
+
+
+  Dampierre at Valenciennes.
+
+Dampierre meanwhile grew less confident as responsibility settled upon
+his shoulders. Quite unable to believe that Coburg would bury himself in
+a maze of rivers and fortresses when he could scatter the French army to
+the winds by a direct advance, he was disquieted and puzzled by the
+Austrian investment of Conde. This was followed by skirmishes around
+Valenciennes, so unfavourable to the French that their officers felt it
+would be madness to venture far beyond the support of the fortress guns.
+But the representatives on mission ordered Dampierre, who was
+reorganizing his army at Bouchain, to advance and occupy Famars camp,
+east of Valenciennes, and soon afterwards, disregarding his protests,
+bade him relieve Conde at all costs. His skill, though not commensurate
+with his personal courage and devotion, sufficed to give him the idea of
+attacking Coburg on the right bank of the Scheldt while Clerfayt, with
+the corps covering the siege of Conde, was on the left, and then to turn
+against Clerfayt--in fact, to operate on interior lines--but it was far
+from being adequate to the task of beating either with the disheartened
+forces he commanded. On the 1st of May, while Clerfayt was held in check
+by a very vigorous demonstration, Coburg's positions west of Quievrain
+were attacked by Dampierre himself. The French won some local successes
+by force of numbers and surprise, but the Allies recovered themselves,
+thanks chiefly to the address and skill of Colonel Mack, and drove the
+Republicans in disorder to their entrenchments. Dampierre's
+discouragement now became desperation, and, urged on by the
+representatives (who, be it said, had exposed their own lives freely
+enough in the action), he attacked Clerfayt on the 8th at Raismes. The
+troops fought far better in the woods and hamlets west of the Scheldt
+than they had done in the plains to the east. But in the heat of the
+action Dampierre, becoming again the brilliant soldier that he had been
+before responsibility stifled him, risked and lost his life in leading a
+storming party, and his men retired sullenly, though this time in good
+order, to Valenciennes. Two days later the French gave up the open field
+and retired into Valenciennes. Dampierre's remains were by a vote of the
+Convention ordered to be deposited in the Pantheon. But he was a
+"ci-devant" noble, the demagogues denounced him as a traitor, and the
+only honour finally paid to the man who had tided over the weeks of
+greatest danger was the placing of his bust, in the strange company of
+those of Brutus and Marat, in the chamber of deputies.
+
+Another pause followed, Coburg awaiting the British contingent under the
+duke of York, and the Republicans endeavouring to assimilate the
+reinforcements of conscripts, for the most part "undesirables," who now
+arrived. Mutiny and denunciations augmented the confusion in the French
+camp. Plan of campaign there was none, save a resolution to stay at
+Valenciennes in the hope of finding an opportunity of relieving Conde
+and to create diversions elsewhere by expeditions from Dunkirk, Lille
+and Sedan. These of course came to nothing, and before they had even
+started, Coburg, resuming the offensive, had stormed the lines of Famars
+(May 24), whereupon the French army retired to Bouchain, leaving not
+only Conde[2] but also Valenciennes to resist as best they could. The
+central point of the new positions about Bouchain was called Caesar's
+Camp. Here, surrounded by streams and marshes, the French generals
+thought that their troops were secure from the rush of the dreaded
+Austrian cavalry, and Mack himself shared their opinion.
+
+
+  Fall of Valenciennes.
+
+Custine now took command of the abjectly dispirited army, the fourth
+change of command within two months. His first task was to institute a
+severe discipline, and his prestige was so great that his mere threat of
+death sentences for offenders produced the desired effect. As to
+operations, he wished for a concentration of all possible forces from
+other parts of the frontier towards Valenciennes, even if necessary at
+the cost of sacrificing his own conquest of Mainz. But after he had
+induced the government to assent to this, the generals of the numerous
+other armies refused to give up their troops, and on the 17th of June
+the idea was abandoned in view of the growing seriousness of the Vendean
+insurrection (see VENDEE). Custine, therefore, could do no more than
+continue the work of reorganization. Military operations were few.
+Coburg, who had all this time succeeded in remaining concentrated, now
+found himself compelled to extend leftwards towards Flanders,[3] for
+Custine had infused some energy into the scattered groups of the
+Republicans in the region of Douai, Lille and Dunkirk--and during this
+respite the Paris Jacobins sent to the guillotine both Custine and his
+successor La Marliere before July was ended. Both were "ci-devant"
+nobles and, so far as is ascertainable, neither was guilty of anything
+worse than attempts to make his orders respected by, and himself popular
+with, the soldiers. By this time, owing to the innumerable denunciations
+and arrests, the confusion in the Army of the North was at its height,
+and no further attempt was made either to relieve Valenciennes and
+Conde, or to press forward from Lille and Dunkirk. Conde, starved out as
+Coburg desired, capitulated on the 10th of June, and the Austrians, who
+had done their work as soldiers, but were filled with pity for their
+suffering and distracted enemies, marched in with food for the women and
+children. Valenciennes, under the energetic General Ferrand, held out
+bravely until the fire of the Allies became intolerable, and then the
+civil population began to plot treachery, and to wear the Bourbon
+cockade in the open street. Ferrand and the representatives with him
+found themselves obliged to surrender to the duke of York, who commanded
+the siege corps, on the 28th of July, after rejecting the first draft of
+a capitulation sent in by the duke and threatening to continue the
+defence to the bitter end. Impossible as this was known to be--for
+Valenciennes seemed to have become a royalist town--Ferrand's soldierly
+bearing carried the day, and honourable terms were arranged. The duke
+even offered to assist the garrison in repressing disorder. Shortly
+after this the wreck of the field army was forced to evacuate Caesar's
+Camp after an unimportant action (Aug. 7-8) and retired on Arras. By
+this they gave up the direct defence of the Paris road, but placed
+themselves in a "flank position" relatively to it, and secured to
+themselves the resources and reinforcements available in the region of
+Dunkirk-Lille. Bouchain and Cambrai, Landrecies and Le Quesnoy, were
+left to their own garrisons.
+
+With this ended the second episode of the amazing campaign of 1793.
+Military operations were few and spasmodic, on the one side because the
+Allied statesmen were less concerned with the nebulous common object of
+restoring order in France than with their several schemes of
+aggrandisement, on the other owing to the almost incredible confusion of
+France under the regime of Danton and Marat. The third episode shows
+little or no change in the force and direction of the allied efforts,
+but a very great change in France. Thoroughly roused by disaster and now
+dominated by the furious and bloodthirsty energy of the terrorists, the
+French people and armies at last set before themselves clear and
+definite objects to be pursued at all costs.
+
+
+  Houchard.
+
+Jean Nicolas Houchard, the next officer appointed to command, had been a
+heavy cavalry trooper in the Seven Years' War. His face bore the scars
+of wounds received at Minden, and his bravery, his stature, his bold and
+fierce manner, his want of education, seemed to all to betoken the ideal
+sans-culotte general. But he was nevertheless incapable of leading an
+army, and knowing this, carefully conformed to the advice of his staff
+officers Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the latter of whom, an exceptionally
+capable officer, had been Custine's chief of staff and was consequently
+under suspicion. At one moment, indeed, operations had to be suspended
+altogether because his papers were seized by the civil authorities, and
+amongst them were all the confidential memoranda and maps required for
+the business of headquarters. It was the darkest hour. The Vendeans, the
+people of Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon, were in open and hitherto
+successful revolt. Valenciennes had fallen and Coburg's hussar parties
+pressed forward into the Somme valley. Again the Allies had the decision
+of the war in their own hands. Coburg, indeed, was still afraid, on
+Marie Antoinette's account, of forcing the Republicans to extremities,
+and on military grounds too he thought an advance on Paris hazardous.
+But, hazardous or not, it would have been attempted but for the English.
+The duke of York had definite orders from his government to capture
+Dunkirk--at present a nest of corsairs which interfered with the Channel
+trade, and in the future, it was hoped, a second Gibraltar--and after
+the fall of Valenciennes and the capture of Caesar's Camp the English
+and Hanoverians marched away, via Tournai and Ypres, to besiege the
+coast fortress. Thereupon the king of Prussia in turn called off his
+contingent for operations on the middle Rhine. Holland, too, though she
+maintained her contingent in face of Lille (where it covered Flanders),
+was not disposed to send it to join the imperialists in an adventure in
+the heart of France. Coburg, therefore, was brought to a complete
+standstill, and the scene of the decision was shifted to the district
+between Lille and the coast.
+
+
+  Dunkirk.
+
+Thither came Carnot, the engineer officer who was in charge of military
+affairs In the Committee of Public Safety and is known to history as the
+"Organizer of Victory." His views of the strategy to be pursued indicate
+either a purely geographical idea of war, which does not square with his
+later principles and practice, or, as is far more likely, a profound
+disbelief in the capacity of the Army of the North, as it then stood, to
+fight a battle, and they went no further than to recommend an inroad
+into Flanders on the ground that no enemy would be encountered there.
+This, however, in the event developed into an operation of almost
+decisive importance, for at the moment of its inception the duke of York
+was already on the march. Fighting _en route_ a very severe but
+successful action (Lincelles, Aug. 18) with the French troops encamped
+near Lille, the Anglo-Hanoverians entered the district--densely
+intersected with canals and morasses--around Dunkirk and Bergues on the
+21st and 22nd. On the right, by way of Furnes, the British moved towards
+Dunkirk and invested the east front of the weak fortress, while on the
+left the Hanoverian field marshal v. Freytag moved via Poperinghe on
+Bergues. The French had a chain of outposts between Furnes and Bergues,
+but Freytag attacked them resolutely, and the defenders, except a brave
+handful who stood to cross bayonets, fled in all directions. The east
+front of Bergues was invested on the 23rd, and Freytag spread out his
+forces to cover the duke of York's attack on Dunkirk, his right being
+opposite Bergues and his centre at Bambeke, while his left covered the
+space between Roosbrugge and Ypres with a cordon of posts. Houchard was
+in despair at the bad conduct of his troops. But one young general,
+Jourdan, anticipating Houchard's orders, had already brought a strong
+force from Lille to Cassel, whence he incessantly harried Freytag's
+posts. Carnot encouraged the garrisons of Dunkirk and Bergues, and
+caused the sluices to be opened. The _moral_ of the defenders rose
+rapidly. Houchard prepared to bring up every available man of the Army
+of the North, and only waited to make up his mind as to the direction in
+which his attack should be made. The Allies themselves recognized the
+extreme danger of their position. It was cut in half by the Great
+Morass, stretches of which extended even to Furnes. Neither Dunkirk nor
+Bergues could be completely invested owing to the inundations, and
+Freytag sent a message to King George III. to the effect that if Dunkirk
+did not surrender in a few days the expedition would be a complete
+failure.
+
+As for the French, they could hardly believe their good fortune.
+Generals, staff officers and representatives on mission alike were eager
+for a swift and crushing offensive. "'Attack' and 'attack in mass'
+became the shibboleth and the catch-phrase of the camps" (Chuquet), and
+fortresses and armies on other parts of the frontier were imperiously
+called upon to supply large drafts for the Army of the North.
+Gay-Vernon's strategical instinct found expression in a wide-ranging
+movement designed to secure the absolute annihilation of the duke of
+York's forces. Beginning with an attack on the Dutch posts north and
+east of Lille, the army was then to press forward towards Furnes, the
+left wing holding Freytag's left wing in check, and the right swinging
+inwards and across the line of retreat of both allied corps. At that
+moment all men were daring, and the scheme was adopted with enthusiasm.
+On the 28th of August, consequently, the Dutch posts were attacked and
+driven away by the mobile forces at Lille, aided by parts of the main
+army from Arras. But even before they had fired their last shot the
+Republicans dispersed to plunder and compromised their success. Houchard
+and Gay-Vernon began to fear that their army would not emerge
+successfully from the supreme test they were about to impose on it, and
+from this moment the scheme of destroying the English began to give way
+to the simpler and safer idea of relieving Dunkirk. The place was so
+ill-equipped that after a few days' siege it was _in extremis_, and the
+political importance of its preservation led not merely the civilian
+representatives, but even Carnot, to implore Houchard to put an end to
+the crisis at once. On the 30th, Cassel, instead of Ypres, was
+designated as the point of concentration for the "mass of attack." This
+surprised the representatives and Carnot as much as it surprised the
+subordinate generals, all of whom thought that there would still be time
+to make the detour through Ypres and to cut off the Allies' retreat
+before Dunkirk fell. But Houchard and Gay-Vernon were no longer under
+any illusions as to the manoeuvring power of their forces, and the
+government agents wisely left them to execute their own plans.
+Thirty-seven thousand men were left to watch Coburg and to secure Arras
+and Douai, and the rest, 50,000 strong, assembled at Cassel. Everything
+was in Houchard's favour could he but overcome the indiscipline of his
+own army. The duke of York was more dangerous in appearance than in
+reality--as the result must infallibly have shown had Houchard and
+Gay-Vernon possessed the courage to execute the original plan--and
+Freytag's covering army extended in a line of disconnected posts from
+Bergues to Ypres.
+
+
+  Hondschoote.
+
+Against the left and centre of this feeble cordon 40,000 men advanced in
+many columns on the 6th of September. A confused outpost fight, in which
+the various assailing columns dissolved into excited swarms, ended, long
+after nightfall, in the orderly withdrawal of the various allied posts
+to Hondschoote. The French generals were occupied the whole of next day
+in sorting out their troops, who had not only completely wasted their
+strength against mere outposts, but had actually consumed their rations
+and used up their ammunition. On the 8th, the assailants, having more or
+less recovered themselves, advanced again. They found Wallmoden (who had
+succeeded Freytag, disabled on the 6th) entrenched on either side of the
+village of Hondschoote, the right resting on the great morass and the
+left on the village of Leysele. Here was the opportunity for the "attack
+in mass" that had been so freely discussed; but Houchard was now
+concerned more with the relief of Dunkirk than with the defeat of the
+enemy. He sent away one division to Dunkirk, another to Bergues, and a
+third towards Ypres, and left himself only some 20,000 men for the
+battle. But Wallmoden had only 13,000--so great was the disproportion
+between end and means in this ill-designed enterprise against Dunkirk.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Hondschoote.
+
+Redrawn from a map in Fortescue's _History of the British Army_, by
+permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.]
+
+Houchard despatched a column, guided by his staff officer Berthelmy, to
+turn the Hanoverians' left, but this column lost its way in the dense
+country about Loo. The centre waited motionless under the fire of the
+allied guns near Hondschoote. In vain the representative Delbrel
+implored the general to order the advance. Houchard was obstinate, and
+ere long the natural result followed. Though Delbrel posted himself in
+front of the line, conspicuous by his white horse and tricoloured sash
+and plume, to steady the men, the bravest left the ranks and skirmished
+forward from bush to bush, and the rest sought cover. Then the allied
+commander ordered forward one regiment of Hessians, and these, advancing
+at a ceremonial slow march, and firing steady rolling volleys, scattered
+the Republicans before them. At this crisis Houchard uttered the fatal
+word "retreat," but Delbrel overwhelmed him with reproaches and stung
+him into renewed activity. He hurried away to urge forward the right
+wing while Jourdan rallied the centre and led it into the fight again.
+Once more Jourdan awaited in vain the order to advance, and once more
+the troops broke. But at last the exasperated Delbrel rose to the
+occasion. "You fear the responsibility," he cried to Jourdan; "well, I
+assume it. My authority overrides the general's and I give you the
+formal order to attack at once!" Then, gently, as if to soften a rebuke,
+he continued, "You have forced me to speak as a superior; now I will be
+your aide-de-camp," and at once hurried off to bring up the reserves
+and to despatch cavalry to collect the fugitives. This incident, amongst
+many, serves to show that the representatives on mission were no mere
+savage marplots, as is too generally assumed. They were often wise and
+able men, brave and fearless of responsibility in camp and in action.
+Jourdan led on the reserves, and the men fighting in the bushes on
+either side of the road heard their drums to right and left. Jourdan
+fell wounded, but Delbrel headed a wild irregular bayonet charge which
+checked the Hanoverians, and Houchard himself, in his true place as a
+cavalry leader, came up with 500 fresh sabres and flung himself on the
+Allies. The Hanoverians, magnificently disciplined troops that they
+were, soon re-formed after the shock, but by this time the fugitives
+collected by Delbrel's troopers, reanimated by new hopes of victory,
+were returning to the front in hundreds, and a last assault on
+Hondschoote met with complete success.
+
+Hondschoote was a psychological victory. Materially, it was no more than
+the crushing of an obstinate rearguard at enormous expense to the
+assailants, for the duke of York was able to withdraw while there was
+still time. Houchard had indeed called back the division he had sent to
+Bergues, and despatched it by Loo against the enemy's rear, but the
+movement was undertaken too late in the day to be useful. The struggle
+was practically a front to front battle, numbers and enthusiasm on the
+one side, discipline, position and steadiness on the other. Hence,
+though its strategical result was merely to compel the duke of York to
+give up an enterprise that he should never have undertaken, Hondschoote
+established the fact that the "New French" were determined to win, at
+any cost and by sheer weight and energy. It was long before they were
+able to meet equal numbers with confidence, and still longer before they
+could freely oppose a small corps to a larger one. But the nightmare of
+defeats and surrenders was dispelled.
+
+The influence of Houchard on the course of the operations had been
+sometimes null, sometimes detrimental, and only occasionally good. The
+plan and its execution were the work of Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the
+victory itself was Jourdan's and, above all, Delbrel's. To these errors,
+forgiven to a victor, Houchard added the crowning offence of failure, in
+the reaction after the battle, to pursue his advantage. His enemies in
+Paris became more and more powerful as the campaign continued.
+
+
+  Menin.
+
+Having missed the great opportunity of crushing the English, Houchard
+turned his attention to the Dutch posts about Menin. As far as the
+Allies were concerned Hondschoote was a mere reverse, not a disaster,
+and was counterbalanced in Coburg's eyes by his own capture of Le
+Quesnoy (Sept. 11). The proximity of the main body of the French to
+Menin induced him to order Beaulieu's corps (hitherto at Cysoing and
+linking the Dutch posts with the central group) to join the prince of
+Orange there, and to ask the duke of York to do the same. But this last
+meant negotiation, and before anything was settled Houchard, with the
+army from Hondschoote and a contingent from Lille, had attacked the
+prince at Menin and destroyed his corps (Sept. 12-13).
+
+After this engagement, which, though it was won by immensely superior
+forces, was if not an important at any rate a complete victory, Houchard
+went still farther inland--leaving detachments to observe York and
+replacing them by troops from the various camps as he passed along the
+cordon--in the hope of dealing with Beaulieu as he had dealt with the
+Dutch, and even of relieving Le Quesnoy. But in all this he failed. He
+had expected to meet Beaulieu near Cysoing, but the Austrian general had
+long before gone northward to assist the prince of Orange. Thus Houchard
+missed his target. Worse still, one of his protective detachments
+chanced to meet Beaulieu near Courtrai on the 15th, and was not only
+defeated but driven in rout from Menin. Lastly, Coburg had already
+captured Le Quesnoy, and had also repulsed a straggling attack of the
+Landrecies, Bouchain and other French garrisons on the positions of his
+covering army (12th).[4]
+
+Houchard's offensive died away completely, and he halted his army
+(45,000 strong excluding detachments) at Gaverelle, half-way between
+Douai and Arras, hoping thereby to succour Bouchain, Cambrai or Arras,
+whichever should prove to be Coburg's next objective. After standing
+still for several days, a prey to all the conflicting rumours that
+reached his ears, he came to the conclusion that Coburg was about to
+join the duke of York in a second siege of Dunkirk, and began to close
+on his left. But his conclusion was entirely wrong. The Allies were
+closing on _their_ left inland to attack Maubeuge. Coburg drew in
+Beaulieu, and even persuaded the Dutch to assist, the duke of York
+undertaking for the moment to watch the whole of the Flanders cordon
+from the sea to Tournai. But this concentration of force was merely
+nominal, for each contingent worked in the interests of its own masters,
+and, above all, the siege that was the object of the concentration was
+calculated to last four weeks, i.e. gave the French four weeks unimpeded
+liberty of action.
+
+Houchard was now denounced and brought captive to Paris. Placed upon his
+trial, he offered a calm and reasoned defence of his conduct, but when
+the intolerable word "coward" was hurled at him by one of his judges he
+wept with rage, pointing to the scars of his many wounds, and then, his
+spirit broken, sank into a lethargic indifference, in which he remained
+to the end. He was guillotined on the 16th of November 1793.
+
+After Houchard's arrest, Jourdan accepted the command, though with many
+misgivings, for the higher ranks were filled by officers with even less
+experience than he had himself, equipment and clothing was wanting, and,
+perhaps more important still, the new levies, instead of filling up the
+depleted ranks of the line, were assembled in undisciplined and
+half-armed hordes at various frontier camps, under elected officers who
+had for the most part never undergone the least training. The field
+states showed a total of 104,000 men, of whom less than a third formed
+the operative army. But an enthusiasm equal to that of Hondschoote, and
+similarly demanding a plain, urgent and recognizable objective, animated
+it, and although Jourdan and Carnot (who was with him at Gaverelle,
+where the army had now reassembled) began to study the general strategic
+situation, the Committee brought them back to realities by ordering them
+to relieve Maubeuge at all costs.
+
+
+  Wattignies.
+
+The Allies disposed in all of 66,000 men around the threatened fortress,
+but 26,000 of these were actually employed in the siege, and the
+remainder, forming the covering army, extended in an enormous semicircle
+of posts facing west, south and east. Thus the Republicans, as before,
+had two men to one at the point of contact (44,000 against 21,000), but
+so formidable was the discipline and steadiness of manoeuvre of the old
+armies that the chances were considered as no more than "rather in
+favour" of the French. Not that these chances were seriously weighed
+before engaging. The generals might squander their energies in the
+council chamber on plans of sieges and expeditions, but in the field
+they were glad enough to seize the opportunity of a battle which they
+were not skilful enough to compel. It took place on the 15th and 16th of
+October, and though the allied right and centre held their ground, on
+their left the plateau of Wattignies (q.v.), from which the battle
+derives its name, was stormed on the second day, Carnot, Jourdan and the
+representatives leading the columns in person. Coburg indeed retired in
+unbroken order, added to which the Maubeuge garrison had failed to
+co-operate with their rescuers by a sortie,[5] and the duke of York had
+hurried up with all the men he could spare from the Flanders cordon. But
+the Dutch generals refused to advance beyond the Sambre, and Coburg
+broke up the siege of Maubeuge and retired whence he had come, while
+Jourdan, so far from pressing forward, was anxiously awaiting a
+counter-attack, and entrenching himself with all possible energy. So
+ended the episode of Wattignies, which, alike in its general outline and
+in its details, gives a perfect picture of the character, at once
+intense and spasmodic, of the "New French" warfare in the days of the
+Terror.
+
+  To complete the story of '93 it remains to sketch, very briefly, the
+  principal events on the eastern and southern frontiers of France.
+  These present, in the main, no special features, and all that it is
+  necessary to retain of them is the fact of their existence. What this
+  multiplication of their tasks meant to the Committee of Public Safety
+  and to Carnot in particular it is impossible to realize. It was not
+  merely on the Sambre and the Scheldt, nor against one army of
+  heterogeneous allies that the Republic had to fight for life, but
+  against Prussians and Hessians on the Rhine, Sardinians in the Alps,
+  Spaniards in the Pyrenees, and also (one might say, indeed, above all)
+  against Frenchmen in Vendee, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon.
+
+  On the Rhine, the advance of a Prussian-Hessian army, 63,000 strong,
+  rapidly drove back Custine from the Main into the valleys of the Saar
+  and the Lauter. An Austrian corps under Wurmser soon afterwards
+  invaded Alsace. Here, as on the northern frontier, there was a long
+  period of trial and error, of denunciations and indiscipline, and of
+  wholly trivial fighting, before the Republicans recovered themselves.
+  But in the end the ragged enthusiasts found their true leader in
+  Lazare Hoche, and, though defeated by Brunswick at Pirmasens and
+  Kaiserslautern, they managed to develop almost their full strength
+  against Wurmser in Alsace. On the 26th of December the latter, who had
+  already undergone a series of partial reverses, was driven by main
+  force from the lines of Weissenburg, after which Hoche advanced into
+  the Palatinate and delivered Landau, and Pichegru moved on to
+  recapture Mainz, which had surrendered in July. On the Spanish
+  frontier both sides indulged in a fruitless war of posts in broken
+  ground. The Italian campaign of 1793, equally unprofitable, will be
+  referred to below. Far more serious than either was the insurrection
+  of Vendee (q.v.) and the counter-revolution in the south of France,
+  the principal incidents of which were the terrible sieges of Lyons and
+  Toulon.
+
+
+  Campaign of 1794.
+
+For 1794 Carnot planned a general advance of all the northern armies,
+that of the North (Pichegru) from Dunkirk-Cassel by Ypres and Oudenarde
+on Brussels, the minor Army of the Ardennes to Charleroi, and the Army
+of the Moselle (Jourdan) to Liege, while between Charleroi and Lille
+demonstrations were to be made against the hostile centre. He counted
+upon little as regards the two armies near the Meuse, but hoped to force
+on a decisive battle by the advance of the left wing towards Ypres.
+Coburg, on the other side, intended, if not forced to develop his
+strength on the Ypres side, to make his main effort against the French
+centre about Landrecies. This produced the siege of Landrecies, which
+need not concern us, a forward movement of the French to Menin and
+Courtrai which resulted in the battles of Tourcoing and Tournai, and the
+campaign of Fleurus, which, almost fortuitously, produced the
+long-sought decision.
+
+The first crisis was brought about by the advance of the left wing of
+the Army of the North, under Souham, to Menin-Courtrai. This advance
+placed Souham in the midst of the enemy's right wing, and at last
+stimulated the Allies into adopting the plan that Mack had advocated, in
+season and out of season, since before Neerwinden--that of _annihilating
+the enemy's army_. This vigorous purpose, and the leading part in its
+execution played by the duke of York and the British contingent, give
+these operations, to Englishmen at any rate, a living interest which is
+entirely lacking in, say, the sieges of Le Quesnoy and Landrecies. On
+the other side, the "New French" armies and their leaders, without
+losing the energy of 1793, had emerged from confusion and inexperience,
+and the powers of the new army and the new system had begun to mature.
+Thus it was a fair trial of strength between the old way and the new.
+
+In the second week of May the left wing of the Army of the North--the
+centre was towards Landrecies, and the right, fused in the Army of the
+Ardennes, towards Charleroi--found itself interposed at
+Menin-Courtrai-Lille between two hostile masses, the main body of the
+allied right wing about Tournai and a secondary corps at Thielt.
+Common-sense, therefore, dictated a converging attack for the Allies and
+a series of rapid radial blows for the French. In the allied camp
+common-sense had first to prevail over routine, and the emperor's first
+orders were for a raid of the Thielt corps towards Ypres, which his
+advisers hoped would of itself cause the French to decamp. But the duke
+of York formed a very different plan, and Feldzeugmeister Clerfayt, in
+command at Thielt, agreed to co-operate. Their proposal was to surround
+the French on the Lys with their two corps, and by the 15th the emperor
+had decided to use larger forces with the same object.
+
+[Illustration: Sketch of French positions about Courtrai, Tourcoing &
+Lille May 16th., 1794]
+
+
+  Mack's "annihilation plan."
+
+On that day Coburg himself, with 6000 men under Feldzeugmeister Kinsky
+from the central (Landrecies) group, entered Tournai and took up the
+general command, while another reinforcement under the archduke Charles
+marched towards Orchies. Orders were promptly issued for a general
+offensive. Clerfayt's corps was to be between Rousselaer and Menin on
+the 16th, and the next day to force its way across the Lys at Werwick
+and connect with the main army. The main army was to advance in four
+columns. The first three, under the duke of York, were to move off, at
+daylight on the 17th, by Dottignies, Leers and Lannoy respectively to
+the line Mouscron-Tourcoing-Mouveaux. The fourth and fifth under Kinsky
+and the archduke Charles were to defeat the French corps on the upper
+Marque, and then, leaving Lille on their left and guaranteeing
+themselves by a cordon system against being cut off from Tournai (either
+by the troops just defeated or by the Lille garrison), to march rapidly
+forward towards Werwick, getting touch on their right with the duke of
+York and on their left with Clerfayt, and thus completing the investing
+circle around Souham's and Moreau's isolated divisions. Speed was
+enjoined on all. Picked volunteers to clear away the enemy's
+skirmishers, and pioneers to make good difficult places on the roads,
+were to precede the heads of the columns. Then came at the head of the
+main body the artillery with an infantry escort. All this might have
+been designed by the Japanese for the attack of some well-defined
+Russian position in the war of 1904. Outpost and skirmisher resistance
+was to be overpowered the instant it was offered, and the attack on the
+closed bodies of the enemy was to be initiated by a heavy artillery fire
+at the earliest possible moment. But in 1904 the Russians stood still,
+which was the last thing that the Revolutionary armies of 1794 would or
+could do. Mack's well-considered and carefully balanced combinations
+failed, and doubtless helped to create the legend of his incapacity,
+which finds no support either in the opinion of Coburg, the
+representative of the old school, or in that of Scharnhorst, the founder
+of the new.
+
+Souham, who commanded in the temporary absence of Pichegru, had formed
+his own plan. Finding himself with the major part of his forces between
+York and Clerfayt, he had decided to impose upon the former by means of
+a covering detachment, and to fall upon Clerfayt near Rousselaer with
+the bulk of his forces. This plan, based as it was on a sound
+calculation of time, space, strength and endurance, merits close
+consideration, for it contains more than a trace of the essential
+principles of modern strategy, yet with one vital difference, that
+whereas, in the present case, the factor of the enemy's independent will
+wrecked the scheme, Napoleon would have guaranteed to himself, before
+and during its development, the power of executing it in spite of the
+enemy. The appearance of fresh allied troops (Kinsky) on his right front
+at once modified these general arrangements. Divining Coburg's
+intentions from the arrival of the enemy near Pont-a-Marque and at
+Lannoy, he ordered Bonnaud (Lille group, 27,000) to leave enough troops
+on the upper Marque to amuse the enemy's leftmost columns, and with
+every man he had left beyond this absolute minimum to attack the left
+flank of the columns moving towards Tourcoing, which his weak centre
+(12,000 men at Tourcoing, Mouscron and Roubaix) was to stop by frontal
+defence. No role was as yet assigned to the principal mass (50,000 under
+Moreau) about Courtrai. Vandamme's brigade was to extend along the Lys
+from Menin to Werwick and beyond, to deny as long as possible the
+passage to Clerfayt.
+
+This second plan failed like the first, because the enemy's counter-will
+was not controlled. All along the line Coburg's advance compelled the
+French to fight as they were without any redistribution. But the French
+were sufficiently elastic to adapt themselves readily to unforeseen
+conditions, and on Coburg's side too the unexpected happened. When
+Clerfayt appeared on the Lys above Menin, he found Werwick held. This
+was an accident, for the battalion there was on its way to Menin, and
+Vandamme, who had not yet received his new orders, was still far away.
+But the battalion fought boldly, Clerfayt sent for his pontoons, and ere
+they arrived Vandamme's leading troops managed to come up on the other
+side. Thus it was not till 1 A.M. on the 18th that the first Austrian
+battalions passed the Lys.
+
+On the front of the main allied group the "annihilation plan" was
+crippled at the outset by the tardiness of the archduke's (fifth or
+left) column. On this the smooth working of the whole scheme depended,
+for Coburg considered that he must _defeat_ Bonnaud before carrying out
+his intended envelopment of the Menin-Courtrai group (the idea of
+"binding" the enemy by a detachment while the main scheme proceeded had
+not yet arisen). The allied general, indeed, on discovering the
+backwardness of the archduke, went so far as to order all the other
+columns to begin by swerving southward against Bonnaud, but these were
+already too deeply committed to the original plan to execute any new
+variation.
+
+The rightmost column (Hanoverians) under von dem Bussche moved on
+Mouscron, overpowering the fragmentary, if energetic, resistance of the
+French advanced posts. Next on the left, Lieutenant Field Marshal Otto
+moved by Leers and Watrelos, driving away a French post at Lis (near
+Lannoy) on his left flank, and entered Tourcoing. But meantime a French
+brigade had driven von dem Bussche away from Mouscron, so that Otto felt
+compelled to keep troops at Leers and Watrelos to protect his rear,
+which seriously weakened his hold on Tourcoing. The third column, led by
+the duke of York, advanced from Templeuve on Lannoy, at the same time
+securing its left by expelling the French from Willems. Lannoy was
+stormed by the British Guards under Sir R. Abercromby with such vigour
+that the cavalry which had been sent round the village to cut off the
+French retreat had no time to get into position. Beyond Lannoy, the
+French resistance, still disjointed, became more obstinate as the
+ground favoured it more, and the duke called up the Austrians from
+Willems to turn the right of the French position at Roubaix by way of a
+small valley. Once again, however, the Guards dislodged the enemy before
+the turning movement had taken effect. A third French position now
+appeared, at Mouvaux, and this seemed so formidable that the duke halted
+to rest his now weary men. The emperor himself, however, ordered the
+advance to be resumed, and Mouvaux too was carried by Abercromby. It was
+now nightfall, and the duke having attained his objective point prepared
+to hold it against a counter attack.
+
+Kinsky meanwhile with the fourth column had made feints opposite
+Pont-a-Tressin, and had forced the passage of the Marque near Bouvines
+with his main body. But Bonnaud gave ground so slowly that up to 4 P.M.
+Kinsky had only progressed a few hundred paces from his crossing point.
+The fifth column, which was behind time on the 16th, did not arrive at
+Orchies till dawn on the 17th, and had to halt there for rest and food.
+Thence, moving across country in fighting formation, the archduke made
+his way to Pont-a-Marque. But he was unable to do more, before calling a
+halt, than deploy his troops on the other side of the stream.
+
+So closed the first day's operations. The "annihilation plan" had
+already undergone a serious check. The archduke and Kinsky, instead of
+being ready for the second part of their task, had scarcely completed
+the first, and the same could be said of Clerfayt, while von dem Bussche
+had definitively failed. Only the duke of York and Otto had done their
+share in the centre, and they now stood at Tourcoing and Mouvaux
+isolated in the midst of the enemy's main body, with no hope of support
+from the other columns and no more than a chance of meeting Clerfayt.
+Coburg's entire force was, without deducting losses, no more than 53,000
+for a front of 18 m., and only half of the enemy's available 80,000 men
+had as yet been engaged. Mack sent a staff officer, at 1 A.M., to
+implore the archduke to come up to Lannoy at once, but the young prince
+was asleep and his suite refused to wake him.
+
+Matters did not, of course, present themselves in this light at Souham's
+headquarters, where the generals met in an informal council. The project
+of flinging Bonnaud's corps against the flank of the duke of York had
+not received even a beginning of execution, and the outposts, reinforced
+though they were from the main group, had everywhere been driven in. All
+the subordinate leaders, moreover (except Bonnaud), sent in the most
+despondent reports. "Councils of war never fight" is an old maxim,
+justified in ninety-nine cases in a hundred. But this council determined
+to do so, and with all possible vigour. The scheme was practically that
+which Coburg's first threat had produced and his first brusque advance
+had inhibited. Vandamme was to hold Clerfayt, the garrison of Lille and
+a few outlying corps to occupy the archduke and Kinsky, and in the
+centre Moreau and Bonnaud, with 40,000 effectives, were to attack the
+Tourcoing-Mouvaux position in front and flank at dawn with all possible
+energy.
+
+
+  Battle of Tourcoing.
+
+The first shots were fired on the Lys, where, it will be remembered,
+Clerfayt's infantry had effected its crossing in the night. Vandamme,
+who was to defend the river, had in the evening assembled his troops
+(fatigued by a long march) near Menin instead of pushing on at once.
+Thus only one of his battalions had taken part in the defence of Werwick
+on the 17th, and the remainder were by this chance massed on the flank
+of Clerfayt's subsequent line of advance. Vandamme used his advantage
+well. He attacked, with perhaps 12,000 men against 21,000, the head and
+the middle of Clerfayt's columns as they moved on Lincelles. Clerfayt
+stopped at once, turned upon him and drove him towards Roncq and Menin.
+Still, fighting in succession, rallying and fighting again, Vandamme's
+regiments managed to spin out time and to commit Clerfayt deeper and
+deeper to a false direction till it was too late in the day to influence
+the battle elsewhere.
+
+V. dem Bussche's column at Dottignies, shaken by the blow it had
+received the day before, did nothing, and actually retreated to the
+Scheldt. On the other flank, Kinsky and the archduke Charles
+practically remained inactive despite repeated orders to proceed to
+Lannoy, Kinsky waiting for the archduke, and the latter using up his
+time and forces in elaborating a protective cordon all around his left
+and rear. Both alleged that "the troops were tired," but there was a
+stronger motive. It was felt that Belgium was about to be handed over to
+France as the price of peace, and the generals did not see the force of
+wasting soldiers on a lost cause. There remained the two centre columns,
+Otto's and the duke of York's. The orders of the emperor to the duke
+were that he should advance to establish communication with Clerfayt at
+Lincelles. Having thus cut off the French Courtrai group, he was to
+initiate a general advance to crush it, in which all the allied columns
+would take part, Clerfayt, York and Otto in front, von dem Bussche on
+the right flank and the archduke and Kinsky in support. These airy
+schemes were destroyed at dawn on the 18th. Macdonald's brigade carried
+Tourcoing at the first rush, though Otto's guns and the volleys of the
+infantry checked its further progress. Malbrancq's brigade swarmed
+around the duke of York's entrenchments at Mouvaux, while Bonnaud's mass
+from the side of Lille passed the Marque and lapped round the flanks of
+the British posts at Roubaix and Lannoy. The duke had used up his
+reserves in assisting Otto, and by 8 A.M. the positions of Roubaix,
+Lannoy and Mouvaux were isolated from each other. But the Allies fought
+magnificently, and by now the Republicans were in confusion, excited to
+the highest pitch and therefore extremely sensitive to waves of
+enthusiasm or panic; and at this moment Clerfayt was nearing success,
+and Vandamme fighting almost back to back with Malbrancq. Otto was able
+to retire gradually, though with heavy losses, to Leers, before
+Macdonald's left column was able to storm Watrelos, or Daendels'
+brigade, still farther towards the Scheldt, could reach his rear. The
+resistance of the Austrians gave breathing space to the English, who
+held on to their positions till about 11.30, attacked again and again by
+Bonnaud, and then, not without confusion, retired to join Otto at Leers.
+
+With the retreat of the two sorely tried columns and the suspension of
+Clerfayt's attack between Lincelles and Roncq, the battle of Tourcoing
+ended. It was a victory of which the young French generals had reason to
+be proud. The main attack was vigorously conducted, and the two-to-one
+numerical superiority which the French possessed at the decisive point
+is the best testimony at once to Souham's generalship and to Vandamme's
+bravery. As for the Allies, those of them who took part in the battle at
+all, generals and soldiers, covered themselves with glory, but the
+inaction of two-thirds of Coburg's army was the bankruptcy declaration
+of the old strategical system. The Allies lost, on this day, about 4000
+killed and wounded and 1500 prisoners besides 60 guns. The French loss,
+which was probably heavier, is not known. The duke of York defeated,
+Souham at once turned his attention to Clerfayt, against whom he
+directed all the forces he could gather after a day's "horde-tactics."
+The Austrian commander, however, withdrew over the river unharmed. On
+the 19th he was at Rousselaer and Ingelminster, 9 or 10 m. north of
+Courtrai, while Coburg's forces assembled and encamped in a strong
+position some 3 m. west and north-west of Tournai, the Hanoverians
+remaining out in advance of the right on the Espierre.
+
+Souham's victory, thanks to his geographical position, had merely given
+him air. The Allies, except for the loss of some 5500 men, were in no
+way worse off. The plan had failed, but the army as a whole had not been
+defeated, while the troops of the duke of York and Otto were far too
+well disciplined not to take their defeat as "all in the day's work."
+Souham was still on the Lys and midway between the two allied masses,
+able to strike each in turn or liable to be crushed between them in
+proportion as the opposing generals calculated time, space and endurance
+accurately. Souham, therefore, as early as the 19th, had decided that
+until Clerfayt had been pushed back to his old positions near Thielt he
+could not deal with the main body of the Allies on the side of Tournai,
+and he had left Bonnaud to hold the latter while he concentrated most of
+his forces towards Courtrai. This move had the desired effect, for
+Clerfayt retired without a contest, and on the 21st of May Souham issued
+his orders for an advance on Coburg's army, which, as he knew, had
+meantime been reinforced. Vandamme alone was left to face Clerfayt, and
+this time with outposts far out, at Ingelminster and Roosebeke, so as to
+ensure his chief, not a few hours', but two or three days' freedom from
+interference.
+
+
+  Battle of Tournai.
+
+Pichegru now returned and took up the supreme command, Souham remaining
+in charge of his own and Moreau's divisions. On the extreme right, from
+Pont-a-Tressin, only demonstrations were to be made; the centre, between
+Baisieux and Estaimbourg, was to be the scene of the holding attack of
+Bonnaud's command, while Souham, in considerably greater density,
+delivered the decisive attack on the allied right by St Leger and
+Warcoing. At Helchin a brigade was to guard the outer flank of the
+assailants against a movement by the Hanoverians and to keep open
+communication with Courtrai in case of attack from the direction of
+Oudenarde. The details of the allied position were insufficiently known
+owing to the multiplicity of their advanced posts and the intricate and
+densely cultivated nature of the ground. The battle of Tournai opened in
+the early morning of the 22nd and was long and desperately contested.
+The demonstration on the French extreme right was soon recognized by the
+defenders to be negligible, and the allied left wing thereupon closed on
+the centre. There Bonnaud attacked with vigour, forcing back the various
+advanced posts, especially on the left, where he dislodged the Allies
+from Nechin. The defenders of Templeuve then fell back, and the
+attacking swarms--a dissolved line of battle--fringed the brook beyond
+Templeuve, on the other side of which was the Allies' main position, and
+even for a moment seized Blandain. Meanwhile the French at Nechin, in
+concert with the main attack, pressed on towards Ramegnies.
+
+Macdonald's and other brigades had forced the Espierre rivulet and
+driven von dem Bussche's Hanoverians partly over the Scheldt (they had a
+pontoon bridge), partly southward. The main front of the Allies was
+defined by the brook that flows between Templeuve and Blandain, then
+between Ramegnies and Pont-a-Chin and empties into the Scheldt near the
+last-named hamlet. On this front till close on nightfall a fierce battle
+raged. Pichegru's main attack was still by his left, and Pont-a-Chin was
+taken and retaken by French, Austrians, British and Hanoverians in turn.
+Between Blandain and Pont-a-Chin Bonnaud's troops more than once entered
+the line of defence. But the attack was definitively broken off at
+nightfall and the Republicans withdrew slowly towards Lannoy and Leers.
+They had for the first time in a fiercely contested "soldier's battle"
+measured their strength, regiment for regiment, against the Allies, and
+failed, but by so narrow a margin that henceforward the Army of the
+North realized its own strength and solidity. The Army of the
+Revolution, already superior in numbers and imbued with the
+decision-compelling spirit, had at last achieved self-confidence.
+
+But the actual decision was destined by a curious process of evolution
+to be given by Jourdan's far-distant Army of the Moselle, to which we
+now turn.
+
+The Army of the Moselle had been ordered to assemble a striking force on
+its left wing, without prejudicing the rest of its cordon in Lorraine,
+and with this striking force to operate towards Liege and Namur. Its
+first movement on Arlon, in April, was repulsed by a small Austrian
+corps under Beaulieu that guarded this region. But in the beginning of
+May the advance was resumed though the troops were ill-equipped and
+ill-fed, and requisitions had reduced the civil population to
+semi-starvation and sullen hostility. We quote Jourdan's instructions to
+his advanced guard, not merely as evidence of the trivial purpose of the
+march as originally planned, but still more as an illustration of the
+driving power that made the troops march at all, and of the new method
+of marching and subsisting them.
+
+
+  Jourdan's movement on Liege.
+
+Its commander was "to keep in mind the purpose of cutting the
+communications between Luxemburg and Namur, and was therefore to throw
+out strong bodies against the enemy daily and at different points, to
+parry the enemy's movements by rapid marches, to prevent any transfer
+of troops to Belgium, and lastly to seek an occasion for giving battle,
+for cutting off his convoys and for seizing his magazines." So much for
+the purpose. The method of achieving it is defined as follows. "General
+Hatry, in order to attain the object of these instructions, will have
+with him the minimum of wagons. He is to live at the expense of the
+enemy as much as possible, and to send back into the interior of the
+Republic whatever may be useful to it; he will maintain his
+communications with Longwy, report every movement to me, and when
+necessary to the Committee of Public Safety and to the minister of war,
+maintain order and discipline, and firmly oppose every sort of pillage."
+How the last of these instructions was to be reconciled with the rest,
+Hatry was not informed. In fact, it was ignored. "I am far from
+believing," wrote the representative on mission Gillet, "that we ought
+to adopt the principles of philanthropy with which we began the war."
+
+At the moment when, on these terms, Jourdan's advance was resumed, the
+general situation east of the Scheldt was as follows: The Allies' centre
+under Coburg had captured Landrecies, and now (May 4) lay around that
+place, about 65,000 strong, while the left under Kaunitz (27,000) was
+somewhat north of Maubeuge, with detachments south of the Sambre as far
+as the Meuse. Beyond these again were the detachment of Beaulieu (8000)
+near Arlon, and another, 9000 strong, around Trier. On the side of the
+French, the Army of the Moselle (41,000 effectives) was in cordon
+between Saargemund and Longwy; the Army of the Ardennes (22,000) between
+Beaumont and Givet; of the Army of the North, the right wing (38,000) in
+the area Beaumont--Maubeuge and the centre (24,000) about Guise. In the
+aggregate the allied field armies numbered 139,000 men, those of the
+French 203,000. Tactically the disproportion was sufficient to give the
+latter the victory, if, strategically, it could be made effective at a
+given time and place. But the French had mobility as a remedy for
+over-extension, and though their close massing on the extreme flanks
+left no more than equal forces opposite Coburg in the centre, the latter
+felt unable either to go forward or to close to one flank when on his
+right the storm was brewing at Menin and Tournai, and on his left
+Kaunitz reported the gathering of important masses of the French around
+Beaumont.
+
+Thus the initiative passed over to the French, but they missed their
+opportunity, as Coburg had missed his in 1793. Pichegru's right was
+ordered to march on Mons, and his left to master the navigation of the
+Scheldt so as to reduce the Allies to wagon-drawn supplies--the latter
+an objective dear to the 18th-century general; while Jourdan's task, as
+we know, was to conquer the Liege or Namur country without unduly
+stripping the cordon on the Saar and the Moselle. Jourdan's orders and
+original purpose were to get Beaulieu out of his way by the usual
+strategical tricks, and to march through the Ardennes as rapidly as
+possible, living on what supplies he could pick up from the enemy or the
+inhabitants. But he had scarcely started when Beaulieu made his
+existence felt by attacking a French post at Bouillon. Thereupon Jourdan
+made the active enemy, instead of Namur, his first object.
+
+The movement of the operative portion of the Army of the Moselle began
+on the 21st of May from Longwy through Arlon towards Neufchateau.
+Irregular fighting, sometimes with the Austrians, sometimes with the
+bitterly hostile inhabitants, marked its progress. Beaulieu was nowhere
+forced into a battle. But fortune was on Jourdan's side. The Austrians
+were a detachment of Coburg's army, not an independent force, and when
+threatened they retired towards Ciney, drawing Jourdan after them in the
+very direction in which he desired to go. On the 28th the French, after
+a vain detour made in the hope of forcing Beaulieu to fight--"les
+esclaves n'osent pas se mesurer avec des hommes libres," wrote Jourdan
+in disgust,--reached Ciney, and there heard that the enemy had fallen
+back to a strongly entrenched position on the east bank of the Meuse
+near Namur. Jourdan was preparing to attack them there, when
+considerations of quite another kind intervened to change his direction,
+and thereby to produce the drama of Charleroi and Fleurus--which
+military historians have asserted to be the foreseen result of the
+initial plan.
+
+The method of "living on the country" had failed lamentably in the
+Ardennes, and Jourdan, though he had spoken of changing his line of
+supply from Arlon to Carignan, then to Mezieres and so on as his march
+progressed, was still actually living from hand to mouth on the convoys
+that arrived intermittently from his original base. When he sought to
+take what he needed from the towns on the Meuse, he infringed on the
+preserves of the Army of the Ardennes.[6] The advance, therefore, came
+for the moment to a standstill, while Beaulieu, solicitous for the
+safety of Charleroi--in which fortress he had a magazine--called up the
+outlying troops left behind on the Moselle to rejoin him by way of
+Bastogne. At the same moment (29th) Jourdan received new orders from
+Paris--(a) to take Dinant and Charleroi and to clear the country between
+the Meuse and the Sambre, and (b) to attack Namur, either by assault or
+by regular siege. In the latter case the bulk of the forces were to form
+a covering army beyond the place, to demonstrate towards Nivelles,
+Louvain and Liege, and to serve at need as a support to the right flank
+of the Ardennes Army. From these orders and from the action of the enemy
+the campaign at last took a definite shape.
+
+
+  Charleroi.
+
+When the Army of the Moselle passed over to the left bank of the Meuse,
+it was greeted by the distant roar of guns towards Charleroi and by news
+that the Army of the Ardennes, which had already twice been defeated by
+Kaunitz, was for the third time deeply and unsuccessfully engaged beyond
+the Sambre. The resumption of the march again complicated the supply
+question, and it was only slowly that the army advanced towards
+Charleroi, sweeping the country before it and extending its right
+towards Namur. But at last on the 3rd of June the concentration of parts
+of three armies on the Sambre was effected. Jourdan took command of the
+united force (Army of the Sambre and Meuse) with a strong hand, the
+40,000 new-comers inspired fresh courage in the beaten Ardennes troops,
+and in the sudden dominating enthusiasm of the moment pillaging and
+straggling almost ceased. Troops that had secured bread shared it with
+less fortunate comrades, and even the Liegois peasantry made free gifts
+of supplies. "We must believe," says the French general staff of to-day,
+"that the idea symbolized by the Tricolour, around which marched ever
+these sansculottes, shoeless and hungry, unchained a mysterious force
+that preceded our columns and aided the achievement of military
+success."
+
+Friction, however, arose between Jourdan and the generals of the
+Ardennes Army, to whom the representatives thought it well to give a
+separate mission. This detachment of 18,000 men was followed by another,
+of 16,000, to keep touch with Maubeuge. Deducting another 6000 for the
+siege of Charleroi, when this should be made, the covering army destined
+to fight the Imperialists dwindled to 55,000 out of 96,000 effectives.
+Even now, we see, the objective was not primarily the enemy's army. The
+Republican leaders desired to strike out beyond the Sambre, and as a
+preliminary to capture Charleroi. They would not, however, risk the loss
+of their connexion with Maubeuge before attaining the new foothold.
+
+Meanwhile, Tourcoing and Tournai had at last convinced Coburg that
+Pichegru was his most threatening opponent, and he had therefore, though
+with many misgivings, decided to move towards his right, leaving the
+prince of Orange with not more than 45,000 men on the side of
+Maubeuge-Charleroi-Namur.
+
+Jourdan crossed the Sambre on the 12th of June, practically unopposed.
+Charleroi was rapidly invested and the covering army extended in a
+semicircular position. For the fourth time the Allies counter-attacked
+successfully, and after a severe struggle the French had to abandon
+their positions and their siege works and to recross the Sambre (June
+16). But the army was not beaten. On the contrary, it was only desirous
+of having its revenge for a stroke of ill-fortune, due, the soldiers
+said, to the fog and to the want of ammunition. The fierce threats of
+St Just (who had joined the army) to _faire tomber les tetes_ if more
+energy were not shown were unnecessary, and within two days the army was
+advancing again. On the 18th Jourdan's columns recrossed the river and
+extended around Charleroi in the same positions as before. This time,
+having in view the weariness of his troops and their heavy losses on the
+16th, the prince of Orange allowed the siege to proceed. His reasons for
+so doing furnish an excellent illustration of the different ideas and
+capacities of a professional army and a "nation in arms." "The Imperial
+troops," wrote General Alvintzi, "are very fatigued. We have fought nine
+times since the 10th of May, we have bivouacked constantly, and made
+forced marches. Further, we are short of officers." All this, it need
+hardly be pointed out, applied equally to the French.
+
+Charleroi, garrisoned by less than 3000 men, was intimidated into
+surrender (25th) when the third parallel was barely established. Thus
+the object of the first operations was achieved. As to the next neither
+Jourdan nor the representatives seem to have had anything further in
+view than the capture of more fortresses. But within twenty-four hours
+events had decided for them.
+
+Coburg had quickly abandoned his intention of closing on his right wing,
+and (after the usual difficulties with his Allies on that side) had
+withdrawn 12,000 Austrians from the centre of his cordon opposite
+Pichegru, and made forced marches to join the prince of Orange. On the
+24th of June he had collected 52,000 men at various points round
+Charleroi, and on the 25th he set out to relieve the little fortress.
+But he was in complete ignorance of the state of affairs at Charleroi.
+Signal guns were fired, but the woods drowned even the roar of the siege
+batteries, and at last a party under Lieutenant Radetzky made its way
+through the covering army and discovered that the place had fallen. The
+party was destroyed on its return, but Radetzky was reserved for greater
+things. He managed, though twice wounded, to rejoin Coburg with his bad
+news in the midst of the battle of Fleurus.
+
+On the 26th Jourdan's army (now some 73,000 strong) was still posted in
+a semicircle of entrenched posts, 20 m. in extent, round the captured
+town, pending the removal of the now unnecessary pontoon bridge at
+Marchiennes and the selection of a shorter line of defence.
+
+
+  Fleurus.
+
+Coburg was still more widely extended. Inferior in numbers as he was, he
+proposed to attack on an equal front, and thus gave himself, for the
+attack of an entrenched position, an order of battle of three men to
+every two yards of front, all reserves included. The Allies were to
+attack in five columns, the prince of Orange from the west and
+north-west towards Trazegnies and Monceau wood, Quasdanovich from the
+north on Gosselies, Kaunitz from the north-east, the archduke Charles
+from the east through Fleurus, and finally Beaulieu towards Lambusart.
+The scheme was worked out in such minute detail and with so entire a
+disregard of the chance of unforeseen incidents, that once he had given
+the executive command to move, the Austrian general could do no more. If
+every detail worked out as planned, victory would be his; if accidents
+happened he could do nothing to redress them, and unless these righted
+themselves (which was improbable in the case of the stiffly organized
+old armies) he could only send round the order to break off the action
+and retreat.
+
+In these circumstances the battle of Fleurus is the sum rather than the
+product of the various fights that took place between each allied column
+and the French division that it met. The prince of Orange attacked at
+earliest dawn and gradually drove in the French left wing to Courcelles,
+Roux and Marchiennes, but somewhat after noon the French, under the
+direction for the most part of Kleber, began a series of counterstrokes
+which recovered the lost ground, and about 5, without waiting for
+Coburg's instructions, the prince retired north-westward off the
+battlefield. The French centre division, under Morlot, made a gradual
+fighting retreat on Gosselies, followed up by the Quasdanovich column
+and part of Kaunitz's force. No serious impression was made on the
+defenders, chiefly because the brook west of Mellet was a serious
+obstacle to the rigid order of the Allies and had to be bridged before
+their guns could be got over. Kaunitz's column and Championnet's
+division met on the battlefield of 1690. The French were gradually
+driven in from the outlying villages to their main position between
+Heppignies and Wangenies. Here the Allies, well led and taking every
+advantage of ground and momentary chances, had the best of it. They
+pressed the French hard, necessitated the intervention of such small
+reserves as Jourdan had available, and only gave way to the defenders'
+counterstroke at the moment they received Coburg's orders for a general
+retreat.
+
+On the allied left wing the fighting was closer and more severe than at
+any point. Beaulieu on the extreme left advanced upon Velaine and the
+French positions in the woods to the south in several small groups of
+all arms. Here were the divisions of the Army of the Ardennes, markedly
+inferior in discipline and endurance to the rest, and only too mindful
+of their four previous reverses. For six hours, more or less, they
+resisted the oncoming Allies, but then, in spite of the example and the
+despairing appeals of their young general Marceau, they broke and fled,
+leaving Beaulieu free to combine with the archduke Charles, who carried
+Fleurus after obstinate fighting, and then pressed on towards
+Campinaire. Beaulieu took command of all the allied forces on this side
+about noon, and from then to 5 P.M. launched a series of terrible
+attacks on the French (Lefebvre's division, part of the general reserve,
+and the remnant of Marceau's troops) above Campinaire and Lambusart. The
+disciplined resolution of the imperial battalions, and the enthusiasm of
+the French Revolutionaries, were each at their height. The Austrians
+came on time after time over ground that was practically destitute of
+cover. Villages, farms and fields of corn caught fire. The French grew
+more and more excited--"No retreat to-day!" they called out to their
+leaders, and finally, clamouring to be led against the enemy, they had
+their wish. Lefebvre seized the psychological moment when the fourth
+attack of the Allies had failed, and (though he did not know it) the
+order to retreat had come from Coburg. The losses of the unit that
+delivered it were small, for the charge exactly responded to the moral
+conditions of the moment, but the proportion of killed to wounded (55 to
+81) is good evidence of the intensity of the momentary conflict.
+
+So ended the battle. Coburg had by now learned definitely that Charleroi
+had surrendered, and while the issue of the battle was still
+doubtful--for though the prince of Orange was beaten, Beaulieu was in
+the full tide of success--he gave (towards 3 P.M.) the order for a
+general retreat. This was delivered to the various commanders between 4
+and 5, and these, having their men in hand even in the heat of the
+engagement, were able to break off the battle without undue confusion.
+The French were far too exhausted to pursue them (they had lost twice as
+many men as the Allies), and their leader had practically no formed body
+at hand to follow up the victory, thanks to the extraordinary
+dissemination of the army.
+
+  Tourcoing, Tournay and Fleurus represent the maximum result achievable
+  under the earlier Revolutionary system of making war, and show the men
+  and the leaders at the highest point of combined steadiness and
+  enthusiasm they ever reached--that is, as a "Sansculotte" army.
+  Fleurus was also the last great victory of the French, in point of
+  time, prior to the advent of Napoleon, and may therefore be considered
+  as illustrating the general conditions of warfare at one of the most
+  important points in its development.
+
+  The sequel of these battles can be told in a few words. The Austrian
+  government had, it is said, long ago decided to evacuate the
+  Netherlands, and Coburg retired over the Meuse, practically unpursued,
+  while the duke of York's forces fell back in good order, though
+  pursued by Pichegru through Flanders. The English contingent embarked
+  for home, the rest retired through Holland into Hanoverian territory,
+  leaving the Dutch troops to surrender to the victors. The last phase
+  of the pursuit reflected great glory on Pichegru, for it was conducted
+  in midwinter through a country bare of supplies and densely
+  intersected with dykes and meres. The crowning incident was the
+  dramatic capture of the Dutch fleet, frozen in at the Texel, by a
+  handful of hussars who rode over the ice and browbeat the crews of the
+  well-armed battleships into surrender. It was many years before a
+  prince of Orange ruled again in the United provinces, while the
+  Austrian whitecoats never again mounted guard in Brussels.
+
+  The Rhine campaign of 1794, waged as before chiefly by the Prussians,
+  was not of great importance. General v. Mollendorf won a victory at
+  Kaiserslautern on the 23rd of May, but operations thereafter became
+  spasmodic, and were soon complicated by Coburg's retreat over the
+  Meuse. With this event the offensive of the Allies against the French
+  Revolution came to an inglorious end. Poland now occupied the thoughts
+  of European statesmen, and Austria began to draw her forces on to the
+  east. England stopped the payment of subsidies, and Prussia made the
+  Peace of Basel on the 5th of April 1795. On the Spanish frontier the
+  French under General Dugommier (who was killed in the last battle)
+  were successful in almost every encounter, and Spain, too, made peace.
+  Only the eternal enemies, France and Austria, were left face to face
+  on the Rhine, and elsewhere, of all the Allies, Sardinia alone (see
+  below under _Italian Campaigns_) continued the struggle in a
+  half-hearted fashion.
+
+  The operations of 1795 on the Rhine present no feature of the
+  Revolutionary Wars that other and more interesting campaigns fail to
+  show. Austria had two armies on foot under the general command of
+  Clerfayt, one on the upper Rhine, the other south of the Main, while
+  Mainz was held by an army of imperial contingents. The French, Jourdan
+  on the lower; Pichegru on the upper Rhine, had as usual superior
+  numbers at their disposal. Jourdan combined a demonstrative frontal
+  attack on Neuwied with an advance in force via Dusseldorf, reunited
+  his wings beyond the river near Neuwied, and drove back the Austrians
+  in a series of small engagements to the Main, while Pichegru passed at
+  Mannheim and advanced towards the Neckar. But ere long both were
+  beaten, Jourdan at Hochst and Pichegru at Mannheim, and the investment
+  of Mainz had to be abandoned. This was followed by the invasion of the
+  Palatinate by Clerfayt and the retreat of Jourdan to the Moselle. The
+  position was further compromised by secret negotiations between
+  Pichegru and the enemy for the restoration of the Bourbons. The
+  meditated treason came to light early in the following year, and the
+  guilty commander disappeared into the obscure ranks of the royalist
+  secret agents till finally brought to justice in 1804.
+
+
+THE CAMPAIGN OF 1796 IN GERMANY
+
+The wonder of Europe now transferred itself from the drama of the French
+Revolution to the equally absorbing drama of a great war on the Rhine.
+"Every day, for four terrible years," wrote a German pamphleteer early
+in 1796, "has surpassed the one before it in grandeur and terror, and
+to-day surpasses all in dizzy sublimity." That a manoeuvre on the Lahn
+should possess an interest to the peoples of Europe surpassing that of
+the Reign of Terror is indeed hardly imaginable, but there was a good
+reason for the tense expectancy that prevailed everywhere. France's
+policy was no longer defensive. She aimed at invading and
+"revolutionizing" the monarchies and principalities of old Europe, and
+to this end the campaign of 1796 was to be the great and conclusive
+effort. The "liberation of the oppressed" had its part in the decision,
+and the glory of freeing the serf easily merged itself in the glory of
+defeating the serf's masters. But a still more pressing motive for
+carrying the war into the enemy's country was the fact that France and
+the lands she had overrun could no longer subsist her armies. The
+Directory frankly told its generals, when they complained that their men
+were starving and ragged, that they would find plenty of subsistence
+beyond the Rhine.
+
+On her part, Austria, no longer fettered by allied contingents nor by
+the expenses of a far distant campaign, could put forth more strength
+than on former campaigns, and as war came nearer home and the citizen
+saw himself threatened by "revolutionizing" and devastating armies, he
+ceased to hamper or to swindle the troops. Thus the duel took place on
+the grandest scale then known in the history of European armies. Apart
+from the secondary theatre of Italy, the area embraced in the struggle
+was a vast triangle extending from Dusseldorf to Basel and thence to
+Ratisbon, and Carnot sketched the outlines in accordance with the scale
+of the picture. He imagined nothing less than the union of the armies of
+the Rhine and the Riviera before the walls of Vienna. Its practicability
+cannot here be discussed, but it is worth contrasting the attitude of
+contemporaries and of later strategical theorists towards it. The
+former, with their empirical knowledge of war, merely thought it
+impracticable with the available means, but the latter have condemned it
+root and branch as "an operation on exterior lines."
+
+
+  Jourdan and Moreau.
+
+The scheme took shape only gradually. The first advance was made partly
+in search of food, partly to disengage the Palatinate, which Clerfayt
+had conquered in 1795. "If you have reason to believe that you would
+find some supplies on the Lahn, hasten thither with the greater part of
+your forces," wrote the Directory to Jourdan (Army of the
+Sambre-and-Meuse, 72,000) on the 29th of March. He was to move at once,
+before the Austrians could concentrate, and to pass the Rhine at
+Dusseldorf, thereby bringing back the centre of the enemy over the
+river. He was, further, to take every advantage of their want of
+concentration to deliver blow after blow, and to do his utmost to break
+them up completely. A fortnight later Moreau (Army of the
+Rhine-and-Moselle, 78,000) was ordered to take advantage of Jourdan's
+move, which would draw most of the Austrian forces to the Mainz region,
+to enter the Breisgau and Suabia. "You will attack Austria at home, and
+capture her magazines. You will enter a new country, the resources of
+which, properly handled, should suffice for the needs of the Army of the
+Rhine-and-Moselle."
+
+Jourdan, therefore, was to take upon himself the destruction of the
+enemy, Moreau the invasion of South Germany. The first object of both
+was to subsist their armies beyond the Rhine, the second to defeat the
+armies and terrorize the populations of the empire. Under these
+instructions the campaign opened. Jourdan crossed at Dusseldorf and
+reached the Lahn, but the enemy concentrated against him very swiftly
+and he had to retire over the river. Still, if he had not been able to
+"break them up completely," he had at any rate drawn on himself the
+weight of the Austrian army, and enabled Moreau to cross at Strassburg
+without much difficulty.
+
+The Austrians were now commanded by the archduke Charles, who, after all
+detachments had been made, disposed of some 56,000 men. At first he
+employed the bulk of this force against Jourdan, but on hearing of
+Moreau's progress he returned to the Neckar country with 20,000 men,
+leaving Feldzeugmeister v. Wartensleben with 36,000 to observe Jourdan.
+In later years he admitted himself that his own force was far too small
+to deal with Moreau, who, he probably thought, would retire after a few
+manoeuvres.
+
+
+  The archduke's plan.
+
+But by now the two French generals were aiming at something more than
+alternate raids and feints. Carnot had set before them the ideal of a
+decisive battle as the great object. Jourdan was instructed, if the
+archduke turned on Moreau, to follow him up with all speed and to bring
+him to action. Moreau, too, was not retreating but advancing. The two
+armies, Moreau's and the archduke's, met in a straggling and indecisive
+battle at Malsch on the 9th of July, and soon afterwards Charles learned
+that Jourdan had recrossed the Rhine and was driving Wartensleben before
+him. He thereupon retired both armies from the Rhine valley into the
+interior, hoping that at least the French would detach large forces to
+besiege the river fortresses. Disappointed of this, and compelled to
+face a very grave situation, he resorted to an expedient which may be
+described in his own words: "to retire both armies step by step without
+committing himself to a battle, and to seize the first opportunity to
+unite them so as to throw himself with superior or at least equal
+strength on one of the two hostile enemies." This is the ever-recurring
+idea of "interior lines." It was not new, for Frederick the Great had
+used similar means in similar circumstances, as had Souham at Tourcoing
+and even Dampierre at Valenciennes. Nor was it differentiated, as were
+Napoleon's operations in this same year, by the deliberate use of a
+small containing force at one point to obtain relative superiority at
+another. A general of the 18th century did not believe in the efficacy
+of superior numbers--had not Frederick the Great disproved it?--and for
+him operations on "interior lines" were simply successive blows at
+successive targets, the efficacy of the blow in each case being
+dependent chiefly on his own personal qualities and skill as a general
+on the field of battle. In the present case the point to be observed is
+not the expedient, which was dictated by the circumstances, but the
+courage of the young general, who, unlike Wartensleben and the rest of
+his generals, unlike, too, Moreau and Jourdan themselves, surmounted
+difficulties instead of lamenting them.
+
+On the other side, Carnot, of course, foresaw this possibility. He
+warned the generals not to allow the enemy to "use his forces sometimes
+against one, sometimes against the other, as he did in the last
+campaign," and ordered them to go forward respectively into Franconia
+and into the country of the upper Neckar, with a view to seeking out and
+defeating the enemy's army. But the plan of operations soon grew bolder.
+Jourdan was informed on the 21st of July that if he reached the Regnitz
+without meeting the enemy, or if his arrival there forced the latter to
+retire rapidly to the Danube, he was not to hesitate to advance to
+Ratisbon and even to Passau if the disorganization of the enemy admitted
+it, but in these contingencies he was to detach a force into Bohemia to
+levy contributions. "We presume that the enemy is too weak to offer a
+successful resistance and will have united his forces on the Danube; we
+hope that our two armies will act in unison to rout him completely. Each
+is, in any case, strong enough to attack by itself, and nothing is so
+pernicious as slowness in war." Evidently the fear that the two Austrian
+armies would unite against one of their assailants had now given place
+to something like disdain.
+
+
+  Neresheim.
+
+This was due in all probability to the rapidity with which Moreau was
+driving the archduke before him. After a brief stand on the Neckar at
+Cannstadt, the Austrians, only 25,000 strong, fell back to the Rauhe
+Alb, where they halted again, to cover their magazines at Ulm and
+Gunzburg, towards the end of July. Wartensleben was similarly falling
+back before Jourdan, though the latter, starting considerably later than
+Moreau, had not advanced so far. The details of the successive positions
+occupied by Wartensleben need not be stated; all that concerns the
+general development of the campaign is the fact that the hitherto
+independent leader of the "Lower Rhine Army" resented the loss of his
+freedom of action, and besides lamentations opposed a dull passive
+resistance to all but the most formal orders of the prince. Many weeks
+passed before this was overcome sufficiently for his leader even to
+arrange for the contemplated combination, and in these weeks the
+archduke was being driven back day by day, and the German principalities
+were falling away one by one as the French advanced and preached the
+revolutionary formula. In such circumstances as these--the general
+facts, if not the causes, were patent enough--it was natural that the
+confident Paris strategists should think chiefly of the profits of their
+enterprise and ignore the fears of the generals at the front. But the
+latter were justified in one important respect; their operating armies
+had seriously diminished in numbers, Jourdan disposing of not more than
+45,000 and Moreau of about 50,000. The archduke had now, owing to the
+arrival of a few detachments from the Black Forest and elsewhere, about
+34,000 men, Wartensleben almost exactly the same, and the former, for
+some reason which has never been fully explained but has its
+justification in psychological factors, suddenly turned and fought a
+long, severe and straggling battle above Neresheim (August 11). This did
+not, however, give him much respite, and on the 12th and 13th he retired
+over the Danube. At this date Wartensleben was about Amberg, almost as
+far away from the other army as he had been on the Rhine, owing to the
+necessity of retreating round instead of through the principality of
+Bayreuth, which was a Prussian possession and could therefore make its
+neutrality respected.
+
+Hitherto Charles had intended to unite his armies on the Danube against
+Moreau. His later choice of Jourdan's army as the objective of his
+combination grew out of circumstances and in particular out of the
+brilliant reconnaissance work of a cavalry brigadier of the Lower Rhine
+Army, Nauendorff. This general's reports--he was working in the country
+south and south-east of Nurnberg, Wartensleben being at
+Amberg--indicated first an advance of Jourdan's army from Forchheim
+through Nurnberg to the _south_, and induced the archduke, on the 12th,
+to begin a concentration of his own army towards Ingolstadt. This was a
+purely defensive measure, but Nauendorff reported on the 13th and 14th
+that the main columns of the French were swinging away to the east
+against Wartensleben's front and inner flank, and on the 14th he boldly
+suggested the idea that decided the campaign. "If your Royal Highness
+will or can advance 12,000 men against Jourdan's rear, he is lost. We
+could not have a better opportunity." When this message arrived at
+headquarters the archduke had already issued orders to the same effect.
+Lieutenant Field Marshal Count Latour, with 30,000 men, was to keep
+Moreau occupied--another expedient of the moment, due to the very close
+pressure of Moreau's advance, and the failure of the attempt to put him
+out of action at Neresheim. The small remainder of the army, with a few
+detachments gathered _en route_, in all about 27,000 men, began to
+recross the Danube on the 14th, and slowly advanced north on a broad
+front, its leader being now sure that at some point on his line he would
+encounter the French, whether they were heading for Ratisbon or Amberg.
+Meanwhile, the Directory had, still acting on the theory of the
+archduke's weakness, ordered Moreau to combine the operations with those
+of Bonaparte in Italian Tirol, and Jourdan to turn both flanks of his
+immediate opponent, and thus to prevent his joining the archduke, as
+well as his retreat into Bohemia. And curiously enough it was this
+latter, and not Moreau's move, which suggested to the archduke that his
+chance had come. The chance was, in fact, one dear to the 18th century
+general, catching his opponent in the act of executing a manoeuvre. So
+far from "exterior lines" being fatal to Jourdan, it was not until the
+French general began to operate against Wartensleben's _inner_ flank
+that the archduke's opportunity came.
+
+
+  Amberg and Wurzburg.
+
+The decisive events of the campaign can be described very briefly, the
+ideas that directed them having been made clear. The long thin line of
+the archduke wrapped itself round Jourdan's right flank near Amberg,
+while Wartensleben fought him in front. The battle (August 24) was a
+series of engagements between the various columns that met; it was a
+repetition in fact of Fleurus, without the intensity of fighting spirit
+that redeems that battle from dulness. Success followed, not upon
+bravery or even tactics, but upon the pre-existing strategical
+conditions. At the end of the day the French retired, and next morning
+the archduke began another wide extension to his left, hoping to head
+them off. This consumed several days. In the course of it Jourdan
+attempted to take advantage of his opponent's dissemination to regain
+the direct road to Wurzburg, but the attempt was defeated by an almost
+fortuitous combination of forces at the threatened point. More
+effective, indeed, than this indirect pursuit was the very active
+hostility of the peasantry, who had suffered in Jourdan's advance and
+retaliated so effectually during his retreat that the army became
+thoroughly demoralized, both by want of food and by the strain of
+incessant sniping. Defeated again at Wurzburg on the 3rd of September,
+Jourdan continued his retreat to the Lahn, and finally withdrew the
+shattered army over the Rhine, partly by Dusseldorf, partly by Neuwied.
+In the last engagement on the Lahn the young and brilliant Marceau was
+mortally wounded. Far away in Bavaria, Moreau had meantime been driving
+Latour from one line of resistance to another. On receiving the news of
+Jourdan's reverses, however, he made a rapid and successful retreat to
+Strassburg, evading the prince's army, which had ascended the Rhine
+valley to head him off, in the nick of time.
+
+This celebrated campaign is pre-eminently strategical in its character,
+in that the positions and movements anterior to the battle preordained
+its issue. It raised the reputation of the archduke Charles to the
+highest point, and deservedly, for he wrested victory from the most
+desperate circumstances by the skilful and resolute employment of his
+one advantage. But this was only possible because Moreau and Jourdan
+were content to accept strategical failure without seeking to redress
+the balance by hard fighting. The great question of this campaign is,
+why did Moreau and Jourdan fail against inferior numbers, when in Italy
+Bonaparte with a similar army against a similar opponent won victory
+after victory against equal and superior forces? The answer will not be
+supplied by any theory of "exterior and interior lines." It lies far
+deeper. So far as it is possible to summarize it in one phrase, it lies
+in the fact that though the Directory meant this campaign to be the
+final word on the Revolutionary War, for the nation at large this final
+word had been said at Fleurus. The troops were still the nation; they no
+longer fought for a cause and for bare existence, and Moreau and Jourdan
+were too closely allied in ideas and sympathies with the misplaced
+citizen soldiers they commanded to be able to dominate their collective
+will. In default of a cause, however, soldiers will fight for a man, and
+this brings us by a natural sequence of ideas to the war in Italy.
+
+
+THE WAR IN ITALY 1793-97
+
+Hitherto we have ignored the operations on the Italian frontier, partly
+because they were of minor importance and partly because the conditions
+out of which Napoleon's first campaign arose can be best considered in
+connexion with that campaign itself, from which indeed the previous
+operations derive such light as they possess. It has been mentioned that
+in 1792 the French overran Savoy and Nice. In 1793 the Sardinian army
+and a small auxiliary corps of Austrians waged a desultory mountain
+warfare against the Army of the Alps about Briancon and the Army of
+Italy on the Var. That furious offensive on the part of the French,
+which signalized the year 1793 elsewhere, was made impossible here by
+the counter-revolution in the cities of the Midi.
+
+
+  Saorgio.
+
+In 1794, when this had been crushed, the intention of the French
+government was to take the offensive against the Austro-Sardinians. The
+first operation was to be the capture of Oneglia. The concentration of
+large forces in the lower Rhone valley had naturally infringed upon the
+areas told off for the provisioning of the Armies of the Alps
+(Kellermann) and of Italy (Dumerbion); indeed, the sullen population
+could hardly be induced to feed the troops suppressing the revolt, still
+less the distant frontier armies. Thus the only source of supply was the
+Riviera of Genoa: "Our connexion with this district is imperilled by the
+corsairs of Oneglia (a Sardinian town) owing to the cessation of our
+operations afloat. The army is living from hand to mouth," wrote the
+younger Robespierre in September 1793. Vessels bearing supplies from
+Genoa could not avoid the corsairs by taking the open sea, for there the
+British fleet was supreme. Carnot therefore ordered the Army of Italy to
+capture Oneglia, and 21,000 men (the rest of the 67,000 effectives were
+held back for coast defence) began operations in April. The French left
+moved against the enemy's positions on the main road over the Col di
+Tenda, the centre towards Ponte di Nava, and the right along the
+Riviera. All met with success, thanks to Massena's bold handling of the
+centre column. Not only was Oneglia captured, but also the Col di Tenda.
+Napoleon Bonaparte served in these affairs on the headquarter staff.
+Meantime the Army of the Alps had possessed itself of the Little St
+Bernard and Mont Cenis, and the Republicans were now masters of several
+routes into Piedmont (May). But the Alpine roads merely led to
+fortresses, and both Carnot and Bonaparte--Napoleon had by now
+captivated the younger Robespierre and become the leading spirit in
+Dumerbion's army--considered that the Army of the Alps should be
+weakened to the profit of the Army of Italy, and that the time had come
+to disregard the feeble neutrality of Genoa, and to advance over the Col
+di Tenda.
+
+
+  Napoleon in 1794.
+
+Napoleon's first suggestion for a rapid condensation of the French
+cordon, and an irresistible blow on the centre of the Allies by
+Tenda-Coni,[7] came to nothing owing to the waste of time in
+negotiations between the generals and the distant Committee, and
+meanwhile new factors came into play. The capture of the pass of
+Argentera by the right wing of the Army of the Alps suggested that the
+main effort should be made against the barrier fortress of Demonte, but
+here again Napoleon proposed a concentration of effort on the primary
+and economy of force in the secondary objective. About the same time, in
+a memoir on the war in general, he laid down his most celebrated maxim:
+"The principles of war are the same as those of a siege. Fire must be
+concentrated on one point, and as soon as the breach is made, the
+equilibrium is broken and the rest is nothing." In the domain of tactics
+he was and remains the principal exponent of the art of breaking the
+equilibrium, and already he imagined the solution of problems of policy
+and strategy on the same lines. "Austria is the great enemy; Austria
+crushed, Germany, Spain, Italy fall of themselves. We must not disperse,
+but concentrate our attack." Napoleon argued that Austria could be
+effectively wounded by an offensive against Piedmont, and even more
+effectively by an ulterior advance from Italian soil into Germany. In
+pursuance of the single aim he asked for the appointment of a single
+commander-in-chief to hold sway from Bayonne to the Lake of Geneva, and
+for the rejection of all schemes for "revolutionizing" Italy till after
+the defeat of the arch-enemy.
+
+Operations, however, did not after all take either of these forms. The
+younger Robespierre perished with his brother in the _coup d'etat_ of
+9th Thermidor, the advance was suspended, and Bonaparte, amongst other
+leading spirits of the Army of Italy, was arrested and imprisoned.
+Profiting by this moment, Austria increased her auxiliary corps. An
+Austrian general took command of the whole of the allied forces, and
+pronounced a threat from the region of Cairo (where the Austrians took
+their place on the left wing of the combined army) towards the Riviera.
+The French, still dependent on Genoa for supplies, had to take the
+offensive at once to save themselves from starvation, and the result was
+the expedition of Dego, planned chiefly by Napoleon, who had been
+released from prison and was at headquarters, though unemployed. The
+movement began on the 17th of September; and although the Austrian
+general Colloredo repulsed an attack at Dego (Sept. 21) he retreated to
+Acqui, and the incipient offensive of the Allies ended abruptly.
+
+The first months of the winter of 1794-1795 were spent in re-equipping
+the troops, who stood in sore need after their rapid movements in the
+mountains. For the future operations, the enforced condensation of the
+army on its right wing with the object of protecting its line of supply
+to Genoa and the dangers of its cramped situation on the Riviera
+suggested a plan roughly resembling one already recommended by Napoleon,
+who had since the affair of Dego become convinced that the way into
+Italy was through the Apennines and not the Alps. The essence of this
+was to anticipate the enemy by a very early and rapid advance from Vado
+towards Carcare by the Ceva road, the only good road of which the French
+disposed and which they significantly called the _chemin de canon_.
+
+
+  Scherer and Kellermann.
+
+The plan, however, came to nothing; the Committee, which now changed its
+personnel at fixed intervals, was in consequence wavering and
+non-committal, troops were withdrawn for a projected invasion of
+Corsica, and in November 1794 Dumerbion was replaced by Scherer, who
+assembled only 17,000 of his 54,000 effectives for field operations, and
+selected as his line of advance the Col di Tenda-Coni road. Scherer,
+besides being hostile to any suggestion emanating from Napoleon, was
+impressed with the apparent danger to his right wing concentrated in the
+narrow Riviera, which it was at this stage impossible to avert by a
+sudden and early assumption of the offensive. After a brief tenure
+Scherer was transferred to the Spanish frontier, but Kellermann, who now
+received command of the Army of Italy in addition to his own, took the
+same view as his predecessor--the view of the ordinary general. But not
+even the Scherer plan was put into execution, for spring had scarcely
+arrived when the prospect of renewed revolts in the south of France
+practically paralysed the army.
+
+This encouraged the enemy to deliver the blow that had so long been
+feared. The combined forces, under Devins,--the Sardinians, the Austrian
+auxiliary corps and the newly arrived Austrian main army,--advanced
+together and forced the French right wing to evacuate Vado and the
+Genoese littoral. But at this juncture the conclusion of peace with
+Spain released the Pyrenees armies, and Scherer returned to the Army of
+Italy at the head of reinforcements. He was faced with a difficult
+situation, but he had the means wherewith to meet it, as Napoleon
+promptly pointed out. Up to this, Napoleon said, the French commanded
+the mountain crest, and therefore covered Savoy and Nice, and also
+Oneglia, Loano and Vado, the ports of the Riviera. But now that Vado was
+lost the breach was made. Genoa was cut off, and the south of France was
+the only remaining resource for the army commissariat. Vado must
+therefore be retaken and the line reopened to Genoa, and to do this it
+was essential first to close up the over-extended cordon--and with the
+greatest rapidity, lest the enemy, with the shorter line to move on,
+should gather at the point of contact before the French--and to advance
+on Vado. Further, knowing (as every one knew) that the king of Sardinia
+was not inclined to continue the struggle indefinitely, he predicted
+that this ruler would make peace once the French army had established
+itself in his dominions, and for this the way into the interior, he
+asserted, was the great road Savona-Ceva. But Napoleon's mind ranged
+beyond the immediate future. He calculated that once the French advanced
+the Austrians would seek to cover Lombardy, the Piedmontese Turin, and
+this separation, already morally accomplished, it was to be the French
+general's task to accentuate in fact. Next, Sardinia having been coerced
+into peace, the Army of Italy would expel the Austrians from Lombardy,
+and connect its operations with those of the French in South Germany by
+way of Tirol. The supply question, once the soldiers had gained the rich
+valley of the Po, would solve itself.
+
+
+  Loano.
+
+This was the essence of the first of four memoranda on this subject
+prepared by Napoleon in his Paris office. The second indicated the means
+of coercing Sardinia--first the Austrians were to be driven or scared
+away towards Alessandria, then the French army would turn sharp to the
+left, driving the Sardinians eastward and north-eastward through Ceva,
+and this was to be the signal for the general invasion of Piedmont from
+all sides. In the third paper he framed an elaborate plan for the
+retaking of Vado, and in the fourth he summarized the contents of the
+other three. Having thus cleared his own mind as to the conditions and
+the solution of the problem, he did his best to secure the command for
+himself.
+
+The measures recommended by Napoleon were translated into a formal and
+detailed order to recapture Vado. To Napoleon the miserable condition of
+the Army of Italy was the most urgent incentive to prompt action. In
+Scherer's judgment, however, the army was unfit to take the field, and
+therefore _ex hypothesi_ to attack Vado, without thorough
+reorganization, and it was only in November that the advance was finally
+made. It culminated, thanks once more to the resolute Massena, in the
+victory of Loano (November 23-24). But Scherer thought more of the
+destitution of his own army than of the fruits of success, and contented
+himself with resuming possession of the Riviera.
+
+Meanwhile the Mentor whose suggestions and personality were equally
+repugnant to Scherer had undergone strange vicissitudes of
+fortune--dismissal from the headquarters' staff, expulsion from the list
+of general officers, and then the "whiff of grapeshot" of 13th
+Vendemiaire, followed shortly by his marriage with Josephine, and his
+nomination to command the Army of Italy. These events had neither shaken
+his cold resolution nor disturbed his balance.
+
+
+  Napoleon in command.
+
+The Army of Italy spent the winter of 1795-1796 as before in the narrow
+Riviera, while on the one side, just over the mountains, lay the
+Austro-Sardinians, and on the other, out of range of the coast batteries
+but ready to pounce on the supply ships, were the British frigates. On
+Bonaparte's left Kellermann, with no more than 18,000, maintained a
+string of posts between Lake Geneva and the Argentera as before. Of the
+Army of Italy, 7000 watched the Tenda road and 20,000 men the
+coast-line. There remained for active operations some 27,000 men,
+ragged, famished and suffering in every way in spite of their victory of
+Loano. The Sardinian and Austrian auxiliaries (Colli), 25,000 men, lay
+between Mondovi and Ceva, a force strung out in the Alpine valleys
+opposed Kellermann, and the main Austrian army (commanded by Beaulieu),
+in widely extended cantonments between Acqui and Milan, numbered 27,000
+field troops. Thus the short-lived concentration of all the allied
+forces for the battle against Scherer had ended in a fresh separation.
+Austria was far more concerned with Poland than with the moribund French
+question, and committed as few of her troops as possible to this distant
+and secondary theatre of war. As for Piedmont, "peace" was almost the
+universal cry, even within the army. All this scarcely affected the
+regimental spirit and discipline of the Austrian squadrons and
+battalions, which had now recovered from the defeat of Loano. But they
+were important factors for the new general-in-chief on the Riviera, and
+formed the basis of his strategy.
+
+Napoleon's first task was far more difficult than the writing of
+memoranda. He had to grasp the reins and to prepare his troops, morally
+and physically, for active work. It was not merely that a young general
+with many enemies, a political favourite of the moment, had been thrust
+upon the army. The army itself was in a pitiable condition. Whole
+companies with their officers went plundering in search of mere food,
+the horses had never received as much as half-rations for a year past,
+and even the generals were half-starved. Thousands of men were
+barefooted and hundreds were without arms. But in a few days he had
+secured an almost incredible ascendancy over the sullen, starved,
+half-clothed army.
+
+"Soldiers," he told them, "you are famished and nearly naked. The
+government owes you much, but can do nothing for you. Your patience,
+your courage, do you honour, but give you no glory, no advantage. I will
+lead you into the most fertile plains of the world. There you will find
+great towns, rich provinces. There you will find honour, glory and
+riches. Soldiers of Italy, will you be wanting in courage?"
+
+Such words go far, and little as he was able to supply material
+deficiencies--all he could do was to expel rascally contractors, sell a
+captured privateer for L5000 and borrow L2500 from Genoa--he cheerfully
+told the Directory on the 28th of March that "the worst was over." He
+augmented his army of operations to about 40,000, at the expense of the
+coast divisions, and set on foot also two small cavalry divisions,
+mounted on the half-starved horses that had survived the winter. Then he
+announced that the army was ready and opened the campaign.
+
+The first plan, emanating from Paris, was that, after an expedition
+towards Genoa to assist in raising a loan there, the army should march
+against Beaulieu, previously neutralizing the Sardinians by the
+occupation of Ceva. When Beaulieu was beaten it was thought probable
+that the Piedmontese would enter into an alliance with the French
+against their former comrades. A second plan, however, authorized the
+general to begin by subduing the Piedmontese to the extent necessary to
+bring about peace and alliance, and on this Napoleon acted. If the
+present separation of the Allies continued, he proposed to overwhelm the
+Sardinians first, before the Austrians could assemble from winter
+quarters, and then to turn on Beaulieu. If, on the other hand, the
+Austrians, before he could strike his blow, united with Colli, he
+proposed to frighten them into separating again by moving on Acqui and
+Alessandria. Hence Carcare, where the road from Acqui joined the
+"cannon-road," was the first objective of his march, and from there he
+could manoeuvre and widen the breach between the allied armies. His
+scattered left wing would assist in the attack on the Sardinians as well
+as it could--for the immediate attack on the Austrians its co-operation
+would of course have been out of the question. In any case he grudged
+every week spent in administrative preparation. The delay due to this,
+as a matter of fact, allowed a new situation to develop. Beaulieu was
+himself the first to move, and he moved towards Genoa instead of towards
+his Allies. The gap between the two allied wings was thereby widened,
+but it was no longer possible for the French to use it, for their plan
+of destroying Colli _while Beaulieu was ineffective_ had collapsed.
+
+
+  Opening movements.
+
+In connexion with the Genoese loan, and to facilitate the movement of
+supply convoys, a small French force had been pushed forward to Voltri.
+Bonaparte ordered it back as soon as he arrived at the front, but the
+alarm was given. The Austrians broke up from winter quarters at once,
+and rather than lose the food supplies at Voltri, Bonaparte actually
+reinforced Massena at that place, and gave him orders to hold on as long
+as possible, cautioning him only to watch his left rear (Montenotte).
+But he did not abandon his purpose. Starting from the new conditions, he
+devised other means, as we shall see, for reducing Beaulieu to
+ineffectiveness. Meanwhile Beaulieu's plan of offensive operations, such
+as they were, developed. The French advance to Voltri had not only
+spurred him into activity, but convinced him that the bulk of the French
+army lay east of Savona. He therefore made Voltri the objective of a
+converging attack, not with the intention of destroying the French army
+but with that of "cutting its communications with Genoa," and expelling
+it from "the only place in the Riviera where there were sufficient ovens
+to bake its bread." (Beaulieu to the Aulic Council, 15 April.) The
+Sardinians and auxiliary Austrians were ordered to extend leftwards on
+Dego to close the gap that Beaulieu's advance on Genoa-Voltri opened up,
+which they did, though only half-heartedly and in small force, for,
+unlike Beaulieu, they knew that masses of the enemy were still in the
+western stretch of the Riviera. The rightmost of Beaulieu's own columns
+was on the road between Acqui and Savona with orders to seize Monte
+Legino as an advanced post, the others were to converge towards Voltri
+from the Genoa side and the mountain passes about Campofreddo and
+Sassello. The wings were therefore so far connected that Colli wrote to
+Beaulieu on this day "the enemy will never dare to place himself between
+our two armies." The event belied the prediction, and the proposed minor
+operation against granaries and bakeries became the first act of a
+decisive campaign.
+
+On the night of the 9th of April the French were grouped as follows:
+brigades under Garnier and Macquard at the Finestre and Tenda passes,
+Serurier's division and Rusca's brigade east of Garessio; Augereau's
+division about Loano, Meynier's at Finale, Laharpe's at Savona with an
+outpost on the Monte Legino, and Cervoni's brigade at Voltri. Massena
+was in general charge of the last-named units. The cavalry was far in
+rear beyond Loano. Colli's army, excluding the troops in the valleys
+that led into Dauphine, was around Coni and Mondovi-Ceva, the latter
+group connecting with Beaulieu by a detachment under Provera between
+Millesimo and Carcare. Of Beaulieu's army, Argenteau's division, still
+concentrating to the front in many small bodies, extended over the area
+Acqui-Dego-Sassello. Vukassovich's brigade was equally extended between
+Ovada and the mountain-crests above Voltri, and Pittoni's division was
+grouped around Gavi and the Bocchetta, the two last units being destined
+for the attack on Voltri. Farther to the rear was Sebottendorf's
+division around Alessandria-Tortona.
+
+On the afternoon of the 10th Beaulieu delivered his blow at Voltri, not,
+as he anticipated, against three-quarters of the French army, but
+against Cervoni's detachment. This, after a long irregular fight,
+slipped away in the night to Savona. Discovering his mistake next
+morning, Beaulieu sent back some of his battalions to join Argenteau.
+But there was no road by which they could do so save the detour through
+Acqui and Dego, and long before they arrived Argenteau's advance on
+Monte Legino had forced on the crisis. On the 11th (a day behind time),
+this general drove in the French outposts, but he soon came on three
+battalions under Colonel Rampon, who threw himself into some old
+earthworks that lay near, and said to his men, "We must win or die here,
+my friends." His redoubt and his men stood the trial well, and when day
+broke on the 12th Bonaparte was ready to deliver his first
+"Napoleon-stroke."
+
+
+  Montenotte.
+
+The principle that guided him in the subsequent operations may be called
+"superior numbers at the decisive point." Touch had been gained with the
+enemy all along the long line between the Tenda and Voltri, and he
+decided to concentrate swiftly upon the nearest enemy--Argenteau.
+Augereau's division, or such part of it as could march at once, was
+ordered to Mallare, picking up here and there on the way a few horsemen
+and guns. Massena, with 9000 men, was to send two brigades in the
+direction of Carcare and Altare, and with the third to swing round
+Argenteau's right and to head for Montenotte village in his rear.
+Laharpe with 7000 (it had become clear that the enemy at Voltri would
+not pursue their advantage) was to join Rampon, leaving only Cervoni and
+two battalions in Savona. Serurier and Rusca were to keep the Sardinians
+in front of them occupied. The far-distant brigades of Garnier and
+Macquard stood fast, but the cavalry drew eastward as quickly as its
+condition permitted. In rain and mist on the early morning of the 12th
+the French marched up from all quarters, while Argenteau's men waited in
+their cold bivouacs for light enough to resume their attack on Monte
+Legino. About 9 the mists cleared, and heavy fighting began, but Laharpe
+held the mountain, and the vigorous Massena with his nearest brigade
+stormed forward against Argenteau's right. A few hours later, seeing
+Augereau's columns heading for their line of retreat, the Austrians
+retired, sharply pressed, on Dego. The threatened intervention of
+Provera was checked by Augereau's presence at Carcare.
+
+[Illustration: Sketch of the positions occupied on the night of April
+14th.]
+
+
+  Millesimo.
+
+Montenotte was a brilliant victory, and one can imagine its effects on
+the but lately despondent soldiers of the Army of Italy, for all
+imagined that Beaulieu's main body had been defeated. This was far from
+being the case, however, and although the French spent the night of the
+battle at Cairo-Carcare-Montenotte, midway between the allied wings,
+only two-thirds of Argenteau's force, and none of the other divisions,
+had been beaten, and the heaviest fighting was to come. This became
+evident on the afternoon of the 13th, but meanwhile Bonaparte, eager to
+begin at once the subjugation of the Piedmontese (for which purpose he
+wanted to bring Serurier and Rusca into play) sent only Laharpe's
+division and a few details of Massena's, under the latter, towards Dego.
+These were to protect the main attack from interference by the forces
+that had been engaged at Montenotte (presumed to be Beaulieu's main
+body), the said main attack being delivered by Augereau's division,
+reinforced by most of Massena's, on the positions held by Provera. The
+latter, only 1000 strong to Augereau's 9000, shut himself in the castle
+of Cossaria, which he defended _a la_ Rampon against a series of furious
+assaults. Not until the morning of the 14th was his surrender secured,
+after his ammunition and food had been exhausted.
+
+Argenteau also won a day's respite on the 13th, for Laharpe did not join
+Massena till late, and nothing took place opposite Dego but a little
+skirmishing. During the day Bonaparte saw for himself that he had
+overrated the effects of Montenotte. Beaulieu, on the other hand,
+underrated them, treating it as a mishap which was more than
+counterbalanced by his own success in "cutting off the French from
+Genoa." He began to reconstruct his line on the front Dego-Sassello,
+trusting to Colli to harry the French until the Voltri troops had
+finished their detour through Acqui and rejoined Argenteau. This, of
+course, presumed that Argenteau's troops were intact and Colli's able to
+move, which was not the case with either. Not until the afternoon of the
+14th did Beaulieu place a few extra battalions at Argenteau's disposal
+"to be used only in case of extreme necessity," and order Vukassovich
+from the region of Sassello to "make a diversion" against the French
+right with _two_ battalions.
+
+
+  Dego.
+
+Thus Argenteau, already shaken, was exposed to destruction. On the 14th,
+after Provera's surrender, Massena and Laharpe, reinforced until they
+had nearly a two-to-one superiority, stormed Dego and killed or captured
+3000 of Argenteau's 5500 men, the remnant retreating in disorder to
+Acqui. But nothing was done towards the accomplishment of the purpose of
+destroying Colli on that day, save that Serurier and Rusca began to
+close in to meet the main body between Ceva and Millesimo. Moreover, the
+victory at Dego had produced its usual results on the wild fighting
+swarms of the Republicans, who threw themselves like hungry wolves on
+the little town, without pursuing the beaten enemy or even placing a
+single outpost on the Acqui road. In this state, during the early hours
+of the 15th, Vukassovich's brigade,[8] marching up from Sassello,
+surprised them, and they broke and fled in an instant. The whole morning
+had to be spent in rallying them at Cairo, and Bonaparte had for the
+second time to postpone his union with Serurier and Rusca, who
+meanwhile, isolated from one another and from the main army, were
+groping forward in the mountains. A fresh assault on Dego was ordered,
+and after very severe fighting, Massena and Laharpe succeeded late in
+the evening in retaking it. Vukassovich lost heavily, but retired
+steadily and in order on Spigno. The killed and wounded numbered
+probably about 1000 French and 1500 Austrians, out of considerably less
+than 10,000 engaged on each side--a loss which contrasted very forcibly
+with those suffered in other battles of the Revolutionary Wars, and by
+teaching the Army of Italy to bear punishment, imbued it with
+self-confidence. But again success bred disorder, and there was a second
+orgy in the houses and streets of Dego which went on till late in the
+morning and paralysed the whole army.
+
+This was perhaps the crisis of the campaign. Even now it was not certain
+that the Austrians had been definitively pushed aside, while it was
+quite clear that Beaulieu's main body was intact and Colli was still
+more an unknown quantity. But Napoleon's intention remained the same, to
+attack the Piedmontese as quickly and as heavily as possible, Beaulieu
+being held in check by a containing force under Massena and Laharpe. The
+remainder of the army, counting in now Rusca and Serurier, was to move
+westward towards Ceva. This disposition, while it illustrates the
+Napoleonic principle of delivering a heavy blow on the selected target
+and warding off interference at other points, shows also the difficulty
+of rightly apportioning the available means between the offensive mass
+and the defensive system, for, as it turned out, Beaulieu was already
+sufficiently scared, and thought of nothing but self-defence on the line
+Acqui-Ovada-Bocchetta, while the French offensive mass was very weak
+compared with Colli's unbeaten and now fairly concentrated army about
+Ceva and Montezemolo.
+
+On the afternoon of the 16th the real advance was begun by Augereau's
+division, reinforced by other troops. Rusca joined Augereau towards
+evening, and Serurier approached Ceva from the south. Colli's object was
+now to spin out time, and having repulsed a weak attack by Augereau, and
+feeling able to repeat these tactics on each successive spur of the
+Apennines, he retired in the night to a new position behind the
+Cursaglia. On the 17th, reassured by the absence of fighting on the Dego
+side, and by the news that no enemy remained at Sassello, Bonaparte
+released Massena from Dego, leaving only Laharpe there, and brought him
+over towards the right of the main body, which thus on the evening of
+the 17th formed a long straggling line on both sides of Ceva, Serurier
+on the left, echeloned forward, Augereau, Joubert and Rusca in the
+centre, and Massena, partly as support, partly as flank guard, on
+Augereau's right rear. Serurier had been bidden to extend well out and
+to strive to get contact with Massena, i.e. to encircle the enemy. There
+was no longer any idea of waiting to besiege Ceva, although the
+artillery train had been ordered up from the Riviera by the
+"cannon-road" for eventual use there. Further, the line of supply, as an
+extra guarantee against interference, was changed from that of
+Savona-Carcare to that of Loano-Bardinetto. When this was accomplished,
+four clear days could be reckoned on with certainty in which to deal
+with Colli.
+
+
+  San Michele.
+
+The latter, still expecting the Austrians to advance to his assistance,
+had established his corps (not more than 12,000 muskets in all) in the
+immensely strong positions of the Cursaglia, with a thin line of posts
+on his left stretching towards Cherasco, whence he could communicate, by
+a roundabout way, with Acqui. Opposite this position the long straggling
+line of the French arrived, after many delays due to the weariness of
+the troops, on the 19th. A day of irregular fighting followed,
+everywhere to the advantage of the defenders. Napoleon, fighting against
+time, ordered a fresh attack on the 20th, and only desisted when it
+became evident that the army was exhausted, and, in particular, when
+Serurier reported frankly that without bread the soldiers would not
+march. The delay thus imposed, however, enabled him to clear the
+"cannon-road" of all vehicles, and to bring up the Dego detachment to
+replace Massena in the valley of the western Bormida, the latter coming
+in to the main army. Further, part at any rate of the convoy service was
+transferred still farther westward to the line Albenga-Garessio-Ceva.
+Nelson's fleet, that had so powerfully contributed to force the French
+inland, was becoming less and less innocuous. If leadership and force of
+character could overcome internal friction, all the success he had hoped
+for was now within the young commander's grasp.
+
+
+  Mondovi.
+
+Twenty-four thousand men, for the first time with a due proportion of
+cavalry and artillery, were now disposed along Colli's front and beyond
+his right flank. Colli, outnumbered by two to one and threatened with
+envelopment, decided once more to retreat, and the Republicans occupied
+the Cursaglia lines on the morning of the 21st without firing a shot.
+But Colli halted again at Vico, half-way to Mondovi (in order, it is
+said, to protect the evacuation of a small magazine he had there), and
+while he was in this unfavourable situation the pursuers came on with
+true Republican swiftness, lapped round his flanks and crushed him. A
+few days later (27th April), the armistice of Cherasco put an end to the
+campaign before the Austrians moved a single battalion to his
+assistance.
+
+
+    The "Napoleon touch."
+
+  The interest of the campaign being above all Napoleonic, its moral
+  must be found by discovering the "Napoleon touch" that differentiated
+  it from other Revolutionary campaigns. A great deal is common to all,
+  on both sides. The Austrians and Sardinians worked together at least
+  as effectively as the Austrians, Prussians, British and Dutch in the
+  Netherlands. Revolutionary energy was common to the Army of Italy and
+  to the Army of the North. Why, therefore, when the war dragged on from
+  one campaign to another in the great plains of the Meuse and Rhine
+  countries, did Napoleon bring about so swift a decision in these
+  cramped valleys? The answer is to be found partly in the exigencies of
+  the supply service, but still more in Napoleon's own personality and
+  the strategy born of it. The first, as we have seen, was at the end of
+  its resources when Beaulieu placed himself across the Genoa road.
+  Action of some sort was the plain alternative to starvation, and at
+  this point Napoleon's personality intervened. He would have no
+  quarter-rations on the Riviera, but plenty and to spare beyond the
+  mountains. If there were many thousand soldiers who marched unarmed
+  and shoeless in the ranks, it was towards "the Promised Land" that he
+  led them. He looked always to the end, and met each day as if with
+  full expectation of attaining it before sunset. Strategical conditions
+  and "new French" methods of war did not save Bonaparte in the two
+  crises--the Dego rout and the sullen halt of the army at San
+  Michele--but the personality which made the soldiers, on the way to
+  Montenotte, march barefoot past a wagon-load of new boots.
+
+  We have said that Napoleon's strategy was the result of this personal
+  magnetism. Later critics evolved from his success the theory of
+  "interior lines," and then accounted for it by applying the criterion
+  they had evolved. Actually, the form in which the will to conquer
+  found expression was in many important respects old. What, therefore,
+  in the theory or its application was the product of Napoleon's own
+  genius and will-power? A comparison with Souham's campaign of
+  Tourcoing will enable us to answer this question. To begin with,
+  Souham found himself midway between Coburg and Clerfayt almost by
+  accident, and his utilization of the advantages of his position was an
+  expedient for the given case. Napoleon, however, placed himself
+  _deliberately_ and by fighting his way thither, in an analogous
+  situation at Carcare and Cairo. Military opinion of the time
+  considered it dangerous, as indeed it was, for no theory can alter the
+  fact that had not Napoleon made his men fight harder and march farther
+  than usual, he would have been destroyed. The effective play of forces
+  on interior lines depends on the two conditions that the outer enemies
+  are not so near together as to give no time for the inner mass to
+  defeat one before the arrival of the other, and that they are not so
+  far apart that before one can be brought to action the other has
+  inflicted serious damage elsewhere.
+
+  Neither condition was fully met at any time in the Montenotte
+  campaign. On the 11th Napoleon knew that the attack on Voltri had been
+  made by a part only of the Austrian forces, yet he flung his own
+  masses on Montenotte. On the 13th he thought that Beaulieu's main body
+  was at Dego and Colli's at Millesimo, and on this assumption had to
+  exact the most extraordinary efforts from Augereau's troops at
+  Cossaria. On the 19th and 20th he tried to exclude the risks of the
+  Austrians' intervention, and with this the chances of a victory over
+  them to follow his victory over Colli, by transferring the centre of
+  gravity of his army to Ceva and Garessio, and fighting it out with
+  Colli alone.
+
+  It was not, in fact, to gain a position on interior lines--with
+  respect to _two_ opponents--that Napoleon pushed his army to Carcare.
+  Before the campaign began he hoped by using the "cannon-road" to
+  destroy the Piedmontese _before the Austrians were in existence at
+  all_ as an army. But on the news from Voltri and Monte Legino he
+  swiftly "concentrated fire, made the breach, and broke the
+  equilibrium" at the spot where the interests and forces of the two
+  Allies converged and diverged. The hypothesis in the first case was
+  that the Austrians were practically non-existent, and the whole object
+  in the second was to breach the now connected front of the Allies
+  ("strategic penetration") and to cause them to break up into two
+  separate systems. More, having made the breach, he had the choice
+  (which he had not before) of attacking _either_ the Austrians or the
+  Sardinians, as every critic has pointed out. Indeed the Austrians
+  offered by far the better target. But he neither wanted nor used the
+  new alternative. His purpose was to crush Piedmont. "My enemies saw
+  too much at once," said Napoleon. Singleness of aim and of purpose,
+  the product of clear thinking and of "personality," was the
+  foundation-stone of the new form of strategy.
+
+
+    Relative superiority.
+
+  In the course of subduing the Sardinians, Napoleon found himself
+  placed on interior lines between two hostile masses, and another new
+  idea, that of "relative superiority." reveals itself. Whereas Souham
+  had been in superior force (90,000 against 70,000), Napoleon (40,000
+  against 50,000) was not, and yet the Army of Italy was always placed
+  in a position of relative superiority (at first about 3 to 2 and
+  ultimately 2 to 1) to the immediate antagonist. "The essence of
+  strategy," said Napoleon in 1797, "is, with a weaker army, always to
+  have more force at the crucial point than the enemy. But this art is
+  taught neither by books nor by practice; it is a matter of tact." In
+  this he expressed the result of his victories on his own mind rather
+  than a preconceived formula which produced those victories. But the
+  idea, though undefined, and the method of practice, though imperfectly
+  worked out, were in his mind from the first. As soon as he had made
+  the breach, he widened it by pushing out Massena and Laharpe on the
+  one hand and Augereau on the other. This is mere common sense. But
+  immediately afterwards, though preparing to throw all available forces
+  against Colli, he posted Massena and Laharpe at Dego to guard, not
+  like Vandamme on the Lys against a real and pressing enemy, but
+  against a _possibility_, and he only diminished the strength and
+  altered the position of this containing detachment in proportion as
+  the Austrian danger dwindled. Later in his career he defined this
+  offensive-defensive system as "having all possible strength at the
+  decisive point," and "being nowhere vulnerable," and the art of
+  reconciling these two requirements, in each case as it arose, was
+  always the principal secret of his generalship. At first his
+  precautions (judged by events and not by the probabilities of the
+  moment) were excessive, and the offensive mass small. But the latter
+  was handled by a general untroubled by multiple aims and anxieties,
+  and if such self-confidence was equivalent to 10,000 men on the
+  battlefield, it was legitimate to detach 10,000 men to secure it.
+  These 10,000 were posted 8 m. out on the dangerous flank, not almost
+  back to back with the main body as Vandamme had been,[9] and although
+  this distance was but little compared to those of his later campaigns,
+  when he employed small armies for the same purpose, it sufficed in
+  this difficult mountain country, where the covering force enjoyed the
+  advantage of strong positions. Of course, if Colli had been better
+  concentrated, or if Beaulieu had been more active, the calculated
+  proportions between covering force and main body might have proved
+  fallacious, and the system on which Napoleon's relative superiority
+  rested might have broken down. But the point is that such a system,
+  however rough its first model, had been imagined and put into
+  practice.
+
+  This was Napoleon's individual art of war, as raiding bakeries and
+  cutting communications were Beaulieu's speciality. Napoleon made the
+  art into a science, and in our own time, with modern conditions of
+  effective, armament and communications, it is more than possible that
+  Moreaus and Jourdans will prove able to practise it with success. But
+  in the old conditions it required a Napoleon. "Strategy," said Moltke,
+  "is a system of expedients." But it was the intense personal force, as
+  well as the genius, of Napoleon that forged these expedients into a
+  _system_.
+
+The first phase of the campaign satisfactorily settled, Napoleon was
+free to turn his attention to the "arch-enemy" to whom he was now
+considerably superior in numbers (35,000 to 25,000). The day after the
+signature of the armistice of Cherasco he began preparing for a new
+advance and also for the role of arbiter of the destinies of Italy. Many
+whispers there were, even in his own army, as to the dangers of passing
+on without "revolutionizing" aristocratic Genoa and monarchical
+Piedmont, and of bringing Venice, the pope and the Italian princes into
+the field against the French. But Bonaparte, flushed with victory, and
+better informed than the malcontents of the real condition of Italy,
+never hesitated. His first object was to drive out Beaulieu, his second
+to push through Tirol, and his only serious restriction the chance that
+the armistice with Piedmont would not result in a definitive treaty.
+Beaulieu had fallen back into Lombardy, and now bordered the Po right
+and left of Valenza. To achieve further progress, Napoleon had first to
+cross that river, and the point and method of crossing was the immediate
+problem, a problem the more difficult as Napoleon had no bridge train
+and could only make use of such existing bridges as he could seize
+intact.[10] If he crossed above Valenza, he would be confronted by one
+river-line after another, on one of which at least Beaulieu would
+probably stand to fight. But quite apart from the immediate problem,
+Napoleon's intention was less to beat the Austrians than to dislodge
+them. He needed a foothold in Lombardy which would make him independent
+of, and even a menace to, Piedmont. If this were assured, he could for a
+few weeks entirely ignore his communications with France and strike out
+against Beaulieu, dethrone the king of Sardinia, or revolutionize Parma,
+Modena and the papal states according to circumstances.
+
+
+  Piacenza.
+
+Milan, therefore, was his objective, and Tortona-Piacenza his route
+thither. To give himself every chance, he had stipulated with the
+Piedmontese authorities for the right of passing at Valenza, and he had
+the satisfaction of seeing Beaulieu fall into the trap and concentrate
+opposite that part of the river. The French meantime had moved to the
+region Alessandria-Tortona. Thence on the 6th of May Bonaparte, with a
+picked body of troops, set out for a forced march on Piacenza, and that
+night the advanced guard was 30 m. on the way, at Castel San Giovanni,
+and Laharpe's and the cavalry divisions at Stradella, 10 m. behind them.
+Augereau was at Broni, Massena at Sale and Serurier near Valenza, the
+whole forming a rapidly extending fan, 50 m. from point to point. If the
+Piacenza detachment succeeded in crossing, the army was to follow
+rapidly in its track. If, on the other hand, Beaulieu fell back to
+oppose the advanced guard, the Valenza divisions would take advantage of
+his absence to cross there. In either case, be it observed, the
+Austrians were to be _evaded_, not brought to action.
+
+On the morning of the 7th, the swift advanced guard under General
+Dallemagne crossed at Piacenza,[11] and, hearing of this, Bonaparte
+ordered every division except Serurier's thither with all possible
+speed. In the exultation of the moment he mocked at Beaulieu's
+incapacity, but the old Austrian was already on the alert. This game of
+manoeuvres he understood; already one of his divisions had arrived in
+close proximity to Dallemagne and the others were marching eastward by
+all available roads. It was not until the 8th that the French, after a
+series of partial encounters, were securely established on the left bank
+of the Po, and Beaulieu had given up the idea of forcing their most
+advanced troops to accept battle at a disadvantage. The success of the
+French was due less to their plan than to their mobility, which enabled
+them first to pass the river before the Austrians (who had actually
+started a day in advance of them) put in an appearance, and afterwards
+to be in superior numbers at each point of contact. But the episode was
+destined after all to culminate in a great event, which Napoleon himself
+indicated as the turning-point of his life. "Vendemiaire and even
+Montenotte did not make me think myself a superior being. It was after
+Lodi that the idea came to me.... That first kindled the spark of
+boundless ambition."
+
+
+  Lodi.
+
+The idea of a battle having been given up, Beaulieu retired to the Adda,
+and most of his troops were safely beyond it before the French arrived
+near Lodi, but he felt it necessary to leave a strong rearguard on the
+river opposite that place to cover the reassembly of his columns after
+their scattered march. On the afternoon of the 10th of May, Bonaparte,
+with Dallemagne, Massena and Augereau, came up and seized the town. But
+200 yds. of open ground had to be passed from the town gate to the
+bridge, and the bridge itself was another 250 in length. A few hundred
+yards beyond it stood the Austrians, 9000 strong with 14 guns. Napoleon
+brought up all his guns to prevent the enemy from destroying the bridge.
+Then sending all his cavalry to turn the enemy's right by a ford above
+the town, he waited two hours, employing the time in cannonading the
+Austrian lines, resting his advanced infantry and closing up Massena's
+and Augereau's divisions. Finally he gave the order to Dallemagne's 4000
+grenadiers, who were drawn up under cover of the town wall, to rush the
+bridge. As the column, not more than thirty men broad, made its
+appearance, it was met by the concentrated fire of the Austrian guns,
+and half way across the bridge it checked, but Bonaparte himself and
+Massena rushed forward, the courage of the soldiers revived, and, while
+some jumped off the bridge and scrambled forward in the shallow water,
+the remainder stormed on, passed through the guns and drove back the
+infantry. This was, in bare outline, the astounding passage of the
+Bridge of Lodi. It was not till after the battle that Napoleon realized
+that only a rearguard was in front of him. When he launched his 4000
+grenadiers he thought that on the other side there were four or five
+times that number of the enemy. No wonder, then, that after the event he
+recognized in himself the flash of genius, the courage to risk
+everything, and the "tact" which, independent of, and indeed contrary to
+all reasoned calculations, told him that the moment had come for
+"breaking the equilibrium." Lodi was a tactical success in the highest
+sense, in that the principles of his tactics rested on psychology--on
+the "sublime" part of the art of war as Saxe had called it long ago. The
+spirit produced the form, and Lodi was the prototype of the Napoleonic
+battle--contact, manoeuvre, preparation, and finally the well-timed,
+massed and unhesitating assault. The absence of strategical results
+mattered little. Many months elapsed before this bold assertion of
+superiority ceased to decide the battles of France and Austria.
+
+
+  Milan.
+
+Next day, still under the vivid tactical impressions of the Bridge of
+Lodi, he postponed his occupation of the Milanese and set off in pursuit
+of Beaulieu, but the latter was now out of reach, and during the next
+few days the French divisions were installed at various points in the
+area Pavia-Milan-Pizzighetone, facing outwards in all dangerous
+directions, with a central reserve at Milan. Thus secured, Bonaparte
+turned his attention to political and military administration. This took
+the form of exacting from the neighbouring princes money, supplies and
+objects of art, and the once famished Army of Italy revelled in its
+opportunity. Now, however, the Directory, suspicious of the too
+successful and too sanguine young general, ordered him to turn over the
+command in Upper Italy to Kellermann, and to take an expeditionary corps
+himself into the heart of the Peninsula, there to preach the Republic
+and the overthrow of princes. Napoleon absolutely refused, and offered
+his resignation. In the end (partly by bribery) he prevailed, but the
+incident reawakened his desire to close with Beaulieu. This indeed he
+could now do with a free hand, since not only had the Milanese been
+effectively occupied, but also the treaty with Sardinia had been
+ratified.
+
+But no sooner had he resumed the advance than it was interrupted by a
+rising of the peasantry in his rear. The exactions of the French had in
+a few days generated sparks of discontent which it was easy for the
+priests and the nobles to fan into open flames. Milan and Pavia as well
+as the countryside broke into insurrection, and at the latter place the
+mob forced the French commandant to surrender. Bonaparte acted swiftly
+and ruthlessly. Bringing back a small portion of the army with him, he
+punished Milan on the 25th, sacked and burned Binasco on the 26th, and
+on the evening of the latter day, while his cavalry swept the open
+country, he broke his way into Pavia with 1500 men and beat down all
+resistance. Napoleon's cruelty was never purposeless. He deported
+several scores of hostages to France, executed most of the mob leaders,
+and shot the French officer who had surrendered. In addition, he gave
+his 1500 men three hours' leave to pillage. Then, as swiftly as they had
+come, they returned to the army on the Oglio. From this river Napoleon
+advanced to the banks of the Mincio, where the remainder of the Italian
+campaign was fought out, both sides contemptuously disregarding Venetian
+neutrality.
+
+It centred on the fortress of Mantua, which Beaulieu, too weak to keep
+the field, and dislodged from the Mincio in the action of Borghetto (May
+30), strongly garrisoned before retiring into Tirol. Beaulieu was soon
+afterwards replaced by Dagobert Siegmund, count von Wurmser (b. 1724),
+who brought considerable reinforcements from Germany.
+
+At this point, mindful of the narrow escape he had had of losing his
+command, Bonaparte thought it well to begin the resettlement of Italy.
+The scheme for co-operating with Moreau on the Danube was indefinitely
+postponed, and the Army of Italy (now reinforced from the Army of the
+Alps and counting 42,000 effectives) was again disposed in a protective
+"zone of manoeuvre," with a strong central reserve. Over 8000 men,
+however, garrisoned the fortresses of Piedmont and Lombardy, and the
+effective blockade of Mantua and political expeditions into the heart of
+the Peninsula soon used up the whole of this reserve.
+
+Moreover, no siege artillery was available until the Austrians in the
+citadel of Milan capitulated, and thus it was not till the 18th of July
+that the first parallel was begun. Almost at the same moment Wurmser
+began his advance from Trent with 55,000 men to relieve Mantua.
+
+
+  Siege of Mantua.
+
+The protective system on which his attack would fall in the first
+instance was now as follows:--Augereau (6000) about Legnago, Despinoy
+(8000) south-east of Verona, Massena (13,000) at Verona and Peschiera,
+with outposts on the Monte Baldo and at La Corona, Sauret (4500) at Salo
+and Gavardo. Serurier (12,000) was besieging Mantua, and the only
+central reserve was the cavalry (2000) under Kilmaine. The main road to
+Milan passed by Brescia. Sauret's brigade, therefore, was practically a
+detached post on the line of communication, and on the main defensive
+front less than 30,000 men were disposed at various points between La
+Corona and Legnago (30 m. apart), and at a distance of 15 to 20 m. from
+Mantua. The strength of such a disposition depended on the fighting
+power and handiness of the troops, who in each case would be called upon
+to act as a rearguard to gain time. Yet the lie of the country scarcely
+permitted a closer grouping, unless indeed Bonaparte fell back on the
+old-time device of a "circumvallation," and shut himself up, with the
+supplies necessary for the calculated duration of the siege, in an
+impregnable ring of earthworks round Mantua. This, however, he could not
+have done even if he had wished, for the wave of revolt radiating from
+Milan had made accumulations of food impossible, and the lakes above and
+below the fortress, besides being extremely unhealthy, would have
+extended the perimeter of the circumvallation so greatly that the
+available forces would not suffice to man it. It was not in this, but in
+the absence of an important central reserve that Bonaparte's disposition
+is open to criticism, which indeed could impugn the scheme in its
+entirety, as overtaxing the available resources, more easily than it
+could attack its details.
+
+[Illustration: Operations around Mantua 1796-7.
+
+Positions of the night of 2-3 August 1796 shown approximately.]
+
+  If Bonaparte has occasionally been criticized for his defensive
+  measures, Wurmser's attack procedure has received almost universal
+  condemnation, as to the justice of which it may be pointed out[12]
+  that the object of the expedition was not to win a battle by falling
+  on the disunited French with a well-concentrated army, but to
+  overpower one, any one, of the corps covering the siege, and to press
+  straight forward to the relief of Mantua, i.e. to the destruction of
+  Bonaparte's batteries and the levelling of his trench work. The old
+  principle that a battle was a grave event of doubtful issue was
+  reinforced in the actual case by Beaulieu's late experiences of French
+  elan, and as a temporary victory at one point would suffice for the
+  purpose in hand, there was every incentive to multiply the points of
+  contact. The soundness of Wurmser's plan was proved by the event. New
+  ideas and new forces, undiscernible to a man of seventy-two years of
+  age, obliterated his achievement by surpassing it, but such as it
+  was--a limited use of force for a limited object--the venture
+  undeniably succeeded.
+
+The Austrians formed three corps, one (Quasdanovich, 18,000 men)
+marching round the west side of the Lake of Garda on Gavardo, Salo and
+the Brescia road, the second (under Wurmser, about 30,000) moving
+directly down the Adige, and the third (Davidovich, 6000) making a
+detour by the Brenta valley and heading for Verona by Vicenza.
+
+On the 29th Quasdanovich attacked Sauret at Salo, drove him towards
+Desenzano, and pushed on to Gavardo and thence into Brescia. Wurmser
+expelled Massena's advanced guard from La Corona, and captured in
+succession the Monte Baldo and Rivoli posts. The Brenta column
+approached Verona with little or no fighting. News of this column led
+Napoleon early in the day to close up Despinoy, Massena and Kilmaine at
+Castelnuovo, and to order Augereau from Legnago to advance on Montebello
+(19 m. east of Verona) against Davidovich's left rear. But after these
+orders had been despatched came the news of Sauret's defeat, and this
+moment was one of the most anxious in Napoleon's career. He could not
+make up his mind to give up the siege of Mantua, but he hurried Augereau
+back to the Mincio, and sent order after order to the officers on the
+lines of communication to send all convoys by the Cremona instead of by
+the Brescia road. More, he had the baggage, the treasure and the sick
+set in motion at once for Marcaria, and wrote to Serurier a despatch
+which included the words "perhaps we shall recover ourselves ... but I
+must take serious measures for a retreat." On the 30th he wrote: "The
+enemy have broken through our line in three places ... Sauret has
+evacuated Salo ... and the enemy has captured Brescia. You see that our
+communications with Milan and Verona are cut." The reports that came to
+him during the morning of the 30th enabled him to place the main body of
+the enemy opposite Massena, and this, without in the least alleviating
+the gravity of the situation, helped to make his course less doubtful.
+Augereau was ordered to hold the line of the Molinella, in case
+Davidovich's attack, the least-known factor, should after all prove to
+be serious; Massena to reconnoitre a road from Peschiera through
+Castiglione towards Orzinovi, and to stand fast at Castelnuovo opposite
+Wurmser as long as he could. Sauret and Despinoy were concentrated at
+Desenzano with orders on the 31st to clear the main line of retreat and
+to recapture Brescia. The Austrian movements were merely the
+continuation of those of the 29th. Quasdanovich wheeled inwards, his
+right finally resting on Montechiaro and his left on Salo. Wurmser drove
+back Massena to the west side of the Mincio. Davidovich made a slight
+advance.
+
+
+  Relief of Mantua.
+
+In the late evening Bonaparte held a council of war at Roverbella. The
+proceedings of this council are unknown, but it at any rate enabled
+Napoleon to see clearly and to act. Hitherto he had been covering the
+siege of Mantua with various detachments, the defeat of any one of which
+might be fatal to the enterprise. Thus, when he had lost his main line
+of retreat, he could assemble no more than 8000 men at Desenzano to win
+it back. Now, however, he made up his mind that the siege could not be
+continued, and bitter as the decision must have been, it gave him
+freedom. At this moment of crisis the instincts of the great captain
+came into play, and showed the way to a victory that would more than
+counterbalance the now inevitable failure. Serurier was ordered to spike
+the 140 siege guns that had been so welcome a few days before, and,
+after sending part of his force to Augereau, to establish himself with
+the rest at Marcaria on the Cremona road. The field forces were to be
+used on interior lines. On the 31st Sauret, Despinoy, Augereau and
+Kilmaine advanced westward against Quasdanovich. The first two found the
+Austrians at Salo and Lonato and drove them back, while with Augereau
+and the cavalry Bonaparte himself made a forced march on Brescia, never
+halting night or day till he reached the town and recovered his depots.
+Meantime Serurier had retired (night of July 31), Massena had gradually
+drawn in towards Lonato, and Wurmser's advanced guard triumphantly
+entered the fortress (August 1).
+
+
+  Lonato and Castiglione.
+
+The Austrian general now formed the plan of crushing Bonaparte between
+Quasdanovich and his own main body. But meantime Quasdanovich had
+evacuated Brescia under the threat of Bonaparte's advance and was now
+fighting a long irregular action with Despinoy and Sauret about Gavardo
+and Salo, and Bonaparte, having missed his expected target, had brought
+Augereau by another severe march back to Montechiaro on the Chiese.
+Massena was now assembled between Lonato and Ponte San Marco, and
+Serurier was retiring quietly on Marcaria. Wurmser's main body, weakened
+by the detachment sent to Mantua, crossed the Mincio about Valeggio and
+Goito on the 2nd, and penetrated as far as Castiglione, whence Massena's
+rearguard was expelled. But a renewed advance of Quasdanovich, ordered
+by Wurmser, which drove Sauret and Despinoy back on Brescia and Lonato,
+in the end only placed a strong detachment of the Austrians within
+striking distance of Massena, who on the 3rd attacked it, front to
+front, and by sheer fighting destroyed it, while at the same time
+Augereau recaptured Castiglione from Wurmser. On the 4th Sauret and
+Despinoy pressed back Quasdanovich beyond Salo and Gavardo. One of the
+Austrian columns, finding itself isolated and unable to retreat with the
+others, turned back to break its way through to Wurmser, and was
+annihilated by Massena in the neighbourhood of Lonato. On this day
+Augereau fought his way towards Solferino, and Wurmser, thinking rightly
+or wrongly that he could not now retire to the Mincio without a battle,
+drew up his whole force, close on 30,000 men, in the plain between
+Solferino and Medole. The finale may be described in very few words.
+Bonaparte, convinced that no more was to be feared from Quasdanovich,
+and seeing that Wurmser meant to fight, called in Despinoy's division to
+the main body and sent orders to Serurier, then far distant on the
+Cremona road, to march against the left flank of the Austrians. On the
+5th the battle of Castiglione was fought. Closely contested in the first
+hours of the frontal attack till Serurier's arrival decided the day, it
+ended in the retreat of the Austrians over the Mincio and into Tirol
+whence they had come.
+
+  Thus the new way had failed to keep back Wurmser, and the old had
+  failed to crush Napoleon. Each was the result of its own conditions.
+  In former wars a commander threatened as Napoleon was, would have
+  fallen back at once to the Adda, abandoning the siege in such good
+  time that he would have been able to bring off his siege artillery.
+  Instead of this Bonaparte hesitated long enough to lose it, which,
+  according to accepted canons was a waste, and held his ground, which
+  was, by the same rules, sheer madness. But Revolutionary discipline
+  was not firm enough to stand a retreat. Once it turned back, the army
+  would have streamed away to Milan and perhaps to the Alps (cf. 1799),
+  and the only alternative to complete dissolution therefore was
+  fighting.
+
+  As to the manner of this fighting, even the principle of "relative
+  superiority" failed him so long as he was endeavouring to cover the
+  siege and again when his chief care was to protect his new line of
+  retreat and to clear his old. In this period, viz. up to his return
+  from Brescia on the 2nd of August, the only "mass" he collected
+  delivered a blow in the air, while the covering detachments had to
+  fight hard for bare existence. Once released from its trammels, the
+  Napoleonic principle had fair play. He stood between Wurmser and
+  Quasdanovich, ready to fight either or both. The latter was crushed,
+  thanks to local superiority and the resolute leading of Massena, but
+  at Castiglione Wurmser actually outnumbered his opponent till the last
+  of Napoleon's precautionary dispositions had been given up, and
+  Serurier brought back from the "alternative line of retreat" to the
+  battlefield. The moral is, again, that it was not the mere fact of
+  being on interior lines that gave Napoleon the victory, but his
+  "tact," his fine appreciation of the chances in his favour, measured
+  in terms of time, space, attacking force and containing power. All
+  these factors were greatly influenced by the ground, which favoured
+  the swarms and columns of the French and deprived the brilliant
+  Austrian cavalry of its power to act. But of far greater importance
+  was the mobility that Napoleon's personal force imparted to the
+  French. Napoleon himself rode five horses to death in three days, and
+  Augereau's division marched from Roverbella to Brescia and back to
+  Montechiaro, a total distance of nearly 50 m., in about thirty-six
+  hours. This indeed was the foundation of his "relative superiority,"
+  for every hour saved in the time of marching meant more freedom to
+  destroy one corps before the rest could overwhelm the covering
+  detachments and come to its assistance.
+
+  Wurmser's plan for the relief of Mantua, suited to its purpose,
+  succeeded. But when he made his objective the French field army, he
+  had to take his own army as he found it, disposed for an altogether
+  different purpose. A properly, combined attack of convergent columns
+  framed _ab initio_ by a good staff officer, such as Mack, might indeed
+  have given good results. But the success of such a plan depends
+  principally on the assailant's original possession of the initiative,
+  and not on the chances of his being able to win it over to his own
+  side when operations, as here, are already in progress. When the time
+  came to improvise such a plan, the initiative had passed over to
+  Napoleon, and the plan was foredoomed.
+
+By the end of the second week in August the blockade of Mantua had been
+resumed, without siege guns. But still under the impression of a great
+victory gained, Bonaparte was planning a long forward stride. He thought
+that by advancing past Mantua directly on Trieste and thence onwards to
+the Semmering he could impose a peace on the emperor. The Directory,
+however, which had by now focussed its attention on the German campaign,
+ordered him to pass through Tirol and to co-operate with Moreau, and
+this plan, Bonaparte, though protesting against an Alpine venture being
+made so late in the year, prepared to execute, drawing in reinforcements
+and collecting great quantities of supplies in boats on the Adige and
+Lake Garda. Wurmser was thought to have posted his main body near Trent,
+and to have detached one division to Bassano "to cover Trieste." The
+French advanced northward on the 2nd, in three disconnected columns
+(precisely as Wurmser had done in the reverse direction at the end of
+July)--Massena (13,000) from Rivoli to Ala, Augereau (9000) from Verona
+by hill roads, keeping on his right rear, Vaubois (11,000) round the
+Lake of Garda by Riva and Torbole. Sahuguet's division (8000) remained
+before Mantua. The French divisions successfully combined and drove the
+enemy before them to Trent.
+
+There, however, they missed their target. Wurmser had already drawn over
+the bulk of his army (22,000) into the Val Sugana, whence, with the
+Bassano division as his advanced guard, he intended once more to relieve
+Mantua, while Davidovich with 13,000 (excluding detachments) was to hold
+Tirol against any attempt of Bonaparte to join forces with Moreau.
+
+Thus Austria was preparing to hazard a second (as in the event she
+hazarded a third and a fourth) highly trained and expensive professional
+army in the struggle for the preservation of a fortress, and we must
+conclude that there were weighty reasons which actuated so notoriously
+cautious a body as the Council of War in making this unconditional
+venture. While Mantua stood, Napoleon, for all his energy and
+sanguineness, could not press forward into Friuli and Carniola, and
+immunity from a Republican visitation was above all else important for
+the Vienna statesmen, governing as they did more or less discontented
+and heterogeneous populations that had not felt the pressure of war for
+a century and more. The Austrians, so far as is known, desired no more
+than to hold their own. They no longer possessed the superiority of
+_moral_ that guarantees victory to one side when both are materially
+equal. There was therefore nothing to be gained, commensurate with the
+risk involved, by fighting a battle in the open field. _In Italien siegt
+nicht die Kavallerie_ was an old saying in the Austrian army, and
+therefore the Austrians could not hope to win a victory of the first
+magnitude. The only practicable alternative was to strengthen Mantua as
+opportunities offered themselves, and to prolong the passive resistance
+as much as possible. Napoleon's own practice in providing for secondary
+theatres of war was to economize forces and to delay a decision, and the
+fault of the Austrians, viewed from a purely military standpoint, was
+that they squandered, instead of economizing, their forces to gain time.
+If we neglect pure theory, and regard strategy as the handmaiden of
+statesmanship--which fundamentally it is--we cannot condemn the Vienna
+authorities unless it be first proved that they grossly exaggerated the
+possible results of Bonaparte's threatened irruption. And if their
+capacity for judging the political situation be admitted, it naturally
+follows that their object was to preserve Mantua _at all costs_--which
+object Wurmser, though invariably defeated in action, did in fact
+accomplish.
+
+
+  Bassano.
+
+When Massena entered Trent on the morning of the 5th of September,
+Napoleon became aware that the force in his front was a mere detachment,
+and news soon came in that Wurmser was in the Val Sugana about Primolano
+and at Bassano. This move he supposed to be intended to cover Trieste,
+being influenced by his own hopes of advancing in that direction, and
+underestimating the importance, to the Austrians, of preserving Mantua.
+He therefore informed the Directory that he could not proceed with the
+Tirol scheme, and spent one more day in driving Davidovich well away
+from Trent. Then, leaving Vaubois to watch him, Napoleon marched
+Augereau and Massena, with a rapidity he scarcely ever surpassed, into
+the Val Sugana. Wurmser's rearguard was attacked and defeated again and
+again, and Wurmser himself felt compelled to stand and fight, in the
+hope of checking the pursuit before going forward into the plains. Half
+his army had already reached Montebello on the Verona road, and with the
+rear half he posted himself at Bassano, where on the 8th he was attacked
+and defeated with heavy losses. Then began a strategic pursuit or
+general chase, and in this the mobility of the French should have
+finished the work so well begun by their tactics.
+
+But Napoleon directed the pursuers so as to cut off Wurmser from
+Trieste, not from Mantua. Massena followed up the Austrians to Vicenza,
+while Augereau hurried towards Padua, and it was not until late on the
+9th that Bonaparte realized that his opponent was heading for Mantua via
+Legnago. On the 10th Massena crossed the Adige at Ronco, while Augereau
+from Padua reached Montagnara. Sahuguet from Mantua and Kilmaine from
+Verona joined forces at Castellaro on the 11th, with orders to interpose
+between Wurmser and the fortress. Wurmser meantime had halted for a day
+at Legnago, to restore order, and had then resumed his march. It was
+almost too late, for in the evening, after having to push aside the head
+of Massena's column at Cerea, he had only reached Nogara, some miles
+short of Castellaro, and close upon his rear was Augereau, who reached
+Legnago that night. On the 12th, eluding Sahuguet by a detour to the
+southward, he reached Mantua, with all the columns of the French, weary
+as most of them were, in hot pursuit. After an attempt to keep the open
+field, defeated in a general action on the 15th, the relieving force was
+merged in the garrison, now some 28,000 in all. So ended the episode of
+Bassano, the most brilliant feature of which as usual was the marching
+power of the French infantry. This time it sufficed to redeem even
+strategical misconceptions and misdirections. Between the 5th and the
+11th, besides fighting three actions, Massena had marched 100 m. and
+Augereau 114.
+
+Feldzeugmeister Alvintzi was now appointed to command a new army of
+relief. This time the mere distribution of the troops imposed a
+concentric advance of separate columns, for practically the whole of the
+fresh forces available were in Carniola, the Military Frontier, &c.,
+while Davidovich was still in Tirol. Alvintzi's intention was to
+assemble his new army (29,000) in Friuli, and to move on Bassano, which
+was to be occupied on the 4th of November. Meantime Davidovich (18,000)
+was to capture Trent, and the two columns were to connect by the Val
+Sugana. All being well, Alvintzi and Davidovich, still separate, were
+then to converge on the Adige between Verona and Legnago. Wurmser was to
+co-operate by vigorous sorties. At this time Napoleon's protective
+system was as follows: Kilmaine (9000) investing Mantua, Vaubois
+(10,000) at Trent, and Massena (9000) at Bassano and Treviso, Augereau
+(9000) and Macquard (3000) at Verona and Villafranca constituting, for
+the first time in these operations, important mobile reserves. Hearing
+of Alvintzi's approach in good time, he meant first to drive back
+Davidovich, then with Augereau, Massena, Macquard and 3000 of Vaubois's
+force to fall upon Alvintzi, who, he calculated, would at this stage
+have reached Bassano, and finally to send back a large force through the
+Val Sugana to attack Davidovich. This plan practically failed.
+
+
+  Caldiero.
+
+Instead of advancing, Vaubois was driven steadily backward. By the 6th,
+Davidovich had fought his way almost to Roveredo, and Alvintzi had
+reached Bassano and was there successfully repelling the attacks of
+Massena and Augereau. That night Napoleon drew back to Vicenza. On the
+7th Davidovich drove in Vaubois to Corona and Rivoli, and Alvintzi came
+within 5 m. of Vicenza. Napoleon watched carefully for an opportunity to
+strike out, and on the 8th massed his troops closely around the central
+point of Verona. On the 9th, to give himself air, he ordered Massena to
+join Vaubois, and to drive back Davidovich at all costs. But before this
+order was executed, reports came in to the effect that Davidovich had
+suspended his advance. The 10th and 11th were spent by both sides in
+relative inaction, the French waiting on events and opportunities, the
+Austrians resting after their prolonged exertions. Then, on the
+afternoon of the 11th, being informed that Alvintzi was approaching,
+Napoleon decided to attack him. On the 12th the advanced guard of
+Alvintzi's army was furiously assailed in the position of Caldiero. But
+the troops in rear came up rapidly, and by 4 P.M. the French were
+defeated all along the line and in retreat on Verona. Napoleon's
+situation was now indeed precarious. He was on "interior lines," it is
+true, but he had neither the force nor the space necessary for the
+delivery of rapid radial blows. Alvintzi was in superior numbers, as the
+battle of Caldiero had proved, and at any moment Davidovich, who had
+twice Vaubois's force, might advance to the attack of Rivoli. The
+reserves had proved insufficient, and Kilmaine had to be called up from
+Mantua, which was thus for the third time freed from the blockaders.
+Again the alternatives were retreat, in whatever order was possible to
+Republican armies, and beating the nearest enemy at any sacrifice.
+Napoleon chose the latter, though it was not until the evening of the
+14th that he actually issued the fateful order.
+
+The Austrians, too, had selected the 15th as the date of their final
+advance on Verona, Davidovich from the north, Alvintzi via Zevio from
+the south. But Napoleon was no longer there; leaving Vaubois to hold
+Davidovich as best he might, and posting only 3000 men in Verona, he had
+collected the rest of his small army between Albaro and Ronco. His plan
+seems to have been to cross the Adige well in rear of the Austrians, to
+march north on to the Verona-Vicenza highway, and there, supplying
+himself from their convoys, to fight to the last. On the 15th he had
+written to the Directory, "The weakness and the exhaustion of the army
+causes me to fear the worst. We are perhaps on the eve of losing Italy."
+In this extremity of danger the troops passed the Adige in three columns
+near Ronco and Albaredo, and marched forward along the dikes, with deep
+marshes and pools on either hand. If Napoleon's intention was to reach
+the dry open ground of S. Bonifacio in rear of the Austrians, it was not
+realized, for the Austrian army, instead of being at the gates of
+Verona, was still between Caldiero and S. Bonifacio, heading, as we
+know, for Zevio. Thus Alvintzi was able, easily and swiftly, to wheel to
+the south.
+
+
+  Arcola.
+
+The battle of Arcola almost defies description. The first day passed in
+a series of resultless encounters between the heads of the columns as
+they met on the dikes. In the evening Bonaparte withdrew over the Adige,
+expecting at every moment to be summoned to Vaubois's aid. But
+Davidovich remained inactive, and on the 16th the French again crossed
+the river. Massena from Ronco advanced on Porcile, driving the Austrians
+along the causeway thither, but on the side of Arcola, Alvintzi had
+deployed a considerable part of his forces on the edge of the marshes,
+within musket shot of the causeway by which Bonaparte and Augereau had
+to pass, along the Austrian front, to reach the bridge of Arcola. In
+these circumstances the second day's battle was more murderous and no
+more decisive than the first, and again the French retreated to Ronco.
+But Davidovich again stood still, and with incredible obstinacy
+Bonaparte ordered a third assault for the 17th, using indeed more
+tactical expedients than before, but calculating chiefly on the fighting
+powers of his men and on the exhaustion of the enemy. Massena again
+advanced on Porcile, Robert's brigade on Arcola, but the rest, under
+Augereau, were to pass the Alpone near its confluence with the Adige,
+and joining various small bodies which passed the main stream lower
+down, to storm forward on dry ground to Arcola. The Austrians, however,
+themselves advanced from Arcola, overwhelmed Robert's brigade on the
+causeway and almost reached Ronco. This was perhaps the crisis of the
+battle, for Augereau's force was now on the other side of the stream,
+and Massena, with his back to the new danger, was approaching Porcile.
+But the fire of a deployed regiment stopped the head of the Austrian
+column; Massena, turning about, cut into its flank on the dike; and
+Augereau, gathering force, was approaching Arcola from the south. The
+bridge and the village were evacuated soon afterwards, and Massena and
+Augereau began to extend in the plain beyond. But the Austrians still
+sullenly resisted. It was at this moment that Bonaparte secured victory
+by a mere ruse, but a ruse which would have been unprofitable and
+ridiculous had it not been based on his fine sense of the moral
+conditions. Both sides were nearly fought out, and he sent a few
+trumpeters to the rear of the Austrian army to sound the charge. They
+did so, and in a few minutes the Austrians were streaming back to S.
+Bonifacio. This ended the drama of Arcola, which more than any other
+episode of these wars, perhaps of any wars in modern history, centres on
+the personality of the hero. It is said that the French fought without
+spirit on the first day, and yet on the second and third Bonaparte had
+so thoroughly imbued them with his own will to conquer that in the end
+they prevailed over an enemy nearly twice their own strength.
+
+The climax was reached just in time, for on the 17th Vaubois was
+completely defeated at Rivoli and withdrew to Peschiera, leaving the
+Verona and Mantua roads completely open to Davidovich. But on the 19th
+Napoleon turned upon him, and combining the forces of Vaubois, Massena
+and Augereau against him, drove him back to Trent. Meantime Alvintzi
+returned from Vicenza to San Bonifacio and Caldiero (November 21st), and
+Bonaparte at once stopped the pursuit of Davidovich. On the return of
+the French main body to Verona, Alvintzi finally withdrew, Wurmser, who
+had emerged from Mantua on the 23rd, was driven in again, and this
+epilogue of the great struggle came to a feeble end because neither side
+was now capable of prolonging the crisis.
+
+Alvintzi renewed his advance in January 1797 with all the forces that
+could be assembled for a last attempt to save Mantua. At this time 8000
+men under Serurier blockaded Mantua, Massena (9000) was at Verona,
+Joubert (Vaubois's successor) at Rivoli with 10,000, Augereau at Legnago
+with 9000. In reserve were Rey's division (4000) between Brescia and
+Montechiaro, and Victor's brigade at Goito and Castelnuovo. On the other
+side, Alvintzi had 9000 men under Provera at Padua, 6000 under Bayalic
+at Bassano, and he himself with 28,000 men stood in the Tirol about
+Trent. This time he intended to make his principal effort on the Rivoli
+side. Provera was to capture Legnago on the 9th of January, and Bayalic
+Verona on the 12th, while the main army was to deliver its blow against
+the Rivoli position on the 13th.
+
+
+  Rivoli.
+
+The first marches of this scheme were duly carried out, and several days
+elapsed before Napoleon was able to discern the direction of the real
+attack. Augereau fell back, skirmishing a little, as Provera's and
+Bayalic's advance developed. On the 11th, when the latter was nearing
+Verona, Alvintzi's leading troops appeared in front of the Rivoli
+position. On the 12th Bayalic with a weak force (he had sent
+reinforcements to Alvintzi by the Val Pantena) made an unsuccessful
+attack on Verona, Provera, farther south, remaining inactive. On the
+13th Napoleon, still in doubt, launched Massena's division against
+Bayalic, who was driven back to San Bonifacio; but at the same time
+definite news came from Joubert that Alvintzi's main army was in front
+of La Corona. From this point begins the decisive, though by no means
+the most intense or dramatic, struggle of the campaign. Once he felt
+sure of the situation Napoleon acted promptly. Joubert was ordered to
+hold on to Rivoli at all costs. Rey was brought up by a forced march to
+Castelnuovo, where Victor joined him, and ahead of them both Massena was
+hurried on to Rivoli. Napoleon himself joined Joubert on the night of
+the 13th. There he saw the watch-fires of the enemy in a semicircle
+around him, for Alvintzi, thinking that he had only to deal with one
+division, had begun a widespread enveloping attack. The horns of this
+attack were as yet so far distant that Napoleon, instead of extending on
+an equal front, only spread out a few regiments to gain an hour or two
+and to keep the ground for Massena and Rey, and on the morning of
+January 14th, with 10,000 men in hand against 26,000, he fell upon the
+central columns of the enemy as they advanced up the steep broken slopes
+of the foreground. The fighting was severe, but Bonaparte had the
+advantage. Massena arrived at 9 A.M., and a little later the column of
+Quasdanovich, which had moved along the Adige and was now attempting to
+gain a foothold on the plateau in rear of Joubert, was crushed by the
+converging fire of Joubert's right brigade and by Massena's guns, their
+rout being completed by the charge of a handful of cavalry under
+Lasalle. The right horn of Alvintzi's attack, when at last it swung in
+upon Napoleon's rear, was caught between Massena and the advancing
+troops of Rey and annihilated, and even before this the dispirited
+Austrians were in full retreat. A last alarm, caused by the appearance
+of a French infantry regiment in their rear (this had crossed the lake
+in boats from Salo), completed their demoralization, and though less
+than 2000 had been killed and wounded, some 12,000 Austrian prisoners
+were left in the hands of the victors. Rivoli was indeed a moral
+triumph. After the ordeal of Arcola, the victory of the French was a
+foregone conclusion at each point of contact. Napoleon hesitated, or
+rather refrained from striking, so long as his information was
+incomplete, but he knew now from experience that his covering
+detachment, if well led, could not only hold its own without assistance
+until it had gained the necessary information, but could still give the
+rest of the army time to act upon it. Then, when the centre of gravity
+had been ascertained, the French divisions hurried thither, caught the
+enemy in the act of manoeuvring and broke them up. And if that
+confidence in success which made all this possible needs a special
+illustration, it may be found in Napoleon's sending Murat's regiment
+over the lake to place a mere two thousand bayonets across the line of
+retreat of a whole army. Alvintzi's manoeuvre was faulty neither
+strategically in the first instance nor tactically as regards the
+project of enveloping Joubert on the 14th. It failed because Joubert and
+his men were better soldiers than his own, and because a French division
+could move twice as fast as an Austrian, and from these two factors a
+new form of war was evolved, the essence of which was that, for a given
+time and in a given area, a small force of the French should engage and
+hold a much larger force of the enemy.
+
+  The remaining operations can be very briefly summarized. Provera,
+  still advancing on Mantua, joined hands there with Wurmser, and for a
+  time held Serurier at a disadvantage. But hearing of this, Napoleon
+  sent back Massena from the field of Rivoli, and that general, with
+  Augereau and Serurier, not only forced Wurmser to retire again into
+  the fortress, but compelled Provera to lay down his arms. On the 2nd
+  of February 1797, after a long and honourable defence, Mantua, and
+  with it what was left of Wurmser's army, surrendered.
+
+
+    Leoben.
+
+  The campaign of 1797, which ended the war of the First Coalition, was
+  the brilliant sequel of these hard-won victories. Austria had decided
+  to save Mantua at all costs, and had lost her armies in the attempt, a
+  loss which was not compensated by the "strategic" victories of the
+  archduke. Thus the Republican "visitation" of Carinthia and Carniola
+  was one swift march--politically glorious, if dangerous from a purely
+  military standpoint--of Napoleon's army to the Semmering. The
+  archduke, who was called thither from Germany, could do no more than
+  fight a few rearguard actions, and make threats against Napoleon's
+  rear, which the latter, with his usual "tact," ignored. On the Rhine,
+  as in 1795 and 1796, the armies of the Sambre-and-Meuse (Hoche) and
+  the Rhine-and-Moselle (Moreau) were opposed by the armies of the Lower
+  Rhine (Werneck) and of the Upper Rhine (Latour). Moreau crossed the
+  river near Strassburg and fought a series of minor actions. Hoche,
+  like his predecessors, crossed at Dusseldorf and Neuwied and fought
+  his way to the Lahn, where for the last time in the history of these
+  wars, there was an irregular widespread battle. But Hoche, in this his
+  last campaign, displayed the brilliant energy of his first, and
+  delivered the "series of incessant blows" that Carnot had urged upon
+  Jourdan the year before. Werneck was driven with ever-increasing
+  losses from the lower Lahn to Wetzlar and Giessen. Thence, pressed
+  hard by the French left wing under Championnet, he retired on the
+  Nidda, only to find that Hoche's right had swung completely round him.
+  Nothing but the news of the armistice of Leoben saved him from
+  envelopment and surrender. This general armistice was signed by
+  Bonaparte, on his own authority and to the intense chagrin of the
+  Directory and of Hoche, on the 18th of April, and was the basis of the
+  peace of Campo Formio.
+
+
+  NAPOLEON IN EGYPT
+
+  Within the scope of this article, yet far more important from its
+  political and personal than from its general military interest, comes
+  the expedition of Napoleon to Egypt and its sequel (see also EGYPT:
+  _History_; NAPOLEON, &c.). A very brief summary must here suffice.
+  Napoleon left Toulon on the 19th of May 1798, at the same time as his
+  army (40,000 strong in 400 transports) embarked secretly at various
+  ports. Nelson's fleet was completely evaded, and, capturing Malta _en
+  route_, the armada reached the coast of Egypt on the 1st of July. The
+  republicans stormed Alexandria on the 2nd. Between Embabeh and Gizeh,
+  on the left bank of the Nile, 60,000 Mamelukes were defeated and
+  scattered on the 21st (battle of the Pyramids), the French for the
+  most part marching and fighting in the chequer of infantry squares
+  that afterwards became the classical formation for desert warfare.
+  While his lieutenants pursued the more important groups of the enemy,
+  Napoleon entered Cairo in triumph, and proceeded to organize Egypt as
+  a French protectorate. Meantime Nelson, though too late to head off
+  the expedition, had annihilated the squadron of Admiral Brueys. This
+  blow severed the army from the home country, and destroyed all hope of
+  reinforcements. But to eject the French already in Egypt, military
+  invasion of that country was necessary. The first attempts at this
+  were made in September by the Turks as overlords of Egypt.
+  Napoleon--after suppressing a revolt in Cairo--marched into Syria to
+  meet them, and captured El Arish and Jaffa (at the latter place the
+  prisoners, whom he could afford neither to feed, to release, nor to
+  guard, were shot by his order). But he was brought to a standstill
+  (March 17-May 20) before the half-defensible fortifications of Acre,
+  held by a Turkish garrison and animated by the leadership of Sir W.
+  Sidney Smith (q.v.). In May, though meantime a Turkish relieving army
+  had been severely beaten in the battle of Mount Tabor (April 16,
+  1799), Napoleon gave up his enterprise, and returned to Egypt, where
+  he won a last victory in annihilating at Aboukir, with 6000 of his own
+  men, a Turkish army 18,000 strong that had landed there (July 25,
+  1799). With this crowning tactical success to set against the Syrian
+  reverses, he handed over the command to Kleber and returned to France
+  (August 22) to ride the storm in a new _coup d'etat_, the "18th
+  Brumaire." Kleber, attacked by the English and Turks, concluded the
+  convention of El Arish (January 27, 1800), whereby he secured free
+  transport for the army back to France. But this convention was
+  disavowed by the British government, and Kleber prepared to hold his
+  ground. On the 20th of March 1800 he thoroughly defeated the Turkish
+  army at Heliopolis and recovered Cairo, and French influence was once
+  more in the ascendant in Egypt, when its director was murdered by a
+  fanatic on the 14th of June, the day of Marengo. Kleber's successor,
+  the incompetent Menou, fell an easy victim to the British
+  expeditionary force under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801. The British
+  forced their way ashore at Aboukir on the 8th of March. On the 21st,
+  Abercromby won a decisive battle, and himself fell in the hour of
+  victory (see ALEXANDRIA: _Battle of 1801_). His successor, General
+  Hely Hutchinson, slowly followed up this advantage, and received the
+  surrender of Cairo in July and of Alexandria in August, the debris of
+  the French army being given free passage back to France. Meantime a
+  mixed force of British and native troops from India, under Sir David
+  Baird, had landed at Kosseir and marched across the desert to Cairo.
+
+
+THE WAR OF THE SECOND COALITION
+
+In the autumn of 1798, while Napoleon's Egyptian expedition was in
+progress, and the Directory was endeavouring at home to reduce the
+importance and the predominance of the army and its leaders, the powers
+of Europe once more allied themselves, not now against the principles of
+the Republic, but against the treaty of Campo Formio. Russia, Austria,
+England, Turkey, Portugal, Naples and the Pope formed the Second
+Coalition. The war began with an advance into the Roman States by a
+worthless and ill-behaved Neapolitan army (commanded, much against his
+will, by Mack), which the French troops under Championnet destroyed with
+ease. Championnet then revolutionized Naples. After this unimportant
+prelude the curtain rose on a general European war. The Directory which
+now had at its command neither numbers nor enthusiasm, prepared as best
+it could to meet the storm. Four armies, numbering only 160,000, were
+set on foot, in Holland (Brune, 24,000); on the Upper Rhine (Jourdan,
+46,000); in Switzerland, which had been militarily occupied in 1798
+(Massena, 30,000); and in upper Italy (Scherer, 60,000). In addition
+there was Championnet's army, now commanded by Macdonald, in southern
+Italy. All these forces the Directory ordered, in January and February
+1799, to assume the offensive.
+
+
+  Stokach.
+
+Jourdan, in the Constance and Schaffhausen region, had only 40,000 men
+against the archduke Charles's 80,000, and was soon brought to a
+standstill and driven back on Stokach. The archduke had won these
+preliminary successes with seven-eighths of his army acting as one
+concentrated mass. But as he had only encountered a portion of Jourdan's
+army, he became uneasy as to his flanks, checked his bold advance, and
+ordered a reconnaissance in force. This practically extended his army
+while Jourdan was closing his, and thus the French began the battle of
+Stokach (March 25) in superior numbers, and it was not until late in the
+day that the archduke brought up sufficient strength (60,000) to win a
+victory. This was a battle of the "strategic" type, a widespread
+straggling combat in which each side took fifteen hours to inflict a
+loss of 12% on the other, and which ended in Jourdan accepting defeat
+and drawing off, unpursued by the magnificent Austrian cavalry, though
+these counted five times as many sabres as the French.
+
+The French secondary army in Switzerland was in the hands of the bold
+and active Massena. The forces of both sides in the Alpine region were,
+from a military point of view, mere flank guards to the main armies on
+the Rhine and the Adige. But unrest, amounting to civil war, among the
+Swiss and Grison peoples tempted both governments to give these flank
+guards considerable strength.[13]
+
+
+  Massena in Switzerland.
+
+The Austrians in the Vorarlberg and Grisons were under Hotze, who had
+13,000 men at Bregenz, and 7000 commanded by Auffenberg around Chur,
+with, between them, 5000 men at Feldkirch and a post of 1000 in the
+strong position of the Luziensteig near Mayenfeld. Massena's available
+force was about 20,000, and he used almost the whole of it against
+Auffenberg. The Rhine was crossed by his principal column near
+Mayenfeld, and the Luziensteig stormed (March 6), while a second column
+from the Zurich side descended upon Disentis and captured its defenders.
+In three days, thanks to Massena's energy and the ardent attacking
+spirit of his men, Auffenberg's division was broken up, Oudinot
+meanwhile holding off Hotze by a hard-fought combat at Feldkirch (March
+7). But a second attack on Feldkirch made on the 23rd by Massena with
+15,000 men was repulsed and the advance of his left wing came to a
+standstill.
+
+Behind Auffenberg and Hotze was Bellegarde in Tirol with some 47,000
+men. Most of these were stationed north of Innsbruck and Landeck,
+probably as a sort of strategic reserve to the archduke. The rest, with
+the assistance of the Tirolese themselves, were to ward off irruptions
+from Italy. Here the French offensive was entrusted to two columns, one
+from Massena's command under Lecourbe, the other from the Army of Italy
+under Dessolle. Simultaneously with Massena, Lecourbe marched from
+Bellinzona with 10,000 men, by the San Bernadino pass into the Splugen
+valley, and thence over the Julier pass into the upper Engadine. A small
+Austrian force under Major-General Loudon attacked him near Zernetz, but
+was after three days of rapid manoeuvres and bold tactics driven back to
+Martinsbruck, with considerable losses, especially in prisoners. But ere
+long the country people flew to arms, and Lecourbe found himself between
+two fires, the levies occupying Zernetz and Loudon's regulars
+Martinsbruck. But though he had only some 5000 of his original force
+left, he was not disconcerted, and, by driving back the levies into the
+high valleys whence they had come, and constantly threatening Loudon,
+he was able to maintain himself and to wait for Dessolles. The latter,
+moving up the Valtelline, by now fought his way to the Stelvio pass, but
+beyond it the defile of Tauffers (S.W. of Glurns) was entrenched by
+Loudon, who thus occupied a position midway between the two French
+columns, while his irregulars beset all the passes and ways giving
+access to the Vintschgau and the lower Engadine. In this situation the
+French should have been destroyed in detail. But as usual their speed
+and dash gave them the advantage in every manoeuvre and at every point
+of contact.
+
+
+  Lecourbe and Dessolles in Tirol.
+
+On the 25th Lecourbe and Dessolles attacked Loudon at Nauders in the
+Engadine and Tauffers in the Vintschgau respectively. At Nauders the
+French passed round the flanks of the defence by scrambling along the
+high mountain crests adjacent, while at Tauffers the assailants, only
+4500 strong, descended into a deep ravine, debouched unnoticed in the
+Austrians' rear, and captured 6000 men and 16 guns. The Austrian leader
+with a couple of companies made his way through Glurns to Nauders, and
+there, finding himself headed off by Lecourbe, he took to the mountains.
+His corps, like Auffenberg's, was annihilated.
+
+This ended the French general offensive. Jourdan had been defeated by
+the archduke and forced or induced to retire over the Rhine. Massena was
+at a standstill before the strong position of Feldkirch, and the
+Austrians of Hotze were still massed at Bregenz, but the Grisons were
+revolutionized, two strong bodies of Austrians numbering in all about
+20,000 men had been destroyed, and Lecourbe and Dessolles had advanced
+far into Tirol. A pause followed. The Austrians in the mountains needed
+time to concentrate and to recover from their astonishment. The archduke
+fell ill, and the Vienna war council forbade his army to advance lest
+Tirol should be "uncovered," though Bellegarde and Hotze still disposed
+of numbers equal to those of Massena and Lecourbe. Massena succeeded
+Jourdan in general command on the French side and promptly collected all
+available forces of both armies in the hilly non-Alpine country between
+Basel, Zurich and Schaffhausen, thereby directly barring the roads into
+France (Berne-Neuchatel-Pontarlier and Basel-Besancon) which the
+Austrians appeared to desire to conquer. The protection of Alsace and
+the Vosges was left to the fortresses. There was no suggestion, it would
+appear, that the Rhine between Basel and Schaffhausen was a flank
+position sufficient of itself to bar Alsace to the enemy.
+
+It is now time to turn to events in Italy, where the Coalition intended
+to put forth its principal efforts. At the beginning of March the French
+had 80,000 men in Upper Italy and some 35,000 in the heart of the
+Peninsula, the latter engaged chiefly in supporting newly-founded
+republics. Of the former, 53,000 formed the field army on the Mincio
+under Scherer. The Austrians, commanded by Kray, numbered in all 84,000,
+but detachments reduced this figure to 67,000, of whom, moreover, 15,000
+had not yet arrived when operations began. They were to be joined by a
+Russian contingent under the celebrated Suvarov, who was to command the
+whole on arrival, and whose extraordinary personality gives the campaign
+its special interest. Kray himself was a resolute soldier, and when the
+French, obeying the general order to advance, crossed the Adige, he
+defeated them in a severely fought battle at Magnano near Verona (March
+5), the French losing 4000 killed and wounded and 4500 taken, out of
+41,000. The Austrians lost some 3800 killed and wounded and 1500
+prisoners, out of 46,000 engaged. The war, however, was undertaken not
+to annihilate, but to evict the French, and, probably under orders from
+Vienna, Kray allowed the beaten enemy to depart.
+
+
+  Suvarov.
+
+Suvarov appeared with 17,000 Russians on the 4th of April. His first
+step was to set Russian officers to teach the Austrian troops--whose
+feelings can be imagined--how to attack with the bayonet, his next to
+order the whole army forward. The Allies broke camp on the 17th, 18th
+and 19th of April, and on the 20th, after a forced march of close on 30
+m., they passed the Chiese. Brescia had a French garrison, but Suvarov
+soon cowed it into surrender by threats of a massacre, which no one
+doubted that he would carry into execution. At the same time,
+dissatisfied with the marching of the Austrian infantry, he sent the
+following characteristic reproof to their commander: "The march was in
+the service of the Kaiser. Fair weather is for my lady's chamber, for
+dandies, for sluggards. He who dares to cavil against his high duty
+(_der Grosssprecher wider den hohen Dienst_) is, as an egoist, instantly
+to vacate his command. Whoever is in bad health can stay behind. The
+so-called reasoners (_raisonneurs_) do no army any good...." One day
+later, under this unrelenting pressure, the advanced posts of the Allies
+reached Cremona and the main body the Oglio. The pace became slower in
+the following days, as many bridges had to be made, and meanwhile
+Moreau, Scherer's successor, prepared with a mere 20,000 men to defend
+Lodi, Cassano and Lecco on the Adda. On the 26th the Russian hero
+attacked him all along the line. The moral supremacy had passed over to
+the Allies. Melas, under Suvarov's stern orders, flung his battalions
+regardless of losses against the strong position of Cassano. The story
+of 1796 repeated itself with the roles reversed. The passage was
+carried, and the French rearguard under Serurier was surrounded and
+captured by an inferior corps of Austrians. The Austrians (the Russians
+at Lecco were hardly engaged) lost 6000 men, but they took 7000
+prisoners, and in all Moreau's little army lost half its numbers and
+retreated in many disconnected bodies to the Ticino, and thence to
+Alessandria. Everywhere the Italians turned against the French, mindful
+of the exactions of their commissaries. The strange Cossack cavalry that
+western Europe had never yet seen entered Milan on the 29th of April,
+eleven days after passing the Mincio, and next day the city received
+with enthusiasm the old field marshal, whose exploits against the Turks
+had long invested him with a halo of romance and legend. Here, for the
+moment, his offensive culminated. He desired to pass into Switzerland
+and to unite his own, the archduke's, Hotze's and Bellegarde's armies in
+one powerful mass. But the emperor would not permit the execution of
+this scheme until all the fortresses held by the enemy in Upper Italy
+should have been captured. In any case, Macdonald's army in southern
+Italy, cut off from France by the rapidity of Suvarov's onslaught, and
+now returning with all speed to join Moreau by force or evasion, had
+still to be dealt with.
+
+Suvarov's mobile army, originally 90,000 strong, had now dwindled, by
+reason of losses and detachments for sieges, to half that number, and
+serious differences arose between the Vienna government and himself. If
+he offended the pride of the Austrian army, he was at least respected as
+a leader who gave it victories, but in Vienna he was regarded as a
+madman who had to be kept within bounds. But at last, when he was
+becoming thoroughly exasperated by this treatment, Macdonald came within
+striking distance and the active campaign recommenced. In the second
+week of June, Moreau, who had retired into the Apennines about Gavi,
+advanced with the intention of drawing upon himself troops that would
+otherwise have been employed against Macdonald. He succeeded, for
+Suvarov with his usual rapidity collected 40,000 men at Alessandria,
+only to learn that Macdonald with 35,000 men was coming up on the Parma
+road. When this news arrived, Macdonald had already engaged an Austrian
+detachment at Modena and driven it back, and Suvarov found himself
+between Moreau and Macdonald with barely enough men under his hand to
+enable him to play the game of "interior lines." But at the crisis the
+rough energetic warrior who despised "raisonneurs," displayed
+generalship of the first order, and taking in hand all his scattered
+detachments, he manoeuvred them in the Napoleonic fashion.
+
+
+  The Trebbia.
+
+On the 14th Macdonald was calculated to be between Modena, Reggio and
+Carpi, but his destination was uncertain. Would he continue to hug the
+Apennines to join Moreau, or would he strike out northwards against
+Kray, who with 20,000 men was besieging Mantua? From Alessandria it is
+four marches to Piacenza and nine to Mantua, while from Reggio these
+places are four and two marches respectively. Piacenza, therefore, was
+the crucial point if Macdonald continued westward, while, in the other
+case, nothing could save Kray but the energetic conduct of
+Hohenzollern's detachment, which was posted near Reggio. This latter,
+however, was soon forced over the Po, and Ott, advancing from Cremona to
+join it, found himself sharply pressed in turn. The field marshal had
+hoped that Ott and Hohenzollern together would be able to win him time
+to assemble at Parma, where he could bring on a battle whichever way the
+French took. But on receipt of Ott's report he was convinced that
+Macdonald had chosen the western route, and ordering Ott to delay the
+French as long as possible by stubborn rearguard actions and to put a
+garrison into Piacenza under a general who was to hold out "on peril of
+his life and honour," he collected what forces were ready to move and
+hurried towards Piacenza, the rest being left to watch Moreau. He
+arrived just in time. When after three forced marches the main body
+(only 26,000 strong) reached Castel San Giovanni, Ott had been driven
+out of Piacenza, but the two joined forces safely. Both Suvarov and
+Macdonald spent the 17th in closing up and deploying for battle. The
+respective forces were Allies 30,000, French 35,000. Suvarov believed
+the enemy to be only 26,000 strong, and chiefly raw Italian regiments,
+but his temperament would not have allowed him to stand still even had
+he known his inferiority. He had already issued one of his peculiar
+battle-orders, which began with the words, "The hostile army will be
+taken prisoners" and continued with directions to the Cossacks to spare
+the surrendered enemy. But Macdonald too was full of energy, and
+believed still that he could annihilate Ott before the field marshal's
+arrival. Thus the battle of the Trebbia (June 17-19) was fought by both
+sides in the spirit of the offensive. It was one of the severest
+struggles in the Republican wars, and it ended in Macdonald's retreat
+with a loss of 15,000 men--probably 6000 in the battle and 9000 killed
+and prisoners when and after the equilibrium was broken--for Suvarov,
+unlike other generals, had the necessary surplus of energy after all the
+demands made upon him by a great battle, to order and to direct an
+effective pursuit. The Allies lost about 7000. Macdonald retreated to
+Parma and Modena, harassed by the peasantry, and finally recrossed the
+Apennines and made his way to Genoa. The battle of the Trebbia is one of
+the most clearly-defined examples in military history of the result of
+moral force--it was a matter not merely of energetic leading on the
+battlefield, but far more of educating the troops beforehand to meet the
+strain, of ingraining in the soldier the determination to win at all
+costs. "It was not," says Clausewitz, "a case of losing the key of the
+position, of turning a flank or breaking a centre, of a mistimed cavalry
+charge or a lost battery ... it is a pure trial of strength and expense
+of force, and victory is the sinking of the balance, if ever so
+slightly, in favour of one side. And we mean not merely physical, but
+even more moral forces."
+
+To return now to the Alpine region, where the French offensive had
+culminated at the end of March. Their defeated left was behind the Rhine
+in the northern part of Switzerland, the half-victorious centre athwart
+the Rhine between Mayenfeld and Chur, and their wholly victorious right
+far within Tirol between Glurns, Nauders and Landeck. But neither the
+centre nor the right could maintain itself. The forward impulse given by
+Suvarov spread along the whole Austrian front from left to right.
+Dessolles' column (now under Loison) was forced back to Chiavenna.
+Bellegarde drove Lecourbe from position to position towards the Rhine
+during April. There Lecourbe added to the remnant of his expeditionary
+column the outlying bodies of Massena's right wing, but even so he had
+only 8000 men against Bellegarde's 17,000, and he was now exposed to the
+attack of Hotze's 25,000 as well. The Luziensteig fell to Hotze and Chur
+to Bellegarde, but the defenders managed to escape from the converging
+Austrian columns into the valley of the Reuss. Having thus reconquered
+all the lost ground and forced the French into the interior of
+Switzerland, Bellegarde and Hotze parted company, the former marching
+with the greater part of his forces to join Suvarov, the latter moving
+to his right to reinforce the archduke. Only a chain of posts was left
+in the Rhine Valley between Disentis and Feldkirch. The archduke's
+operations now recommenced.
+
+
+  Action of Zurich.
+
+Charles and Hotze stood, about the 15th of May, at opposite ends of the
+lake of Constance. The two together numbered about 88,000 men, but both
+had sent away numerous detachments to the flanks, and the main bodies
+dwindled to 35,000 for the archduke and 20,000 for Hotze. Massena, with
+45,000 men in all, retired slowly from the Rhine to the Thur. The
+archduke crossed the Rhine at Stein, Hotze at Balzers, and each then
+cautiously felt his way towards the other. Their active opponent
+attempted to take advantage of their separation, and an irregular fight
+took place in the Thur valley (May 25), but Massena, finding Hotze close
+on his right flank, retired without attempting to force a decision. On
+the 27th, having joined forces, the Austrians dislodged Massena from his
+new position on the Toss without difficulty, and this process was
+repeated from time to time in the next few days, until at last Massena
+halted in the position he had prepared for defence at Zurich. He had
+still but 25,000 of his 45,000 men in hand, for he maintained numerous
+small detachments on his right, behind the Zurcher See and the Wallen
+See, and on his left towards Basel. These 25,000 occupied an entrenched
+position 5 m. in length; against which the Austrians, detaching as usual
+many posts to protect their flanks and rear, deployed only 42,000 men,
+of whom 8000 were sent on a wide turning movement and 8000 held in
+reserve 4 m. in rear of the battlefield. Thus the frontal attack was
+made with forces not much greater than those of the defence and it
+failed accordingly (June 4). But Massena, fearing perhaps to strain the
+loyalty of the Swiss to their French-made constitution by exposing their
+town to assault and sack, retired on the 5th.
+
+He did not fall back far, for his outposts still bordered the Limmat and
+the Linth, while his main body stood in the valley of the Aar between
+Baden and Lucerne. The archduke pressed Massena as little as he had
+pressed Jourdan after Stokach (though in this case he had less to gain
+by pursuit), and awaited the arrival of a second Russian army, 30,000
+strong, under Korsakov, before resuming the advance, meantime throwing
+out covering detachments towards Basel, where Massena had a division.
+Thus for two months operations, elsewhere than in Italy, were at a
+standstill, while Massena drew in reinforcements and organized the
+fractions of his forces in Alsace as a skeleton army, and the Austrians
+distributed arms to the peasantry of South Germany.
+
+In the end, under pressure from Paris, it was Massena who resumed active
+movements. Towards the middle of August, Lecourbe, who formed a loose
+right wing of the French army in the Reuss valley, was reinforced to a
+strength of 25,000 men, and pounced upon the extended left wing of the
+enemy, which had stretched itself, to keep pace with Suvarov, as far
+westward as the St Gothard. The movement began on the 14th, and in two
+days the Austrians were driven back from the St Gothard and the Furka to
+the line of the Linth, with the loss of 8000 men and many guns. At the
+same time an attempt to take advantage of Massena's momentary weakness
+by forcing the Aar at Dottingen near its mouth failed completely (August
+16-17). Only 200 men guarded the point of passage, but the Austrian
+engineers had neglected to make a proper examination of the river, and
+unlike the French, the Austrian generals had no authority to waste their
+expensive battalions in forcing the passage in boats. No one regarded
+this war as a struggle for existence, and no one but Suvarov possessed
+the iron strength of character to send thousands of men to death for the
+realization of a diplomatic success--for ordinary men, the object of the
+Coalition was to upset the treaty of Campo Formio. This was the end of
+the archduke's campaign in Switzerland. Though he would have preferred
+to continue it, the Vienna government desired him to return to Germany.
+An Anglo-Russian expedition was about to land in Holland,[14] and the
+French were assembling fresh forces on the Rhine, and, with the double
+object of preventing an invasion of South Germany and of inducing the
+French to augment their forces in Alsace at the expense of those in
+Holland, the archduke left affairs in Switzerland to Hotze and Korsakov,
+and marched away with 35,000 men to join the detachment of Sztarray
+(20,000) that he had placed in the Black Forest before entering
+Switzerland. His new campaign never rose above the level of a war of
+posts and of manoeuvres about Mannheim and Philippsburg. In the latter
+stage of it Lecourbe commanded the French and obtained a slight
+advantage.
+
+
+  Suvarov ordered to Switzerland.
+
+Suvarov's last exploit in Italy coincided in time, but in no other
+respect, with the skirmish at Dottingen. Returning swiftly from the
+battlefield of the Trebbia, he began to drive back Moreau to the
+Riviera. At this point Joubert succeeded to the command on the French
+side, and against the advice of his generals, gave battle. Equally
+against the advice of his own subordinates, the field marshal accepted
+it, and won his last great victory at Novi on the 13th of August,
+Joubert being killed. This was followed by another rapid march against a
+new French "Army of the Alps" (Championnet) which had entered Italy by
+way of the Mont Cenis. But immediately after this he left all further
+operations in Italy to Melas with 60,000 men and himself with the
+Russians and an Austrian corps marched away, via Varese, for the St
+Gothard to combine operations against Massena with Hotze and Korsakov.
+It was with a heavy heart that he left the scene of his battles, in
+which the force of his personality had carried the old-fashioned
+"linear" armies for the last time to complete victory. In the early
+summer he had himself suggested, eagerly and almost angrily, the
+concentration of his own and the archduke's armies in Switzerland with a
+view, not to conquering that country, but to forcing Jourdan and Massena
+into a grand decisive battle. But, as we have seen, the Vienna
+government would not release him until the last Italian fortress had
+been reoccupied, and when finally he received the order that a little
+while before he had so ardently desired, it was too late. The archduke
+had already left Switzerland, and he was committed to a resultless
+warfare in the high mountains, with an army which was a mere detachment
+and in the hope of co-operating with two other detachments far away on
+the other side of Switzerland. As for the reasons which led to the issue
+of such an order, it can only be said that the bad feeling known to
+exist between the Austrians and Russians induced England to recommend,
+as the first essential of further operations, the separate concentration
+of the troops of each nationality under their own generals. Still
+stranger was the reason which induced the tsar to give his consent. It
+was alleged that the Russians would be healthier in Switzerland than the
+men of the southern plains! From such premises as these the Allied
+diplomats evolved a new plan of campaign, by which the Anglo-Russians
+under the duke of York were to reconquer Holland and Belgium, the
+Archduke Charles to operate on the Middle Rhine, Suvarov in Switzerland
+and Melas in Piedmont--a plan destitute of every merit but that of
+simplicity.
+
+
+  Battle of Zurich.
+
+It is often said that it is the duty of a commander to resign rather
+than undertake an operation which he believes to be faulty. So, however,
+Suvarov did not understand it. In the simplicity of his loyalty to the
+formal order of his sovereign he prepared to carry out his instructions
+to the letter. Massena's command (77,000 men) was distributed, at the
+beginning of September, along an enormous S, from the Simplon, through
+the St Gothard and Glarus, and along the Linth, the Zuricher See and the
+Limmat to Basel. Opposite the lower point of this S, Suvarov (28,000)
+was about to advance. Hotze's corps (25,000 Austrians), extending from
+Utznach by Chur to Disentis, formed a thin line roughly parallel to the
+lower curve of the S, Korsakov's Russians (30,000) were opposite the
+centre at Zurich, while Nauendorff with a small Austrian corps at
+Waldshut faced the extreme upper point. Thus the only completely safe
+way in which Suvarov could reach the Zurich region was by skirting the
+lower curve of the S, under protection of Hotze. But this detour would
+be long and painful, and the ardent old man preferred to cross the
+mountains once for all at the St Gothard, and to follow the valley of
+the Reuss to Altdorf and Schwyz--i.e. to strike vertically upward to
+the centre of the S--and to force his way through the French cordon to
+Zurich, and if events, so far as concerned his own corps, belied his
+optimism, they at any rate justified his choice of the shortest route.
+For, aware of the danger gathering in his rear, Massena gathered up all
+his forces within reach towards his centre, leaving Lecourbe to defend
+the St Gothard and the Reuss valley and Soult on the Linth. On the 24th
+he forced the passage of the Limmat at Dietikon. On the 25th, in the
+second battle of Zurich, he completely routed Korsakov, who lost 8000
+killed and wounded, large numbers of prisoners and 100 guns. All along
+the line the Allies fell back, one corps after another, at the moment
+when Suvarov was approaching the foot of the St Gothard.
+
+
+  Suvarov in the Alps.
+
+On the 21st the field marshal's headquarters were at Bellinzona, where
+he made the final preparations. Expecting to be four days _en route_
+before he could reach the nearest friendly magazine, he took his trains
+with him, which inevitably augmented the difficulties of the expedition.
+On the 24th Airolo was taken, but when the far greater task of storming
+the pass itself presented itself before them, even the stolid Russians
+were terrified, and only the passionate protests of the old man, who
+reproached his "children" with deserting their father in his extremity,
+induced them to face the danger. At last after twelve hours' fighting,
+the summit was reached. The same evening Suvarov pushed on to
+Hospenthal, while a flanking column from Disentis made its way towards
+Amsteg over the Crispalt. Lecourbe was threatened in rear and pressed in
+front, and his engineers, to hold off the Disentis column, had broken
+the Devil's Bridge. Discovering this, he left the road, threw his guns
+into the river and made his way by fords and water-meadows to Goschenen,
+where by a furious attack he cleared the Disentis troops off his line of
+retreat. His rearguard meantime held the ruined Devil's Bridge. This
+point and the tunnel leading to it, called the Urner Loch, the Russians
+attempted to force, with the most terrible losses, battalion after
+battalion crowding into the tunnel and pushing the foremost ranks into
+the chasm left by the broken bridge. But at last a ford was discovered
+and the bridge, cleared by a turning movement, was repaired. More broken
+bridges lay beyond, but at last Suvarov joined the Disentis column near
+Goschenen. When Altdorf was reached, however, Suvarov found not only
+Lecourbe in a threatening position, but an entire absence of boats on
+the Lake of the Four Cantons. It was impossible (in those days the
+Axenstrasse did not exist) to take an army along the precipitous eastern
+shore, and thus passing through one trial after another, each more
+severe than the last, the Russians, men and horses and pack animals in
+an interminable single file, ventured on the path leading over the
+Kinzig pass into the Muotta Thal. The passage lasted three days, the
+leading troops losing men and horses over the precipices, the rearguard
+from the fire of the enemy, now in pursuit. And at last, on arrival in
+the Muotta Thal, the field marshal received definite information that
+Korsakov's army was no longer in existence. Yet even so it was long
+before he could make up his mind to retreat, and the pursuers gathered
+on all sides. Fighting, sometimes severe, and never altogether ceasing,
+went on day after day as the Allied column, now reduced to 15,000 men,
+struggled on over one pass after another, but at last it reached Ilanz
+on the Vorder Rhine (October 8). The Archduke Charles meanwhile had, on
+hearing of the disaster of Zurich, brought over a corps from the Neckar,
+and for some time negotiations were made for a fresh combined operation
+against Massena. But these came to nothing, for the archduke and Suvarov
+could not agree, either as to their own relations or as to the plan to
+be pursued. Practically, Suvarov's retreat from Altdorf to Ilanz closed
+the campaign. It was his last active service, and formed a gloomy but
+grand climax to the career of the greatest soldier who ever wore the
+Russian uniform.
+
+
+MARENGO AND HOHENLINDEN
+
+The disasters of 1799 sealed the fate of the Directory, and placed
+Bonaparte, who returned from Egypt with the prestige of a recent
+victory, in his natural place as civil and military head of France. In
+the course of the campaign the field strength of the French had been
+gradually augmented, and in spite of losses now numbered 227,000 at the
+front. These were divided into the Army of Batavia, Brune (25,000), the
+Army of the Rhine, Moreau (146,000), the Army of Italy, Massena
+(56,000), and, in addition, there were some 100,000 in garrisons and
+depots in France.
+
+Most of these field armies were in a miserable condition owing to the
+losses and fatigues of the last campaign. The treasury was empty and
+credit exhausted, and worse still--for spirit and enthusiasm, as in
+1794, would have remedied material deficiencies--the conscripts obtained
+under Jourdan's law of 1798 (see CONSCRIPTION) came to their regiments
+most unwillingly. Most of them, indeed, deserted on the way to join the
+colours. A large draft sent to the Army of Italy arrived with 310 men
+instead of 10,250, and after a few such experiences, the First Consul
+decided that the untrained men were to be assembled in the fortresses of
+the interior and afterwards sent to the active battalions in numerous
+small drafts, which they could more easily assimilate. Besides
+accomplishing the immense task of reorganizing existing forces, he
+created new ones, including the Consular Guard, and carried out at this
+moment of crisis two such far-reaching reforms as the replacement of the
+civilian drivers of the artillery by soldiers, and of the hired teams by
+horses belonging to the state, and the permanent grouping of divisions
+in army corps.
+
+
+  The Army of Reserve.
+
+As early as the 25th of January 1800 the First Consul provided for the
+assembly of all available forces in the interior in an "Army of
+Reserve." He reserved to himself the command of this army,[15] which
+gradually came into being as the pacification of Vendee and the return
+of some of Brune's troops from Holland set free the necessary nucleus
+troops. The conscription law was stringently reenforced, and impassioned
+calls were made for volunteers (the latter, be it said, did not produce
+five hundred useful men). The district of Dijon, partly as being central
+with respect to the Rhine and Italian Armies, partly as being convenient
+for supply purposes, was selected as the zone of assembly. Chabran's
+division was formed from some depleted corps of the Army of Italy and
+from the depots of those in Egypt. Chambarlhac's, chiefly of young
+soldiers, lost 5% of its numbers on the way to Dijon from desertion--a
+loss which appeared slight and even satisfactory after the wholesale
+_debandade_ of the winter months. Lechi's Italian legion was newly
+formed from Italian refugees. Boudet's division was originally assembled
+from some of the southern garrison towns, but the units composing it
+were frequently changed up to the beginning of May. The cavalry was
+deficient in saddles, and many of its units were new formations. The
+Consular Guard of course was a _corps d'elite_, and this and two and a
+half infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade coming from the veteran
+"Army of the West" formed the real backbone of the army. Most of the
+newer units were not even armed till they had left Dijon for the front.
+
+Such was the first constitution of the Army of Reserve. We can scarcely
+imagine one which required more accurate and detailed staff work to
+assemble it--correspondence with the district commanders, with the
+adjutant-generals of the various armies, and orders to the civil
+authorities on the lines of march, to the troops themselves and to the
+arsenals and magazines. No one but Napoleon, even aided by a Berthier,
+could have achieved so great a task in six weeks, and the great captain,
+himself doing the work that nowadays is apportioned amongst a crowd of
+administrative staff officers, still found time to administer France's
+affairs at home and abroad, and to think out a general plan of campaign
+that embraced Moreau's, Massena's and his own armies.
+
+The Army of the Rhine, by far the strongest and best equipped, lay on
+the upper Rhine. The small and worn-out Army of Italy was watching the
+Alps and the Apennines from Mont Blanc to Genoa. Between them
+Switzerland, secured by the victory of Zurich, offered a starting-point
+for a turning movement on either side--this year the advantage of the
+flank position was recognized and acted upon. The Army of Reserve was
+assembling around Dijon, within 200 m. of either theatre of war. The
+general plan was that the Army of Reserve should march through
+Switzerland to close on the right wing of the Army of the Rhine. Thus
+supported to whatever degree might prove to be necessary, Moreau was to
+force the passage of the Rhine about Schaffhausen, to push back the
+Austrians rapidly beyond the Lech, and then, if they took the offensive
+in turn, to hold them in check for ten or twelve days. During this
+period of guaranteed freedom the decisive movement was to be made. The
+Army of Reserve, augmented by one large corps of the Army of the Rhine,
+was to descend by the Splugen (alternatively by the St Gothard and even
+by Tirol) into the plains of Lombardy. Magazines were to be established
+at Zurich and Lucerne (not at Chur, lest the plan should become obvious
+from the beginning), and all likely routes reconnoitred in advance. The
+Army of Italy was at first to maintain a strict defensive, then to
+occupy the Austrians until the entry of the Reserve Army into Italy was
+assured, and finally to manoeuvre to join it.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Italian Campaigns 1794-1800.]
+
+Moreau, however, owing to want of horses for his pontoon train and also
+because of the character of the Rhine above Basel, preferred to cross
+below that place, especially as in Alsace there were considerably
+greater supply facilities than in a country which had already been
+fought over and stripped bare. With the greatest reluctance Bonaparte
+let him have his way, and giving up the idea of using the Splugen and
+the St Gothard, began to turn his attention to the more westerly passes,
+the St Bernard and the Simplon. It was not merely Moreau's scruples that
+led to this essential modification in the scheme. At the beginning of
+April the enemy took the offensive against Massena. On the 8th Melas's
+right wing dislodged the French from the Mont Cenis, and most of the
+troops that had then reached Dijon were shifted southward to be ready
+for emergencies. By the 25th Berthier reported that Massena was
+seriously attacked and that he might have to be supported by the
+shortest route. Bonaparte's resolution was already taken. He waited no
+longer for Moreau (who indeed so far from volunteering assistance,
+actually demanded it for himself). Convinced from the paucity of news
+that Massena's army was closely pressed and probably severed from
+France, and feeling also that the Austrians were deeply committed to
+their struggle with the Army of Italy, he told Berthier to march with
+40,000 men at once by way of the St Bernard unless otherwise advised.
+Berthier protested that he had only 25,000 effectives, and the equipment
+and armament was still far from complete--as indeed it remained to the
+end--but the troops marched, though their very means of existence were
+precarious from the time of leaving Geneva to the time of reaching
+Milan, for nothing could extort supplies and money from the sullen
+Swiss.
+
+
+  Napoleon's plan of campaign.
+
+At the beginning of May the First Consul learned of the serious plight
+of the Army of Italy. Massena with his right wing was shut up in Genoa,
+Suchet with the left wing driven back to the Var. Meanwhile Moreau had
+won a preliminary victory at Stokach, and the Army of Reserve had begun
+its movement to Geneva. With these data the plan of campaign took a
+clear shape at last--Massena to resist as long as possible; Suchet to
+resume the offensive, if he could do so, towards Turin; the Army of
+Reserve to pass the Alps and to debouch into Piedmont by Aosta; the Army
+of the Rhine to send a strong force into Italy by the St Gothard. The
+First Consul left Paris on the 6th of May. Berthier went forward to
+Geneva, and still farther on the route magazines were established at
+Villeneuve and St-Pierre. Gradually, and with immense efforts, the
+leading troops of the long column[16] were passed over the St Bernard,
+drawing their artillery on sledges, on the 15th and succeeding days.
+Driving away small posts of the Austrian army, the advance guard entered
+Aosta on the 16th and Chatillon on the 18th and the alarm was given.
+Melas, committed as he was to his Riviera campaign, began to look to his
+right rear, but he was far from suspecting the seriousness of his
+opponent's purpose.
+
+
+  Bard.
+
+Infinitely more dangerous for the French than the small detachment that
+Melas opposed to them, or even the actual crossing of the pass, was the
+unexpected stopping power of the little fort of Bard. The advanced guard
+of the French appeared before it on the 19th, and after three wasted
+days the infantry managed to find a difficult mountain by-way and to
+pass round the obstacle. Ivrea was occupied on the 23rd, and Napoleon
+hoped to assemble the whole army there by the 27th. But except for a few
+guns that with infinite precautions were smuggled one by one through the
+streets of Bard, the whole of the artillery, as well as a detachment
+(under Chabran) to besiege the fort, had to be left behind. Bard
+surrendered on the 2nd of June, having delayed the infantry of the
+French army for four days and the artillery for a fortnight.
+
+The military situation in the last week of May, as it presented itself
+to the First Consul at Ivrea, was this. The Army of Italy under Massena
+was closely besieged in Genoa, where provisions were running short, and
+the population so hostile that the French general placed his field
+artillery to sweep the streets. But Massena was no ordinary general, and
+the First Consul knew that while Massena lived the garrison would resist
+to the last extremity. Suchet was defending Nice and the Var by vigorous
+minor operations. The Army of Reserve, the centre of which had reached
+at Ivrea the edge of the Italian plains, consisted of four weak army
+corps under Victor, Duhesme, Lannes and Murat. There were still to be
+added to this small army of 34,000 effectives, Turreau's division, which
+had passed over the Mont Cenis and was now in the valley of the Dora
+Riparia, Moncey's corps of the Army of the Rhine, which had at last been
+extorted from Moreau and was due to pass the St Gothard before the end
+of May, Chabran's division left to besiege Bard, and a small force under
+Bethencourt, which was to cross the Simplon and to descend by Arona
+(this place proved in the event a second Bard and immobilized
+Bethencourt until after the decisive battle). Thus it was only the
+simplest part of Napoleon's task to concentrate half of his army at
+Ivrea, and he had yet to bring in the rest. The problem was to
+reconcile the necessity for time, which he wanted to ensure the maximum
+force being brought over the Alps, with the necessity for haste, in view
+of the impending fall of Genoa and the probability that once this
+conquest was achieved, Melas would bring back his 100,000 men into the
+Milanese to deal with the Army of Reserve. As early as the 14th of May
+he had informed Moncey that from Ivrea the Army of Reserve would move on
+Milan. On the 25th of May, in response to Berthier's request for
+guidance, the First Consul ordered Lannes (advanced guard) to push out
+on the Turin road, "in order to deceive the enemy and to obtain news of
+Turreau," and Duhesme's and Murat's corps to proceed along the Milan
+road. On the 27th, after Lannes had on the 26th defeated an Austrian
+column near Chivasso, the main body was already advancing on Vercelli.
+
+
+    The march to Milan.
+
+  Very few of Napoleon's acts of generalship have been more criticized
+  than this resolution to march on Milan, which abandoned Genoa to its
+  fate and gave Melas a week's leisure to assemble his scattered forces.
+  The account of his motives he dictated at St Helena (_Nap.
+  Correspondence_, v. 30, pp. 375-377), in itself an unconvincing appeal
+  to the rules of strategy as laid down by the theorists--which rules
+  his own practice throughout transcended--gives, when closely examined,
+  some at least of the necessary clues. He says in effect that by
+  advancing directly on Turin he would have "risked a battle against
+  equal forces without an assured line of retreat, Bard being still
+  uncaptured." It is indeed strange to find Napoleon shrinking before
+  _equal_ forces of the enemy, even if we admit without comment that it
+  was more difficult to pass Bard the second time than the first. The
+  only incentive to go towards Turin was the chance of partial victories
+  over the disconnected Austrian corps that would be met in that
+  direction, and this he deliberately set aside. Having done so, for
+  reasons that will appear in the sequel, he could only defend it by
+  saying in effect that he might have been defeated--which was true, but
+  not the Napoleonic principle of war. Of the alternatives, one was to
+  hasten to Genoa; this in Napoleon's eyes would have been playing the
+  enemy's game, for they would have concentrated at Alessandria, facing
+  west "in their natural position." It is equally obvious that thus the
+  enemy would have played _his_ game, supposing that this was to relieve
+  Genoa, and the implication is that it was not. The third course, which
+  Napoleon took, and in this memorandum defended, gave his army the
+  enemy's depots at Milan, of which it unquestionably stood in sore
+  need, and the reinforcement of Moncey's 15,000 men from the Rhine,
+  while at the same time Moncey's route offered an "assured line of
+  retreat" by the Simplon[17] and the St Gothard. He would in fact make
+  for himself there a "natural position" without forfeiting the
+  advantage of being in Melas's rear. Once possessed of Milan, Napoleon
+  says, he could have engaged Melas with a light heart and with
+  confidence in the greatest possible results of a victory, whether the
+  Austrians sought to force their way back to the east by the right or
+  the left bank of the Po, and he adds that if the French passed on and
+  concentrated south of the Po there would be no danger to the Milan-St
+  Gothard line of retreat, as this was secured by the rivers Ticino and
+  Sesia. In this last, as we shall see, he is shielding an undeniable
+  mistake, but considering for the moment only the movement to Milan, we
+  are justified in assuming that his object was not the relief of Genoa,
+  but the most thorough defeat of Melas's field army, to which end,
+  putting all sentiment aside, he treated the hard-pressed Massena as a
+  "containing force" to keep Melas occupied during the strategical
+  deployment of the Army of Reserve. In the beginning he had told
+  Massena that he would "disengage" him, even if he had to go as far
+  east as Trent to find a way into Italy. From the first, then, no
+  direct relief was intended, and when, on hearing bad news from the
+  Riviera, he altered his route to the more westerly passes, it was
+  probably because he felt that Massena's containing power was almost
+  exhausted, and that the passage and reassembly of the Reserve Army
+  must be brought about in the minimum time and by the shortest way. But
+  the object was still the defeat of Melas, and for this, as the
+  Austrians possessed an enormous numerical superiority, the assembly of
+  all forces, including Moncey's, was indispensable. One essential
+  condition of this was that the points of passage used should be out of
+  reach of the enemy. The more westerly the passes chosen, the more
+  dangerous was the whole operation--in fact the Mont Cenis column never
+  reached him at all--and though his expressed objections to the St
+  Bernard line seem, as we have said, to be written after the event, to
+  disarm his critics, there is no doubt that at the time he disliked it.
+  It was a _pis aller_ forced upon him by Moreau's delay and Massena's
+  extremity, and from the moment at which he arrived at Milan he did, as
+  a fact, abandon it altogether in favour of the St Gothard. Lastly, so
+  strongly was he impressed with the necessity of completing the
+  deployment of all his forces, that though he found the Austrians on
+  the Turin side much scattered and could justifiably expect a series of
+  rapid partial victories, Napoleon let them go, and devoted his whole
+  energy to creating for himself a "natural" position about Milan. If he
+  sinned, at any rate he sinned handsomely, and except that he went to
+  Milan by Vercelli instead of by Lausanne and Domodossola[18] (on the
+  safe side of the mountains), his march is logistically beyond cavil.
+
+Napoleon's immediate purpose, then, was to reassemble the Army of
+Reserve in a zone of manoeuvre about Milan. This was carried out in the
+first days of June. Lannes at Chivasso stood ready to ward off a flank
+attack until the main army had filed past on the Vercelli road, then
+leaving a small force to combine with Turreau (whose column had not been
+able to advance into the plain) in demonstrations towards Turin, he
+moved off, still acting as right flank guard to the army, in the
+direction of Pavia. The main body meanwhile, headed by Murat, advanced
+on Milan by way of Vercelli and Magenta, forcing the passage of the
+Ticino on the 31st of May at Turbigo and Buffalora. On the same day the
+other divisions closed up to the Ticino,[19] and faithful to his
+principles Napoleon had an examination made of the little fortress of
+Novara, intending to occupy it as a _place du moment_ to help in
+securing his zone of manoeuvre. On the morning of the 2nd of June Murat
+occupied Milan, and in the evening of the same day the headquarters
+entered the great city, the Austrian detachment under Vukassovich (the
+flying right wing of Melas's general cordon system in Piedmont) retiring
+to the Adda. Duhesme's corps forced that river at Lodi, and pressed on
+with orders to organize Crema and if possible Orzinovi as temporary
+fortresses. Lechi's Italians were sent towards Bergamo and Brescia.
+Lannes meantime had passed Vercelli, and on the evening of the 2nd his
+cavalry reached Pavia, where, as at Milan, immense stores of food,
+equipment and warlike stores were seized.
+
+Napoleon was now safe in his "natural" position, and barred one of the
+two main lines of retreat open to the Austrians. But his ambitions went
+further, and he intended to cross the Po and to establish himself on the
+other likewise, thus establishing across the plain a complete barrage
+between Melas and Mantua. Here his end outranged his means, as we shall
+see. But he gave himself every chance that rapidity could afford him,
+and the moment that some sort of a "zone of manoeuvre" had been secured
+between the Ticino and the Oglio, he pushed on his main body--or rather
+what was left after the protective system had been provided for--to the
+Po. He would not wait even for his guns, which had at last emerged from
+the Bard defile and were ordered to come to Milan by a safe and
+circuitous route along the foot of the Alps.
+
+
+  Melas's movements.
+
+At this point the action of the enemy began to make itself felt. Melas
+had not gained the successes that he had expected in Piedmont and on the
+Riviera, thanks to Massena's obstinacy and to Suchet's brilliant defence
+of the Var. These operations had led him very far afield, and the
+protection of his over-long line of communications had caused him to
+weaken his large army by throwing off many detachments to watch the
+Alpine valleys on his right rear. One of these successfully opposed
+Turreau in the valley of the Dora Riparia, but another had been severely
+handled by Lannes at Chivasso, and a third (Vukassovich) found itself,
+as we know, directly in the path of the French as they moved from Ivrea
+to Milan, and was driven far to the eastward. He was further handicapped
+by the necessity of supporting Ott before Genoa and Elsnitz on the Var,
+and hearing of Lannes's bold advance on Chivasso and of the presence of
+a French column with artillery (Turreau) west of Turin, he assumed that
+the latter represented the main body of the Army of Reserve--in so far
+indeed as he believed in the existence of that army at all.[20] Next,
+when Lannes moved away towards Pavia, Melas thought for a moment that
+fate had delivered his enemy into his hands, and began to collect such
+troops as were at hand at Turin with a view to cutting off the retreat
+of the French on Ivrea while Vukassovich held them in front. It was only
+when news came of Moncey's arrival in Italy and of Vukassovich's
+fighting retreat on Brescia that the magnitude and purpose of the French
+column that had penetrated by Ivrea became evident. Melas promptly
+decided to give up his western enterprises, and to concentrate at
+Alessandria, preparatory to breaking his way through the network of
+small columns--as the disseminated Army of Reserve still appeared to
+be--which threatened to bar his retreat. But orders circulated so slowly
+that he had to wait in Turin till the 8th of June for Elsnitz, whose
+retreat was, moreover, sharply followed up and made exceedingly costly
+by the enterprising Suchet. Ott, too, in spite of orders to give up the
+siege of Genoa at once and to march with all speed to hold the
+Alessandria-Piacenza road, waited two days to secure the prize, and
+agreed (June 4) to allow Massena's army to go free and to join Suchet.
+And lastly, the cavalry of O'Reilly, sent on ahead from Alessandria to
+the Stradella defile, reached that point only to encounter the French.
+The barrage was complete, and it remained for Melas to break it with the
+mass that he was assembling, with all these misfortunes and delays,
+about Alessandria. His chances of doing so were anything but desperate.
+
+On the 5th of June Murat, with his own corps and part of Duhesme's, had
+moved on Piacenza, and stormed the bridge-head there. Duhesme with one
+of his divisions pushed out on Crema and Orzinovi and also towards
+Pizzighetone. Moncey's leading regiments approached Milan, and Berthier
+thereupon sent on Victor's corps to support Murat and Lannes. Meantime
+the half abandoned line of operations, Ivrea-Vercelli, was briskly
+attacked by the Austrians, who had still detachments on the side of
+Turin, waiting for Elsnitz to rejoin, and the French artillery train was
+once more checked. On the 6th Lannes from Pavia, crossing the Po at San
+Cipriano, encountered and defeated a large force, (O'Reilly's column),
+and barred the Alessandria-Parma main road. Opposite Piacenza Murat had
+to spend the day in gathering material for his passage, as the pontoon
+bridge had been cut by the retreating garrison of the bridge-head. On
+the eastern border of the "zone of manoeuvre" Duhesme's various columns
+moved out towards Brescia and Cremona, pushing back Vukassovich.
+Meantime the last divisions of the Army of Reserve (two of Moncey's
+excepted) were hurried towards Lannes's point of passage, as Murat had
+not yet secured Piacenza. On the 7th, while Duhesme continued to push
+back Vukassovich and seized Cremona, Murat at last captured Piacenza,
+finding there immense magazines. Meantime the army, division by
+division, passed over, slowly owing to a sudden flood, near Belgiojoso,
+and Lannes's advanced guard was ordered to open communication with Murat
+along the main road Stradella-Piacenza. "Moments are precious" said the
+First Consul. He was aware that Elsnitz was retreating before Suchet,
+that Melas had left Turin for Alessandria, and that heavy forces of the
+enemy were at or east of Tortona. He knew, too, that Murat had been
+engaged with certain regiments recently before Genoa and (wrongly)
+assumed O'Reilly's column, beaten by Lannes at San Cipriano, to have
+come from the same quarter. Whether this meant the deliverance or the
+surrender of Genoa he did not yet know, but it was certain that
+Massena's holding action was over, and that Melas was gathering up his
+forces to recover his communications. Hence Napoleon's great object was
+concentration. "Twenty thousand men at Stradella," in his own words, was
+the goal of his efforts, and with the accomplishment of this purpose the
+campaign enters on a new phase.
+
+
+  Napoleon's dispositions.
+
+  Montebello.
+
+On the 8th of June, Lannes's corps was across, Victor following as
+quickly as the flood would allow. Murat was at Piacenza, but the road
+between Lannes and Murat was not known to be clear, and the First Consul
+made the establishment of the connexion, and the construction of a
+third point of passage midway between the other two, the principal
+objects of the day's work. The army now being disseminated between the
+Alps, the Apennines, the Ticino and the Chiese, it was of vital
+importance to connect up the various parts into a well-balanced system.
+But the Napoleon of 1800 solved the problem that lay at the root of his
+strategy, "concentrate, but be vulnerable nowhere," in a way that
+compares unfavourably indeed with the methods of the Napoleon of 1806.
+Duhesme was still absent at Cremona. Lechi was far away in the Brescia
+country, Bethencourt detained at Arona. Moncey with about 15,000 men had
+to cover an area of 40 m. square around Milan, which constituted the
+original zone of manoeuvre, and if Melas chose to break through the
+flimsy cordon of outposts on this side (the risk of which was the motive
+for detaching Moncey at all) instead of at the Stradella, it would take
+Moncey two days to concentrate his force on any battlefield within the
+area named, and even then he would be outnumbered by two to one. As for
+the main body at the Stradella, its position was wisely chosen, for the
+ground was too cramped for the deployment of the superior force that
+Melas might bring up, but the strategy that set before itself as an
+object 20,000 men at the decisive point out of 50,000 available, is, to
+say the least, imperfect. The most serious feature in all this was the
+injudicious order to Lannes to send forward his advanced guard, and to
+attack whatever enemy he met with on the road to Voghera. The First
+Consul, in fact, calculated that Melas could not assemble 20,000 men at
+Alessandria before the 12th of June, and he told Lannes that if he met
+the Austrians towards Voghera, they could not be more than 10,000
+strong. A later order betrays some anxiety as to the exactitude of these
+assumptions, warns Lannes not to let himself be surprised, indicates his
+line of retreat, and, instead of ordering him to advance on Voghera,
+authorizes him to attack any corps that presented itself at Stradella.
+But all this came too late. Acting on the earlier order Lannes fought
+the battle of Montebello on the 9th. This was a very severe running
+fight, beginning east of Casteggio and ending at Montebello, in which
+the French drove the Austrians from several successive positions, and
+which culminated in a savage fight at close quarters about Montebello
+itself. The singular feature of the battle is the disproportion between
+the losses on either side--French, 500 out of 12,000 engaged; Austrians,
+2100 killed and wounded and 2100 prisoners out of 14,000. These figures
+are most conclusive evidence of the intensity of the French military
+spirit in those days. One of the two divisions (Watrin's) was indeed a
+veteran organization, but the other, Chambarlhac's, was formed of young
+troops and was the same that, in the march to Dijon, had congratulated
+itself that only 5% of its men had deserted. On the other side the
+soldiers fought for "the honour of their arms"--not even with the
+courage of despair, for they were ignorant of the "strategic barrage"
+set in front of them by Napoleon, and the loss of their communications
+had not as yet lessened their daily rations by an ounce.
+
+Meanwhile, Napoleon had issued orders for the main body to stand fast,
+and for the detachments to take up their definitive covering positions.
+Duhesme's corps was directed, from its eastern foray, to Piacenza, to
+join the main body. Moncey was to provide for the defence of the Ticino
+line, Lechi to form a "flying camp" in the region of Orzinovi-Brescia
+and Cremona, and another mixed brigade was to control the Austrians in
+Pizzighetone and in the citadel of Piacenza. On the other side of the
+Po, between Piacenza and Montebello, was the main body (Lannes, Murat
+and part of Victor's and Duhesme's corps), and a flank guard was
+stationed near Pavia, with orders to keep on the right of the army as it
+advanced (this is the first and only hint of any intention to go
+westward) and to fall back fighting should Melas come on by the left
+bank. One division was to be always a day's march behind the army on the
+right bank, and a flotilla was to ascend the Po, to facilitate the
+speedy reinforcement of the flank guard. Farther to the north was a
+small column on the road Milan-Vercelli. All the protective troops,
+except the division of the main body detailed as an eventual support
+for the flank guard, was to be found by Moncey's corps (which had
+besides to watch the Austrians in the citadel of Milan) and Chabran's
+and Lechi's weak commands. On this same day Bonaparte tells the Minister
+of War, Carnot, that Moncey has only brought half the expected
+reinforcements and that half of these are unreliable. As to the result
+of the impending contest Napoleon counts greatly upon the union of
+18,000 men under Massena and Suchet to crush Melas against the
+"strategic barrage" of the Army of Reserve, by one or other bank of the
+Po, and he seems equally confident of the result in either case. If
+Genoa had held out three days more, he says, it would have been easy to
+count the number of Melas's men who escaped. The exact significance of
+this last notion is difficult to establish, and all that could be
+written about it would be merely conjectural. But it is interesting to
+note that, without admitting it, Napoleon felt that his "barrage" might
+not stand before the flood. The details of the orders of the 9th to the
+main body (written before the news of Montebello arrived at
+headquarters) tend to the closest possible concentration of the main
+body towards Casteggio, in view of a decisive battle on the 12th or
+13th.
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+
+
+  Napoleon's advance.
+
+But another idea had begun to form itself in his mind. Still believing
+that Melas would attack him on the Stradella side, and hastening his
+preparations to meet this, he began to allow for the contingency of
+Melas giving up or failing in his attempt to re-establish his
+communication with the Mantovese, and retiring on Genoa, which was now
+in his hands and could be provisioned and reinforced by sea. On the 10th
+Napoleon ordered reserve ammunition to be sent from Pavia, giving
+Serravalle, which is south of Novi, as its probable destination. But
+this was surmise, and of the facts he knew nothing. Would the enemy move
+east on the Stradella, north-east on the Ticino or south on Genoa? Such
+reports as were available indicated no important movements whatever,
+which happened to be true, but could hardly appear so to the French
+headquarters. On the 11th, though he thereby forfeited the
+reinforcements coming up from Duhesme's corps at Cremona, Napoleon
+ordered the main body to advance to the Scrivia. Lapoype's division (the
+right flank guard), which was observing the Austrian posts towards
+Casale, was called to the south bank of the Po, the zone around Milan
+was stripped so bare of troops that there was no escort for the
+prisoners taken at Montebello, while information sent by Chabran (now
+moving up from Ivrea) as to the construction of bridges at Casale (this
+was a feint made by Melas on the 10th) passed unheeded. The crisis was
+at hand, and, clutching at the reports collected by Lapoype as to the
+quietude of the Austrians toward Valenza and Casale, Bonaparte and
+Berthier strained every nerve to bring up more men to the Voghera side
+in the hope of preventing the prey from slipping away to Genoa.
+
+On the 12th, consequently, the army (the _ordre de bataille_ of which
+had been considerably modified on the 11th) moved to the Scrivia, Lannes
+halting at Castelnuovo, Desaix (who had just joined the army from Egypt)
+at Pontecurone, Victor at Tortona with Murat's cavalry in front towards
+Alessandria. Lapoype's division, from the left bank of the Po, was
+marching in all haste to join Desaix. Moncey, Duhesme, Lechi and Chabran
+were absent. The latter represented almost exactly half of Berthier's
+command (30,000 out of 58,000), and even the concentration of 28,000 men
+on the Scrivia had only been obtained by practically giving up the
+"barrage" on the left bank of the Po. Even now the enemy showed nothing
+but a rearguard, and the old questions reappeared in a new and acute
+form. Was Melas still in Alessandria? Was he marching on Valenza and
+Casale to cross the Po? or to Acqui against Suchet, or to Genoa to base
+himself on the British fleet? As to the first, why had he given up his
+chances of fighting on one of the few cavalry battlegrounds in north
+Italy--the plain of Marengo--since he could not stay in Alessandria for
+any indefinite time? The second question had been answered in the
+negative by Lapoype, but his latest information was thirty-six hours
+old. As for the other questions, no answer whatever was forthcoming, and
+the only course open was to postpone decisive measures and to send
+forward the cavalry, supported by infantry, to gain information.
+
+
+  Marengo.
+
+On the 13th, therefore, Murat, Lannes and Victor advanced into the plain
+of Marengo, traversed it without difficulty and carrying the villages
+held by the Austrian rearguard, established themselves for the night
+within a mile of the fortress. But meanwhile Napoleon, informed we may
+suppose of their progress, had taken a step that was fraught with the
+gravest consequences. He had, as we know, no intention of forcing on a
+decision until his reconnaissance produced the information on which to
+base it, and he had therefore kept back three divisions under Desaix at
+Pontecurone. But as the day wore on without incident, he began to fear
+that the reconnaissance would be profitless, and unwilling to give Melas
+any further start, he sent out these divisions right and left to find
+and to hold the enemy, whichever way the latter had gone. At noon Desaix
+with one division was despatched southward to Rivalta to head off Melas
+from Genoa and at 9 A.M. on the 14th,[21] Lapoype was sent back over the
+Po to hold the Austrians should they be advancing from Valenza towards
+the Ticino. Thus there remained in hand only 21,000 men when at last, in
+the forenoon of the 14th the whole of Melas's army, more than 40,000
+strong, moved out of Alessandria, not southward nor northward, but due
+west into the plain of Marengo (q.v.). The extraordinary battle that
+followed is described elsewhere. The outline of it is simple enough. The
+Austrians advanced slowly and in the face of the most resolute
+opposition, until their attack had gathered weight, and at last they
+were carrying all before them, when Desaix returned from beyond Rivalta
+and initiated a series of counterstrokes. These were brilliantly
+successful, and gave the French not only local victory but the supreme
+self-confidence that, next day, enabled them to extort from Melas an
+agreement to evacuate all Lombardy as far as the Mincio. And though in
+this way the chief prize, Melas's army, escaped after all, Marengo was
+the birthday of the First Empire.
+
+One more blow, however, was required before the Second Coalition
+collapsed, and it was delivered by Moreau. We have seen that he had
+crossed the upper Rhine and defeated Kray at Stokach. This was followed
+by other partial victories, and Kray then retired to Ulm, where he
+reassembled his forces, hitherto scattered in a long weak line from the
+Neckar to Schaffhausen. Moreau continued his advance, extending his
+forces up to and over the Danube below Ulm, and winning several combats,
+of which the most important was that of Hochstadt, fought on the famous
+battlegrounds of 1703 and 1704, and memorable for the death of La Tour
+d'Auvergne, the "First Grenadier of France" (June 19). Finding himself
+in danger of envelopment, Kray now retired, swiftly and skilfully,
+across the front of the advancing French, and reached Ingolstadt in
+safety. Thence he retreated over the Inn, Moreau following him to the
+edge of that river, and an armistice put an end for the moment to
+further operations.
+
+This not resulting in a treaty of peace, the war was resumed both in
+Italy and in Germany. The Army of Reserve and the Army of Italy, after
+being fused into one, under Massena's command, were divided again into a
+fighting army under Brune, who opposed the Austrians (Bellegarde) on the
+Mincio, and a political army under Murat, which re-established French
+influence in the Peninsula. The former, extending on a wide front as
+usual, won a few strategical successes without tactical victory, the
+only incidents of which worth recording are the gallant fight of
+Dupont's division, which had become isolated during a manoeuvre, at
+Pozzolo on the Mincio (December 25) and the descent of a corps under
+Macdonald from the Grisons by way of the Splugen, an achievement far
+surpassing Napoleon's and even Suvarov's exploits, in that it was made
+after the winter snows had set in.
+
+
+  Hohenlinden.
+
+In Germany the war for a moment reached the sublime. Kray had been
+displaced in command by the young archduke John, who ordered the
+denunciation of the armistice and a general advance. His plan, or that
+of his advisers, was to cross the lower Inn, out of reach of Moreau's
+principal mass, and then to swing round the French flank until a
+complete chain was drawn across their rear. But during the development
+of the manoeuvre, Moreau also moved, and by rapid marching made good the
+time he had lost in concentrating his over-dispersed forces. The weather
+was appalling, snow and rain succeeding one another until the roads were
+almost impassable. On the 2nd of December the Austrians were brought to
+a standstill, but the inherent mobility of the Revolutionary armies
+enabled them to surmount all difficulties, and thanks to the respite
+afforded him by the archduke's halt, Moreau was able to see clearly into
+the enemy's plans and dispositions. On the 3rd of December, while the
+Austrians in many disconnected columns were struggling through the dark
+and muddy forest paths about Hohenlinden, Moreau struck the decisive
+blow. While Ney and Grouchy held fast the head of the Austrian main
+column at Hohenlinden, Richepanse's corps was directed on its left
+flank. In the forest Richepanse unexpectedly met a subsidiary Austrian
+column which actually cut his column in two. But profiting by the
+momentary confusion he drew off that part of his forces which had passed
+beyond the point of contact and continued his march, striking the flank
+of the archduke's main column, most of which had not succeeded in
+deploying opposite Ney, at the village of Mattempost. First the baggage
+train and then the artillery park fell into his hands, and lastly he
+reached the rear of the troops engaged opposite Hohenlinden, whereupon
+the Austrian main body practically dissolved. The rear of Richepanse's
+corps, after disengaging itself from the Austrian column it had met in
+the earlier part of the day, arrived at Mattempost in time to head off
+thousands of fugitives who had escaped from the carnage at Hohenlinden.
+The other columns of the unfortunate army were first checked and then
+driven back by the French divisions they met, which, moving more swiftly
+and fighting better in the broken ground and the woods, were able to
+combine two brigades against one wherever a fight developed. On this
+disastrous day the Austrians lost 20,000 men, 12,000 of them being
+prisoners, and 90 guns.
+
+Marengo and Hohenlinden decided the war of the Second Coalition as
+Rivoli had decided that of the First, and the Revolutionary Wars came to
+an end with the armistice of Steyer (December 25, 1800) and the treaty
+of Luneville (February 9, 1801). But only the first act of the great
+drama was accomplished. After a short respite Europe entered upon the
+Napoleonic Wars.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--By far the most important modern works are A. Chuquet's
+  _Guerres de la Revolution_ (11 monographs forming together a complete
+  history of the campaigns of 1792-93), and the publications of the
+  French General Staff. The latter appear first, as a rule, in the
+  official "Revue d'histoire" and are then republished in separate
+  volumes, of which every year adds to the number. V. Dupuis' _L'Armee
+  du nord 1793_; Coutanceau's _L'Armee du nord 1794_; J. Colin's
+  _Education militaire de Napoleon_ and _Campagne de 1793 en Alsace_;
+  and C. de Cugnac's _Campagne de l'armee de reserve 1800_ may be
+  specially named. Among other works of importance the principal are C.
+  von B(inder)-K(rieglstein), _Geist und Stoff im Kriege_ (Vienna,
+  1896); E. Gachot's works on Massena's career (containing invaluable
+  evidence though written in a somewhat rhetorical style); Ritter von
+  Angeli, _Erzherzog Karl_ (Vienna, 1896); F. N. Maude, _Evolution of
+  Modern Strategy_; G. A. Furse, _Marengo and Hohenlinden_; C. von
+  Clausewitz, _Feldzug 1796 in Italien_ and _Feldzug 1799_ (French
+  translations); H. Bonnal, _De Rosbach a Ulm_; Krebs and Moris,
+  _Campagnes dans les Alpes_ (Paris, 1891-1895); Yorck von Wartenburg,
+  _Napoleon als Feldherr_ (English and French translations); F. Bouvier,
+  _Bonaparte en Italie 1796_; Kuhl, _Bonaparte's erster Feldzug_; J. W.
+  Fortescue, _Hist. of the British Army_, vol. iv.; G. D. v.
+  Scharnhorst, _Ursache des Glucks der Franzosen 1793-1794_ (reprinted
+  in A. Weiss's _Short German Military Readings_, London, 1892); E.
+  D'Hauterive, _L'Armee sous la Revolution_; C. Rousset, _Les
+  Volontaires_; Max Jahns, _Das franzosische Heer_; Shadwell, _Mountain
+  Warfare_; works of Colonel Camon (_Guerre Napoleonienne_, &c.);
+  Austrian War Office, Krieg gegen die franz. Revolution 1792-1797
+  (Vienna, 1905); Archduke Charles, _Grundsatze der Strategie_ (1796
+  campaign in Germany), and _Gesch. des Feldzuges 1799 in Deutschl. und
+  der Schweiz_; v. Zeissberg, _Erzherzog Karl_; the old history called
+  _Victoires et conquetes des Francais_ (27 volumes, Paris, 1817-1825);
+  M. Hartmann, _Anteil der Russen am Feldzug 1799 in der Schweiz_
+  (Zurich, 1892); Danelewski-Miliutin, _Der Krieg Russlands gegen
+  Frankreich unter Paul I._ (Munich, 1858); German General Staff,
+  "Napoleons Feldzug 1796-1797" (Suppl. _Mil. Wochenblatt_, 1889), and
+  _Pirmasens und Kaiserslautern_ ("Kriegsgesch. Einzelschriften," 1893).
+       (C. F. A.)
+
+
+NAVAL OPERATIONS
+
+The naval side of the wars arising out of the French Revolution was
+marked by unity, and even by simplicity. France had but one serious
+enemy, Great Britain, and Great Britain had but one purpose, to beat
+down France. Other states were drawn into the strife, but it was as the
+allies, the enemies and at times the victims, of the two dominating
+powers. The field of battle was the whole expanse of the ocean and the
+landlocked seas. The weapons, the methods and the results were the same.
+When a general survey of the whole struggle is taken, its unity is
+manifest. The Revolution produced a profound alteration in the
+government of France, but none in the final purposes of its policy. To
+secure for France its so-called "natural limits"--the Rhine, the Alps,
+the Pyrenees and the ocean; to protect both flanks by reducing Holland
+on the north and Spain on the south to submission; to confirm the mighty
+power thus constituted, by the subjugation of Great Britain, were the
+objects of the Republic and of Napoleon, as they had been of Louis XIV.
+The naval war, like the war on land, is here considered in the first of
+its two phases--the Revolutionary (1792-99). (For the Napoleonic phase
+(1800-15), see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.)
+
+The Revolutionary war began in April 1792. In the September of that year
+Admiral Truguet sailed from Toulon to co-operate with the French troops
+operating against the Austrians and their allies in northern Italy. In
+December Latouche Treville was sent with another squadron to cow the
+Bourbon rulers of Naples. The extreme feebleness of their opponents
+alone saved the French from disaster. Mutinies, which began within ten
+days of the storming of the Bastille (14th of July 1789), had
+disorganized their navy, and the effects of these disorders continued to
+be felt so long as the war lasted. In February 1793 war broke out with
+Great Britain and Holland. In March Spain was added to the list of the
+powers against which France declared war. Her resources at sea were
+wholly inadequate to meet the coalition she had provoked. The Convention
+did indeed order that fifty-two ships of the line should be commissioned
+in the Channel, but it was not able in fact to do more than send out a
+few diminutive and ill-appointed squadrons, manned by mutinous crews,
+which kept close to the coast. The British navy was in excellent order,
+but the many calls made on it for the protection of world-wide commerce
+and colonial possessions caused the operations in the Channel to be
+somewhat languid. Lord Howe cruised in search of the enemy without being
+able to bring them to action. The severe blockade which in the later
+stages of the war kept the British fleet permanently outside of Brest
+was not enforced in the earlier stages. Lord Howe preferred to save his
+fleet from the wear and tear of perpetual cruising by maintaining his
+headquarters at St Helens, and keeping watch on the French ports by
+frigates. The French thus secured a freedom of movement which in the
+course of 1794 enabled them to cover the arrival of a great convoy laden
+with food from America (see FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF). This great effort
+was followed by a long period of languor. Its internal defects compelled
+the French fleet in the Channel to play a very poor part till the last
+days of 1796. Squadrons were indeed sent a short way to sea, but their
+inefficiency was conspicuously displayed when, on the 17th of June 1795,
+a much superior number of their line of battle ships failed to do any
+harm to the small force of Cornwallis, and when on the 22nd of the same
+month they fled in disorder before Lord Bridport at the Isle de Groix.
+
+Operations of a more decisive character had in the meantime taken place
+both in the Mediterranean and in the West Indies. In April 1793 the
+first detachment of a British fleet, which was finally raised to a
+strength of 21 sail of the line, under the command of Lord Hood, sailed
+for the Mediterranean. By August the admiral was off Toulon, acting in
+combination with a Spanish naval force. France was torn by the
+contentions of Jacobins and Girondins, and its dissensions led to the
+surrender of the great arsenal to the British admiral and his Spanish
+colleague Don Juan de Langara, on the 27th of August. The allies were
+joined later by a contingent from Naples. But the military forces were
+insufficient to hold the land defences against the army collected to
+expel them. High ground commanding the anchorage was occupied by the
+besieging force, and on the 18th of December 1793 the allies retired.
+They carried away or destroyed thirty-three French vessels, of which
+thirteen were of the line. But partly through the inefficiency and
+partly through the ill-will of the Spaniards, who were indisposed to
+cripple the French, whom they considered as their only possible allies
+against Great Britain, the destruction was not so complete as had been
+intended. Twenty-five ships, of which eighteen were of the line, were
+left to serve as the nucleus of an active fleet in later years. Fourteen
+thousand of the inhabitants fled with the allies to escape the vengeance
+of the victorious Jacobins. Their sufferings, and the ferocious massacre
+perpetrated on those who remained behind by the conquerors, form one of
+the blackest pages of the French Revolution. The Spanish fleet took no
+further part in the war. Lord Hood now turned to the occupation of
+Corsica, where the intervention of the British fleet was invited by the
+patriotic party headed by Pascual Paoli. The French ships left at Toulon
+were refitted and came to sea in the spring of 1794, but Admiral Martin
+who commanded them did not feel justified in giving battle, and his
+sorties were mere demonstrations. From the 25th of January 1794 till
+November 1796 the British fleet in the Mediterranean was mainly occupied
+in and about Corsica, securing the island, watching Toulon and
+co-operating with the allied Austrians and Piedmontese in northern
+Italy. It did much to hamper the coastwise communications of the French.
+But neither Lord Hood, who went home at the end of 1794, nor his
+indolent successor Hotham, was able to deliver an effective blow at the
+Toulon squadron. The second of these officers fought two confused
+actions with Admiral Martin in the Gulf of Lyons on the 16th of March
+and the 12th of July 1795, but though three French ships were cut off
+and captured, the baffling winds and the placid disposition of Hotham
+united to prevent decisive results. A new spirit was introduced into the
+command of the British fleet when Sir John Jervis, afterwards Earl Saint
+Vincent, succeeded Hotham in November 1795.
+
+Jervis came to the Mediterranean with a high reputation, which had been
+much enhanced by his recent command in the West Indies. In every war
+with France it was the natural policy of the British government to
+seize on its enemy's colonial possessions, not only because of their
+intrinsic value, but because they were the headquarters of active
+privateers. The occupation of the little fishing stations of St Pierre
+and Miquelon (14th May 1793) and of Pondicherry in the East Indies (23rd
+Aug. 1793) were almost formal measures taken at the beginning of every
+war. But the French West Indian islands possessed intrinsic strength
+which rendered their occupation a service of difficulty and hazard. In
+1793 they were torn by dissensions, the result of the revolution in the
+mother country. Tobago was occupied in April, and the French part of the
+great island of San Domingo was partially thrown into British hands by
+the Creoles, who were threatened by their insurgent slaves. During 1794
+a lively series of operations, in which there were some marked
+alternations of fortune, took place in and about Martinique and
+Guadaloupe. The British squadron, and the contingent of troops it
+carried, after a first repulse, occupied them both in March and April,
+together with Santa Lucia. A vigorous counter-attack was carried out by
+the Terrorist Victor Hugues with ability and ferocity. Guadaloupe and
+Santa Lucia were recovered in August. Yet on the whole the British
+government was successful in its policy of destroying the French naval
+power in distant seas. The seaborne commerce of the Republic was
+destroyed.
+
+The naval supremacy of Great Britain was limited, and was for a time
+menaced, in consequence of the advance of the French armies on land. The
+invasion of Holland in 1794 led to the downfall of the house of Orange,
+and the establishment of the Batavian Republic. War with Great Britain
+under French dictation followed in January 1795. In that year a British
+expedition under the command of Admiral Keith Elphinstone (afterwards
+Lord Keith) occupied the Dutch colony at the Cape (August-September) and
+their trading station in Malacca. The British colonial empire was again
+extended, and the command of the sea by its fleet confirmed. But the
+necessity to maintain a blockading force in the German Ocean imposed a
+fresh strain on its naval resources, and the hostility of Holland closed
+a most important route to British commerce in Europe. In 1795 Spain made
+peace with France at Basel, and in September 1796 re-entered the war as
+her ally. The Spanish navy was most inefficient, but it required to be
+watched and therefore increased the heavy strain on the British fleet.
+At the same time the rapid advance of the French arms in Italy began to
+close the ports of the peninsula to Great Britain. Its ships were for a
+time withdrawn from the Mediterranean. Poor as it was in quality, the
+Spanish fleet was numerous. It was able to facilitate the movements of
+French squadrons sent to harass British commerce in the Atlantic, and a
+concentration of forces became necessary.
+
+It was the more important because the cherished French scheme for an
+attack on the heart of the British empire began to take shape. While
+Spain occupied one part of the British fleet to the south, and Holland
+another in the north, a French expedition, which was to have been aided
+by a Dutch expedition from the Texel, was prepared at Brest. The Dutch
+were confined to harbour by the vigilant blockade of Admiral Duncan,
+afterwards Lord Camperdown. But in December 1796 a French fleet
+commanded by Admiral Morard de Galle, carrying 13,000 troops under
+General Hoche, was allowed to sail from Brest for Ireland, by the slack
+management of the blockade under Admiral Colpoys. Being ill-fitted,
+ill-manned and exposed to constant bad weather the French ships were
+scattered. Some reached their destination, Bantry Bay, only to be driven
+out again by north-easterly gales. The expedition finally returned after
+much suffering, and in fragments, to Brest. Yet the year 1797 was one of
+extreme trial to Great Britain. The victory of Sir John Jervis over the
+Spaniards near Cape Saint Vincent on the 14th of February (see SAINT
+VINCENT, BATTLE OF) disposed of the Spanish fleet. In the autumn of the
+year the Dutch, having put to sea, were defeated at Camperdown by
+Admiral Duncan on the 11th of October. Admiral Duncan had the more
+numerous force, sixteen ships to fifteen, and they were on the average
+heavier. Attacking from windward he broke through the enemy's line and
+concentrated on his rear and centre. Eight line of battleships and two
+frigates were taken, but the good gunnery and steady resistance of the
+Dutch made the victory costly. Between these two battles the British
+fleet was for a time menaced in its very existence by a succession of
+mutinies, the result of much neglect of the undoubted grievances of the
+sailors. The victory of Camperdown, completing what the victory of Cape
+Saint Vincent had begun, seemed to put Great Britain beyond fear of
+invasion. But the government of the Republic was intent on renewing the
+attempt. The successes of Napoleon at the head of the army of Italy had
+reduced Austria to sign the peace of Campo Formio, on the 17th of
+October 1797, and he was appointed commander of the new army of
+invasion. It was still thought necessary to maintain the bulk of the
+British fleet in European waters, within call in the ocean. The
+Mediterranean was left free to the French, whose squadrons cruised in
+the Levant, where the Republic had become possessed of the Ionian
+Islands by the plunder of Venice. The absence of a British force in the
+Mediterranean offered to the government of the French Republic an
+alternative to an invasion of Great Britain or Ireland, which promised
+to be less hazardous and equally effective. It was induced largely by
+the persuasion of Napoleon himself, and the wish of the politicians who
+were very willing to see him employed at a distance. The expedition to
+Egypt under his command sailed on the 19th of May 1798, having for its
+immediate purpose the occupation of the Nile valley, and for its
+ultimate aim an attack on Great Britain "from behind" in India (see
+NILE, BATTLE OF THE). The British fleet re-entered the Mediterranean to
+pursue and baffle Napoleon. The destruction of the French squadron at
+the anchorage of Aboukir on the 1st of August gave it the complete
+command of the sea. A second invasion of Ireland on a smaller scale was
+attempted and to some extent carried out, while the great attack by
+Egypt was in progress. One French squadron of four frigates carrying
+1150 soldiers under General Humbert succeeded in sailing from Rochefort
+on the 6th of August. On the 22nd Humbert was landed at Killala Bay, but
+after making a vigorous raid he was compelled to surrender at
+Ballinamuck on the 8th of September. Eight days after his surrender,
+another French squadron of one sail of the line and eight frigates
+carrying 3000 troops, sailed from Brest under Commodore Bompart to
+support Humbert. It was watched and pursued by frigates, and on the 12th
+of October was overtaken and destroyed by a superior British force
+commanded by Sir John Borlase Warren, near Tory Island.
+
+From the close of 1798 till the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Brumaire (9th
+November) 1799, which established Napoleon as First Consul and master of
+France, the French navy had only one object--to reinforce and relieve
+the army cut off in Egypt by the battle of the Nile. The relief of the
+French garrison in Malta was a subordinate part of the main purpose. But
+the supremacy of the British navy was by this time so firmly founded
+that neither Egypt nor Malta could be reached except by small ships
+which ran the blockade. On the 25th of April, Admiral Bruix did indeed
+leave Brest, after baffling the blockading fleet of Lord Bridport, which
+was sent on a wild-goose chase to the south of Ireland by means of a
+despatch sent out to be captured and to deceive. Admiral Bruix succeeded
+in reaching Toulon, and his presence in the Mediterranean caused some
+disturbance. But, though his twenty-five sail of the line formed the
+best-manned fleet which the French had sent to sea during the war, and
+though he escaped being brought to battle, he did not venture to steer
+for the eastern Mediterranean. On the 13th of August he was back at
+Brest, bringing with him a Spanish squadron carried off as a hostage for
+the fidelity of the government at Madrid to its disastrous alliance with
+France. On the day on which Bruix re-entered Brest, the 13th of August
+1799, a combined Russian and British expedition sailed from the Downs to
+attack the French army of occupation in the Batavian Republic. The
+military operations were unsuccessful, and terminated in the withdrawal
+of the allies. But the naval part was well executed. Vice-admiral
+Mitchell forced the entrance to the Texel, and on the 30th of August
+received the surrender of the remainder of the Dutch fleet--thirteen
+vessels in the Nieuwe Diep--the sailors having refused to fight for the
+republic. In spite of the failure on land, the expedition did much to
+confirm the naval supremacy of Great Britain by the entire suppression
+of the most seamanlike of the forces opposed to it.
+
+  Authorities.--Chevalier, _Histoire de la marine francaise sous la
+  premiere Republique_ (Paris, 1886); James's _Naval History_ (London,
+  1837); Captain Mahan, _Influence of Sea Power upon the French
+  Revolution and the Empire_ (London, 1892). The French schemes of
+  invasion are exhaustively dealt with in Captain E. Desbriere's
+  _Projets et tentatives de debarquements aux Iles Britanniques_ (Paris,
+  1900, &c.).     (D. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the following operations see map in SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR.
+
+  [2] Coburg refrained from a regular siege of Conde. He wished to gain
+    possession of the fortress in a defensible state, intending to use it
+    as his own depot later in the year. He therefore reduced it by
+    famine. During the siege of Valenciennes the Allies appear to have
+    been supplied from Mons.
+
+  [3] Henceforth to the end of 1794 both armies were more or less "in
+    cordon," the cordon possessing greater or less density at any
+    particular moment or place, according to the immediate intentions of
+    the respective commanders and the general military situation.
+
+  [4] In the course of this the column from Bouchain, 4500 strong, was
+    caught in the open at Avesnes-le-Sec by 5 squadrons of the allied
+    cavalry and literally annihilated.
+
+  [5] One of the generals at Maubeuge, Chancel, was guillotined.
+
+  [6] Each of the fifteen armies on foot had been allotted certain
+    departments as supply areas, Jourdan's being of course far away in
+    Lorraine.
+
+  [7] Liguria was not at this period thought of, even by Napoleon, as
+    anything more than a supply area.
+
+  [8] Vukassovich had received Beaulieu's order to demonstrate with two
+    battalions, and also appeals for help from Argenteau. He therefore
+    brought most of his troops with him.
+
+  [9] We have seen that after Tourcoing, taught by experience, Souham
+    posted Vandamme's covering force 14 or 15 m. out. But Napoleon's
+    disposition was in advance of experience.
+
+  [10] The proposed alliance with the Sardinians came to nothing. The
+    kings of Sardinia had always made their alliance with either Austria
+    or France conditional on cessions of conquered territory. But,
+    according to Thiers, the Directory only desired to conquer the
+    Milanese to restore it to Austria in return for the definitive
+    cession of the Austrian Netherlands. If this be so, Napoleon's
+    proclamations of "freedom for Italy" were, if not a mere political
+    expedient, at any rate no more than an expression of his own desires
+    which he was not powerful enough to enforce.
+
+  [11] On entering the territory of the duke of Parma Bonaparte
+    imposed, besides other contributions, the surrender of twenty famous
+    pictures, and thus began a practice which for many years enriched the
+    Louvre and only ceased with the capture of Paris in 1814.
+
+  [12] See C. von B.-K., _Geist und Stoff_, pp. 449-451.
+
+  [13] The assumption by later critics (Clausewitz even included) that
+    the "flank position" held by these forces relatively to the main
+    armies in Italy and Germany was their _raison d'etre_ is unsupported
+    by contemporary evidence.
+
+  [14] For this expedition, which was repulsed by Brune in the battle
+    of Castricum, see Fortescue's _Hist. of the British Army_, vol. iv.,
+    and Sachot's _Brune en Hollande_.
+
+  [15] He afterwards appointed Berthier to command the Army of Reserve,
+    but himself accompanied it and directed it, using Berthier as chief
+    of staff.
+
+  [16] Only one division of the main body used the Little St Bernard.
+
+  [17] When he made his decision he was unaware that Bethencourt had
+    been held up at Arona.
+
+  [18] This may be accounted for by the fact that Napoleon's mind was
+    not yet definitively made up when his advanced guard had already
+    begun to climb the St Bernard (12th). Napoleon's instructions for
+    Moncey were written on the 14th. The magazines, too, had to be
+    provided and placed before it was known whether Moreau's detachment
+    would be forthcoming.
+
+  [19] Six guns had by now passed Fort Bard and four of these were with
+    Murat and Duhesme, two with Lannes.
+
+  [20] It is supposed that the foreign spies at Dijon sent word to
+    their various employers that the Army was a bogy. In fact a great
+    part of it never entered Dijon at all, and the troops reviewed there
+    by Bonaparte were only conscripts and details. By the time that the
+    veteran divisions from the west and Paris arrived, either the spies
+    had been ejected or their news was sent off too late to be of use.
+
+  [21] On the strength of a report, false as it turned out, that the
+    Austrian rearguard had broken the bridges of the Bormida.
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH WEST AFRICA (_L'Afrique occidentale francaise_), the common
+designation of the following colonies of France:--(1) Senegal, (2) Upper
+Senegal and Niger, (3) Guinea, (4) the Ivory Coast, (5) Dahomey; of the
+territory of Mauretania, and of a large portion of the Sahara. The area
+is estimated at nearly 2,000,000 sq. m., of which more than half is
+Saharan territory. The countries thus grouped under the common
+designation French West Africa comprise the greater part of the
+continent west of the Niger delta (which is British territory) and south
+of the tropic of Cancer. It embraces the upper and middle course of the
+Niger, the whole of the basin of the Senegal and the south-western part
+of the Sahara. Its most northern point on the coast is Cape Blanco, and
+it includes Cape Verde, the most westerly point of Africa. Along the
+Guinea coast the French possessions are separated from one another by
+colonies of Great Britain and other powers, but in the interior they
+unite not only with one another but with the hinterlands of Algeria and
+the French Congo.
+
+[Illustration: Map of French West Africa and Adjacent Territories.]
+
+In physical characteristics French West Africa presents three types: (1)
+a dense forest region succeeding a narrow coast belt greatly broken by
+lagoons; (2) moderately elevated and fertile plateaus, generally below
+2000 ft., such as the region enclosed in the great bend of the Niger;
+(3) north of the Senegal and Niger, the desert lands forming part of the
+Sahara (q.v.). The most elevated districts are Futa Jallon, whence rise
+the Senegal, Gambia and Niger, and Gon--both massifs along the
+south-western edge of the plateau lands, containing heights of 5000 to
+6000 ft. or more. Among the chief towns are Timbuktu and Jenne on the
+Niger, Porto Novo in Dahomey, and St Louis and Dakar in Senegal, Dakar
+being an important naval and commercial port. The inhabitants are for
+the most part typical Negroes, with in Senegal and in the Sahara an
+admixture of Berber and Arab tribes. In the upper Senegal and Futa
+Jallon large numbers of the inhabitants are Fula. The total population
+of French West Africa is estimated at about 13,000,000. The European
+inhabitants number about 12,000.
+
+The French possessions in West Africa have grown by the extension inland
+of coast colonies, each having an independent origin. They were first
+brought under one general government in 1895, when they were placed
+under the supervision of the governor of Senegal, whose title was
+altered to meet the new situation. Between that date and 1905 various
+changes in the areas and administrations of the different colonies were
+made, involving the disappearance of the protectorates and military
+territories known as French Sudan and dependent on Senegal. These were
+partly absorbed in the coast colonies, whilst the central portion became
+the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. At the same time the central
+government was freed from the direct administration of the Senegal and
+Niger countries (Decrees of Oct. 1902 and Oct. 1904). Over the whole of
+French West Africa is a governor-general, whose headquarters are at
+Dakar.[1] He is assisted by a government council, composed of high
+functionaries, including the lieutenant-governors of all colonies under
+his control. The central government, like all other French colonial
+administrations, is responsible, not to the colonists, but to the home
+government, and its constitution is alterable at will by presidential
+decree save in matters on which the chambers have expressly legislated.
+To it is confided financial control over the colonies, responsibility
+for the public debt, the direction of the departments of education and
+agriculture, and the carrying out of works of general utility. It alone
+communicates with the home authorities. Its expenses are met by the
+duties levied on goods and vessels entering and leaving any port of
+French West Africa. It may make advances to the colonies under its care,
+and may, in case of need, demand from them contributions to the central
+exchequer. The administration of justice is centralized and uniform for
+all French West Africa. The court of appeal sits at Dakar. There is also
+a uniform system of land registration adopted in 1906 and based on that
+in force in Australia. Subject to the limitations indicated the five
+colonies enjoy autonomy. The territory of Mauretania is administered by
+a civil commissioner under the direct control of the governor-general.
+The colony of Senegal is represented in the French parliament by one
+deputy.
+
+Since the changes in administration effected in 1895 the commerce of
+French West Africa has shown a steady growth, the volume of external
+trade increasing in the ten years 1895-1904 from L3,151,094 to
+L6,238,091. In 1907 the value of the trade was L7,097,000; of this 53%
+was with France. Apart from military expenditure, about L600,000 a year,
+which is borne by France, French West Africa is self-supporting. The
+general budget for 1906 balanced at L1,356,000. There is a public debt
+of some L11,000,000, mainly incurred for works of general utility.
+
+  See SENEGAL, FRENCH GUINEA, IVORY COAST and DAHOMEY. For Anglo-French
+  boundaries east of the Niger see SAHARA and NIGERIA. For the
+  constitutional connexion between the colonies and France see FRANCE:
+  _Colonies_. An account of the economic situation of the colonies is
+  given by G. Francois in _Le Gouvernement general de l'Afrique
+  occidentale francaise_ (Paris, 1908). Consult also the annual _Report
+  on the Trade, Agriculture, &c. of French West Africa_ issued by the
+  British foreign office. A map of French West Africa by A. Meunier and
+  E. Barralier (6 sheets on the scale 1:2,000,000) was published in
+  Paris, 1903.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The organization of the new government was largely the work of E.
+    N. Roume (b. 1858), governor-general 1902-1907, an able and energetic
+    official, formerly director of Asian affairs at the colonial
+    ministry.
+
+
+
+
+FRENTANI, one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed an independent
+community on the east coast of Italy. They entered the Roman alliance
+after their capital, Frentrum, was taken by the Romans in 305 or 304 B.C.
+(Livy ix. 16. 45). This town either changed its name or perished some
+time after the middle of the 3rd century B.C., when it was issuing coins
+of its own with an Oscan legend. The town Larinum, which belonged to the
+same people (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 103), became latinized before 200
+B.C., as its coins of that epoch bear a legend--LARINOR(VM)--which cannot
+reasonably be treated as anything but Latin. Several Oscan inscriptions
+survive from the neighbourhood of Vasto (anc. _Histonium_), which was in
+the Frentane area.
+
+  On the forms of the name, and for further details see R. S. Conway,
+  _Italic Dialects_, p. 206 ff and p. 212: for the coins id. No.
+  195-196.
+
+
+
+
+FREPPEL, CHARLES EMILE (1827-1891), French bishop and politician, was
+born at Oberehnheim (Obernai), Alsace, on the 1st of June 1827. He was
+ordained priest in 1849 and for a short time taught history at the
+seminary of Strassburg, where he had previously received his clerical
+training. In 1854 he was appointed professor of theology at the
+Sorbonne, and became known as a successful preacher. He went to Rome in
+1869, at the instance of Pius IX., to assist in the steps preparatory to
+the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. He was consecrated
+bishop of Angers in 1870. During the Franco-German war Freppel organized
+a body of priests to minister to the French prisoners in Germany, and
+penned an eloquent protest to the emperor William I. against the
+annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. In 1880 he was elected deputy for Brest
+and continued to represent it until his death. Being the only priest in
+the Chamber of Deputies since the death of Dupanloup, he became the
+chief parliamentary champion of the Church, and, though no orator, was a
+frequent speaker. On all ecclesiastical affairs Freppel voted with the
+Royalist and Catholic party, yet on questions in which French colonial
+prestige was involved, such as the expedition to Tunis, Tong-King,
+Madagascar (1881, 1883-85), he supported the government of the day. He
+always remained a staunch Royalist and went so far as to oppose Leo
+XIII.'s policy of conciliating the Republic. He died at Angers on the
+12th of December 1891. Freppel's historical and theological works form
+30 vols., the best known of which are: _Les Peres apostoliques et leur
+epoque_ (1859); _Les Apologistes chretiens au II^e siecle_ (2 vols.,
+1860); _Saint Irenee et l'eloquence chretienne dans la Gaule aux deux
+premiers siecles_ (1861); _Tertullien_ (2 vols., 1863); _Saint Cyprien
+et l'Eglise d'Afrique_ (1864); _Clement d'Alexandrie_ (1865); _Origene_
+(2 vols., 1867).
+
+  There are interesting lives by E. Cornut (Paris, 1893) and F.
+  Charpentier (Angers, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD (1815-1884), British administrator, born
+at Clydach in Brecknockshire, on the 29th of March 1815, was the son of
+Edward Frere, a member of an old east county family, and a nephew of
+John Hookham Frere, of _Anti-Jacobin_ and _Aristophanes_ fame. After
+leaving Haileybury, Bartle Frere was appointed a writer in the Bombay
+civil service in 1834, and went out to India by way of Egypt, crossing
+the Red Sea in an open boat from Kosseir to Mokha, and sailing thence to
+Bombay in an Arab dhow. Having passed his examination in the native
+languages, he was appointed assistant collector at Poona in 1835. There
+he did valuable work and was in 1842 chosen as private secretary to Sir
+George Arthur, governor of Bombay. Two years later he became political
+resident at the court of the rajah of Satara, where he did much to
+benefit the country by the development of its communications. On the
+rajah's death in 1848 he administered the province both before and after
+its formal annexation in 1849. In 1850 he was appointed chief
+commissioner of Sind, and took ample advantage of the opportunities
+afforded him of developing the province. He pensioned off the
+dispossessed amirs, improved the harbour at Karachi, where he also
+established municipal buildings, a museum and barracks, instituted
+fairs, multiplied roads, canals and schools.
+
+Returning to India in 1857 after a well-earned rest, Frere was greeted
+at Karachi with news of the mutiny. His rule had been so successful that
+he felt he could answer for the internal peace of his province. He
+therefore sent his only European regiment to Multan, thus securing that
+strong fortress against the rebels, and sent further detachments to aid
+Sir John Lawrence in the Punjab. The 178 British soldiers who remained
+in Sind proved sufficient to extinguish such insignificant outbreaks as
+occurred. His services were fully recognized by the Indian authorities,
+and he received the thanks of both houses of parliament and was made
+K.C.B. He became a member of the viceroy's council in 1859, and was
+especially serviceable in financial matters. In 1862 he was appointed
+governor of Bombay, where he effected great improvements, such as the
+demolition of the old ramparts, and the erection of handsome public
+offices upon a portion of the space, the inauguration of the university
+buildings and the improvement of the harbour. He established the Deccan
+College at Poona, as well as a college for instructing natives in civil
+engineering. The prosperity--due to the American Civil War--which
+rendered these developments possible brought in its train a speculative
+mania, which led eventually to the disastrous failure of the Bombay Bank
+(1866), an affair in which, from neglecting to exercise such means of
+control as he possessed, Frere incurred severe and not wholly undeserved
+censure. In 1867 he returned to England, was made G.C.S.I., and received
+honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge; he was also appointed a
+member of the Indian council.
+
+In 1872 he was sent by the foreign office to Zanzibar to negotiate a
+treaty with the sultan, Seyyid Burghash, for the suppression of the
+slave traffic. In 1875 he accompanied the prince of Wales to Egypt and
+India. The tour was beyond expectation successful, and to Frere, from
+Queen Victoria downwards, came acknowledgments of the service he had
+rendered in piloting the expedition. He was asked by Lord Beaconsfield
+to choose between being made a baronet or G.C.B. He chose the former,
+but the queen bestowed both honours upon him. But the greatest service
+that Frere undertook on behalf of his country was to be attempted not in
+Asia, but in Africa. Sir Bartle landed at Cape Town as high commissioner
+of South Africa on the 31st of March 1877. He had been chosen by Lord
+Carnarvon in the previous October as the statesman most capable of
+carrying his scheme of confederation into effect, and within two years
+it was hoped that he would be the first governor of the South African
+Dominion. He went out in harmony with the aims and enthusiasm of his
+chief, "hoping to crown by one great constructive effort the work of a
+bright and noble life." In this hope he was disappointed. As he stated
+at the close of his high commissionership, a great mistake seemed to
+have been made in trying to hasten what could only result from natural
+growth, and the state of South Africa during Frere's tenure of office
+was inimical to such growth.
+
+Discord or a policy of blind drifting seemed to be the alternatives
+presented to Frere upon his arrival at the Cape. He chose the former as
+the less dangerous, and the first year of his sway was marked by a
+Kaffir war on the one hand and by a rupture with the Cape
+(Molteno-Merriman) ministry on the other. The Transkei Kaffirs were
+subjugated early in 1878 by General Thesiger (the 2nd Lord Chelmsford)
+and a small force of regular and colonial troops. The constitutional
+difficulty was solved by Frere dismissing his obstructive cabinet and
+entrusting the formation of a ministry to Mr (afterwards Sir) Gordon
+Sprigg. Frere emerged successfully from a year of crisis, but the
+advantage was more than counterbalanced by the resignation of Lord
+Carnarvon early in 1878, at a time when Frere required the steadiest and
+most unflinching support. He had reached the conclusion that there was a
+widespread insurgent spirit pervading the natives, which had its focus
+and strength in the celibate military organization of Cetywayo and in
+the prestige which impunity for the outrages he had committed had gained
+for the Zulu king in the native mind. That organization and that evil
+prestige must be put an end to, if possible by moral pressure, but
+otherwise by force. Frere reiterated these views to the colonial office,
+where they found a general acceptance. When, however, Frere undertook
+the responsibility of forwarding, in December 1878, an ultimatum to
+Cetywayo, the home government abruptly discovered that a native war in
+South Africa was inopportune and raised difficulties about
+reinforcements. Having entrusted to Lord Chelmsford the enforcement of
+the British demands, Frere's immediate responsibility ceased. On the
+11th of January 1879 the British troops crossed the Tugela, and fourteen
+days later the disaster of Isandhlwana was reported; and Frere, attacked
+and censured in the House of Commons, was but feebly defended by the
+government. Lord Beaconsfield, it appears, supported Frere; the majority
+of the cabinet were inclined to recall him. The result was the
+unsatisfactory compromise by which he was censured and begged to stay
+on. Frere wrote an elaborate justification of his conduct, which was
+adversely commented on by the colonial secretary (Sir Michael Hicks
+Beach), who "did not see why Frere should take notice of attacks; and as
+to the war, all African wars had been unpopular." Frere's rejoinder was
+that no other sufficient answer had been made to his critics, and that
+he wished to place one on record. "Few may now agree with my view as to
+the necessity of the suppression of the Zulu rebellion. Few, I fear, in
+this generation. But unless my countrymen are much changed, they will
+some day do me justice. I shall not leave a name to be permanently
+dishonoured."
+
+The Zulu trouble and the disaffection that was brewing in the Transvaal
+reacted upon each other in the most disastrous manner. Frere had borne
+no part in the actual annexation of the Transvaal, which was announced
+by Sir Theophilus Shepstone a few days after the high commissioner's
+arrival at Cape Town. The delay in giving the country a constitution
+afforded a pretext for agitation to the malcontent Boers, a rapidly
+increasing minority, while the reverse at Isandhlwana had lowered
+British prestige. Owing to the Kaffir and Zulu wars Sir Bartle had
+hitherto been unable to give his undivided attention to the state of
+things in the Transvaal. In April 1879 he was at last able to visit that
+province, and the conviction was forced upon him that the government had
+been unsatisfactory in many ways. The country was very unsettled. A
+large camp, numbering 4000 disaffected Boers, had been formed near
+Pretoria, and they were terrorizing the country. Frere visited them
+unarmed and practically alone. Even yet all might have been well, for he
+won the Boers' respect and liking. On the condition that the Boers
+dispersed, Frere undertook to present their complaints to the British
+government, and to urge the fulfilment of the promises that had been
+made to them. They parted with mutual good feeling, and the Boers did
+eventually disperse--on the very day upon which Frere received the
+telegram announcing the government's censure. He returned to Cape Town,
+and his journey back was in the nature of a triumph. But bad news
+awaited him at Government House--on the 1st of June 1879 the prince
+imperial had met his death in Zululand--and a few hours later Frere
+heard that the government of the Transvaal and Natal, together with the
+high commissionership in the eastern part of South Africa, had been
+transferred from him to Sir Garnet Wolseley.
+
+When Gladstone's ministry came into office in the spring of 1880, Lord
+Kimberley had no intention of recalling Frere. In June, however, a
+section of the Liberal party memorialized Gladstone to remove him, and
+the prime minister weakly complied (1st August 1880). Upon his return
+Frere replied to the charges relating to his conduct respecting
+Afghanistan as well as South Africa, previously preferred in Gladstone's
+Midlothian speeches, and was preparing a fuller vindication when he died
+at Wimbledon from the effect of a severe chill on the 29th of May 1884.
+He was buried in St Paul's, and in 1888 a statue of Frere upon the
+Thames embankment was unveiled by the prince of Wales. Frere edited the
+works of his uncle, Hookham Frere, and the popular story-book, _Old
+Deccan Days_, written by his daughter, Mary Frere. He was three times
+president of the Royal Asiatic Society.
+
+  His _Life and Correspondence_, by John Martineau, was published in
+  1895. For the South African anti-confederation view, see P. A.
+  Molteno's _Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno_ (2 vols.,
+  London 1900). See also SOUTH AFRICA: _History_.
+
+
+
+
+FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769-1846), English diplomatist and author, was
+born in London on the 21st of May 1769. His father, John Frere, a
+gentleman of a good Suffolk family, had been educated at Caius College,
+Cambridge, and would have been senior wrangler in 1763 but for the
+redoubtable competition of Paley; his mother, daughter of John Hookham,
+a rich London merchant, was a lady of no small culture, accustomed to
+amuse her leisure with verse-writing. His father's sister Eleanor, who
+married Sir John Fenn (1739-1794), the learned editor of the _Paston
+Letters_, wrote various educational works for children under the
+pseudonyms "Mrs Lovechild" and "Mrs Teachwell." Young Frere was sent to
+Eton in 1785, and there began an intimacy with Canning which greatly
+affected his after life. From Eton he went to his father's college at
+Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1792 and M.A. in 1795. He entered
+public service in the foreign office under Lord Grenville, and sat from
+1796 to 1802 as member of parliament for the close borough of West Looe
+in Cornwall.
+
+From his boyhood he had been a warm admirer of Pitt, and along with
+Canning he entered heart and soul into the defence of his government,
+and contributed freely to the pages of the _Anti-Jacobin_, edited by
+Gifford. He contributed, in collaboration with Canning, "The Loves of
+the Triangles," a clever parody of Darwin's "Loves of the Plants," "The
+Needy Knife-Grinder" and "The Rovers." On Canning's removal to the board
+of trade in 1799 he succeeded him as under-secretary of state; in
+October 1800 he was appointed envoy extraordinary and plenipotentiary to
+Lisbon; and in September 1802 he was transferred to Madrid, where he
+remained for two years. He was recalled on account of a personal
+disagreement he had with the duke of Alcudia, but the ministry showed
+its approval of his action by a pension of L1700 a year. He was made a
+member of the privy council in 1805; in 1807 he was appointed
+plenipotentiary at Berlin, but the mission was abandoned, and Frere was
+again sent to Spain in 1808 as plenipotentiary to the Central Junta. The
+condition of Spain rendered his position a very responsible and
+difficult one. When Napoleon began to advance on Madrid it became a
+matter of supreme importance to decide whether Sir John Moore, who was
+then in the north of Spain, should endeavour to anticipate the
+occupation of the capital or merely make good his retreat, and if he did
+retreat whether he should do so by Portgual or by Galicia. Frere was
+strongly of opinion that the bolder was the better course, and he urged
+his views on Sir John Moore with an urgent and fearless persistency that
+on one occasion at least overstepped the limits of his commission. After
+the disastrous retreat to Corunna, the public accused Frere of having by
+his advice endangered the British army, and though no direct censure was
+passed upon his conduct by the government, he was recalled, and the
+marquess of Wellesley was appointed in his place.
+
+Thus ended Frere's public life. He afterwards refused to undertake an
+embassy to St Petersburg, and twice declined the honour of a peerage. In
+1816 he married Elizabeth Jemima, dowager countess of Erroll, and in
+1820, on account of her failing health, he went with her to the
+Mediterranean. There he finally settled in Malta, and though he
+afterwards visited England more than once, the rest of his life was for
+the most part spent in the island of his choice. In quiet retirement he
+devoted himself to literature, studied his favourite Greek authors, and
+taught himself Hebrew and Maltese. His hospitality was well known to
+many an English guest, and his charities and courtesies endeared him to
+his Maltese neighbours. He died at the Pieta Valetta on the 7th of
+January 1846. Frere's literary reputation now rests entirely upon his
+spirited verse translations of Aristophanes, which remain in many ways
+unrivalled. The principles according to which he conducted his task were
+elucidated in an article on Mitchell's _Aristophanes_, which he
+contributed to _The Quarterly Review_, vol. xxiii. The translations of
+_The Acharnians_, _The Knights_, _The Birds_, and _The Frogs_ were
+privately printed, and were first brought into general notice by Sir G.
+Cornewall Lewis in the _Classical Museum_ for 1847. They were followed
+some time after by _Theognis Restitutus, or the personal history of the
+poet Theognis, reduced from an analysis of his existing fragments_. In
+1817 he published a mock-heroic Arthurian poem entitled _Prospectus and
+Specimen of an intended National Work, by William and Robert
+Whistlecraft, of Stowmarket in Suffolk, Harness and Collar Makers,
+intended to comprise the most interesting particulars relating to King
+Arthur and his Round Table_. William Tennant in _Anster Fair_ had used
+the _ottava rima_ as a vehicle for semi-burlesque poetry five years
+earlier, but Frere's experiment is interesting because Byron borrowed
+from it the measure that he brought to perfection in _Don Juan_.
+
+  Frere's complete works were published in 1871, with a memoir by his
+  nephews, W. E. and Sir Bartle Frere, and reached a second edition in
+  1874. Compare also Gabrielle Festing, _J. H. Frere and his Friends_
+  (1899).
+
+
+
+
+FRERE, PIERRE EDOUARD (1819-1886), French painter, studied under
+Delaroche, entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1836 and exhibited first
+at the Salon in 1843. The marked sentimental tendency of his art makes
+us wonder at Ruskin's enthusiastic eulogy which finds in Frere's work
+"the depth of Wordsworth, the grace of Reynolds, and the holiness of
+Angelico." What we can admire in his work is his accomplished
+craftsmanship and the intimacy and tender homeliness of his conception.
+Among his chief works are the two paintings, "Going to School" and
+"Coming from School," "The Little Glutton" (his first exhibited picture)
+and "_L'Exercice_" (Mr Astor's collection). A journey to Egypt in 1860
+resulted in a small series of Orientalist subjects, but the majority of
+Frere's paintings deal with the life of the kitchen, the workshop, the
+dwellings of the humble, and mainly with the pleasures and little
+troubles of the young, which the artist brings before us with humour and
+sympathy. He was one of the most popular painters of domestic genre in
+the middle of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+FRERE-ORBAN, HUBERT JOSEPH WALTHER (1812-1896), Belgian statesman, was
+born at Liege on the 24th of April 1812. His family name was Frere, to
+which on his marriage he added his wife's name of Orban. After studying
+law in Paris, he practised as a barrister at Liege, took a prominent
+part in the Liberal movement, and in June 1847 was returned to the
+Chamber as member for Liege. In August of the same year he was appointed
+minister of public works in the Rogier cabinet, and from 1848 to 1852
+was minister of finance. He founded the Banque Nationale and the Caisse
+d'Epargne, abolished the newspaper tax, reduced the postage, and
+modified the customs duties as a preliminary to a decided free-trade
+policy. The Liberalism of the cabinet, in which Frere-Orban exercised an
+influence hardly inferior to that of Rogier, was, however, distasteful
+to Napoleon III. Frere-Orban, to facilitate the negotiations for a new
+commercial treaty, conceded to France a law of copyright, which proved
+highly unpopular in Belgium, and he resigned office, soon followed by
+the rest of the cabinet. His work _La Mainmorte et la charite_
+(1854-1857), published under the pseudonym of "Jean van Damme,"
+contributed greatly to restore his party to power in 1857, when he again
+became minister of finance. He now embodied his free-trade principles in
+commercial treaties with England and France, and abolished the _octroi_
+duties and the tolls on the national roads. He resigned in 1861 on the
+gold question, but soon resumed office, and in 1868 succeeded Rogier as
+prime minister. In 1869 he defeated the attempt of France to gain
+control of the Luxemburg railways, but, despite this service to his
+country, fell from power at the elections of 1870. He returned to office
+in 1878 as president of the council and foreign minister. He provoked
+the bitter opposition of the Clerical party by his law of 1879
+establishing secular primary education, and in 1880 went so far as to
+break off diplomatic relations with the Vatican. He next found himself
+at variance with the Radicals, whose leader, Janson, moved the
+introduction of universal suffrage. Frere-Orban, while rejecting the
+proposal, conceded an extension of the franchise (1883); but the
+hostility of the Radicals, and the discontent caused by a financial
+crisis, overthrew the government at the elections of 1884. Frere-Orban
+continued to take an active part in politics as leader of the Liberal
+opposition till 1894, when he failed to secure re-election. He died at
+Brussels on the 2nd of January 1896. Besides the work above mentioned,
+he published _La Question monetaire_ (1874); _La Question monetaire en
+Belgique_ in 1889; _Echange de vues entre MM. Frere-Orban et E. de
+Laveleye_ (1890); and _La Revision constitutionnelle en Belgique et ses
+consequences_ (1894). He was also the author of numerous pamphlets,
+among which may be mentioned his last work, _La Situation presente_
+(1895).
+
+
+
+
+FRERET, NICOLAS (1688-1749), French scholar, was born at Paris on the
+15th of February 1688. His father was _procureur_ to the parlement of
+Paris, and destined him to the profession of the law. His first tutors
+were the historian Charles Rollin and Father Desmolets (1677-1760).
+Amongst his early studies history, chronology and mythology held a
+prominent place. To please his father he studied law and began to
+practise at the bar; but the force of his genius soon carried him into
+his own path. At nineteen he was admitted to a society of learned men
+before whom he read memoirs on the religion of the Greeks, on the
+worship of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Cybele and of Apollo. He was hardly
+twenty-six years of age when he was admitted as pupil to the Academy of
+Inscriptions. One of the first memoirs which he read was a learned and
+critical discourse, _Sur l'origine des Francs_ (1714). He maintained
+that the Franks were a league of South German tribes and not, according
+to the legend then almost universally received, a nation of free men
+deriving from Greece or Troy, who had kept their civilization intact in
+the heart of a barbarous country. These sensible views excited great
+indignation in the Abbe Vertot, who denounced Freret to the government
+as a libeller of the monarchy. A _lettre de cachet_ was issued, and
+Freret was sent to the Bastille. During his three months of confinement
+he devoted himself to the study of the works of Xenophon, the fruit of
+which appeared later in his memoir on the _Cyropaedia_. From the time of
+his liberation in March 1715 his life was uneventful. In January 1716 he
+was received associate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in December
+1742 he was made perpetual secretary. He worked without intermission
+for the interests of the Academy, not even claiming any property in his
+own writings, which were printed in the _Recueil de l'academie des
+inscriptions_. The list of his memoirs, many of them posthumous,
+occupies four columns of the _Nouvelle Biographie generale_. They treat
+of history, chronology, geography, mythology and religion. Throughout he
+appears as the keen, learned and original critic; examining into the
+comparative value of documents, distinguishing between the mythical and
+the historical, and separating traditions with an historical element
+from pure fables and legends. He rejected the extreme pretensions of the
+chronology of Egypt and China, and at the same time controverted the
+scheme of Sir Isaac Newton as too limited. He investigated the mythology
+not only of the Greeks, but of the Celts, the Germans, the Chinese and
+the Indians. He was a vigorous opponent of the theory that the stories
+of mythology may be referred to historic originals. He also suggested
+that Greek mythology owed much to the Phoenicians and Egyptians. He was
+one of the first scholars of Europe to undertake the study of the
+Chinese language; and in this he was engaged at the time of his
+committal to the Bastille. He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1749.
+
+  Long after his death several works of an atheistic character were
+  falsely attributed to him, and were long believed to be his. The most
+  famous of these spurious works are the _Examen critique des
+  apologistes de la religion chretienne_ (1766), and the _Lettre de
+  Thrasybule a Leucippe_, printed in London about 1768. A very defective
+  and inaccurate edition of Freret's works was published in 1796-1799. A
+  new and complete edition was projected by Champollion-Figeac, but of
+  this only the first volume appeared (1825). It contains a life of
+  Freret. His manuscripts, after passing through many hands, were
+  deposited in the library of the Institute. The best account of his
+  works is "Examen critique des ouvrages composes par Freret" in C. A.
+  Walckenaer's _Recueil des notices_, &c. (1841-1850). See also
+  Querard's _France litteraire_.
+
+
+
+
+FRERON, ELIE CATHERINE (1719-1776), French critic and controversialist,
+was born at Quimper in 1719. He was educated by the Jesuits, and made
+such rapid progress in his studies that before the age of twenty he was
+appointed professor at the college of Louis-le-Grand. He became a
+contributor to the _Observations sur les ecrits modernes_ of the abbe
+Guyot Desfontaines. The very fact of his collaboration with
+Desfontaines, one of Voltaire's bitterest enemies, was sufficient to
+arouse the latter's hostility, and although Freron had begun his career
+as one of his admirers, his attitude towards Voltaire soon changed.
+Freron in 1746 founded a similar journal of his own, entitled _Lettres
+de la Comtesse de_.... It was suppressed in 1749, but he immediately
+replaced it by _Lettres sur quelques ecrits de ce temps_, which, with
+the exception of a short suspension in 1752, on account of an attack on
+the character of Voltaire, was continued till 1754, when it was
+succeeded by the more ambitious _Annee litteraire_. His death at Paris
+on the 10th of March 1776 is said to have been hastened by the temporary
+suppression of this journal. Freron is now remembered solely for his
+attacks on Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, and by the retaliations
+they provoked on the part of Voltaire, who, besides attacking him in
+epigrams, and even incidentally in some of his tragedies, directed
+against him a virulent satire, _Le Pauvre diable_, and made him the
+principal personage in a comedy _L'Ecossaise_, in which the journal of
+Freron is designated _L'Ane litteraire_. A further attack on Freron
+entitled _Anecdotes sur Freron_ ... (1760), published anonymously, is
+generally attributed to Voltaire.
+
+  Freron was the author of _Ode sur la bataille de Fontenoy_ (1745);
+  _Histoire de Marie Stuart_ (1742, 2 vols.); and _Histoire de l'empire
+  d'Allemagne_, (1771, 8 vols.). See Ch. Nisard, _Les Ennemis de
+  Voltaire_ (1853); Despois, _Journalistes et journaux du XVIII^e
+  siecle_; Barthelemy, _Les confessions de Freron_: Ch. Monselet,
+  _Freron, ou l'illustre critique_ (1864); _Freron, sa vie, souvenirs_,
+  &c. (1876).
+
+
+
+
+FRERON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS (1754-1802), French revolutionist, son of
+the preceding, was born at Paris on the 17th of August 1754. His name
+was, on the death of his father, attached to _L'Annee litteraire_, which
+was continued till 1790 and edited successively by the abbes G. M. Royou
+and J. L. Geoffroy. On the outbreak of the revolution Freron, who was a
+schoolfellow of Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins, established the
+violent journal _L'Orateur du peuple_. Commissioned, along with Barras
+in 1793, to establish the authority of the convention at Marseilles and
+Toulon, he distinguished himself in the atrocity of his reprisals, but
+both afterwards joined the Thermidoriens, and Freron became the leader
+of the _jeunesse doree_ and of the Thermidorian reaction. He brought
+about the accusation of Fouquier-Tinville, and of J. B. Carrier, the
+deportation of B. Barere, and the arrest of the last _Montagnards_. He
+made his paper the official journal of the reactionists, and being sent
+by the Directory on a mission of peace to Marseilles he published in
+1796 _Memoire historique sur la reaction royale et sur les malheurs du
+midi_. He was elected to the council of the Five Hundred, but not
+allowed to take his seat. Failing as suitor for the hand of Pauline
+Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's sisters, he went in 1799 as commissioner to
+Santo Domingo and died there in 1802. General V. M. Leclerc, who had
+married Pauline Bonaparte, also received a command in Santo Domingo in
+1801, and died in the same year as his former rival.
+
+
+
+
+FRESCO (Ital. for _cool_, "fresh"), a term introduced into English, both
+generally (as in such phrases as _al fresco_, "in the fresh air"), and
+more especially as a technical term for a sort of mural painting on
+plaster. In the latter sense the Italians distinguished painting _a
+secco_ (when the plaster had been allowed to dry) from _a fresco_ (when
+it was newly laid and still wet). The nature and history of
+fresco-painting is dealt with in the article PAINTING.
+
+
+
+
+FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO (1583-1644), Italian musical composer, was born in
+1583 at Ferrara. Little is known of his life except that he studied
+music under Alessandro Milleville, and owed his first reputation to his
+beautiful voice. He was organist at St Peter's in Rome from 1608 to
+1628. According to Baini no less than 30,000 people flocked to St
+Peter's on his first appearance there. On the 20th of November 1628 he
+went to live in Florence, becoming organist to the duke. From December
+1633 to March 1643 he was again organist at St Peter's. But in the last
+year of his life he was organist in the parish church of San Lorenzo in
+Monte. He died on the 2nd of March 1644, being buried at Rome in the
+Church of the Twelve Apostles. Frescobaldi also excelled as a teacher,
+Frohberger being the most distinguished of his pupils. Frescobaldi's
+compositions show the consummate art of the early Italian school, and
+his works for the organ more especially are full of the finest devices
+of fugal treatment. He also wrote numerous vocal compositions, such as
+canzone, motets, hymns, &c., a collection of madrigals for five voices
+(Antwerp, 1608) being among the earliest of his published works.
+
+
+
+
+FRESENIUS, KARL REMIGIUS (1818-1897), German chemist, was born at
+Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of December 1818. After spending some time
+in a pharmacy in his native town, he entered Bonn University in 1840,
+and a year later migrated to Giessen, where he acted as assistant in
+Liebig's laboratory, and in 1843 became assistant professor. In 1845 he
+was appointed to the chair of chemistry, physics and technology at the
+Wiesbaden Agricultural Institution, and three years later he became the
+first director of the chemical laboratory which he induced the Nassau
+government to establish at that place. Under his care this laboratory
+continuously increased in size and popularity, a school of pharmacy
+being added in 1862 (though given up in 1877) and an agricultural
+research laboratory in 1868. Apart from his administrative duties
+Fresenius occupied himself almost exclusively with analytical chemistry,
+and the fullness and accuracy of his text-books on that subject (of
+which that on qualitative analysis first appeared in 1841 and that on
+quantitative in 1846) soon rendered them standard works. Many of his
+original papers were published in the _Zeitschrift fur analytische
+Chemie_, which he founded in 1862 and continued to edit till his death.
+He died suddenly at Wiesbaden on the 11th of June 1897. In 1881 he
+handed over the directorship of the agricultural research station to his
+son, Remigius Heinrich Fresenius (b. 1847), who was trained under H.
+Kolbe at Leipzig. Another son, Theodor Wilhelm Fresenius (b. 1856), was
+educated at Strassburg and occupied various positions in the Wiesbaden
+laboratory.
+
+
+
+
+FRESHWATER, a watering place in the Isle of Wight, England, 12 m. W. by
+S. of Newport by rail. Pop.(1901) 3306. It is a scattered township lying
+on the peninsula west of the river Var, which forms the western
+extremity of the island. The portion known as Freshwater Gate fronts the
+English Channel from the strip of low-lying coast interposed between the
+cliffs of the peninsula and those of the main part of the island. The
+peninsula rises to 397 ft. in Headon Hill, and the cliffs are
+magnificent. The western promontory is flanked on the north by the
+picturesque Alum Bay, and the lofty detached rocks known as the Needles
+lie off it. Farringford House in the parish was for some time the home
+of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who is commemorated by a tablet in All Saints'
+church and by a great cross on the high downs above the town. There are
+golf links on the downs.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN (1788-1827), French physicist, the son of an
+architect, was born at Broglie (Eure) on the 10th of May 1788. His early
+progress in learning was slow, and when eight years old he was still
+unable to read. At the age of thirteen he entered the Ecole Centrale in
+Caen, and at sixteen and a half the Ecole Polytechnique, where he
+acquitted himself with distinction. Thence he went to the Ecole des
+Ponts et Chaussees. He served as an engineer successively in the
+departments of Vendee, Drome and Ille-et-Villaine; but his espousal of
+the cause of the Bourbons in 1814 occasioned, on Napoleon's reaccession
+to power, the loss of his appointment. On the second restoration he
+obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where much of his life from that
+time was spent. His researches in optics, continued until his death,
+appear to have been begun about the year 1814, when he prepared a paper
+on the aberration of light, which, however, was not published. In 1818
+he read a memoir on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he
+received the prize of the Academie des Sciences at Paris. He was in 1823
+unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he became a
+member of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827, at the time of his
+last illness, awarded him the Rumford medal. In 1819 he was nominated a
+commissioner of lighthouses, for which he was the first to construct
+compound lenses as substitutes for mirrors. He died of consumption at
+Ville-d'Avray, near Paris, on the 14th of July 1827.
+
+The undulatory theory of light, first founded upon experimental
+demonstration by Thomas Young, was extended to a large class of optical
+phenomena, and permanently established by his brilliant discoveries and
+mathematical deductions. By the use of two plane mirrors of metal,
+forming with each other an angle of nearly 180 deg., he avoided the
+diffraction caused in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663) on
+interference by the employment of apertures for the transmission of the
+light, and was thus enabled in the most conclusive manner to account for
+the phenomena of interference in accordance with the undulatory theory.
+With D. F. J. Arago he studied the laws of the interference of polarized
+rays. Circularly polarized light he obtained by means of a rhomb of
+glass, known as "Fresnel's rhomb," having obtuse angles of 126 deg., and
+acute angles of 54 deg. His labours in the cause of optical science
+received during his lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of
+his papers were not printed by the Academie des Sciences till many years
+after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in 1824, in him "that
+sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory" had been
+blunted. "All the compliments," he says, "that I have received from
+Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery
+of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by
+experiment."
+
+  See Duleau, "Notice sur Fresnel," _Revue ency._ t. xxxix.; Arago,
+  _OEuvres completes_, t. i.; and Dr G. Peacock, _Miscellaneous Works of
+  Thomas Young_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNILLO, a town of the state of Zacatecas, Mexico, 37 m. N.W. of the
+city of Zacatecas on a branch of the Santiago river. Pop. (1900) 6309.
+It stands on a fertile plain between the Santa Cruz and Zacatecas
+ranges, about 7700 ft. above sea-level, has a temperate climate, and is
+surrounded by an agricultural district producing Indian corn and wheat.
+It is a clean, well-built town, whose chief distinction is its school
+of mines founded in 1853. Fresnillo has large amalgam works for the
+reduction of silver ores. Its silver mines, located in the neighbouring
+Proano hill, were discovered in 1569, and were for a time among the most
+productive in Mexico. Since 1833, when their richest deposits were
+reached, the output has greatly decreased. There is a station near on
+the Mexican Central railway.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNO, a city and the county-seat of Fresno county, California, U.S.A.,
+situated in the San Joaquin valley (altitude about 300 ft.) near the
+geographical centre of the state. Pop. (1880) 1112; (1890) 10,818;
+(1900) 12,470, of whom 3299 were foreign-born and 1279 were Asiatics;
+(1910 census) 24,892. The city is served by the Southern Pacific and the
+Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways. The county is mainly a vast
+expanse of naturally arid plains and mountains. The valley is the scene
+of an extensive irrigation system, water being brought (first in
+1872-1876) from King's river, 20 m. distant; in 1905 500 sq. m. were
+irrigated. Fresno is in a rich farming country, producing grains and
+fruit, and is the only place in America where Smyrna figs have been
+grown with success; it is the centre of the finest raisin country of the
+state, and has extensive vineyards and wine-making establishments. The
+city's principal manufacture is preserved (dried) fruits, particularly
+raisins; the value of the fruits thus preserved in 1905 was $6,942,440,
+being 70.5% of the total value of the factory product in that year
+($9,849,001). In 1900-1905 the factory product increased 257.9%, a ratio
+of increase greater than that of any other city in the state. In the
+mountains, lumbering and mining are important industries; lumber is
+carried from Shaver in the mountains to Clovis on the plains by a
+V-shaped flume 42 m. long, the waste water from which is ditched for
+irrigation. The petroleum field of the county is one of the richest in
+California. Fresno is the business and shipping centre of its county and
+of the surrounding region. The county was organized in 1856. In 1872 the
+railway went through, and Fresno was laid out and incorporated. It
+became the county-seat in 1874 and was chartered as a city in 1885.
+
+
+
+
+FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU (1611-1665), French painter and writer on
+his art, was born in Paris, son of an apothecary. He was destined for
+the medical profession, and well educated in Latin and Greek; but,
+having a natural propensity for the fine arts, he would not apply to his
+intended vocation, and was allowed to learn the rudiments of design
+under Perrier and Vouet. At the age of twenty-one he went off to Rome,
+with no resources; he drew ruins and architectural subjects. After two
+years thus spent he re-encountered his old fellow-student Pierre
+Mignard, and by his aid obtained some amelioration of his professional
+prospects. He studied Raphael and the antique, went in 1633 to Venice,
+and in 1656 returned to France. During two years he was now employed in
+painting altar-pieces in the chateau of Raincy, landscapes, &c. His
+death was caused by an attack of apoplexy followed by palsy; he expired
+at Villiers le Bel, near Paris. He never married. His pictorial works
+are few; they are correct in drawing, with something of the Caracci in
+design, and of Titian in colouring, but wanting fire and expression, and
+insufficient to keep his name in any eminent repute. He is remembered
+now almost entirely as a writer rather than painter. His Latin poem, _De
+arte graphica_, was written during his Italian sojourn, and embodied his
+observations on the art of painting; it may be termed a critical
+treatise on the practice of the art, with general advice to students.
+The precepts are sound according to the standard of his time; the
+poetical merits slender enough. The Latin style is formed chiefly on
+Lucretius and Horace. This poem was first published by Mignard, and has
+been translated into several languages. In 1684 it was turned into
+French by Roger de Piles; Dryden translated the work into English prose;
+and a rendering into verse by Mason followed, to which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds added some annotations.
+
+
+
+
+FRET. (1) (From O. Eng. _fretan_, a word common in various forms to
+Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _fressen_, to eat greedily), properly to
+devour, hence to gnaw, so used of the slow corroding action of
+chemicals, water, &c., and hence, figuratively, to chafe or irritate.
+Possibly connected with this word, in sense of rubbing, is the use of
+"fret" for a bar on the fingerboard of a banjo, guitar, or similar
+musical instruments to mark the fingering. (2) (Of doubtful origin;
+possibly from the O. Eng. _fraetive_, ornaments, but its use is
+paralleled by the Fr. _frette_, trellis or lattice), network, a term
+used in heraldry for an interlaced figure, but best known as applied to
+the decoration used by the Greeks in their temples and vases: the Greek
+fret consists of a series of narrow bands of different lengths, placed
+at right angles to one another, and of great variety of design. It is an
+ornament which owes its origin to woven fabrics, and is found on the
+ceilings of the Egyptian tombs at Benihasan, Siout and elsewhere. In
+Greek work it was painted on the abacus of the Doric capital and
+probably on the architraves of their temples; when employed by the
+Romans it was generally carved; the Propylaea of the temple at Damascus
+and the temple at Atil being examples of the 2nd century. It was carved
+in large dimensions on some of the Mexican temples, as for instance on
+the palace at Mitla with other decorative bands, all of which would seem
+to have been reproductions of woven patterns, and had therefore an
+independent origin. It is found in China and Japan, and in the latter
+country when painted on lacquer is employed as a fret-diaper, the bands
+not being at right angles to one another but forming acute and obtuse
+angles. In old English writers a wider signification was given to it, as
+it was applied to raised patterns in plaster oh roofs or ceilings, which
+were not confined to the geometrical fret but extended to the modelling
+of flowers, leaves and fruit; in such cases the decoration was known as
+fret-work. In France the fret is better known as the "meander."
+
+
+
+
+FREUDENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the
+right bank of the Murg, 40 m. S.W. from Stuttgart, on the railway to
+Hochdorf. Pop. 7000. It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church,
+some small manufactures of cloth, furniture, knives, nails and glass,
+and is frequented as a climatic health resort. It was founded in 1599 by
+Protestant refugees from Salzburg.
+
+
+
+
+FREUND, WILHELM (1806-1894), German philologist and lexicographer, was
+born at Kempen in the grand duchy of Posen on the 27th of January 1806.
+He studied at Berlin, Breslau and Halle, and was for twenty years
+chiefly engaged in private tuition. From 1855-1870 he was director of
+the Jewish school at Gleiwitz in Silesia, and subsequently retired to
+Breslau, where he died on the 4th of June 1894. Although chiefly known
+for his philological labours, Freund took an important part in the
+movement for the emancipation of his Prussian co-religionists, and the
+_Judengesetz_ of 1847 was in great measure the result of his efforts.
+The work by which he is best known is his _Worterbuch der lateinischen
+Sprache_ (1834-1845), practically the basis of all Latin-English
+dictionaries. His _Wie studiert man klassische Philologie?_ (6th ed.,
+1903) and _Triennium philologicum_ (2nd ed., 1878-1885) are valuable
+aids to the classical student.
+
+
+
+
+FREWEN, ACCEPTED (1588-1664), archbishop of York, was born at Northiam,
+in Sussex, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, where in 1612 he
+became a fellow. In 1617 and 1621 the college allowed him to act as
+chaplain to Sir John Digby, ambassador in Spain. At Madrid he preached a
+sermon which pleased Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., and the
+latter on his accession appointed Frewen one of his chaplains. In 1625
+he became canon of Canterbury and vice-president of Magdalen College,
+and in the following year he was elected president. He was
+vice-chancellor of the university in 1628 and 1629, and again in 1638
+and 1639. It was mainly by his instrumentality that the university plate
+was sent to the king at York in 1642. Two years later he was consecrated
+bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and resigned his presidentship.
+Parliament declared his estates forfeited for treason in 1652, and
+Cromwell afterwards set a price on his head. The proclamations, however,
+designated him Stephen Frewen, and he was consequently able to escape
+into France. At the Restoration he reappeared in public, and in 1660 he
+was consecrated archbishop of York. In 1661 he acted as chairman of the
+Savoy conference.
+
+
+
+
+FREY (Old Norse, Freyr) son of Njord, one of the chief deities in the
+northern pantheon and the national god of the Swedes. He is the god of
+fruitfulness, the giver of sunshine and rain, and thus the source of all
+prosperity. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, _ad fin._)
+
+
+
+
+FREYBURG [FREYBURG AN DER UNSTRUT], a town of Germany, in Prussian
+Saxony, in an undulating vine-clad country on the Unstrut, 6 m. N. from
+Naumberg-on-the-Saale, on the railway to Artern. Pop. 3200. It has a
+parish church, a mixture of Gothic and Romanesque architecture, with a
+handsome tower. It is, however, as being the "Mecca" of the German
+gymnastic societies that Freyburg is best known. Here Friedrich Ludwig
+Jahn (1778-1852), the father of German gymnastic exercises, lies buried.
+Over his grave is built the Turnhalle, with a statue of the "master,"
+while hard by it the Jahn Museum in Romanesque style, erected in 1903.
+Freyburg produces sparkling wine of good quality and has some other
+small manufactures. On a hill commanding the town is the castle of
+Neuenburg, built originally in 1062 by Louis the Leaper, count in
+Thuringia, but in its present form mainly the work of the dukes of
+Saxe-Weissenfels.
+
+
+
+
+FREYCINET, CHARLES LOUIS DE SAULCES DE (1828-   ), French statesman, was
+born at Foix on the 14th of November 1828. He was educated at the Ecole
+Polytechnique, and entered the government service as a mining engineer.
+In 1858 he was appointed traffic manager to the Compagnie de chemins de
+fer du Midi, a post in which he gave proof of his remarkable talent for
+organization, and in 1862 returned to the engineering service (in which
+he attained in 1886 the rank of inspector-general). He was sent on a
+number of special scientific missions, among which may be mentioned one
+to England, on which he wrote a notable _Memoire sur le travail des
+femmes et des enfants dans les manufactures de l'Angleterre_ (1867). On
+the establishment of the Third Republic in September 1870, he offered
+his services to Gambetta, was appointed prefect of the department of
+Tarn-et-Garronne, and in October became chief of the military cabinet.
+It was mainly his powers of organization that enabled Gambetta to raise
+army after army to oppose the invading Germans. He showed himself a
+strategist of no mean order; but the policy of dictating operations to
+the generals in the field was not attended with happy results. The
+friction between him and General d'Aurelle de Paladines resulted in the
+loss of the advantage temporarily gained at Orleans, and he was
+responsible for the campaign in the east, which ended in the destruction
+of Bourbaki's army. In 1871 he published a defence of his administration
+under the title of _La Guerre en province pendant le siege de Paris._ He
+entered the Senate in 1876 as a follower of Gambetta, and in December
+1877 became minister of public works in the Dufaure cabinet. He carried
+a great scheme for the gradual acquisition of the railways by the state
+and the construction of new lines at a cost of three milliards, and for
+the development of the canal system at a further cost of one milliard.
+He retained his post in the ministry of Waddington, whom he succeeded in
+December 1879 as president of the council and minister for foreign
+affairs. He passed an amnesty for the Communists, but in attempting to
+steer a middle course on the question of the religious associations,
+lost the support of Gambetta, and resigned in September 1880. In January
+1882 he again became president of the council and minister for foreign
+affairs. His refusal to join England in the bombardment of Alexandria
+was the death-knell of French influence in Egypt. He attempted to
+compromise by occupying the Isthmus of Suez, but the vote of credit was
+rejected in the Chamber by 417 votes to 75, and the ministry resigned.
+He returned to office in April 1885 as foreign minister in the Brisson
+cabinet, and retained that post when, in January 1886, he succeeded to
+the premiership. He came into power with an ambitious programme of
+internal reform; but except that he settled the question of the exiled
+pretenders, his successes were won chiefly in the sphere of colonial
+extension. In spite of his unrivalled skill as a parliamentary
+tactician, he failed to keep his party together, and was defeated on 3rd
+December 1886. In the following year, after two unsuccessful attempts
+to construct new ministries he stood for the presidency of the
+republic; but the radicals, to whom his opportunism was distasteful,
+turned the scale against him by transferring the votes to M. Sadi
+Carnot.
+
+In April 1888 he became minister of war in the Floquet cabinet--the
+first civilian since 1848 to hold that office. His services to France in
+this capacity were the crowning achievement of his life, and he enjoyed
+the conspicuous honour of holding his office without a break for five
+years through as many successive administrations--those of Floquet and
+Tirard, his own fourth ministry (March 1890-February 1892), and the
+Loubet and Ribot ministries. To him were due the introduction of the
+three-years' service and the establishment of a general staff, a supreme
+council of war, and the army commands. His premiership was marked by
+heated debates on the clerical question, and it was a hostile vote on
+his Bill against the religious associations that caused the fall of his
+cabinet. He failed to clear himself entirely of complicity in the Panama
+scandals, and in January 1893 resigned the ministry of war. In November
+1898 he once more became minister of war in the Dupuy cabinet, but
+resigned office on 6th May 1899. He has published, besides the works
+already mentioned, _Traite de mecanique rationnelle_ (1858); _De
+l'analyse infinitesimale_ (1860, revised ed., 1881); _Des pentes
+economiques en chemin de fer_ (1861); _Emploi des eaux d'egout en
+agriculture_ (1869); _Principes de l'assainissement des villes and
+Traite d'assainissement industriel_ (1870); _Essai sur la philosophie
+des sciences_ (1896); _La Question d'Egypte_ (1905); besides some
+remarkable "Pensees" contributed to the _Contemporain_ under the
+pseudonym of "Alceste." In 1882 he was elected a member of the Academy
+of Sciences, and in 1890 to the French Academy in succession to Emile
+Augier.
+
+
+
+
+FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DESAULSES DE (1779-1842), French navigator, was
+born at Montelimart, Drome, on the 7th of August 1779. In 1793 he
+entered the French navy. After taking part in several engagements
+against the British, he joined in 1800, along with his brother Louis
+Henri Freycinet (1777-1840), who afterwards rose to the rank of admiral,
+the expedition sent out under Captain Baudin in the "Naturaliste" and
+"Geographe" to explore the south and south-west coasts of Australia.
+Much of the ground already gone over by Flinders was revisited, and new
+names imposed by this expedition, which claimed credit for discoveries
+really made by the English navigator. An inlet on the coast of West
+Australia, in 26 deg. S., is called Freycinet Estuary; and a cape near
+the extreme south-west of the same coast also bears the explorer's name.
+In 1805 he returned to Paris, and was entrusted by the government with
+the work of preparing the maps and plans of the expedition; he also
+completed the narrative, and the whole work appeared under the title of
+_Voyage de decouvertes aux terres australes_ (Paris, 1807-1816). In 1817
+he commanded the "Uranie," in which Arago and others went to Rio de
+Janeiro, to take a series of pendulum measurements. This was only part
+of a larger scheme for obtaining observations, not only in geography and
+ethnology, but in astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and meteorology, and
+for the collection of specimens in natural history. On this expedition
+the hydrographic operations were conducted by Louis Isidore Duperry
+(1786-1865) who in 1822 was appointed to the command of the "Coquille,"
+and during the next three years carried out scientific explorations in
+the southern Pacific and along the coast of South America. For three
+years Freycinet cruised about, visiting Australia, the Marianne,
+Sandwich, and other Pacific islands, South America, and other places,
+and, notwithstanding the loss of the "Uranie" on the Falkland Islands
+during the return voyage, returned to France with fine collections in
+all departments of natural history, and with voluminous notes and
+drawings which form an important contribution to a knowledge of the
+countries visited. The results of this voyage were published under
+Freycinet's supervision, with the title of _Voyage autour du monde sur
+les corvettes "l'Uranie" et "la Physicienne"_ in 1824-1844, in 13 quarto
+volumes and 4 folio volumes of fine plates and maps. Freycinet was
+admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1825, and was one of the
+founders of the Paris Geographical Society. He died at Freycinet, Drome,
+on the 18th of August 1842.
+
+
+
+
+FREYIA, the sister of Frey, and the most prominent goddess in Northern
+mythology. Her character seems in general to have resembled that of her
+brother. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, _ad fin._)
+
+
+
+
+FREYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1788-1861), German philologist, was
+born at Luneburg on the 19th of September 1788. After attending school
+he entered the university of Gottingen as a student of philology and
+theology; here from 1811 to 1813 he acted as a theological tutor, but in
+the latter year accepted an appointment as sub-librarian at Konigsberg.
+In 1815 he became a chaplain in the Prussian army, and in that capacity
+visited Paris. On the proclamation of peace he resigned his chaplaincy,
+and returned to his researches in Arabic, Persian and Turkish, studying
+at Paris under De Sacy. In 1819 he was appointed to the professorship of
+oriental languages in the new university of Bonn, and this post he
+continued to hold until his death on the 16th of November 1861.
+
+  Besides a compendium of Hebrew grammar (_Kurzgefasste Grammatik der
+  hebraischen Sprache_, 1835), and a treatise on Arabic versification
+  (_Darstellung der arabischen Verskunst_, 1830), he edited two volumes
+  of Arabic songs (_Hamasae carmina_, 1828-1852) and three of Arabic
+  proverbs (_Arabum proverbia_, 1838-1843). But his principal work was
+  the laborious and praiseworthy _Lexicon Arabico-latinum_ (Halle,
+  1830-1837), an abridgment of which was published in 1837.
+
+
+
+
+FREYTAG, GUSTAV (1816-1895), German novelist, was born at Kreuzburg, in
+Silesia, on the 13th of July 1816. After attending the gymnasium at Ols,
+he studied philology at the universities of Breslau and Berlin, and in
+1838 took the degree with a remarkable dissertation, _De initiis poeseos
+scenicae apud Germanos_. In 1839 he settled at Breslau, as
+_Privatdocent_ in German language and literature, but devoted his
+principal attention to writing for the stage, and achieved considerable
+success with the comedy _Die Brautfahrt, oder Kunz von der Rosen_
+(1844). This was followed by a volume of unimportant poems, _In Breslau_
+(1845) and the dramas _Die Valentine_ (1846) and _Graf Waldemar_ (1847).
+He at last attained a prominent position by his comedy, _Die
+Journalisten_ (1853), one of the best German comedies of the 19th
+century. In 1847 he migrated to Berlin, and in the following year took
+over, in conjunction with Julian Schmidt, the editorship of _Die
+Grenzboten_, a weekly journal which, founded in 1841, now became the
+leading organ of German and Austrian liberalism. Freytag helped to
+conduct it until 1861, and again from 1867 till 1870, when for a short
+time he edited a new periodical, _Im neuen Reich_. His literary fame was
+made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel, _Soll und
+Haben_, which was translated into almost all the languages of Europe. It
+was certainly the best German novel of its day, impressive by its sturdy
+but unexaggerated realism, and in many parts highly humorous. Its main
+purpose is the recommendation of the German middle class as the soundest
+element in the nation, but it also has a more directly patriotic
+intention in the contrast which it draws between the homely virtues of
+the Teuton and the shiftlessness of the Pole and the rapacity of the
+Jew. As a Silesian, Freytag had no great love for his Slavonic
+neighbours, and being a native of a province which owed everything to
+Prussia, he was naturally an earnest champion of Prussian hegemony over
+Germany. His powerful advocacy of this idea in his _Grenzboten_ gained
+him the friendship of the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose neighbour he
+had become, on acquiring the estate of Siebleben near Gotha. At the
+duke's request Freytag was attached to the staff of the crown prince of
+Prussia in the campaign of 1870, and was present at the battles of Worth
+and Sedan. Before this he had published another novel, _Die verlorene
+Handschrift_ (1864), in which he endeavoured to do for German university
+life what in _Soll und Haben_ he had done for commercial life. The hero
+is a young German professor, who is so wrapt up in his search for a
+manuscript by Tacitus that he is oblivious to an impending tragedy in
+his domestic life. The book was, however, less successful than its
+predecessor. Between 1859 and 1867 Freytag published in five volumes
+_Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit_, a most valuable work on
+popular lines, illustrating the history and manners of Germany. In 1872
+he began a work with a similar patriotic purpose, _Die Ahnen_, a series
+of historical romances in which he unfolds the history of a German
+family from the earliest times to the middle of the 19th century. The
+series comprises the following novels, none of which, however, reaches
+the level of Freytag's earlier books. (1) _Ingo und Ingraban_ (1872),
+(2) _Das Nest der Zaunkonige_ (1874), (3) _Die Bruder vom deutschen
+Hause_ (1875), (4) _Marcus Konig_ (1876), (5) _Die Geschwister_ (1878),
+and (6) in conclusion, _Aus einer kleinen Stadt_ (1880). Among Freytag's
+other works may be noticed _Die Technik des Dramas_ (1863); an excellent
+biography of the Baden statesman _Karl Mathy_ (1869); an autobiography
+(_Erinnerungen aus meinen Leben_, 1887); his _Gesammelte Aufsatze_,
+chiefly reprinted from the _Grenzboten_ (1888); _Der Kronprinz und die
+deutsche Kaiserkrone_; _Erinnerungsblatter_ (1889). He died at Wiesbaden
+on the 30th of April 1895.
+
+  Freytag's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 22 vols. at Leipzig
+  (1886-1888); his _Vermischte Aufsatze_ have been edited by E. Elster,
+  2 vols. (Leipzig, 1901-1903). On Freytag's life see, besides his
+  autobiography mentioned above, the lives by C. Alberti (Leipzig, 1890)
+  and F. Seiler (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FRIAR (from the Lat. _frater_, through the Fr. _frere_), the English
+generic name for members of the mendicant religious orders. Formerly it
+was the title given to individual members of these orders, as Friar
+Laurence (in _Romeo and Juliet_), but this is not now common. In England
+the chief orders of friars were distinguished by the colour of their
+habit: thus the Franciscans or Minors were the Grey Friars; the
+Dominicans or Preachers were the Black Friars (from their black mantle
+over a white habit), and the Carmelites were the White Friars (from
+their white mantle over a brown habit): these, together with the Austin
+Friars or Hermits, formed the four great mendicant orders--Chaucer's
+"alle the ordres foure." Besides the four great orders of friars, the
+Trinitarians (q.v.), though really canons, were in England called
+Trinity Friars or Red Friars; the Crutched or Crossed Friars were often
+identified with them, but were really a distinct order; there were also
+a number of lesser orders of friars, many of which were suppressed by
+the second council of Lyons in 1274. Detailed information on these
+orders and on their position in England is given in separate articles.
+The difference between friars and monks is explained in article
+MONASTICISM. Though the usage is not accurate, friars, and also canons
+regular, are often spoken of as monks and included among the monastic
+orders.
+
+  See Fr. Cuthbert, _The Friars and how they came to England_, pp. 11-32
+  (1903); also F. A. Gasquet, _English Monastic Life_, pp. 234-249
+  (1904), where special information on all the English friars is
+  conveniently brought together.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIBOURG [Ger. _Freiburg_], one of the Swiss Cantons, in the western
+portion of the country, and taking its name from the town around which
+the various districts that compose it gradually gathered. Its area is
+646.3 sq. m., of which 568 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests
+covering 119 sq. m. and vineyards .8 sq. m.); it boasts of no glaciers
+or eternal snow. It is a hilly, not mountainous, region, the highest
+summits (of which the Vanil Noir, 7858 ft., is the loftiest) rising in
+the Gruyere district at its south-eastern extremity, the best known
+being probably the Moleson (6582 ft.) and the Berra (5653 ft.). But it
+is the heart of pastoral Switzerland, is famed for its cheese and
+cattle, and is the original home of the "_Ranz des Vaches_," the melody
+by which the herdsmen call their cattle home at milking time. It is
+watered by the Sarine or Saane river (with its tributaries the Singine
+or Sense and the Glane) that flows through the canton from north to
+south, and traverses its capital town. The upper course of the Broye
+(like the Sarine, a tributary of the Aar) and that of the Veveyse
+(flowing to the Lake of Geneva) are in the southern portion of the
+canton. A small share of the lakes of Neuchatel and of Morat belongs to
+the canton, wherein the largest sheet of water is the Lac Noir or
+Schwarzsee. A sulphur spring rises near the last-named lake, and there
+are other such springs in the canton at Montbarry and at Bonn, near the
+capital. There are about 150 m. of railways in the canton, the main line
+from Lausanne to Bern past Fribourg running through it; there are also
+lines from Fribourg to Morat and to Estavayer, while from Romont (on the
+main line) a line runs to Bulle, and in 1904 was extended to Gessenay or
+Saanen near the head of the Sarine or Saane valley. The population of
+the canton amounted in 1900 to 127,951 souls, of whom 108,440 were
+Romanists, 19,305 Protestants, and 167 Jews. The canton is on the
+linguistic frontier in Switzerland, the line of division running nearly
+due north and south through it, and even right through its capital. In
+1900 there were 78,353 French-speaking inhabitants, and 38,738
+German-speaking, the latter being found chiefly in the north-western
+(Morat region) and north-eastern (Singine valley) portions, as well as
+in the upper valley of the Jogne or Jaun in the south-east. Besides the
+capital, Fribourg (q.v.), the only towns of any importance are Bulle
+(3330 inhabitants), Chatel St Denis (2509 inhabitants), Morat (q.v.) or
+Murten (2263 inhabitants), Romont (2110 inhabitants), and Estavayer le
+Lac or Staffis am See (1636 inhabitants).
+
+The canton is pre-eminently a pastoral and agricultural region, tobacco,
+cheese and timber being its chief products. Its industries are
+comparatively few: straw-plaiting, watch-making (Semsales), paper-making
+(Marly), lime-kilns, and, above all, the huge Cailler chocolate factory
+at Broc. It forms part of the diocese of Lausanne and Geneva, the bishop
+living since 1663 at Fribourg. It is a stronghold of the Romanists, and
+still contains many monasteries and nunneries, such as the Carthusian
+monks at Valsainte, and the Cistercian nuns at La Fille Dieu and at
+Maigrauge. The canton is divided into 7 administrative districts, and
+contains 283 communes. It sends 2 members (named by the cantonal
+legislature) to the Federal _Standerath_, and 6 members to the Federal
+_Nationalrath_. The cantonal constitution has scarcely been altered
+since 1857, and is remarkable as containing none of the modern devices
+(referendum, initiative, proportional representation) save the right of
+"initiative" enjoyed by 6000 citizens to claim the revision of the
+cantonal constitution. The executive council of 7 members is named for 5
+years by the cantonal legislature, which consists of members (holding
+office for 5 years) elected in the proportion of one to every 1200 (or
+fraction over 800) of the population.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIBOURG [Ger. _Freiburg_], the capital of the Swiss canton of that
+name. It is built almost entirely on the left bank of the Sarine, the
+oldest bit (the Bourg) of the town being just above the river bank,
+flanked by the Neuveville and Auge quarters, these last (with the
+Planche quarter on the right bank of the river) forming the _Ville
+Basse_. On the steeply rising ground to the west of the Bourg is the
+Quartier des Places, beyond which, to the west and south-west, is the
+still newer Perolles quarter, where are the railway station and the new
+University; all these (with the Bourg) constituting the _Ville Haute_.
+In 1900 the population of the town was 15,794, of whom 13,270 were
+Romanists and 109 Jews, while 9701 were French-speaking, and 5595
+German-speaking, these last being mainly in the Ville Basse. Its
+linguistic history is curious. Founded as a German town, the French
+tongue became the official language during the greater part of the 14th
+and 15th centuries, but when it joined the Swiss Confederation in 1481
+the German influence came to the fore, and German was the official
+language from 1483 to 1798, becoming thus associated with the rule of
+the patricians. From 1798 to 1814, and again from 1830 onwards, French
+prevailed, as at present, though the new University is a centre of
+German influence.
+
+Fribourg is on the main line of railway from Bern (20 m.) to Lausanne
+(41 m.). The principal building in the town is the collegiate church of
+St Nicholas, of which the nave dates from the 13th-14th centuries, while
+the choir was rebuilt in the 17th century. It is a fine building,
+remarkable in itself, as well as for its lofty, late 15th century,
+bell-tower (249 ft. high), with a fine peal of bells; its famous organ
+was built between 1824 and 1834 by Aloys Mooser (a native of the town),
+has 7800 pipes, and is played daily in summer for the edification of
+tourists. The numerous monasteries in and around the town, its
+old-fashioned aspect, its steep and narrow streets, give it a most
+striking appearance. One of the most conspicuous buildings in the town
+is the college of St Michael, while in front of the 16th century town
+hall is an ancient lime tree stated (but this is very doubtful) to have
+been planted on the day of the victory of Morat (June 22, 1476). In the
+Lycee is the Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts, wherein, besides many
+interesting objects, is the collection of paintings and statuary
+bequeathed to the town in 1879 by Duchess Adela Colonna (a member of the
+d'Affry family of Fribourg), by whom many were executed under the name
+of "Marcello." The deep ravine of the Sarine is crossed by a very fine
+suspension bridge, constructed 1832-1834 by M. Chaley, of Lyons, which
+is 167 ft. above the Sarine, has a span of 808 ft., and consists of 6
+huge cables composed of 3294 strands. A loftier suspension bridge is
+thrown over the Gotteron stream just before it joins the Sarine: it is
+590 ft. long and 246 ft. in height, and was built in 1840. About 3 m.
+north of the town is the great railway viaduct or girder bridge of
+Grandfey, constructed in 1862 (1092 ft. in length, 249 ft. high) at a
+cost of 2-3/4 million francs. Immediately above the town a vast dam (591
+ft. long) was constructed across the Sarine by the engineer Ritter in
+1870-1872, the fall thus obtained yielding a water-power of 2600 to 4000
+horse-power, and forming a sheet of water known as the Lac de Perolles.
+A motive force of 600 horse-power, secured by turbines in the stream, is
+conveyed to the plateau of Perolles by "telodynamic" cables of 2510 ft.
+in length, for whose passage a tunnel has been pierced in the rock. On
+the Perolles plateau is the International Catholic University founded in
+1889.
+
+_History._--In 1178 the foundation of the town (meant to hold in check
+the turbulent nobles of the neighbourhood) was completed by Berchthold
+IV., duke of Zahringen, whose father Conrad had founded Freiburg in
+Breisgau in 1120, and whose son, Berchthold V., was to found Bern in
+1191. The spot was chosen for purposes of military defence, and was
+situated in the _Uechtland_ or waste land between Alamannian and
+Burgundian territory. He granted it many privileges, modelled on the
+charters of Cologne and of Freiburg in Breisgau, though the oldest
+existing charter of the town dates from 1249. On the extinction of the
+male line of the Zahringen dynasty, in 1218, their lands passed to Anna,
+the sister of the last duke and wife of Count Ulrich of Kyburg. That
+house kept Fribourg till it too became extinct, in 1264, in the male
+line. Anna, the heiress, married about 1273 Eberhard, count of
+Habsburg-Laufenburg, who sold Fribourg in 1277 for 3000 marks to his
+cousin Rudolf, the head of the house of Habsburg as well as emperor. The
+town had to fight many a hard battle for its existence against Bern and
+the count of Savoy, especially between 1448 and 1452. Abandoned by the
+Habsburgs, and desirous of escaping from the increasing power of Bern,
+Fribourg in 1452 finally submitted to the count of Savoy, to whom it had
+become indebted for vast sums of money. Yet, despite all its
+difficulties, it was in the first half of the 15th century that Fribourg
+exported much leather and cloth to France, Italy and Venice, as many as
+10,000 to 20,000 bales of cloth being stamped with the seal of the town.
+When Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy, entered into an alliance with
+Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, Fribourg joined Bern, and helped to
+gain the victories of Grandson and of Morat (1476).
+
+In 1477 the town was finally freed from the rule of Savoy, while in 1481
+(with Soleure) it became a member of the Swiss Confederation, largely,
+it is said, through the influence of the holy man, Bruder Klaus (Niklaus
+von der Flue). In 1475 the town had taken Illens and Arconciel from
+Savoy, and in 1536 won from Vaud much territory, including Romont, Rue,
+Chatel St Denis, Estavayer, St Aubin (by these two conquests its
+dominion reached the Lake of Neuchatel), as well as Vuissens and
+Surpierre, which still form outlying portions (physically within the
+canton of Vaud) of its territory, while in 1537 it took Bulle from the
+bishop of Lausanne. In 1502-1504 the lordship of Bellegarde or Jaun was
+bought, while in 1555 it acquired (jointly with Bern) the lands of the
+last count of the Gruyere, and thus obtained the rich district of that
+name. From 1475 it ruled (with Bern) the bailiwicks of Morat, Grandson,
+Orbe and Echallens, just taken from Savoy, but in 1798 Morat was
+incorporated with (finally annexed in 1814) the canton of Fribourg, the
+other bailiwicks being then given to the canton of Leman (later of
+Vaud). In the 16th century the original democratic government gradually
+gave place to the oligarchy of the patrician families. Though this
+government caused much discontent it continued till it was overthrown on
+the French occupation of 1798.
+
+From 1803 (Act of Mediation) to 1814, Fribourg was one of the six
+cantons of the Swiss Confederation. But, on the fall of the new regime,
+in 1814, the old patrician rule was partly restored, as 108 of the 144
+seats in the cantonal legislature were assigned to members of the
+patrician families. In 1831 the Radicals gained the power and secured
+the adoption of a more liberal constitution. In 1846 Fribourg (where the
+Conservatives had regained power in 1837) joined the _Sonderbund_ and,
+in 1847, saw the Federal troops before its walls, and had to surrender
+to them. The Radicals now came back to power, and again revised the
+cantonal constitution in a liberal sense. The Catholic and Conservative
+party made several attempts to recover their supremacy, but their chiefs
+were driven into exile. In 1856 the Conservatives regained the upper
+hand at the general cantonal election, secured the adoption in 1857 of a
+new cantonal constitution, and have ever since maintained their rule,
+which some dub "clerical," while others describe it as "anti-radical."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Archives de la Societe d'histoire du Canton de F._,
+  from 1850; F. Buomberger, _Bevolkerungs- u. Vermogensstatistik in d.
+  Stadt u. Landschaft F. um die Mitte d. 15ten Jahrhunderts_ (Bern,
+  1900); A. Daguet, _Histoire de la ville et de la seigneurie de F._, to
+  1481 (Fribourg, 1889); A. Dellion, _Dictionnaire historique et
+  statistique des paroisses catholiques du C. de F._ (12 vols.,
+  Fribourg, 1884-1903); _Freiburger Geschichtsblatter_, from 1894;
+  _Fribourg artistique_ (fine plates), from 1890; E. Heyck, _Geschichte
+  der Herzoge von Zahringen_ (Freiburg i. Br., 1891); F. Kuenlin, _Der
+  K. Freiburg_ (St Gall and Bern, 1834); _Memorial de F._ (6 vols.,
+  1854-1859); _Recueil diplomatique du Cant. de F._ (original documents)
+  (8 vols., Fribourg, 1839-1877); F. E. Welti, _Beitrage zur Geschichte
+  des alteren Stadtrechtes von Freiburg im Uechtland_ (Bern, 1908); J.
+  Zemp, _L'Art de la ville de Fribourg au moyen age_ (Fribourg, 1905);
+  J. Zimmerli, _Die deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in d. Schweiz_
+  (Basel and Geneva, 1895), vol. ii., pp. 72 seq.; _Les Alpes
+  fribourgeoises_ (Lausanne, 1908).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FRICTION (from Lat. _fricare_, to rub), in physical and mechanical
+science, the term given to the resistance which every material surface
+presents to the sliding of any other such surface upon it. This
+resistance is due to the roughness of the surfaces; the minute
+projections upon each enter more or less into the minute depressions on
+the other, and when motion occurs these roughnesses must either be worn
+off, or continually lifted out of the hollows into which they have
+fallen, or both, the resistance to motion being in either case quite
+perceptible and measurable.
+
+Friction is preferably spoken of as "resistance" rather than "force,"
+for a reason exactly the same as that which induces us to treat stress
+rather as molecular resistance (to change of form) than as force, and
+which may be stated thus: although friction can be utilized as a moving
+force at will, and is continually so used, yet it cannot be a primary
+moving force; it can transmit or modify motion already existing, but
+cannot in the first instance cause it. For this some external force, not
+friction, is required. The analogy with stress appears complete; the
+motion of the "driving link" of a machine is communicated to all the
+other parts, modified or unchanged as the case may be, by the stresses
+in those parts; but the actual setting in motion of the driving link
+itself cannot come about by stress, but must have for its production
+force obtained directly from the expenditure of some form of energy. It
+is important, however, that the use of the term "resistance" should not
+be allowed to mislead. Friction resists the motion of one surface upon
+another, but it may and frequently does confer the motion of the one
+upon the other, and in this way causes, instead of resists, the motion
+of the latter. This may be made more clear, perhaps, by an illustration.
+Suppose we have a leather strap A passing over a fixed cylindrical drum
+B, and let a pulling force or effort be applied to the strap. The force
+applied to A can act on B only at the surfaces of contact between them.
+There it becomes an effort tending either to move A upon B, or to move
+the body B itself, according to the frictional conditions. In the
+absence of friction it would simply cause A to slide on B, so that we
+may call it an effort tending to make A slide on B. The friction is the
+resistance offered by the surface of B to any such motion. But the value
+of this resistance is not in any way a function of the effort
+itself,--it depends chiefly upon the pressure normal to the surfaces and
+the nature of the surfaces. It may therefore be either less or greater
+than the effort. If less, A slides over B, the rate of motion being
+determined by the excess of the effort over the resistance (friction).
+But if the latter be greater no sliding can occur, i.e. A cannot, under
+the action of the supposed force, move upon B. The effort between the
+surfaces exists, however, exactly as before,--and it must now tend to
+cause the motion of B. But the body B is fixed,--or, in other words, we
+suppose its resistance to motion greater than any effort which can tend
+to move it,--hence no motion takes place. It must be specially noticed,
+however, that it is not the friction between A and B that has prevented
+motion, this only prevented A moving on B,--it is the force which keeps
+B stationary, whatever that may be, which has finally prevented any
+motion taking place. This can be easily seen. Suppose B not to be fixed,
+but to be capable of moving against some third body C (which might,
+e.g., contain cylindrical bearings, if B were a drum with its shaft),
+itself fixed,--and further, suppose the frictional resistance between B
+and C to be the only resistance to B's motion. Then if this be less than
+the effort of A upon B, as it of course may be, this effort will cause
+the motion of B. Thus friction causes motion, for had there been no
+frictional resistance between the surfaces of A and of B, the latter
+body would have remained stationary, and A only would have moved. In the
+case supposed, therefore, the friction between A and B is a necessary
+condition of B receiving any motion from the external force applied to
+A.
+
+Without entering here on the mathematical treatment of the subject of
+friction, some general conclusions may be pointed out which have been
+arrived at as the results of experiment. The "laws" first enunciated by
+C. A. Coulomb (1781), and afterwards confirmed by A. J. Morin
+(1830-1834), have been found to hold good within very wide limits. These
+are: (1) that the friction is proportional to the normal pressure
+between the surfaces of contact, and therefore independent of the area
+of those surfaces, and (2) that it is independent of the velocity with
+which the surfaces slide one on the other. For many practical purposes
+these statements are sufficiently accurate, and they do in fact sensibly
+represent the results of experiment for the pressures and at the
+velocities most commonly occurring. Assuming the correctness of these,
+friction is generally measured in terms simply of the total pressure
+between the surfaces, by multiplying it by a "coefficient of friction"
+depending on the material of the surfaces and their state as to
+smoothness and lubrication. But beyond certain limits the "laws" stated
+are certainly incorrect, and are to be regarded as mere practical rules,
+of extensive application certainly, but without any pretension to be
+looked at as really general laws. Both at very high and very low
+pressures the coefficient of friction is affected by the intensity of
+pressure, and, just as with velocity, it can only be regarded as
+independent of the intensity and proportional simply to the total load
+within more or less definite limits.
+
+Coulomb pointed out long ago that the resistance of a body to be set in
+motion was in many cases much greater than the resistance which it
+offered to continued motion; and since his time writers have always
+distinguished the "friction of rest," or static friction, from the
+"friction of motion," or kinetic friction. He showed also that the value
+of the former depended often both upon the intensity of the pressure and
+upon the length of time during which contact had lasted, both of which
+facts quite agree with what we should expect from our knowledge of the
+physical nature, already mentioned, of the causes of friction. It seems
+not unreasonable to expect that the influence of time upon friction
+should show itself in a comparison of very slow with very rapid motion,
+as well as in a comparison of starting (i.e. motion after a long time of
+rest) with continued motion. That the friction at the higher velocities
+occurring in engineering practice is much less than at common velocities
+has been shown by several modern experiments, such as those of Sir
+Douglas Galton (see _Report Brit. Assoc._, 1878, and _Proc. Inst. Mech.
+Eng._, 1878, 1879) on the friction between brake-blocks and wheels, and
+between wheels and rails. But no increase in the coefficient of friction
+had been detected at slow speeds, until the experiments of Prof.
+Fleeming Jenkin (_Phil. Trans._, 1877, pt. 2) showed conclusively that
+at extremely low velocities (the lowest measured was about .0002 ft. per
+second) there is a sensible increase of frictional resistance in many
+cases, most notably in those in which there is the most marked
+difference between the friction of rest and that of motion. These
+experiments distinctly point to the conclusion, although without
+absolutely proving it, that in such cases the coefficient of kinetic
+friction gradually increases as the velocity becomes extremely small,
+and passes without discontinuity into that of static friction.
+     (A. B. W. K.; W. E. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIDAY (A.S. _frige-daeg_, fr. _frige_, gen. of _frigu_, love, or the
+goddess of love--the Norse Frigg,--the _daeg_, day; cf. Icelandic
+_frjadagr_, O.H. Ger. _friatag_, _frigatag_, mod. Ger. _Freitag_), the
+sixth day of the week, corresponding to the Roman _Dies Veneris_, the
+French _Vendredi_ and Italian _Venerdi_. The ill-luck associated with
+the day undoubtedly arose from its connexion with the Crucifixion; for
+the ancient Scandinavian peoples regarded it as the luckiest day of the
+week. By the Western and Eastern Churches the Fridays throughout the
+year, except when Christmas falls on that day, have ever been observed
+as days of fast in memory of the Passion. The special day on which the
+Passion of Christ is annually commemorated is known as Good Friday
+(q.v.). According to Mahommedan tradition, Friday, which is the Moslem
+Sabbath, was the day on which Adam was created, entered Paradise and was
+expelled, and it was the day of his repentance, the day of his death,
+and will be the Day of Resurrection.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDBERG, the name of two towns in Germany.
+
+1. A small town in Upper Bavaria, with an old castle, known mainly as
+the scene of Moreau's victory of the 24th of August 1796 over the
+Austrians.
+
+2. FRIEDBERG IN DER WETTERAU, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on
+an eminence above the Usa, 14 m. N. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway
+to Cassel and at the junction of a line to Hanau. Pop. (1905) 7702. It
+is a picturesque town, still surrounded by old walls and towers, and
+contains many medieval buildings, of which the beautiful Gothic town
+church (Evangelical) and the old castle are especially noteworthy. The
+grand-ducal palace has a beautiful garden. The schools include technical
+and agricultural academies and a teachers' seminary. It has manufactures
+of sugar, gloves and leather, and breweries. Friedberg is of Roman
+origin, but is first mentioned as a town in the 11th century. In 1211 it
+became a free imperial city, but in 1349 was pledged to the counts of
+Schwarzburg, and subsequently often changed hands, eventually in 1802
+passing to Hesse-Darmstadt.
+
+  See Dieffenbach, _Geschichte der Stadt und Burg Friedberg_ (Darms.,
+  1857).
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDEL, CHARLES (1832-1899), French chemist and mineralogist, was born
+at Strassburg on the 12th of March 1832. After graduating at Strassburg
+University he spent a year in the counting-house of his father, a banker
+and merchant, and then in 1851 went to live in Paris with his maternal
+grandfather, Georges Louis Duvernoy (1777-1855), professor of natural
+history and, from 1850, of comparative anatomy, at the College de
+France. In 1854 he entered C. A. Wurtz's laboratory, and in 1856, at the
+instance of H. H. de Senarmont (1808-1862), was appointed conservator of
+the mineralogical collections at the Ecole des Mines. In 1871 he began
+to lecture in place of A. L. O. L. Des Cloizeaux (1817-1897) at the
+Ecole Normale, and in 1876 he became professor of mineralogy at the
+Sorbonne, but on the death of Wurtz in 1884 he exchanged that position
+for the chair of organic chemistry. He died at Montauban on the 20th of
+April 1899. Friedel achieved distinction both in mineralogy and organic
+chemistry. In the former he was one of the leading workers, in
+collaboration from 1879 to 1887 with Emile Edmond Sarasin (1843-1890),
+at the formation of minerals by artificial means, particularly in the
+wet way with the aid of heat and pressure, and he succeeded in
+reproducing a large number of the natural compounds. In 1893, as the
+result of an attempt to make diamond by the action of sulphur on highly
+carburetted cast iron at 450 deg.-500 deg. C. he obtained a black powder
+too small in quantity to be analysed but hard enough to scratch
+corundum. He also devoted much attention to the pyroelectric phenomena
+of crystals, which served as the theme of one of the two memoirs he
+presented for the degree of D.Sc. in 1869, and to the determination of
+crystallographic constants. In organic chemistry, his study of the
+ketones and aldehydes, begun in 1857, provided him with the subject of
+his other doctoral thesis. In 1862 he prepared secondary propyl alcohol,
+and in 1863, with James Mason Crafts (b. 1839), for many years a
+professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, he
+obtained various organometallic compounds of silicon. A few years later
+further work, with Albert Ladenburg, on the same element yielded
+silicochloroform and led to a demonstration of the close analogy
+existing between the behaviour in combination of silicon and carbon. In
+1871, with R. D. da Silva (b. 1837) he synthesized glycerin, starting
+from propylene. In 1877, with Crafts, he made the first publication of
+the fruitful and widely used method for synthesizing benzene homologues
+now generally known as the "Friedel and Crafts reaction." It was based
+on an accidental observation of the action of metallic aluminium on amyl
+chloride, and consists in bringing together a hydrocarbon and an organic
+chloride in presence of aluminium chloride, when the residues of the two
+compounds unite to form a more complex body. Friedel was associated with
+Wurtz in editing the latter's _Dictionnaire de chimie_, and undertook
+the supervision of the supplements issued after 1884. He was the chief
+founder of the _Revue generale de chimie_ in 1899. His publications
+include a _Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Wurtz_ (1885), _Cours de
+chimie organique_ (1887) and _Cours de mineralogie_ (1893). He acted as
+president of the International Congress held at Geneva in 1892 for
+revising the nomenclature of the fatty acid series.
+
+  See a memorial lecture by J. M. Crafts, printed in the _Journal of the
+  London Chemical Society_ for 1900.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDLAND, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 103 m. N.E. of Prague by rail.
+Pop. (1900) 6229. Besides the old town, which is still surrounded by
+walls, it contains three suburbs. The principal industry is the
+manufacture of woollen and linen cloth. Friedland is chiefly remarkable
+for its old castle, which occupies an imposing situation on a small hill
+commanding the town. A round watch-tower is said to have been built on
+its site as early as 1014; and the present castle dates from the 13th
+century. It was several times besieged in the Thirty Years' and Seven
+Years' Wars. In 1622 it was purchased by Wallenstein, who took from it
+his title of duke of Friedland. After his death it was given to Count
+Mathias Gallas by Ferdinand II., and since 1757 it has belonged to the
+Count Clam Gallas. It was magnificently restored in 1868-1869.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDLAND, the name of seven towns in Germany. The most important now is
+that in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on the Muhlenteich, 35
+m. N.E. of Strelitz by the railway to Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. 7000. It
+possesses a fine Gothic church and a gymnasium, and has manufactures of
+woollen and linen cloth, leather and tobacco. Friedland was founded in
+1244 by the margraves John and Otto III. of Brandenburg.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDLAND, a town of Prussia, on the Alle, 27 m. S.E. of Konigsberg
+(pop. 3000), famous as the scene of the battle fought between the French
+under Napoleon and the Russians commanded by General Bennigsen, on the
+14th of June 1807 (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The Russians had on the
+13th driven the French cavalry outposts from Friedland to the westward,
+and Bennigsen's main body began to occupy the town in the night. The
+army of Napoleon was set in motion for Friedland, but it was still
+dispersed on its various march routes, and the first stage of the
+engagement was thus, as usual, a pure "encounter-battle." The corps of
+Marshal Lannes as "general advanced guard" was first engaged, in the
+Sortlack Wood and in front of Posthenen (2.30-3 A.M. on the 14th). Both
+sides now used their cavalry freely to cover the formation of lines of
+battle, and a race between the rival squadrons for the possession of
+Heinrichsdorf resulted in favour of the French under Grouchy. Lannes in
+the meantime was fighting hard to hold Bennigsen, for Napoleon feared
+that the Russians meant to evade him again. Actually, by 6 A.M.
+Bennigsen had nearly 50,000 men across the river and forming up west of
+Friedland. His infantry, in two lines, with artillery, extended between
+the Heinrichsdorf-Friedland road and the upper bends of the river.
+Beyond the right of the infantry, cavalry and Cossacks extended the line
+to the wood N.E. of Heinrichsdorf, and small bodies of Cossacks
+penetrated even to Schwonau. The left wing also had some cavalry and,
+beyond the Alle, batteries were brought into action to cover it. A heavy
+and indecisive fire-fight raged in the Sortlack Wood between the Russian
+skirmishers and some of Lannes's troops. The head of Mortier's (French
+and Polish) corps appeared at Heinrichsdorf and the Cossacks were driven
+out of Schwonau. Lannes held his own, and by noon, when Napoleon
+arrived, 40,000 French troops were on the scene of action. His orders
+were brief: Ney's corps was to take the line between Posthenen and the
+Sortlack Wood, Lannes closing on his left, to form the centre, Mortier
+at Heinrichsdorf the left wing. Victor and the Guard were placed in
+reserve behind Posthenen. Cavalry masses were collected at
+Heinrichsdorf. The main attack was to be delivered against the Russian
+left, which Napoleon saw at once to be cramped in the narrow tongue of
+land between the river and the Posthenen mill-stream. Three cavalry
+divisions were added to the general reserve. The course of the previous
+operations had been such that both armies had still large detachments
+out towards Konigsberg. The afternoon was spent by the emperor in
+forming up the newly arrived masses, the deployment being covered by an
+artillery bombardment. At 5 o'clock all was ready, and Ney, preceded by
+a heavy artillery fire, rapidly carried the Sortlack Wood. The attack
+was pushed on toward the Alle. One of Ney's divisions (Marchand) drove
+part of the Russian left into the river at Sortlack. A furious charge of
+cavalry against Marchand's left was repulsed by the dragoon division of
+Latour-Maubourg. Soon the Russians were huddled together in the bends of
+the Alle, an easy target for the guns of Ney and of the reserve. Ney's
+attack indeed came eventually to a standstill; Bennigsen's reserve
+cavalry charged with great effect and drove him back in disorder. As at
+Eylau, the approach of night seemed to preclude a decisive success, but
+in June and on firm ground the old mobility of the French reasserted its
+value. The infantry division of Dupont advanced rapidly from Posthenen,
+the cavalry divisions drove back the Russian squadrons into the now
+congested masses of foot on the river bank, and finally the artillery
+general Senarmont advanced a mass of guns to case-shot range. It was the
+first example of the terrible artillery preparations of modern warfare,
+and the Russian defence collapsed in a few minutes. Ney's exhausted
+infantry were able to pursue the broken regiments of Bennigsen's left
+into the streets of Friedland. Lannes and Mortier had all this time held
+the Russian centre and right on its ground, and their artillery had
+inflicted severe losses. When Friedland itself was seen to be on fire,
+the two marshals launched their infantry attack. Fresh French troops
+approached the battlefield. Dupont distinguished himself for the second
+time by fording the mill-stream and assailing the left flank of the
+Russian centre. This offered a stubborn resistance, but the French
+steadily forced the line backwards, and the battle was soon over. The
+losses incurred by the Russians in retreating over the river at
+Friedland were very heavy, many soldiers being drowned. Farther north
+the still unbroken troops of the right wing drew off by the Allenburg
+road; the French cavalry of the left wing, though ordered to pursue,
+remaining, for some reason, inactive. The losses of the victors were
+reckoned at 12,100 out of 86,000, or 14%, those of the Russians at
+10,000 out of 46,000, or 21% (Berndt, _Zahl im Kriege_).
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDMANN, MEIR (1831-1908), Hungarian Jewish scholar. His editions of
+the Midrash are the standard texts. His chief editions were the _Sifre_
+(1864), the _Mekhilta_ (1870), _Pesiqla Rabbathi_ (1880). At the time of
+his death he was editing the _Sifra_. Friedmann, while inspired with
+regard for tradition, dealt with the Rabbinic texts on modern scientific
+methods, and rendered conspicuous service to the critical investigation
+of the Midrash and to the history of early homilies.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836-   ), German theologian, was born at Poxdorf in
+Upper Franconia on the 5th of May 1836, and was educated at Bamberg and
+at Munich, where in 1865 he was appointed professor extraordinary of
+theology. In 1869 he went to the Vatican Council as secretary to
+Cardinal Hohenlohe, and took an active part in opposing the dogma of
+papal infallibility, notably by supplying the opposition bishops with
+historical and theological material. He left Rome before the council
+closed. "No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won for
+himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held so
+important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading German
+cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly open before him to
+the highest advancement in the Church of Rome, yet he deliberately
+sacrificed all such hopes and placed himself in the van of a hard and
+doubtful struggle" (_The Guardian_, 1872, p. 1004). Sentence of
+excommunication was passed on Friedrich in April 1871, but he refused to
+acknowledge it and was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued
+to perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic
+position, becoming ordinary professor in 1872. In 1882 he was
+transferred to the philosophical faculty as professor of history. By
+this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the advanced position
+which he at first occupied in organizing the Old Catholic Church, for he
+was not in agreement with its abolition of enforced celibacy.
+
+  Friedrich was a prolific writer; among his chief works are: _Johann
+  Wessel_ (1862); _Die Lehre des Johann Hus_ (1862); _Kirchengeschichte
+  Deutschlands_ (1867-1869); _Tagebuch wahrend des Vatikan. Concils
+  gefuhrt_ (1871); _Zur Verteidigung meines Tagebuchs_ (1872); _Beitrage
+  zur Kirchengeschichte des 18ten Jahrh._ (1876); _Geschichte des
+  Vatikan. Konzils_ (1877-1886); _Beitrage zur Gesch. des
+  Jesuitenordens_ (1881); _Das Papsttum_ (1892); _I. v. Dollinger_
+  (1899-1901).
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHRODA, a summer resort in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
+Germany, at the north foot of the Thuringian Forest, 13 m. by rail S.W.
+from Gotha. Pop. 4500. It is surrounded by fir-clad hills and possesses
+numerous handsome villa residences, a _Kurhaus_, sanatorium, &c. In the
+immediate neighbourhood is the beautiful ducal hunting seat of
+Reinhardsbrunn, built out of the ruins of the famous Benedictine
+monastery founded in 1085.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHSDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus range, 3 m. N.E. from
+Homburg. Pop. 1300. It has a French Reformed church, a modern school,
+dyeworks, weaving mills, tanneries and tobacco manufactures.
+Friedrichsdorf was founded in 1687 by Huguenot refugees and the
+inhabitants still speak French. There is a monument to Philipp Reis
+(1834-1874), who in 1860 first constructed the telephone while a science
+master at the school.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on
+the east shore of the Lake of Constance, at the junction of railways to
+Bretten and Lindau. Pop. 4600. It consists of the former imperial town
+of Buchhorn and the monastery and village of Hofen. The principal
+building is the palace, formerly the residence of the provosts of Hofen,
+and now the summer residence of the royal family. To the palace is
+attached the Evangelical parish church. The town has a hydropathic
+establishment and is a favourite tourist resort. Here are also the
+natural history and antiquarian collections of the Lake Constance
+Association. Buchhorn is mentioned (as Buachihorn or Puchihorn) in
+documents of 837 and was the seat of a powerful countship. The line of
+counts died out in 1089, and the place fell first to the Welfs and in
+1191 to the Hohenstaufen. In 1275 it was made a free imperial city by
+King Rudolph I. In 1802 it lost this status and was assigned to Bavaria,
+and in 1810 to Wurttemberg. The monastery of Hofen was founded in 1050
+as a convent of Benedictine nuns, but was changed in 1420 into a
+provostship of monks. It was suppressed in 1802 and in 1805 came to
+Wurttemberg. King Frederick I., who caused the harbour to be made,
+amalgamated Buchhorn and Hofen under the new name of Friedrichshafen.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEDRICHSRUH, a village in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein,
+15 m. S.E. of Hamburg, with a station on the main line of railway to
+Berlin. It gives its name to the famous country seat of the Bismarck
+family. The house is a plain unpretentious structure, but the park and
+estate, forming a portion of the famous Sachsenwald, are attractive.
+Close by, on a knoll, the Schneckenberg, stands the mausoleum in which
+the remains of Prince Otto von Bismarck were entombed on the 16th of
+March 1899.
+
+
+
+
+FRIENDLY[1] SOCIETIES. These organizations, according to the
+comprehensive definition of the Friendly Societies Act 1896, which
+regulates such societies in Great Britain and Ireland, are "societies
+for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscriptions of the members
+thereof, with or without the aid of donations, for the relief or
+maintenance of the members, their husbands, wives, children, fathers,
+mothers, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, or wards being orphans,
+during sickness or other infirmity, whether bodily or mental, in old
+age, or in widowhood, or for the relief or maintenance of the orphan
+children of members during minority; for insuring money to be paid on
+the birth of a member's child, or on the death of a member, or for the
+funeral expenses of the husband, wife, or child of a member, or of the
+widow of a deceased member, or, as respects persons of the Jewish
+persuasion, for the payment of a sum of money during the period of
+confined mourning; for the relief or maintenance of the members when on
+travel in search of employment or when in distressed circumstances, or
+in case of shipwreck, or loss or damage of or to boats or nets; for the
+endowment of members or nominees of members at any age; for the
+insurance against fire to any amount not exceeding L15 of the tools or
+implements of the trade or calling of the members"--and are limited in
+their contracts for assurance of annuities to L52 (previous to the
+Friendly Societies Act 1908 the sum was L50), and for insurance of a
+gross sum to L300 (previous to the act of 1908 the sum was L200). They
+may be described in a more popular and condensed form of words as the
+mutual insurance societies of the poorer classes, by which they seek to
+aid each other in the emergencies arising from sickness and death and
+other causes of distress. A phrase in the first act for the
+encouragement and relief of friendly societies, passed in 1793,
+designating them "societies of good fellowship," indicates another
+useful phase of their operations.
+
+The origin of the friendly society is, probably in all countries, the
+burial club. It has been the policy of every religion, if indeed it is
+not a common instinct of humanity, to surround the disposal of a dead
+body with circumstances of pomp and expenditure, often beyond the means
+of the surviving relatives. The appeal for help to friends and
+neighbours which necessarily follows is soon organized into a system of
+mutual aid, that falls in naturally with the religious ceremonies by
+which honour is done to the dead. Thus in China there are burial
+societies, termed "long-life loan companies," in almost all the towns
+and villages. Among the Greeks the [Greek: eranoi] combined the
+religious with the provident element (see CHARITY AND CHARITIES). From
+the Greeks the Romans derived their fraternities of a similar kind. The
+Teutons in like manner had their gilds. Whether the English friendly
+society owes its origin in the higher degree to the Roman or the
+Teutonic influence can hardly be determined. The utility of providing by
+combination for the ritual expenditure upon burial having been
+ascertained, the next step--to render mutual assistance in circumstances
+of distress generally--was an easy one, and we find it taken by the
+Greek [Greek: eranoi] and by the English gilds. Another
+modification--that the societies should consist not so much of
+neighbours as of persons having the same occupation--soon arises; and
+this is the germ of our trade unions and our city companies in their
+original constitution. The interest, however, that these inquiries
+possess is mainly antiquarian. The legal definition of a friendly
+society quoted above points to an organization more complex than those
+of the ancient fraternities and gilds, and proceeding upon different
+principles. It may be that the one has grown out of the other. The
+common element of a provision for a contingent event by a joint
+contribution is in both; but the friendly society alone has attempted to
+define with precision what is the risk against which it intends to
+provide, and what should be the contributions of the members to meet
+that risk.
+
+_United Kingdom._--It would be curious to endeavour to trace how, after
+the suppression of the religious gilds in the 16th century, and the
+substitution of an organized system of relief by the poor law of
+Elizabeth for the more voluntary and casual means of relief that
+previously existed, the modern system of friendly societies grew up. The
+modern friendly society, particularly in rural districts, clings with
+fondness to its annual feast and procession to church, its procession of
+all the brethren on the occasion of the funeral of one of them, and
+other incidents which are almost obviously survivals of the customs of
+medieval gilds. The last recorded gild was in existence in 1628, and
+there are records of friendly societies as early as 1634 and 1639. The
+connecting links, however, cannot be traced. With the exception of a
+society in the port of Borrowstounness on the Firth of Forth, no
+existing friendly society is known to be able to trace back its history
+beyond a date late in the 17th century, and no records remain of any
+that might have existed in the latter half of the 16th century or the
+greater part of the 17th. One founded in 1666 was extant in 1850, but it
+has since ceased to exist. This is not so surprising as it might appear.
+Documents which exist in manuscript only are much less likely to have
+been preserved since the invention of printing than they were before;
+and such would be the simple rules and records of any society that might
+have existed during this interval--if, indeed, many of them kept records
+at all. On the whole, it seems probable therefore that the friendly
+society is a lineal descendant of the ancient gild--the idea never
+having wholly died out, but having been kept up from generation to
+generation in a succession of small and scattered societies.
+
+At the same time, it seems probable that the friendly society of the
+present day owes its revival to a great extent to the Protestant
+refugees of Spitalfields, one of whose societies was founded in 1703,
+and has continued among descendants of the same families, whose names
+proclaim their Norman origin. This society has distinguished itself by
+the intelligence with which it has adapted its machinery to the
+successive modifications of the law, and it completely reconstructed its
+rules under the provisions of the Friendly Societies Acts 1875 and 1876.
+
+Another is the society of Lintot, founded in London in 1708, in which
+the office of secretary was for more than half a century filled by
+persons of the name of Levesque, one of whom published a translation of
+its original rules. No one was to be received into the society who was
+not a member, or the descendant of a member, of the church of Lintot, of
+recognized probity, a good Protestant, and well-intentioned towards the
+queen [Anne] and faithful to the government of the country. No one was
+to be admitted below the age of eighteen, or who had not been received
+at holy communion and become member of a church. A member should not
+have a claim to relief during his first year's membership, but if he
+fell sick within the year a collection should be made for him among the
+members. The foreign names still borne by a large proportion of the
+members show that the connexion with descendants of the refugees is
+maintained.
+
+The example of providence given by these societies was so largely
+followed that Rose's Act in 1793 recognized the existence of numerous
+societies, and provided encouragement for them in various ways, as well
+as relief from taxation to an extent which in those days must have been
+of great pecuniary value, and exemption from removal under the poor law.
+The benefits offered by this statute were readily accepted by the
+societies, and the vast number of societies which speedily became
+enrolled shows that Rose's Act met with a real public want. In the
+county of Middlesex alone nearly a thousand societies were enrolled
+within a very few years after the passing of the act, and the number in
+some other counties was almost as great. The societies then formed were
+nearly all of a like kind--small clubs, in which the feature of good
+fellowship was in the ascendant, and that of provident assurance for
+sickness and death merely accessory. This is indicated by one provision
+which occurs in many of the early enrolled rules, viz. that the number
+of members shall be limited to 61, 81 or 101, as the case may be. The
+odd 1 which occurs in these numbers probably stands for the president or
+secretary, or is a contrivance to ensure a clear majority. Several of
+these old societies are still in existence, and can point to a
+prosperous career based rather upon good luck than upon scientific
+calculation. Founded among small tradesmen or persons in the way to
+thrive, the claims for sickness were only made in cases where the
+sickness was accompanied by distress, and even the funeral allowance was
+not always demanded.
+
+The societies generally not being established upon any scientific
+principle, those which met with this prosperity were the exception to
+the rule; and accordingly the cry that friendly societies were failing
+in all quarters was as great in 1819 as in 1869. A writer of that time
+speaks of the instability of friendly societies as "universal"; and the
+general conviction that this was so resulted in the passing of the act
+of 1819. It recites that "the habitual reliance of poor persons upon
+parochial relief, rather than upon their own industry, tends to the
+moral deterioration of the people and to the accumulation of heavy
+burthens upon parishes; and it is desirable, with a view as well to the
+reduction of the assessment made for the relief of the poor as to the
+improvement of the habits of the people, that encouragement should be
+afforded to persons desirous of making provision for themselves or their
+families out of the fruits of their own industry. By the contributions
+of the savings of many persons to one common fund the most effectual
+provision may be made for the casualties affecting all the contributors;
+and it is therefore desirable to afford further facilities and
+additional security to persons who may be willing to unite in
+appropriating small sums from time to time to a common fund for the
+purposes aforesaid, and it is desirable to protect such persons from the
+effects of fraud or miscalculation." This preamble went on to recite
+that the provisions of preceding acts had been found insufficient for
+these purposes, and great abuses had prevailed in many societies
+established under their authority. By this statute a friendly society
+was defined as "an institution, whereby it is intended to provide, by
+contribution, on the principle of mutual insurance, for the maintenance
+or assistance of the contributors thereto, their wives or children, in
+sickness, infancy, advanced age, widowhood or any other natural state or
+contingency, whereof the occurrence is susceptible of calculation by way
+of average." It will be seen that this act dealt exclusively with the
+scientific aspect of the societies, and had nothing to say to the
+element of good fellowship. Rules and tables were to be submitted by the
+persons intending to form a society to the justices, who, before
+confirming them, were to satisfy themselves that the contingencies which
+the society was to provide against were within the meaning of the act,
+and that the formation of the society would be useful and beneficial,
+regard being had to the existence of other societies in the same
+district. No tables or rules connected with calculation were to be
+confirmed by the justices until they had been approved by two persons at
+least, known to be professional actuaries or persons skilled in
+calculation, as fit and proper, according to the most correct
+calculation of which the nature of the case would admit. The justices in
+quarter sessions were also by this act authorized to publish general
+rules for the formation and government of friendly societies within
+their county. The practical effect of this statute in requiring that the
+societies formed under it should be established on sound principles does
+not appear to have been as great as might have been expected. The
+justices frequently accepted as "persons skilled in calculation" local
+schoolmasters and others who had no real knowledge of the technical
+difficulties of the subject, while the restrictions upon registry served
+only to increase the number of societies established without becoming
+registered.
+
+In 1829 the law relating to friendly societies was entirely
+reconstructed by an act of that year, and a barrister was appointed
+under that act to examine the rules of societies, and ascertain that
+they were in conformity to law and to the provisions of the act. The
+barrister so appointed was John Tidd Pratt (1797-1870); and no account
+of friendly societies would be complete that did not do justice to the
+remarkable public service rendered by this gentleman. For forty years,
+though he had by statute really very slight authority over the
+societies, his name exercised the widest influence, and the numerous
+reports and publications by which he endeavoured to impress upon the
+public mind sound principles of management of friendly societies, and to
+expose those which were managed upon unsound principles, made him a
+terror to evil-doers. On the other hand, he lent with readiness the aid
+of his legal knowledge and great mental activity to assisting
+well-intentioned societies in coming within the provisions of the acts,
+and thus gave many excellent schemes a legal organization.
+
+By the act of 1829, in lieu of the discretion as to whether the
+formation of the proposed society would be useful and beneficial, and
+the requirement of the actuarial certificate to the tables, it was
+enacted that the justices were to satisfy themselves that the tables
+proposed to be used might be adopted with safety to all parties
+concerned. This provision, of course, became a dead letter and was
+repealed in 1834. Thenceforth, societies were free to establish
+themselves upon what conditions and with what rates they chose, provided
+only they satisfied the barrister that the rules were "calculated to
+carry into effect the intention of the parties framing them," and were
+"in conformity to law."
+
+By an act of 1846 the barrister certifying the rules was constituted
+"Registrar of Friendly Societies," and the rules of all societies were
+brought together under his custody. An actuarial certificate was to be
+obtained before any society could be registered "for the purpose of
+securing any benefit dependent on the laws of sickness and mortality."
+In 1850 the acts were again repealed and consolidated with amendments.
+Societies were divided into two classes, "certified" and "registered."
+The certified societies were such as obtained a certificate to their
+tables by an actuary possessing a given qualification, who was required
+to set forth the data of sickness and mortality upon which he proceeded,
+and the rate of interest assumed in the calculations. All other
+societies were to be simply registered. Very few societies were
+constituted of the "certified" class. The distinction of classes was
+repealed and the acts were again consolidated in 1855. Under this act,
+which admitted of all possible latitude to the framers of rules of
+societies, 21,875 societies were registered, a large number of them
+being lodges or courts of affiliated orders, and the act continued in
+force till the end of 1875.
+
+The Friendly Societies Act 1875 and the several acts amending it are
+still, in effect, the law by which these societies are regulated, though
+in form they have been replaced by two consolidating acts, viz. the
+Friendly Societies Act 1896 and the Collecting Societies and Industrial
+Assurance Companies Act 1896. This legislation still bears the
+permissive and elastic character which marked the more successful of the
+previous acts, but it provides ampler means to members of ascertaining
+and remedying defects of management and of restraining fraud. The
+business of registry is under the control of a chief registrar, who has
+an assistant registrar in each of the three countries, with an actuary.
+An appeal to the chief registrar in the case of the refusal of an
+assistant registrar to register a society or an amendment of rules, and
+in the case of suspension or cancelling of registry, is interposed
+before appeal is to be made to the High Court. Registry under a
+particular name may be refused if in the opinion of the registrar the
+name is likely to deceive the members or the public as to the nature of
+the society or as to its identity. It is the duty of the chief
+registrar, among other things, to require from every society a return in
+proper form each year of its receipts and expenditure, funds and
+effects; and also once every five years a valuation of its assets and
+liabilities. Upon the application of a certain proportion of the
+members, varying according to the magnitude of the society, the chief
+registrar may appoint an inspector to examine into its affairs, or may
+call a general meeting of the members to consider and determine any
+matter affecting its interests. These are powers which have been used
+with excellent effect. Cases have occurred in which fraud has been
+detected and punished by this means that could not probably have been
+otherwise brought to light. In others a system of mismanagement has been
+exposed and effectually checked. The power of calling special meetings
+has enabled societies to remedy defects in their rules, to remove
+officers guilty of misconduct, &c., where the procedure prescribed by
+the rules was for some reason or other inapplicable. Upon an application
+of a like proportion of members the chief registrar may, if he finds
+that the funds of a society are insufficient to meet the existing claims
+thereon, or that the rates of contribution are insufficient to cover the
+benefits assured (upon which he consults his actuary), order the society
+to be dissolved, and direct how its funds are to be applied. Authority
+is given to the chief registrar to direct the expense (preliminary,
+incidental, &c.) of an inspection or special meeting to be defrayed by
+the members or officers, or former members or officers, of a society, if
+he does not think they should be defrayed either by the applicants or
+out of the society's funds. He is also empowered, with the approval of
+the treasury, to exempt any friendly society from the provisions of the
+Collecting Societies Act if he considers it to be one to which those
+provisions ought not to apply. Every society registered after 1895, to
+which these provisions do apply, is to use the words "Collecting
+Society" as the last words of its name.
+
+The law as to the membership of infants has been altered three times.
+The act of 1875 allowed existing societies to continue any rule or
+practice of admitting children as members that was in force at its
+passing, and prohibited membership under sixteen years of age in any
+other case, except the case of a juvenile society composed wholly of
+members under that age. The treasury made special regulations for the
+registry of such juvenile societies. In 1887 the maximum age of their
+members was extended to twenty-one. In 1895 it was enacted that no
+society should have any members under one year of age, whether
+authorized by an existing rule or not; and that every society should be
+entitled to make a rule admitting members at any age over one year, but
+by the Friendly Societies Act 1908 membership was permitted to minors
+under the age of one year. The Treasury, upon the enactment of 1895
+coming into operation, rescinded its regulations for the registry of
+juvenile societies; and though it is still the practice to submit for
+registry societies wholly composed of persons under twenty-one, these
+societies in no way differ from other societies, except in the
+circumstances that they are obliged to seek officers and a committee of
+management from outside, as no member of the committee of any society
+can be under twenty-one years of age. In order to promote the
+discontinuance of this anomalous proceeding of creating societies under
+the Friendly Societies Act, which, by the conditions of their existence,
+are unable to be self-governing, the act provides an easy method of
+amalgamating juvenile societies and ordinary societies or branches, or
+of distributing the members and the funds of a juvenile society among a
+number of branches. The liability of schoolboys and young working lads
+to sickness is small, and these societies frequently accumulate funds,
+which, as their membership is temporary, remain unclaimed and are
+sometimes misapplied.
+
+  The legislation of 1875 and 1876 was the result of the labours of a
+  royal commission of high authority, presided over by Sir Stafford
+  Northcote (afterwards Lord Iddesleigh), which sat from 1870 to 1874,
+  and prosecuted an exhaustive inquiry into the organization and
+  condition of the various classes of friendly societies. Their reports
+  occupy more than a dozen large bluebooks. They divided registered
+  friendly societies into 13 classes.
+
+  The first class included the affiliated societies or "orders," such as
+  the Manchester Unity of Oddfellows, the Ancient Order of Foresters,
+  the Rechabites, Druids, &c. These societies have a central body,
+  either situated in some large town, as in the case of the Manchester
+  Unity, or moving from place to place, as in that of the Foresters.
+  Under this central body, the country is (in most cases) parcelled out
+  into districts, and these districts again consist each of a number of
+  independent branches, called "lodges," "courts," "tents," or
+  "divisions," having a separate fund administered by themselves, but
+  contributing also to a fund under the control of the central body.
+  Besides these great orders, there were smaller affiliated bodies, each
+  having more than 1000 members; and the affiliated form of society
+  appears to have great attraction. Indeed, in the colony of Victoria,
+  Australia, all the existing friendly societies are of this class. The
+  orders have their "secrets," but these, it may safely be said, are of
+  a very innocent character, and merely serve the purpose of identifying
+  a member of a distant branch by his knowledge of the "grip," and of
+  the current password, &c. Indeed they are now so far from being
+  "secret societies" that their meetings are attended by reporters and
+  the debates published in the newspapers, and the Order of Foresters
+  has passed a wise resolution expunging from its publications all
+  affectation of mystery.
+
+  Most of the lodges existing before 1875 have converted themselves into
+  registered branches. The requirement that for that purpose a vote of
+  three-fourths should be necessary was altered in 1895 to a bare
+  majority vote. The provisions as to settlement of disputes were
+  extended in 1885 to every description of dispute between branches and
+  the central body, and in 1895 it was provided that the forty days
+  after which a member may apply to the court to settle a dispute where
+  the society fails to do so, shall not begin to run until application
+  has been made in succession to all the tribunals created by the order
+  for the purpose. In 1887 it was enacted that no body which had been a
+  registered branch should be registered as a separate society except
+  upon production of a certificate from the order that it had seceded or
+  been expelled; and in 1895 it was further enacted that no such body
+  should, after secession or expulsion, use any name or number implying
+  that it is still a branch of the order. The orders generally,
+  especially the greater ones, have carefully supervised the valuations
+  of their branches, and have urged and, as far as circumstances have
+  rendered it practicable, have enforced upon the branches measures for
+  diminishing the deficiencies which the valuations have disclosed. They
+  have organized plans by which branches disposed to make an effort to
+  help themselves in this matter may be assisted out of a central fund.
+  The second class was made up of "general societies," principally
+  existing in London, of which the commissioners enumerated 8 with
+  nearly 60,000 members, and funds amounting to a quarter of a million.
+
+  The third class included the "county societies." These societies have
+  been but feebly supported by those for whose benefit they are
+  instituted, having all exacted high rates of contribution, in order to
+  secure financial soundness.
+
+  Class 4, "local town societies," is a very numerous one. Among some of
+  the larger societies may be mentioned the "Chelmsford Provident," the
+  "Brighton and Sussex Mutual," the "Cannon Street, Birmingham," the
+  "Birmingham General Provident." In this group might also be included
+  the interesting societies which are established among the Jewish
+  community. They differ from ordinary friendly societies partly in the
+  nature of the benefits granted upon death, which are intended to
+  compensate for loss of employment during the time of ceremonial
+  seclusion enjoined by the Jewish law, which is called "sitting shiva."
+  They also provide a cab for the mourners and rabbi, and a tombstone
+  for the departed, and the same benefits as an ordinary friendly
+  society during sickness. Some also provide a place of worship. Of
+  these the "Pursuers of Peace" (enrolled in December 1797), the "Bikhur
+  Cholim, or Visitors of the Sick" (April 1798), the "Hozier Holim"
+  (1804), may be mentioned.
+
+  Class 5 was "local village and country societies," including the small
+  public-house clubs which abound in the villages and rural districts, a
+  large proportion of which are unregistered.
+
+  Class 6 was formed of "particular trade societies."
+
+  Class 7 was "dividing societies." These were before 1875 unauthorized
+  by law, though they were very attractive to the members. Their
+  practice is usually to start afresh every January, paying a
+  subscription somewhat in excess of that usually charged by an ordinary
+  friendly society, out of which a sick allowance is granted to any
+  member who may fall sick during the year, and at Christmas the balance
+  not so applied is divided among the members equally, with the
+  exception of a small sum left to begin the new year with. The mischief
+  of the system is that, as there is no accumulation of funds, the
+  society cannot provide for prolonged sickness or old age, and must
+  either break up altogether or exclude its sick and aged members at the
+  very time when they most need its help. This, however, has not
+  impaired the popularity of the societies, and the act of 1875, framed
+  on the sound principle that the protection of the law should not be
+  withheld from any form of association, enables a society to be
+  registered with a rule for dividing its funds, provided only that all
+  existing claims upon the society are to be met before a division takes
+  place.
+
+  Class 8, "deposit friendly societies," combine the characteristics of
+  a savings bank with those of a friendly society. They were devised by
+  the Hon. and Rev. S. Best, on the principle that a certain proportion
+  of the sick allowance is to be raised out of a member's separate
+  deposit account, which, if not so used, is retained for his benefit.
+  Their advantages are in the encouragement they offer to saving, and in
+  meeting the selfish objection sometimes raised to friendly societies,
+  that the man who is not sick gets nothing for his money; their
+  disadvantage is in their failing to meet cases of sickness so
+  prolonged as to exhaust the whole of the member's own deposit.
+
+  Class 9, "collecting societies," are so called because their
+  contributions are received through a machinery of house-to-house
+  collection. These were the subject of much laborious investigation and
+  close attention on the part of the commissioners. They deal with a
+  lower class of the community, both with respect to means and to
+  intelligence, than that from which the members of ordinary friendly
+  societies are drawn. The large emoluments gained by the officers and
+  collectors, the high percentage of expenditure (often exceeding half
+  the contributions), and the excessive frequency of lapsing of
+  insurances point to mischiefs in their management. "The radical evil
+  of the whole system (the commissioners remark) appears to us to lie in
+  the employment of collectors, otherwise than under the direct
+  supervision and control of the members, a supervision and control
+  which we fear to be absolutely unattainable in burial societies that
+  are not purely local." On the other hand, it must be conceded that
+  these societies extend the benefits of life insurance to a class which
+  the other societies cannot reach, namely, the class that will not take
+  the trouble to attend at an office, but must be induced to effect an
+  insurance by a house-to-house canvasser, and be regularly visited by
+  the collector to ensure their paying the contributions. To many such
+  persons these societies, despite all their errors of constitution and
+  management, have been of great benefit. The great source of these
+  errors lies in a tendency on the part of the managers of the societies
+  to forget that they are simply trustees, and to look upon the concern
+  as their own personal property to be managed for their own benefit.
+  These societies are of two kinds, local and general. For the general
+  societies the act of 1875 made certain stringent provisions. Each
+  member was to be furnished with a copy of the rules for one penny, and
+  a signed policy for the same charge. Forfeiture of benefit for
+  non-payment is not to be enforced without fourteen days' written
+  notice. The transfer of a member from one society to another was not
+  to be made without his written consent and notice to the society
+  affected. No collector is to be a manager, or vote or take part at any
+  meeting. At least one general meeting was to be held every year, of
+  which notice must be given either by advertisement or by letter or
+  post card to each member. The balance-sheet is to be open for
+  inspection seven days before the meeting, and to be certified by a
+  public accountant, not an officer of the society. Disputes could be
+  settled by justices, or county courts, notwithstanding anything in the
+  rules of the society to the contrary. Closely associated with the
+  question of the management of these societies is that of the risk
+  incurred by infant life, through the facilities offered by these
+  societies for making insurances on the death of children. That this is
+  a real risk is certain from the records of the assizes, and from many
+  circumstances of suspicion; but the extent of it cannot be measured,
+  and has probably been exaggerated. It has never been lawful to assure
+  more than L6 on the death of a child under five years of age, or more
+  than L10 on the death of one under ten. Previous to the act of 1875,
+  however, there was no machinery for ascertaining that the law was
+  complied with, or for enforcing it. This is supplied by that act,
+  though still somewhat imperfectly. When the bill went up to the House
+  of Lords, an amendment was made, reducing the limit of assurance on a
+  child under three years of age to L3, but this amendment was
+  unfortunately disagreed with by the House of Commons.
+
+  Class 10, annuity societies, prevail in the west of England. These
+  societies are few, and their business is diminishing. Most of them
+  originated at the time when government subsidized friendly societies
+  by allowing them L4: 11: 3% per annum interest. Now annuities may be
+  purchased direct from the National Debt commissioners. These societies
+  are more numerous, however, in Ireland.
+
+  Class 11, female societies, are numerous. Many of them resemble
+  affiliated orders at least in name, calling themselves Female
+  Foresters, Odd Sisters, Loyal Orangewomen, Comforting Sisters and so
+  forth. In their rules may be found such a provision as that a member
+  shall be fined who does not "behave as becometh an Orangewoman." Many
+  are unregistered. In the northern counties of England they are
+  sometimes termed "life boxes," doubtless from the old custom of
+  placing the contributions in a box. The trustees, treasurer, and
+  committee are usually females, but very frequently the secretary is a
+  man, paid a small salary.
+
+  Under Class 12 the commissioners included the societies for various
+  purposes which were authorized by the secretary of state to be
+  registered under the Friendly Societies Act of 1855, comprising
+  working-men's clubs, and certain specially authorized societies, as
+  well as others that are now defined to be friendly societies. Among
+  these purposes are assisting members in search of employment;
+  assisting members during slack seasons of trade; granting temporary
+  relief to members in distressed circumstances; purchase of coals and
+  other necessaries to be supplied to members; relief or maintenance in
+  case of lameness, blindness, insanity, paralysis, or bodily hurt
+  through accidents; also, the assurance against loss by disease or
+  death of cattle employed in trade or agriculture; relief in case of
+  shipwreck or loss or damage to boats or nets; and societies for social
+  intercourse, mutual helpfulness, mental and moral improvement,
+  rational recreation, &c., called working-men's clubs.
+
+  Class 13 was composed of cattle insurance societies.
+
+  These are the thirteen classes into which the commissioners divided
+  registered friendly societies. There were 26,034 societies enrolled or
+  certified under the various acts for friendly societies in force
+  between 1793 and 1855; and, as we have seen, 21,875 societies
+  registered under the act of 1855 before the 1st January 1876, when the
+  act of 1875 came into operation. The total therefore of societies to
+  which a legal constitution had been given was 47,909. Of these 26,087
+  were presumed to be in existence when the registrar called for his
+  annual return, but only 11,282 furnished the return required. These
+  had 3,404,187 members, and L9,336,946 funds. Twenty-two societies
+  returned over 10,000 members each; nine over 30,000. One society (the
+  Royal Liver Friendly Society, Liverpool, the largest of the collecting
+  societies) returned 682,371 members. The next in order was one of the
+  same class, the United Assurance Society, Liverpool, with 159,957
+  members; but in all societies of this class the membership consists
+  very largely of infants. The average of members in the 11,260
+  societies with less than 10,000 members each was only 171.
+
+  Such were the registered societies; but there remained behind a large
+  body of unregistered societies. With increased knowledge of the
+  advantages of registration,[2] and of the true principles upon which
+  friendly societies should be established, the number of unregistered
+  societies, in comparison with those registered, ought to become much
+  less.
+
+  On the actuarial side it is in the highest degree essential to the
+  interests of their members that friendly societies should be
+  financially sound,--in other words, that they should throughout their
+  existence be able to meet the engagements into which they have entered
+  with their members. For this purpose it is necessary that the members'
+  contributions should be so fixed as to prove adequate, with proper
+  management, to provide the benefits promised to the members. These
+  benefits almost entirely depend upon the contingencies of health and
+  life; that is, they take the form of payments to members when sick, of
+  payments to members upon attaining given ages, or of payments upon
+  members' deaths, and frequently a member is assured for all these
+  benefits, viz. a weekly payment if at any time sick before attaining a
+  certain age, a weekly payment for the remainder of life after
+  attaining that age, and a sum to be paid upon his death. Of course the
+  object of the allowance in sickness is to provide a substitute for the
+  weekly wage lost in consequence of being unable to work, and the
+  object of the weekly payment after attaining a certain age, when the
+  member will probably be too infirm to be able to earn a living by the
+  exercise of his calling or occupation, is to provide him with the
+  necessaries of life, and so enable him to be independent of poor
+  relief. There is every reason to believe that, when a large group of
+  persons of the same age and calling are observed, there will be found
+  to prevail among them, taken one with another, an average number of
+  days' sickness, as well as an average rate of mortality, in passing
+  through each year of life, which can be very nearly predicted from the
+  results furnished by statistics based upon observations previously
+  made upon similarly circumstanced groups. Assuming, therefore, the
+  necessary statistics to be attainable, the computation of suitable
+  rates of contribution to be paid by the members of a society in return
+  for certain allowances during sickness, or upon attaining a certain
+  age, or upon death, can be readily made by an actuarial expert.
+  Accordingly, to furnish these statistics, the act of 1875, in
+  continuation of an enactment which first appeared in a statute passed
+  in 1829, required every registered society to make quinquennial
+  returns of the sickness and mortality experienced by its members. By
+  the year 1880 ten periods of five years had been completed, and at the
+  end of each of them a number of returns had been received. Some of
+  these had been tabulated by actuaries, the latest tabulation being of
+  those for the five years ending 1855. There remained untabulated five
+  complete sets of returns for the five subsequent quinquennial periods.
+  It was resolved that these should be tabulated once for all, and it
+  was considered that they would afford sufficient material for the
+  construction of tables of sickness and mortality that might be adopted
+  for the future as standard tables for friendly societies; and that it
+  would be inexpedient to impose any longer on the societies the burden
+  of making such returns. This requirement of the act was accordingly
+  repealed in 1882. The result of the tabulation appeared in 1896, in a
+  bluebook of 1367 folio pages, containing tables based upon the
+  experience of nearly four and a half million years of life. These
+  tables showed generally, as compared with previous observations, an
+  increased liability to sickness. This inference has been confirmed by
+  the observations of Mr Alfred W. Watson, actuary to the Independent
+  Order of Oddfellows, Manchester Unity Friendly Society, on his
+  investigation of the sickness and mortality experience of that society
+  during the five years 1893-1897, which extended over 800,000
+  individuals, more than 3,000,000 years of life and 7,000,000 weeks of
+  sickness.
+
+  The establishment of the National Conference of Friendly Societies by
+  the orders and a few other societies has been of great service in
+  obtaining improvements in the law, and in enabling the societies
+  strongly to represent to the government and the legislature any
+  grievance entertained by them. A complaint that membership of a shop
+  club was made by certain employers a condition of employment, and that
+  the rules of the club required the members to withdraw from other
+  societies, led to the appointment of a departmental committee, who
+  recommended that such a condition of employment should be made
+  illegal, except in certain cases, and that in every case it should be
+  illegal to make the withdrawal from a society a condition of
+  employment. In 1902 an act was passed based upon this recommendation.
+
+  It is an increasing practice among societies of combining together to
+  obtain medical attendance and medicine for their members by the
+  formation of medical associations. In 1895 trade unions were enabled
+  to join in such associations, and it was provided that a contributing
+  society or union should not withdraw from an association except upon
+  three months' notice. The working of these associations has been
+  viewed with dissatisfaction by members of the medical profession, and
+  it has been suggested that a board of conciliation should be formed
+  consisting of representatives of the Conference of Friendly Societies
+  and of an equal number of medical men.
+
+  The following figures are derived from returns of registered societies
+  and branches of registered societies to the beginning of 1905:
+
+    +---------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+    |                                                         | Number of | Number of | Amount of  |
+    |                                                         |  Returns. |  Members. |   Funds.   |
+    +---------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+    | Ordinary Friendly Societies (classes 2 to 8, 10 and 11) |   6,938   | 3,132,065 |L17,042,398 |
+    | Societies having Branches (class 1)                     |  20,819   | 2,606,029 | 23,446,330 |
+    | Collecting Friendly Societies (class 9)                 |      45   | 7,448,549 |  7,862,569 |
+    | Benevolent Societies (class 12)                         |      75   |    26,509 |    317,913 |
+    | Working Men's Clubs (class 12)                          |     913   |   236,298 |    318,945 |
+    | Specially Authorized Societies (class 12)               |     122   |    75,089 |    628,759 |
+    | Specially Authorized Loan Societies (class 12)          |     517   |   115,511 |    771,578 |
+    | Medical Societies (see last paragraph)                  |      95   |   324,145 |     62,049 |
+    | Cattle Insurance Societies (class 13)                   |      57   |     3,736 |      7,746 |
+    | Shop Clubs (under act of 1902)                          |       7   |    10,859 |        773 |
+    |                                                         +-----------+-----------+------------+
+    |                                                         |  29,588   |13,978,790 |L50,459,060 |
+    +---------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+
+
+_British Empire._--In many of the British colonies legislation on the
+subject similar to that of the mother-country has been adopted. In those
+forming the Commonwealth of Australia and in New Zealand the affiliated
+orders hold the field, there being few, if any, independent friendly
+societies. The state of Victoria has more than 1000 lodges with more
+than 100,000 members and nearly 1-1/2 million pounds funds, averaging
+nearly L14 per member. Besides the registrar there is a government
+actuary for friendly societies, by whom the liabilities and accounts of
+all societies are valued every five years, a method which ensures
+uniformity in the processes of valuation. The friendly societies in the
+other Australasian states are not so numerous nor so wealthy, but are in
+each case under the supervision of vigilant public officials. In New
+Zealand a friendly society was established at New Plymouth in 1841, the
+first year of that settlement. The formation of a society at Nelson was
+resolved upon by the emigrants on shipboard on their passage out, and
+the first meeting was held among the tall fern near the beach a few days
+after they landed. The societies have now a registrar, an actuary, a
+revising barrister and two public valuers. Investigations have been made
+into their sickness experience, with results which compare favourably
+with those of the Manchester Unity and the registry office in the
+mother-country until the higher ages, when greater sickness appears to
+result from lower mortality. The average funds per member are L19, 10s.
+Nearly four-fifths are invested in the purchase or on mortgage of real
+estate.
+
+In Cape Colony no society is allowed to register unless it be shown to
+the satisfaction of the registrar that the contributions which it
+proposes to charge are adequate to provide for the benefits which it
+undertakes to grant. The consequence is that little more than one-third
+of the existing societies are registered.
+
+In the Dominion of Canada, province of Ontario, extensive powers of
+control are given to the registrar, and societies are not admitted to
+registry without strict proof of their compliance with the conditions of
+registry imposed by the law. Very full returns of their transactions are
+required and published, and registry is cancelled when any of the
+conditions of registry cease to be observed. These conditions apply not
+only to societies existing in Ontario, but to foreign societies
+transacting business there.
+
+In several of the West Indian Islands statutes have been passed on the
+model of British legislation and registrars have been appointed.
+
+_European Countries._--In foreign countries the development of friendly
+societies has proceeded upon different lines. Belgium has a _Commission
+royale permanente des societes de secours mutuel_. Under laws passed in
+1851 and 1894 societies are divided into two classes, recognized and not
+recognized. The recognized societies were in 1886 only about half as
+many as the unrecognized. There were in 1904 nearly 7000 recognized
+societies with 700,000 members. They enjoy the privileges of
+incorporation, exemption from stamp duty, gratuitous announcement in the
+official Moniteur and may have free postage.
+
+In France under the second empire a scheme was prepared for assisting
+friendly societies by granting them collective insurances under
+government security. The societies have the privilege of investing their
+funds in the Caisse des Depots et Consignations, corresponding to the
+English National Debt commission. The dual classification of societies
+in France is into those "authorized" and those "approved." By a law of
+the 1st of April 1898 a friendly society may be established by merely
+depositing a copy of its rules and list of officers with the sousprefet.
+Approved societies are entitled to certain state subventions for
+assisting in the purchase of old-age pensions and otherwise. A higher
+council has been established to advise on their working.
+
+In Germany a law was passed on the 7th of April 1876 (amended on the
+1st of June 1884) which prescribed for registered friendly societies
+many things which in England are left to the discretion of their
+founders; and it provided for an amount of official interference in
+their management that is wholly unknown here. The superintending
+authority had a right to inspect the books of every society, whether
+registered or not, and to give formal notice to a society to call in
+arrears, exclude defaulters, pay benefits or revoke illegal resolutions.
+A higher authority might, in certain cases, order societies to be
+dissolved. These provisions related to voluntary societies; but it was
+competent for communal authorities also to order the formation of a
+friendly society, and to make a regulation compelling all workmen not
+already members of a society to join it. Since then the great series of
+imperial statutes has been passed, commencing in 1883 with that for
+sickness insurance, followed in 1884 by that for workmen's accident
+insurance, extended to sickness insurance in 1885, developed in the laws
+relating to accident and sickness insurance of persons engaged in
+agricultural and forestry pursuits in 1886, of persons engaged in the
+building trade and of seamen and others engaged in seafaring pursuits in
+1887, and crowned by the law relating to infirmity and old-age insurance
+in 1889. Mr H. Unger, a distinguished actuary, remarks that the whole
+German workman's insurance and its executive bodies (sickness funds,
+trade associations, insurance institutions) are constantly endeavouring
+to improve the position of the workmen in a social and sanitary aspect,
+to the benefit of internal peace and the welfare of the German empire.
+
+In Holland it is stated that the number of burial clubs and sickness
+benefit societies appears to be greater in proportion to the population
+than in any other country; but that the burial clubs do not rest upon a
+scientific basis, and have an unfavourable influence upon infant
+mortality. Half the population are insured in some burial club or other.
+The sick benefit societies are, as in England, some in a good and some
+in a bad financial condition; and legislation follows the English system
+of compulsory publicity, combined with freedom of competition.
+
+In Spain friendly societies have grown out of the religious gilds. They
+are regulated by an act of 1887. Their actuarial condition appears to be
+backward, but to show indications of improvement. (E. W. B.)
+
+_United States._--Under the title of fraternal societies are included in
+the United States what are known in England as friendly societies,
+having some basis of mutual help to members, mutual insurance
+associations and benefit associations of all kinds. There are various
+classes and a great variety of forms of fraternal associations. It is
+therefore difficult to give a concrete historical statement of their
+origin and growth; but, dealing with those having benefit features for
+the payment of certain amounts in case of sickness, accident or death,
+it is found that their history in the United States is practically
+within the last half of the 19th century. The more important of the
+older organizations are the Improved Order of Red Men, founded in 1771
+and reorganized in 1834; Ancient Order of Foresters, 1836; Ancient Order
+of Hibernians of America, 1836; United Ancient Order of Druids, 1839;
+Independent Order of Rechabites, 1842; Independent Order of B'nai
+B'rith, founded in 1843; Order of the United American Mechanics, 1845;
+Independent Order of Free Sons of Israel, 1849; Junior Order of United
+American Mechanics, 1853. A very large proportion, probably more than
+one-half, of the societies which have secret organizations pay benefits
+in case of sickness, accident, disability, and funeral expenses in case
+of death. This class of societies grew out of the English friendly
+societies and have masonic characteristics. The Freemasons and other
+secret societies, while not all having benefit features in their
+distinctive organizations, have auxiliary societies with such features.
+There is also a class of secret societies, based largely on masonic
+usages, that have for their principal object the payment of benefits in
+some form. These are the Oddfellows, the Knights of Pythias, the Knights
+of Honour, the Royal Arcanum and some others. Many trade unions have now
+adopted benefit features, especially the Typographical Union, while
+many subordinate unions and great publishing houses have mutual relief
+associations purely of a local character, and some of the more important
+newspapers have such mutual relief or benefit societies. The New York
+trade unions, taken as a whole, have paid out large sums of money in
+benefits where members have been out of work, or are sick, or are on
+strike or have died. The total paid in one year for all these benefits
+was over $500,000.
+
+It is impossible to give the membership of all the fraternal
+associations in the United States; but, including Oddfellows,
+Freemasons, purely benefit associations and all the class of the larger
+fraternal organizations, the membership is over 6,000,000. Among the
+more important, so far as membership is concerned, are the Knights of
+Pythias, the Oddfellows, the Modern Woodmen of America, the Ancient
+Order of United Workmen, Improved Order of Red Men, Royal Arcanum,
+Knights of the Maccabees, Junior Order of United American Mechanics,
+Foresters of America, Independent Order of Foresters, &c. These and
+other organizations pay out a vast amount of money every year in the
+various forms.
+
+
+    Assessment insurance.
+
+  Since about the year 1870 a new form of benefit organization has come
+  into existence. This is a life insurance based on the assessment plan,
+  assessments being levied whenever a member dies; or, as more recently,
+  regular assessments being made in advance of death, as post-mortem
+  assessments have proved a fallacious method of securing the means of
+  paying death benefits. There are about 200 mutual benefit insurance
+  companies or associations in the United States conducted on the "lodge
+  system"; that is to say, they have regular meetings for social
+  purposes and for general improvement, and in their work there is found
+  the mysticism, forms and ceremonies which belong to secret societies
+  generally. These elements have proved a very strong force in keeping
+  this class of associations fairly intact. The "work" of the lodges in
+  the initiation of members and their passing through various degrees is
+  attractive to many people, and in small places, remote from the
+  amusements of the city, these lodges constitute a resort where members
+  can give play to their various talents. In most of them the features
+  of the Masonic ritual are prominent. The amount of insurance which a
+  single member can carry in such associations is small. In the Knights
+  of Honour, one of the first of this class, policies ranging from $500
+  to $2000 are granted. In the Royal Arcanum the maximum is $3000. This
+  form of insurance may be called co-operative, and has many elements
+  which make the organizations practising it stronger than the ordinary
+  assessment insurance companies having no stated meetings of members.
+  These co-operative insurance societies are organized on the federal
+  plan--as the Knights of Honour, for instance--having local assemblies,
+  where the lodge-room element is in force; state organizations, to
+  which the local bodies send delegates, and the national organization,
+  which conducts all the insurance business through its executive
+  officers. The local societies pay a certain given amount towards the
+  support of the state and national offices, and while originally they
+  paid death assessments, as called for, they now pay regular monthly
+  assessments, in order to avoid the weakness of the post-mortem
+  assessment. The difficulty which these organizations have in
+  conducting the insurance business is in keeping the average age of
+  membership at a low point, for with an increase in the average the
+  assessments increase, and many such organizations have had great
+  trouble to convince younger members that their assessments should be
+  increased to make up for the heavy losses among the older members. The
+  experience of these purely insurance associations has not been
+  sufficient yet to demonstrate their absolute soundness or
+  desirability, but they have enabled a large number of persons of
+  limited means to carry insurance at a very low rate. They have not
+  materially interfered with regular level premium insurance
+  enterprises, for they have stimulated the people to understand the
+  benefits of insurance, and have really been an educational force in
+  this direction.
+
+
+    Railway relief departments.
+
+  A modern method of benefit association is found in the railway relief
+  departments of some of the large railway corporations. These
+  departments are organized upon a different plan from the benefit
+  features of labour organizations and secret societies, providing the
+  members not only with payments on account of death, but also with
+  assistance of definite amounts in case of sickness or accident, the
+  railway companies contributing to the funds, partly from philanthropic
+  and partly from financial motives. The principal railway companies in
+  the United States which have established these relief departments are
+  the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading, the Baltimore & Ohio,
+  the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Plant System. The relief
+  department benefits the employes, the railways, and the public,
+  because it is based upon the sound principle that the "interests and
+  welfare of labour, capital and society are common and harmonious, and
+  can be promoted more by co-operation of effort than by antagonism and
+  strife." The railway employes support one-twentieth of the entire
+  population, and most of their associations maintain organizations to
+  provide their members with relief and insurance. The Brotherhood of
+  Locomotive Engineers, the Order of Railway Conductors of America, the
+  Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, the Brotherhood of Railway
+  Trainmen, the Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen, the Switchmen's Union,
+  the Brotherhood of Railway Carmen, and the Order of Railway
+  Telegraphers, all have relief and benefit features. The oldest and
+  largest of these is the International Brotherhood of Locomotive
+  Engineers, founded at Detroit in August 1863. Like other labour
+  organizations of the higher class of workmen, the objects of the
+  brotherhoods of railway employes are partly social and partly
+  educational, but in addition to these great purposes they seek to
+  protect their members through relief and benefit features. Of course
+  the relief departments of the railway companies are competitors of the
+  relief and insurance features of the railway employes orders, but both
+  methods of providing assistance have proved successful and beneficial.
+
+  For a history of the various American organizations, see Albert C.
+  Stevens, _The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities_ (New York, 1899); _Facts
+  for Fraternalists_, published by the _Fraternal Monitor_, Rochester,
+  N.Y.; for annual statements, "The _World_ Almanac," "Railway Relief
+  Departments," "Brotherhood Relief and Insurance of Railway Employes,"
+  "Mutual Relief and Benefit Associations in the Printing Trade,"
+  "Benefit Features of American Trade Unions," _Bulletins_ Nos. 8, 17,
+  19 and 22 of the U.S. Department of Labour.     (C. D. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word "friend" (O.E. _freond_, Ger. _Freund_, Dutch _Vriend_)
+    is derived from an old Teutonic verb meaning to love. While used
+    generally as the opposite to enemy, it is specially the term which
+    connotes any degree, but particularly a high degree, of personal
+    goodwill, affection or regard, from which the element of sexual love
+    is absent.
+
+  [2] These may be briefly summed up thus:--(1) power to hold land and
+    vesting of property in trustees by mere appointment; (2) remedy
+    against misapplication of funds; (3) priority in bankruptcy or on
+    death of officer; (4) transfer of stock by direction of chief
+    registrar; (5) exemption from stamp duties; (6) membership of minors;
+    (7) certificates of birth and death at reduced cost; (8) investment
+    with National Debt Commissioners; (9) reduction of fines on admission
+    to copyholds; (10) discharge of mortgages by mere receipt; (11)
+    obligation on officers to render accounts; (12) settlement of
+    disputes; (13) insurance of funeral expenses for wives and children
+    without insurable interest; (14) nomination at death; (15) payment
+    without administration; (16) services of public auditors and valuers;
+    (17) registry of documents, of which copies may be put in evidence.
+
+
+
+
+FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF, the name adopted by a body of Christians, who, in
+law and general usage, are commonly called Quakers. Though small in
+number, the Society occupies a position of singular interest. To the
+student of ecclesiastical history it is remarkable as exhibiting a form
+of Christianity widely divergent from the prevalent types, being a
+religious fellowship which has no formulated creed demanding definite
+subscription, and no liturgy, priesthood or outward sacrament, and which
+gives to women an equal place with men in church organization. The
+student of English constitutional history will observe the success with
+which Friends have, by the mere force of passive resistance, obtained,
+from the legislature and the courts, indulgence for all their scruples
+and a legal recognition of their customs. In American history they
+occupy an important place because of the very prominent part which they
+played in the colonization of New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
+
+The history of Quakerism in England may be divided into three
+periods:--(1) from the first preaching of George Fox in 1647 to the
+Toleration Act 1689; (2) from 1689 to the evangelical movement in 1835;
+(3) from 1835 to the present time.
+
+
+  George Fox.
+
+1. _Period 1647-1689._--George Fox (1624-1691), the son of a weaver of
+Drayton-in-the-Clay (now called Fenny Drayton) in Leicestershire, was
+the founder of the Society. He began his public ministry in 1647, but
+there is no evidence to show that he set out to form a separate
+religious body. Impressed by the formalism and deadness of contemporary
+Christianity (of which there is much evidence in the confessions of the
+Puritan writers themselves) he emphasized the importance of repentance
+and personal striving after the truth. When, however, his preaching
+attracted followers, a community began to be formed, and traces of
+organization and discipline may be noted in very early times. In 1652 a
+number of people in Westmorland and north Lancashire who had separated
+from the common national worship,[1] came under the influence of Fox,
+and it was this community (if it can be so called) at Preston Patrick
+which formed the nucleus of the Quaker church. For two years the
+movement spread rapidly throughout the north of England, and in 1654
+more than sixty ministers went to Norwich, London, Bristol, the
+Midlands, Wales and other parts. Fox and his fellow-preachers spoke
+whenever opportunity offered,--sometimes in churches (declining, for the
+most part, to occupy the pulpit), sometimes in barns, sometimes at
+market crosses. The insistence on an inward spiritual experience was the
+great contribution made by Friends to the religious life of the time,
+and to thousands it came as a new revelation. There is evidence to show
+that the arrangement for this "publishing of Truth" rested mainly with
+Fox, and that the expenses of it and of the foreign missions were borne
+out of a common fund. Margaret Fell (1614-1702), wife of Thomas Fell
+(1598-1658), vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and afterwards
+of George Fox, opened her house, Swarthmore Hall near Ulverston, to
+these preachers and probably contributed largely to this fund.
+
+Their insistence on the personal aspect of religious experience made it
+impossible for Friends to countenance the setting apart of any man or
+building for the purpose of divine worship to the exclusion of all
+others. The operation of the Spirit was in no way limited to time, or
+individual or place. The great stress which they laid upon this aspect
+of Christian truth caused them to be charged with unbelief in the
+current orthodox views as to the inspiration of the Scriptures, and the
+person and work of Christ, a charge which they always denied. Contrary
+to the Puritan teaching of the time, they insisted on the possibility,
+in this life, of complete victory over sin. Robert Barclay, writing some
+twenty years later, admits of degrees of perfection, and the possibility
+of a fall from it (_Apology_, Prop. viii.). Such teaching necessarily
+brought Fox and his friends into conflict with all the religious bodies
+of England, and they were continually engaged in strife with the
+Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Episcopalians and the wilder
+sectaries, such as the Ranters and the Muggletonians. The strife was
+often conducted on both sides with a zeal and bitterness of language
+which were characteristic of the period. Although there was little or no
+stress laid on either the joys or the terrors of a future life, the
+movement was not infrequently accompanied by most of those physical
+symptoms which usually go with vehement appeals to the conscience and
+emotions of a rude multitude. It was owing to these physical
+manifestations that the name "Quaker" was either first given or was
+regarded as appropriate when given for another reason (see Fox's
+_Journal_ concerning Justice Bennet at Derby in 1650 and Barclay's
+_Apology_, Prop. II, S 8). The early Friends definitely asserted that
+those who did not know quaking and trembling were strangers to the
+experience of Moses, David and other saints.
+
+Some of the earliest adherents indulged in extravagances of no measured
+kind. Some of them imitated the Hebrew prophets in the performance of
+symbolic acts of denunciation, foretelling or warning, going barefoot,
+or in sackcloth or undress, and, in a few cases, for brief periods,
+altogether naked; even women in some cases distinguished themselves by
+extravagance of conduct. The case of James Nayler (1617?-1660), who, in
+spite of Fox's grave warning, allowed Messianic homage to be paid to
+him, is the best known of these instances; they are to be explained
+partly by mental disturbance, resulting from the undue prominence of a
+single idea, and partly by the general religious excitement of the time
+and the rudeness of manners prevailing in the classes of society from
+which many of these individuals came. It must be remembered that at this
+time, and for long after, there was no definite or formal membership or
+system of admission to the society, and it was open to any one by
+attending the meetings to gain the reputation of being a Quaker.
+
+The activity of the early Friends was not confined to England or even to
+the British Isles. Fox and others travelled in America and the West
+India Islands; another reached Jerusalem and preached against the
+superstition of the monks; Mary Fisher (fl. 1652-1697), "a religious
+maiden," visited Smyrna, the Morea and the court of Mahommed IV. at
+Adrianople; Alexander Parker (1628-1689) went to Africa; others made
+their way to Rome; two women were imprisoned by the Inquisition at
+Malta; two men passed into Austria and Hungary; and William Penn, George
+Fox and several others preached in Holland and Germany.
+
+It was only gradually that the Quaker community clothed itself with an
+organization. The beginning of this appears to be due to William
+Dewsbury (1621-1688) and George Fox; it was not until 1666 that a
+complete system of church organization was established. The
+introduction of an ordered system and discipline was, naturally, viewed
+with some suspicion by people taught to believe that the inward light of
+each individual man was the only true guide for his conduct. The project
+met with determined opposition for about twenty years (1675-1695) from
+persons of considerable repute in the body. John Wilkinson and John
+Story of Westmorland, together with William Rogers of Bristol, raised a
+party against Fox concerning the management of the affairs of the
+society, regarding with suspicion any fixed arrangement for meetings for
+conducting church business, and in fact hardly finding a place for such
+meetings at all. They stood for the principle of Independency against
+the Presbyterian form of church government which Fox had recently
+established in the "Monthly Meetings" (see below). They opposed all
+arrangement for the orderly distribution of travelling ministers to
+different localities, and even for the payment of their expenses (see
+above); they also strongly objected to any disciplinary power being
+entrusted to the women's separate meetings for business, which had
+become of considerable importance after the Plague (1665) and the Fire
+of London (1666) in consequence of the need for poor relief. They also
+claimed the right to meet secretly for worship in time of persecution
+(see below). They drew a considerable following away with them and set
+up a rival organization, but before long a number returned to their
+original leader. William Rogers set forth his views in _The Christian
+Quaker_, 1680; the story of the dissension is told, to some extent, in
+_The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth_, by R.
+Barclay (not the "Apologist"); the best account is given in a pamphlet
+entitled _Micah's Mother_ by John S. Rowntree.
+
+Robert Barclay (q.v.), a descendant of an ancient Scottish family, who
+had received a liberal education, principally in Paris, at the Scots
+College, of which his uncle was rector, joined the Quakers about 1666,
+and William Penn (q.v.) came to them about two years later. The Quakers
+had always been active controversialists, and a great body of tracts and
+papers was issued by them; but hitherto these had been of small account
+from a literary point of view. Now, however, a more logical and
+scholarly aspect was given to their literature by the writings of
+Barclay, especially his _Apology for the True Christian Divinity_
+published in Latin (1676) and in English (1678), and by the works of
+Penn, amongst which _No Cross No Crown_ and the _Maxims_ or _Fruits of
+Solitude_ are the best known.
+
+
+  Persecution.
+
+During the whole time between their rise and the passing of the
+Toleration Act 1689, the Quakers were the object of almost continuous
+persecution which they endured with extraordinary constancy and
+patience; they insisted on the duty of meeting openly in time of
+persecution, declining to hold secret assemblies for worship as other
+Nonconformists were doing. The number who died in prison approached 400,
+and at least 100 more perished from violence and ill-usage. A petition
+to the first parliament of Charles II. stated that 3179 had been
+imprisoned; the number rose to 4500 in 1662, the Fifth Monarchy
+outbreak, in which Friends were in no way concerned, being largely
+responsible for this increase. There is no evidence to show that they
+were in any way connected with any of the plots of the Commonwealth or
+Restoration periods. A petition to James II. in 1685 stated that 1460
+were then in prison. Under the Quaker Act of 1662 and the Conventicle
+Act of 1664 a number were transported out of England, and under the
+last-named act and that of 1670 (the second Conventicle Act) hundreds of
+households were despoiled of all their goods. The penal laws under which
+Friends suffered may be divided chronologically into those of the
+Commonwealth and the Restoration periods. Under the former there were a
+few charges of plotting against the government. Several imprisonments,
+including that of George Fox at Derby in 1650-1651, were brought about
+under the Blasphemy Act of 1650, which inflicted penalties on any one
+who asserted himself to be very God or equal with God, a charge to which
+the Friends were peculiarly liable owing to their doctrine of
+perfection. After a royalist insurrection in 1655, a proclamation was
+issued announcing that persons suspected of Roman Catholicism would be
+required to take an oath abjuring the papal authority and
+transubstantiation. The Quakers, accused as they were of being Jesuits,
+and refusing to take the oath, suffered under this proclamation and
+under the more stringent act of 1656. A considerable number were flogged
+under the Vagrancy Acts (39 Eliz. c. 4; 7 Jac. I. c. 4), which were
+strained to cover the case of itinerant Quaker preachers. They also came
+under the provisions of the acts of 1644, 1650 and 1656 directed against
+travelling on the Lord's day. The interruption of preachers when
+celebrating divine service rendered the offender liable to three months'
+imprisonment under a statute of the first year of Mary, but Friends
+generally waited to speak till the service was over.[2] The Lord's Day
+Act 1656 also enacted penalties against any one disturbing the service,
+but apart from statute many Friends were imprisoned for open contempt of
+ministers and magistrates. At the Restoration 700 Friends, imprisoned
+for contempt and some minor offences, were set at liberty. After the
+Restoration there began a persecution of Friends and other
+Nonconformists _as such_, notwithstanding the king's Declaration of
+Breda which had proclaimed liberty for tender consciences as long as no
+disturbance of the peace was caused. Among the most common causes of
+imprisonment was the practice adopted by judges and magistrates of
+tendering to Friends (particularly when no other charge could be proved
+against them) the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance (5 Eliz. c. 1 & 7
+Jac. I. c. 6). The refusal in any circumstance to take an oath led to
+much suffering. The Act 3 Jac. I. c. 4, passed in consequence of the
+Gunpowder Plot, against Roman Catholics for not attending church, was
+put in force against Friends, and under it enormous fines were levied.
+The Quaker Act 1662 and the Conventicle Acts of 1664 and 1670, designed
+to enforce attendance at church, and inflicting severe penalties on
+those attending other religious gatherings, were responsible for the
+most severe persecution of all. The act of 1670 gave to informers a
+pecuniary interest (they were to have one-third of the fine imposed) in
+hunting down Nonconformists who broke the law, and this and other
+statutes were unduly strained to secure convictions. A somewhat similar
+act of 35 Eliz. c. 1., enacting even more severe penalties, had never
+been repealed, and was sometimes put in force against Friends. The
+Militia Act 1663 (14 Car. II. c. 3), enacting fines against those who
+refused to find a man for the militia, was occasionally put in force.
+The refusal to pay tithes and other ecclesiastical demands led to
+continuous and heavy distraints, under the various laws made in that
+behalf. This state of things continued to some extent into the 19th
+century. For further information see "The Penal Laws affecting Early
+Friends in England" (from which the foregoing summary is taken) by Wm.
+Chas. Braithwaite in _The First Publishers of Truth_. On the 15th of
+March 1672 Charles II. issued his declaration suspending the penal laws
+in ecclesiastical matters, and shortly afterwards, by pardon under the
+great seal, he released nearly 500 Quakers from prison, remitted their
+fines and released such of their estates as were forfeited by
+_praemunire_. It is of interest to note that, although John Bunyan was
+bitterly opposed to Quakers, his friends, on hearing of the petition
+contemplated by them, requested them to insert his name on the list, and
+in this way he gained his freedom. The dissatisfaction which this
+exercise of the royal prerogative aroused induced the king, in the
+following year, to withdraw his proclamation, and, notwithstanding
+appeals to him, the persecution continued intermittently throughout his
+reign. On the accession of James II. the Quakers addressed him (see
+above) with some hope on account of his known friendship for William
+Penn, and the king not long afterwards directed a stay of proceedings in
+all matters pending in the exchequer against Quakers on the ground of
+non-attendance at the national worship. In 1687 came his declaration for
+liberty of conscience, and, after the Revolution of 1688, the Toleration
+Act 1689 put an end to the persecution of Quakers (along with other
+Dissenters) for non-attendance at church. For many years after this
+they were liable to imprisonment for non-payment of tithes, and,
+together with other Dissenters, they remained under various civil
+disabilities, the gradual removal of which is part of the general
+history of England. In the years succeeding the Toleration Act at least
+twelve of their number were prosecuted (often more than once in the
+spiritual and other courts) for keeping school without a bishop's
+licence. It is coming to be recognized that the growth of religious
+toleration owed much to the early Quakers who, with the exception of a
+few Baptists at the first, stood almost alone among Dissenters in
+holding their public meetings openly and regularly.
+
+The Toleration Act was not the only law of William and Mary which
+benefited Quakers. The legislature has continually had regard to their
+refusal to take oaths, and not only the said act but also another of the
+same reign, and numerous others, subsequently passed, have respected the
+peculiar scruples of Friends (see Davis's _Digest of Legislative
+Enactments relating to Friends_, Bristol, 1820).
+
+
+  Period of Decline.
+
+2. _Period 1689-1835._--From the beginning of the 18th century the zeal
+of the Quaker body abated. Although many "General" and other meetings
+were held in different parts of the country for the purpose of setting
+forth Quakerism, the notion that the whole Christian church would be
+absorbed in it, and that the Quakers were, in fact, the church, gave
+place to the conception that they were "a peculiar people" to whom, more
+than to others, had been given an understanding of the will of God. The
+Quakerism of this period was largely of a traditional kind; it dwelt
+with increasing emphasis on the peculiarities of its dress and language;
+it rested much upon discipline, which developed and hardened into
+rigorous forms; and the correction or exclusion of its members occupied
+more attention than did the winning of converts.
+
+Excluded from political and municipal life by the laws which required
+either the taking of an oath or joining in the Lord's Supper according
+to the rites of the Established Church, excluding themselves not only
+from the frivolous pursuits of pleasure, but from music and art in
+general, attaining no high average level of literary culture (though
+producing some men of eminence in science and medicine), the Quakers
+occupied themselves mainly with trade, the business of their Society,
+and the calls of philanthropy. From early times George Fox and many
+others had taken a keen interest in education, and in 1779 there was
+founded at Ackworth, near Pontefract, a school for boys and girls; this
+was followed by the reconstitution, in 1808, of a school at Sidcot in
+the Mendips, and in 1811, of one in Islington Road, London; it was
+afterwards removed to Croydon, and, later, to Saffron Walden. Others
+have since been established at York and in other parts of England and
+Ireland. None of them are now reserved exclusively for the children of
+Friends.
+
+During this period Quakerism was sketched from the outside by two very
+different men. Voltaire (_Dictionnaire Philosophique_, "Quaker,"
+"Toleration") described the body, which attracted his curiosity, his
+sympathy and his sneers, with all his brilliance. Thomas Clarkson
+(_Portraiture of Quakerism_) has given an elaborate and sympathetic
+account of the Quakers as he knew them when he travelled amongst them
+from house to house on his crusade against the slave trade.
+
+3. _From 1835._--During the 18th century the doctrine of the Inward
+Light acquired such exclusive prominence as to bring about a tendency to
+disparage, or, at least, to neglect, the written word (the Scriptures)
+as being "outward" and non-essential. In the early part of the 19th
+century an American Friend, Elias Hicks, pressed this doctrine to its
+furthest limits, and, in doing so, he laid stress on "Christ within" in
+such a way as practically to take little account of the person and work
+of the "outward," i.e. the historic Christ. The result was a separation
+of the Society in America into two divisions which persist to the
+present day (see below, "Quakerism in America"). This led to a counter
+movement in England, known as the Beacon Controversy, from the name of a
+warning publication issued by Isaac Crewdson of Manchester in 1835,
+advocating views of a pronounced "evangelical" type. Much controversy
+ensued, and a certain number of Friends (Beaconites as they are
+sometimes called) departed from the parent stock. They left behind them,
+however, many influential members, who may be described as a middle
+party, and who strove to give a more "evangelical" tone to Quaker
+doctrine. Joseph John Gurney of Norwich, a brother of Elizabeth Fry, by
+means of his high social position and his various writings (some
+published before 1835), was the most prominent actor in this movement.
+Those who quitted the Society maintained, for some little time, a
+separate organization of their own, but sooner or later most of them
+joined the Evangelical Church or the Plymouth Brethren.
+
+Other causes have been at work modifying the Quaker society. The repeal
+of the Test Act, the admission of Quakers to Parliament in consequence
+of their being allowed to affirm instead of taking the oath (1832, when
+Joseph Pease was elected for South Durham), the establishment of the
+University of London, and, more recently, the opening of the
+universities of Oxford and Cambridge to Nonconformists, have all had
+their effect upon the body. It has abandoned its peculiarities of dress
+and language, as well as its hostility to music and art, and it has
+cultivated a wider taste in literature. In fact, the number of men,
+either Quakers or of Quaker origin and proclivities, who occupy
+positions of influence in English life is large in proportion to the
+small body with which they are connected. During the 19th century the
+interests of Friends became widened and they are no longer a close
+community.
+
+_Doctrine._--It is not easy to state with certainty the doctrines of a
+body which (in England at least) has never demanded subscription to any
+creed, and whose views have undoubtedly undergone more or less definite
+changes. There is not now the sharp distinction which formerly existed
+between Friends and other non-sacerdotal evangelical bodies; these have,
+in theory at least, largely accepted the spiritual message of Quakerism.
+By their special insistence on the fact of immediate communion between
+God and man, Friends have been led into those views and practices which
+still mark them off from their fellow-Christians.
+
+
+  Public worship.
+
+Nearly all their distinctive views (e.g. their refusal to take oaths,
+their testimony against war, their disuse of a professional ministry,
+and their recognition of women's ministry) were being put forward in
+England, by various individuals or sects, in the strife which raged
+during the intense religious excitement of the middle of the 17th
+century. Nevertheless, before the rise of the Quakers, these views were
+nowhere found in conjunction as held by any one set of people; still
+less were they regarded as the outcome of any one central belief or
+principle. It is rather in their emphasis on this thought of Divine
+communion, in their insistence on its reasonable consequences (as it
+seems to them), that Friends constitute a separate community. The
+appointment of one man to preach, to the exclusion of others, whether he
+feels a divine call so to do or not, is regarded as a limitation of the
+work of the Spirit and an undue concentration of that responsibility
+which ought to be shared by a wider circle. For the same reason they
+refuse to occupy the time of worship with an arranged programme of vocal
+service; they meet in silence, desiring that the service of the meeting
+shall depend on spiritual guidance. Thus it is left to any man or woman
+to offer vocal prayer, to read the Scriptures, or to utter such
+exhortation or teaching as may seem to be called for. Of late years, in
+certain of their meetings on Sunday evening, it has become customary for
+part of the time to be occupied with set addresses for the purpose of
+instructing the members of the congregation, or of conveying the Quaker
+message to others who may be present, all their meetings for worship
+being freely open to the public. In a few meetings hymns are
+occasionally sung, very rarely as part of any arrangement, but almost
+always upon the request of some individual for a particular hymn
+appropriate to the need of the congregation. The periods of silence are
+regarded as times of worship equally with those occupied with vocal
+service, inasmuch as Friends hold that robustness of spiritual life is
+best promoted by earnest striving on the part of each one to know the
+will of God for himself, and to be drawn into Christian fellowship with
+the other worshippers. The points on which special stress is laid
+are:--(1) the share of responsibility resting on each individual,
+whether called to vocal service or not, for the right spiritual
+atmosphere of the Meeting, and for the welfare of the congregation; (2)
+the privilege which may be enjoyed by each worshipper of waiting upon
+the Lord without relying on spoken words, however helpful, or on other
+outward matters; (3) freedom for each individual (whether a Friend or
+not) to speak, for the help of others, such message as he or she may
+feel called to utter; (4) a fresh sense of a divine call to deliver the
+message on that particular occasion, whether previous thought has been
+given to it or not. The idea which ought to underlie a Friends' meeting
+is thus set forth by Robert Barclay: "When I came into the silent
+assemblies of God's people, I felt a secret power among them, which
+touched my heart, and as I gave way unto it, I found the evil weakening
+in me and the good raised up" (_Apology_, xi. 7). In many places Friends
+have felt the need of bringing spiritual help to those who are unable to
+profit by the somewhat severe discipline of their ordinary manner of
+worship. To meet this need they hold (chiefly on Sunday evenings)
+meetings which are not professedly "Friends' meetings for worship," but
+which are services conducted on lines similar to those of other
+religious bodies, with, in some cases, a portion of time set apart for
+silent worship, and freedom for any one of the congregation to utter
+words of exhortation or prayer.
+
+From the beginning Friends have not practised the outward ordinances of
+Baptism and the Lord's Supper, even in a non-sacerdotal spirit. They
+attach, however, supreme value to the realities of which the observances
+are reminders or types--on the Baptism which is more than putting away
+the filth of the flesh, and on the vital union with Christ which is
+behind any outward ceremony. Their testimony is not _primarily_ against
+these outward observances; their disuse of them is due to a sense of the
+danger of substituting the shadow for the reality. They believe that an
+experience of more than 250 years gives ample warrant for the belief
+that Christ did not command them as a perpetual outward ordinance; on
+the contrary, they hold that it was alien to His method to lay down
+minute, outward rules for all time, but that He enunciated principles
+which His Church should, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, apply to
+the varying needs of the day. Their contention that every event of life
+may be turned into a sacrament, a means of grace, is summed up in the
+words of Stephen Grellet: "I very much doubt whether, since the Lord by
+His grace brought me into the faith of His dear Son, I have ever broken
+bread or drunk wine, even in the ordinary course of life, without the
+remembrance of, and some devout feeling regarding, the broken body and
+the blood-shedding of my dear Lord and Saviour."
+
+
+  Ministers.
+
+When the ministry of any man or woman has been found to be helpful to
+the congregation, the Monthly Meeting (see below) may, after solemn
+consideration, record the fact that it believes the individual to have a
+divine call to the ministry, and that it encourages him or her to be
+faithful to the gift. Such ministers are said to be "acknowledged" or
+"recorded"; they are emphatically _not_ appointed to preach, and the
+fact of their acknowledgment is not regarded as conferring any special
+status upon them. The various Monthly Meetings appoint Elders, or some
+body of Friends, to give advice of encouragement or restraint as may be
+needed, and, generally, to take the ministry under their care.
+
+
+  Women.
+
+With regard to the ministry of women, Friends hold that there is no
+evidence that the gifts of prophecy and teaching are confined to one
+sex. On the contrary, they see that a manifest blessing has rested on
+women's preaching, and they regard its almost universal prohibition as a
+relic of the seclusion of women which was customary in the countries
+where Christianity took its rise. The particular prohibition of Paul (1
+Cor. xiv. 34, 35) they regard as due to the special circumstances of
+time and place.
+
+
+  War.
+
+Friends have always held that war is contrary to the precepts and spirit
+of the Gospel, believing that it springs from the lower impulses of
+human nature, and not from the seed of divine life with its infinite
+capacity of response to the Spirit of God. Their testimony is not based
+_primarily_ on any objection to the use of force in itself, or even on
+the fact that war involves suffering and loss of life; their root
+objection is based on the fact that war is both the outcome and the
+cause of ambition, pride, greed, hatred and everything that is opposed
+to the mind of Christ; and that no end to be attained can justify the
+use of such means. While not unaware that with this, as with all moral
+questions, there may be a certain borderland of practical difficulty,
+Friends endeavour to bring all things to the test of the Realities
+which, though not seen, are eternal, and to hold up the ideal, set forth
+by George Fox, of living in the virtue of that life and power which
+takes away the _occasion of war._
+
+
+  Oaths.
+
+Friends have always held that the attempt to enforce truth-speaking by
+means of an oath, in courts of law and elsewhere, tends to create a
+double standard of truth. They find Scripture warrant for this belief in
+Matt. v. 33-37 and James v. 12. Their testimony in this respect is the
+better understood when we bear in mind the large amount of perjury in
+the law courts, and profane swearing in general which prevailed at the
+time when the Society took its rise. "People swear to the end that they
+may speak truth; Christ would have men speak truth to the end they might
+not swear" (W. Penn, _A Treatise of Oaths_).
+
+
+  Theology.
+
+With regard to the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, the belief of
+the Society of Friends does not essentially differ from that of other
+Christian bodies. At the same time their avoidance of exact definition
+embodied in a rigid creed, together with their disuse of the outward
+ordinances of Baptism and the Supper, has laid them open to considerable
+misunderstanding. As will have been seen, they hold an exalted view of
+the divinity and work of Christ as the Word become flesh and the Saviour
+of the world; but they have always shrunk from rigid Trinitarian
+_definitions_. They believe that the same Spirit who gave forth the
+Scriptures still guides men to a right understanding of them. "You
+profess the Holy Scriptures: but what do you witness and experience?
+What interest have you in them? Can you set to your seal that they are
+true by the work of the same spirit in you that gave them forth in the
+holy ancients?" (William Penn, _A Summons or Call to Christendom_). At
+certain periods this doctrine, pushed to an extreme, has led to a
+practical undervaluing of the Scriptures, but of late times it has
+enabled Friends to face fearlessly the conclusions of modern criticism,
+and has contributed to a largely increased interest in Bible study.
+During the past few years a new movement has been started in the shape
+of lecture schools, lasting for longer or shorter periods, for the
+purpose of studying Biblical, ecclesiastical and social subjects. In
+1903 there was established at Woodbrooke, an estate at Selly Oak on the
+outskirts of Birmingham, a permanent settlement for men and women, for
+the study of these questions on modern lines. The outward beginning of
+this movement was the Manchester Conference of 1895, a turning-point in
+Quaker history. Speaking generally, it may be noted that the Society
+includes various shades of opinion, from that known as "evangelical,"
+with a certain hesitation in receiving modern thought, to the more
+"advanced" position which finds greater freedom to consider and adopt
+new suggestions of scientific, religious or other thinkers. The
+differences, however, are seldom pressed, and rarely become acute. Apart
+from points of doctrine which can be more or less definitely stated (not
+always with unanimity) Quakerism is an _atmosphere_, a manner of life, a
+method of approaching questions, a habit and attitude of mind.
+
+_Quakerism in Scotland._--Quakerism was preached in Scotland very soon
+after its rise in England; but in the north and south of Scotland there
+existed, independently of and before this preaching, groups of persons
+who were dissatisfied with the national form of worship and who met
+together in silence for devotion. They naturally fell into this Society.
+In Aberdeen the Quakers took considerable hold, and were there joined by
+some persons of influence and position, especially Alexander Jaffray,
+sometime provost of Aberdeen, and Colonel David Barclay of Ury and his
+son Robert, the author of the _Apology_. Much light has been thrown on
+the history of the Quakers in Aberdeenshire by the discovery in 1826 at
+Ury of a MS. _Diary_ of Jaffray, since published with elucidations (2nd
+ed., London, 1836).
+
+_Ireland._--The father of Quakerism in Ireland was William Edmondson;
+his preaching began in 1653-1654. The _History of the Quakers in
+Ireland_ (from 1653 to 1752), by Wight and Rutty, may be consulted.
+Dublin Yearly Meeting, constituted in 1670, is independent of London
+Yearly Meeting (see below).
+
+_America._--In July 1656 two women Quakers, Mary Fisher and Ann Austin,
+arrived at Boston. Under the general law against heresy their books were
+burnt by the hangman, they were searched for signs of witchcraft, they
+were imprisoned for five weeks and then sent away. During the same year
+eight others were sent back to England.
+
+In 1656, 1657 and 1658 laws were passed to prevent the introduction of
+Quakers into Massachusetts, and it was enacted that on the first
+conviction one ear should be cut off, on the second the remaining ear,
+and that on the third conviction the tongue should be bored with a hot
+iron. Fines were laid upon all who entertained these people or were
+present at their meetings. Thereupon the Quakers, who were perhaps not
+without the obstinacy of which Marcus Aurelius complained in the early
+Christians, rushed to Massachusetts as if invited, and the result was
+that the general court of the colony banished them on pain of death, and
+four of them, three men and one woman, were hanged for refusing to
+depart from the jurisdiction or for obstinately returning within it.
+That the Quakers were, at times, irritating cannot be denied: some of
+them appear to have publicly mocked the institutions and the rulers of
+the colony and to have interrupted public worship; and a few of their
+men and women acted with the fanaticism and disorder which frequently
+characterized the religious controversies of the time. The particulars
+of the proceedings of Governor Endecott and the magistrates of New
+England as given in Besse's _Sufferings of the Quakers_ (see below) are
+startling to read. On the Restoration of Charles II. a memorial was
+presented to him by the Quakers in England stating the persecutions
+which their fellow-members had undergone in New England. Even the
+careless Charles was moved to issue an order to the colony which
+effectually stopped the hanging of the Quakers for their religion,
+though it by no means put an end to the persecution of the body in New
+England.
+
+It is not wonderful that the Quakers, persecuted and oppressed at home
+and in New England, should turn their eyes to the unoccupied parts of
+America, and cherish the hope of founding, amidst their woods, some
+refuge from oppression, and some likeness of a city of God upon earth.
+As early as 1660 George Fox was considering the question of buying land
+from the Indians. In 1671-1673 he had visited the American plantations
+from Carolina to Rhode Island and had preached alike to Indians and to
+settlers; in 1674 a portion of New Jersey (q.v.) was sold by Lord
+Berkeley to John Fenwicke in trust for Edward Byllynge. Both these men
+were Quakers, and in 1675 Fenwicke with a large company of his
+co-religionists crossed the Atlantic, sailed up Delaware Bay, and landed
+at a fertile spot which he called Salem. Byllynge, having become
+embarrassed in his circumstances, placed his interest in the land in the
+hands of Penn and others as trustees for his creditors; they invited
+buyers, and companies of Quakers in Yorkshire and London were amongst
+the largest purchasers. In 1677-1678 five vessels with eight hundred
+emigrants, chiefly Quakers, arrived in the colony (then separated from
+the rest of New Jersey, under the name of West New Jersey), and the town
+of Burlington was established. In 1677 the fundamental laws of West New
+Jersey were published, and recognized in a most absolute form the
+principles of democratic equality and perfect freedom of conscience.
+Notwithstanding certain troubles from claims of the governor of New York
+and of the duke of York, the colony prospered, and in 1681 the first
+legislative assembly of the colony, consisting mainly of Quakers, was
+held. They agreed to raise an annual sum of L200 for the expenses of
+their commonwealth; they assigned their governor a salary of L20; they
+prohibited the sale of ardent spirits to the Indians and imprisonment
+for debt. (See NEW JERSEY.)
+
+
+  William Penn.
+
+But beyond question the most interesting event in connexion with
+Quakerism in America is the foundation by William Penn (q.v.) of the
+colony of Pennsylvania, where he hoped to carry into effect the
+principles of his sect--to found and govern a colony without armies or
+military power, to reduce the Indians by justice and kindness to
+civilization and Christianity, to administer justice without oaths, and
+to extend an equal toleration to all persons who professed a belief in
+God. The history of this is part of the history of America and of
+Pennsylvania (q.v.) in particular. The chief point of interest in the
+history of Friends in America during the 18th century is their effort to
+clear themselves of complicity in slavery and the slave trade. As early
+as 1671 George Fox when in Barbados counselled kind treatment of slaves
+and ultimate liberation of them. William Penn provided for the freedom
+of slaves after fourteen years' service. In 1688 the German Friends of
+Germantown, Philadelphia, raised the first official protest uttered by
+any religious body against slavery. In 1711 a law was passed in
+Pennsylvania prohibiting the importation of slaves, but it was rejected
+by the Council in England. The prominent anti-slavery workers were Ralph
+Sandiford, Benjamin Lay, Anthony Benezet and John Woolman.[3] By the end
+of the 18th century slavery was practically extinct among Friends, and
+the Society as a whole laboured for its abolition, which came about in
+1865, the poet Whittier being one of the chief writers and workers in
+the cause. From early times up to the present day Friends have laboured
+for the welfare of the North American Indians. The history of the 19th
+century is largely one of division. Elias Hicks (q.v.), of Long Island,
+N.Y., propounded doctrines inconsistent with the orthodox views
+concerning Christ and the Scriptures, and a separation resulted in
+1827-1828 (see above). His followers are known as "Hicksites," a name
+not officially used by themselves, and only assented to for purposes of
+description under some protest. They have their own organization, being
+divided into seven yearly meetings numbering about 20,000 members, but
+these meetings form no part of the official organization which links
+London Yearly Meeting with other bodies of Friends on the American
+continent. This separation led to strong insistence on "evangelical"
+views (in the usual sense of the term) concerning Christ, the Atonement,
+imputed righteousness, the Scriptures, &c. This showed itself in the
+Beaconite controversy in England (see above), and in a further division
+in America. John Wilbur, a minister of New England, headed a party of
+protest against the new evangelicalism, laying extreme stress on the
+"Inward Light"; the result was a further separation of "Wilburites" or
+"the smaller body," who, like the "Hicksites," have a separate
+independent organization of their own. In 1907 they were divided into
+seven yearly meetings (together with some smaller independent bodies,
+the result of extreme emphasis laid on individualism), with a membership
+of about 5000. Broadly speaking, the "smaller body" is characterized by
+a rigid adherence to old forms of dress and speech, to a disapproval of
+music and art, and to an insistence on the "Inward Light" which, at
+times, leaves but little room for the Scriptures or the historic Christ,
+although with no definite or intended repudiation of them. In 1908 the
+number of "orthodox" yearly meetings in America, including one in
+Canada, was fifteen, with a total membership of about 100,000. They
+have, for the most part, adopted, to a greater or less degree, the
+"pastoral system," i.e. the appointment of one man or woman in each
+congregation to "conduct" the meeting for worship and to carry on
+pastoral work. In most cases the pastor receives a salary. A few of them
+demand from their ministers definite subscription to a specific body of
+doctrine, mostly of the ordinary "evangelical" type. In the matters of
+organization, disuse of the outward ordinances (this point is subject
+to some slight exception, principally in Ohio), and women's ministry,
+they do not differ from English Friends. The yearly meetings of
+Baltimore and Philadelphia have not adopted the pastoral system; the
+latter contains a very strong conservative element, and, contrary to the
+practice of London and the other "orthodox" yearly meetings, it
+officially regards the meetings of "the smaller body" (see above) as
+meetings of the Society of Friends. In 1902 the "orthodox" yearly
+meetings in the United States established a "Five Years' Meeting," a
+representative body meeting once every five years to consider matters
+affecting the welfare of all, and to further such philanthropic and
+religious work as may be undertaken in common, e.g. matters concerning
+foreign missions, temperance and peace, and the welfare of negroes and
+Indians. Two yearly meetings remain outside the organization, that of
+Ohio on ultra-evangelical grounds, while that of Philadelphia has not
+taken the matter into consideration. Canada joined at the first, and
+having withdrawn, again joined in 1907.
+
+  See James Bowden, _History of the Society of Friends in America_
+  (1850-1854); Allan C. and Richard H. Thomas, _The History of Friends
+  in America_ (4th edition, 1905); Isaac Sharpless, _History of Quaker
+  Government in Pennsylvania_ (1898, 1899); R. P. Hallowell, _The Quaker
+  Invasion of Massachusetts_ (1887), and _The Pioneer Quakers_ (1887).
+
+_Organization and Discipline._--The duty of watching over one another
+for good was insisted on by the early Friends, and has been embodied in
+a system of discipline. Its objects embrace (a) admonition to those who
+fail in the payment of their just debts, or otherwise walk contrary to
+the standard of Quaker ethics, and the exclusion of obstinate or gross
+offenders from the body, and, as incident to this, the hearing of
+appeals from individuals or meetings considering themselves aggrieved;
+(b) the care and maintenance of the poor and provision for the Christian
+education of their children, for which purpose the Society has
+established boarding schools in different parts of the country; (c) the
+amicable settlement of "all differences about outward things," either by
+the parties in controversy or by the submission of the dispute to
+arbitration, and the restraint of all proceedings at law between members
+except by leave; (d) the "recording" of ministers (see above); (e) the
+cognizance of all steps preceding marriage according to Quaker forms;
+(f) the registration of births, deaths and marriages and the admission
+of members; (g) the issuing of certificates or letters of approval
+granted to ministers travelling away from their homes, or to members
+removing from one meeting to another; and (h) the management of the
+property belonging to the Society. The meetings for business further
+concern themselves with arrangements for spreading the Quaker doctrine,
+and for carrying out various religious, philanthropic and social
+activities not necessarily confined to the Society of Friends.
+
+
+    Periodic "meetings."
+
+  The present organization of the Quaker church is essentially
+  democratic; every person born of Quaker parents is a member, and,
+  together with those who have been admitted on their own request, is
+  entitled to take part in the business assemblies of any meeting of
+  which he or she is a member. The Society is organized as a series of
+  subordinated meetings which recall to the mind the Presbyterian model.
+  The "Preparative Meeting" usually consists of a single congregation;
+  next in order comes the "Monthly Meeting," the executive body, usually
+  embracing several Preparative Meetings called together, as its name
+  indicates, monthly (in some cases less often); then the "Quarterly
+  Meeting," embracing several Monthly Meetings; and lastly the "Yearly
+  Meeting," embracing the whole of Great Britain (but not Ireland).
+  After several yearly or "general" meetings had been held in different
+  places at irregular intervals as need arose, the first of an
+  uninterrupted series met in 1668. From that date until 1904 it was
+  held in London. In 1905 it met in Leeds, and in 1908 in Birmingham.
+  Its official title is "London Yearly Meeting." It is the legislative
+  body of Friends in Great Britain. It considers questions of policy,
+  and some of its sittings are conferences for the consideration of
+  reports on religious, philanthropic, educational and social work which
+  is carried on. Its sessions occupy a week in May of each year.
+  Representatives are sent from each inferior to each superior meeting,
+  but they have no precedence over others, and all Friends may attend
+  any meeting and take part in any of which they are members. Formerly
+  the system was double, the men and women meeting separately for their
+  own appointed business. Of late years the meetings have been, for the
+  most part, held jointly, with equal liberty for all men and women to
+  state their opinions, and to serve on all committees and other
+  appointments. The mode of conducting these meetings is noteworthy. A
+  secretary or "clerk," as he is called, acts as chairman or president;
+  there are no formal resolutions; and there is no voting or applause.
+  The clerk ascertains what he considers to be the judgment of the
+  assembly, and records it in a minute. The permanent standing committee
+  of the Society is known as the "Meeting for Sufferings" (established
+  in 1675), which took its rise in the days when the persecution of many
+  Friends demanded the Christian care and material help of those who
+  were able to give it. It is composed of representatives (men and
+  women) sent by the quarterly meetings, and of all recorded Ministers
+  and Elders. Its work is not confined to the interests of Friends; it
+  is sensitive to the call of oppression and distress (e.g. a famine) in
+  all parts of the world, it frequently raises large sums of money to
+  alleviate the same, and intervenes, often successfully, and mostly
+  without publicity, with those in authority who have the power to bring
+  about an amelioration.
+
+  The offices known to the Quaker body are: (1) that of _minister_ (the
+  term "office" is not strictly applicable, see above as to
+  "recording"); (2) of _elder_, whose duty it is "to encourage and help
+  young ministers, and advise others as they, in the wisdom of God, see
+  occasion"; (3) of _overseer_, to whom is especially entrusted that
+  duty of Christian care for and interest in one another which Quakers
+  recognize as obligatory in all the members of a church. In most
+  Monthly Meetings the care of the poor is committed to the overseers.
+  These officers hold, from time to time, meetings separate from the
+  general assemblies of the members, but the special organization for
+  many years known as the Meeting of Ministers and Elders, reconstituted
+  in 1876 as the Meeting on Ministry and Oversight, came to an end in
+  1906-1907.
+
+  This present form both of organization and of discipline has been
+  reached only by a process of development. As early as 1652-1654 there
+  is evidence of some slight organization for dealing with marriages,
+  poor relief, "disorderly walkers," matters of arbitration, &c. The
+  Quarterly or "General" meetings of the different counties seem to have
+  been the first unions of separate congregations. In 1666 Fox
+  established Monthly Meetings; in 1727 elders were first appointed; in
+  1752 overseers were added; and in 1737 the right of children of
+  Quakers to be considered as members was fully recognized. Concerning
+  the 18th century in general, see above.
+
+  Of late years the stringency of the Quaker discipline has been
+  relaxed: the peculiarities of dress and language have been abandoned;
+  marriage with a non-member or between two non-members is now possible
+  at a Quaker meeting-house; and marriage elsewhere has ceased to
+  involve exclusion from the body. Above all, many of its members have
+  come to "the conviction, which is not new, but old, that the virtues
+  which can be rewarded and the vices which can be punished by external
+  discipline are not as a rule the virtues and the vices that make or
+  mar the soul" (Hatch, _Bampton Lectures_, 81).
+
+
+    Philanthropic interests.
+
+  A genuine vein of philanthropy has always existed in the Quaker body.
+  In nothing has this been more conspicuous than in the matter of
+  slavery. George Fox and William Penn laboured to secure the religious
+  teaching of slaves. As early as 1676 the assembly of Barbados passed
+  "An Act to prevent the people called Quakers from bringing negroes to
+  their meetings." On the attitude of Friends in America to slavery, see
+  the section "Quakerism in America" (above). In 1783 the first petition
+  to the House of Commons for the abolition of the slave trade and
+  slavery went up from the Quakers; and in the long agitation which
+  ensued the Society took a prominent part.
+
+  In 1798 Joseph Lancaster, himself a Friend, opened his first school
+  for the education of the poor; and the cause of unsectarian religious
+  education found in the Quakers steady support. They also took an
+  active part in Sir Samuel Romilly's efforts to ameliorate the penal
+  code, in prison reform, with which the name of Elizabeth Fry (a
+  Friend) is especially connected, and in the efforts to ameliorate the
+  condition of lunatics in England (the Friends' Retreat at York,
+  founded in 1792, was the earliest example in England of kindly
+  treatment of the insane). It is noteworthy that Quaker efforts for the
+  education of the poor and philanthropy in general, though they have
+  always been Christian in character, have not been undertaken primarily
+  for the purpose of bringing proselytes within the body, and have not
+  done so to any great extent.
+
+
+    Education.
+
+  By means of the Adult Schools, Friends have been able to exercise a
+  religious influence beyond the borders of their own Society. The
+  movement began in Birmingham in 1845, in an attempt to help the
+  loungers at street corners; reading and writing were the chief
+  inducements offered. The schools are unsectarian in character and
+  mainly democratic in government: the aim is to draw out what is best
+  in men and to induce them to act for the help of their fellows. Whilst
+  the work is essentially religious in character, a well-equipped school
+  also caters for the social, intellectual and physical parts of a man's
+  nature. Bible teaching is the central part of the school session: the
+  lessons are mainly concerned with life's practical problems. The
+  spirit of brotherliness which prevails is largely the secret of the
+  success of the movement. At the end of 1909 there were in connexion
+  with the "National Council of Adult-School Associations" 1818
+  "schools" for men with a membership of about 113,789; and 402 for
+  women with a membership of about 27,000. The movement, which is no
+  longer exclusively under the control of Friends, is rapidly becoming
+  one of the chief means of bringing about a religious fellowship among
+  a class which the organized churches have largely failed to reach. The
+  effect of the work upon the Society itself may be summarized thus:
+  some addition to membership; the creation of a sphere of usefulness
+  for the younger and more active members; a general stirring of
+  interest in social questions.[4]
+
+  A strong interest in Sunday schools for children preceded the Adult
+  School movement. The earliest schools which are still existing were
+  formed at Bristol, for boys in 1810 and for girls in the following
+  year. Several isolated efforts were made earlier than this; it is
+  evident that there was a school at Lothersdale near Skipton in 1800
+  "for the preservation of the youth of both sexes, and for their
+  instruction in useful learning"; and another at Nottingham. Even
+  earlier still were the Sunday and day schools in Rossendale,
+  Lancashire, dating from 1793. At the end of 1909 there were in
+  connexion with the Friends' First-Day School Association 240 schools
+  with 2722 teachers and 25,215 scholars, very few of whom were the
+  children of Friends. Not included in these figures are classes for
+  children of members and "attenders," which are usually held before or
+  during a portion of the time of the morning meeting for worship; in
+  these distinctly denominational teaching is given. Monthly organ,
+  _Teachers and Taught_.
+
+
+    Foreign missions.
+
+  A "provisional committee" of members of the Society of Friends was
+  formed in 1865 to deal with offers of service in foreign lands. In
+  1868 this developed into the Friends' Foreign Mission Association,
+  which now undertakes Missionary work in India (begun 1866), Madagascar
+  (1867), Syria (1869), China (1886), Ceylon (1896). In 1909 the number
+  of missionaries (including wives) was 113; organized churches, 194;
+  members and adherents, 21,085; schools, 135; pupils, 7042; hospitals
+  and dispensaries, 17; patients treated, 6865; subscriptions raised
+  from Friends in Great Britain and Ireland, L26,689, besides L3245
+  received in the fields of work. Quarterly organ, _Our Missions_.
+
+  _Statistics of Quakerism._--At the close of 1909 there were 18,686
+  Quakers (the number includes children) in Great Britain; and
+  "associates" and habitual "attenders" not in membership, 8586; number
+  of congregations regularly meeting, 390. Ireland--members, 2528;
+  habitual attenders not in membership, 402.
+
+  The central offices and reference library of the Society of Friends
+  are situate at Devonshire House, Bishopsgate Without, London.
+
+  _Bibliography._--The writings of the early Friends are very numerous:
+  the most noteworthy are the _Journals_ of George Fox and of Thomas
+  Ellwood, both autobiographies, the _Apology_ and other works of Robert
+  Barclay, and the works of Penn and Penington. Early in the 18th
+  century William Sewel, a Dutch Quaker, wrote a history of the Society
+  and published an English translation; modern (small) histories have
+  been written by T. Edmund Harvey (_The Rise of the Quakers_) and by
+  Mrs Emmott (_The Story of Quakerism_). _The Sufferings of the Quakers_
+  by Joseph Besse (1753) gives a detailed account of the persecution of
+  the early Friends in England and America. An excellent portraiture of
+  early Quakerism is given in William Tanner's _Lectures on Friends in
+  Bristol and Somersetshire_. _The Book of Discipline_ in its successive
+  printed editions from 1783 to 1906 contains the working rules of the
+  organization, and also a compilation of testimonies borne by the
+  Society at different periods, to important points of Christian truth,
+  and often called forth by the special circumstances of the time. _The
+  Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth_ (London,
+  1876) by Robert Barclay, a descendant of the Apologist, contains much
+  curious information about the Quakers. See also "Quaker" in the index
+  to Masson's _Life of Milton_. Joseph Smith's _Descriptive Catalogue of
+  Friends' Books_ (London, 1867) gives the information which its title
+  promises; the same author has also published a catalogue of works
+  hostile to Quakerism. For an exposition of Quakerism on its spiritual
+  side many of the poems by Whittier may be referred to, also _Quaker
+  Strongholds_ and _Light Arising_ by Caroline E. Stephen; _The Society
+  of Friends, its Faith and Practice_, and other works by John
+  Stephenson Rowntree, _A Dynamic Faith_ and other works by Rufus M.
+  Jones; _Authority and the Light Within_ and other works by Edw. Grubb,
+  and the series of "Swarthmore Lectures" as well as the histories above
+  mentioned. Much valuable information will be found in _John Stephenson
+  Rowntree: His Life and Work_ (1908). The history of the modern forward
+  movement may be studied in _Essays and Addresses_ by John Wilhelm
+  Rowntree, and in _Present Day Papers_ edited by him. The social life
+  of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th is portrayed in
+  _Records of a Quaker Family, the Richardsons of Cleveland_, by Mrs
+  Boyce, and _The Diaries of Edward Pease, the Father of English
+  Railways_, edited by Sir A. E. Pease. Other works which may usefully
+  be consulted are the Journals of John Woolman, Stephen Grellet and
+  Elizabeth Fry; also _The First Publishers of Truth_, a reprint of
+  contemporary accounts of the rise of Quakerism in various districts.
+  The periodicals issued (not officially) in connexion with the Quaker
+  body are _The Friend_ (weekly), _The British Friend_ (monthly), _The
+  Friends' Witness_, _The Friendly Messenger_, _The Friends' Fellowship
+  Papers_, _The Friends' Quarterly Examiner_, _Journal of the Friends'
+  Historical Society_. Officially issued: _The Book of Meetings_ and
+  _The Friends' Year Book_. See also works mentioned at the close of
+  sections on Adult Schools and on Quakerism in America, Scotland and
+  Ireland, and elsewhere in this article; also FOX, GEORGE. (A. N. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] At the time referred to, and during the Commonwealth, the pulpits
+    of the cathedrals and churches were occupied by Episcopalians of the
+    Richard Baxter type, Presbyterians, Independents and a few Baptists.
+    It is these, and not the clergy of the Church of England, who are
+    continually referred to by George Fox as "priests."
+
+  [2] On the whole subject of preaching "after the priest had done,"
+    see Barclay's _Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the
+    Commonwealth_, ch. xii.
+
+  [3] Woolman's _Journal_ and _Works_ are remarkable. He had a vision
+    of a political economy based not on selfishness but on love, not on
+    desire but on self-denial.
+
+  [4] See _A History of the Adult School Movement_ by J. W. Rowntree
+    and H. B. Binns. The organ of the movement is One and All, published
+    monthly. See also _The Adult School Year Book_.
+
+
+
+
+FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1794-1878), Swedish botanist, was born at Femsjo,
+Smaland, on the 15th of August 1794. From his father, the pastor of the
+church at Femsjo, he early acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering
+plants. In 1811 he entered the university of Lund, where in 1814 he was
+elected docent of botany and in 1824 professor. In 1834 he became
+professor of practical economy at Upsala, and in 1844 and 1848 he
+represented the university of that city in the Rigsdag. On the death of
+Goran Wahlenberg (1780-1851) he was appointed professor of botany at
+Upsala, where he died on the 8th of February 1878. Fries was admitted a
+member of the Swedish Royal Academy in 1847, and a foreign member of the
+Royal Society of London in 1875.
+
+  As an author on the Cryptogamia he was in the first rank. He wrote
+  _Novitiae florae Suecicae_ (1814 and 1823); _Observationes
+  mycologicae_ (1815); _Flora Hollandica_ (1817-1818); _Systema
+  mycologicum_ (1821-1829); _Systema orbis vegetabilis_, not completed
+  (1825); _Elenchus fungorum_ (1828); _Lichenographia Europaea_ (1831);
+  _Epicrisis systematis mycologici_ (1838; 2nd ed., or _Hymenomycetes
+  Europaei_, 1874); _Summa vegetabilium Scandinaviae_ (1846); _Sveriges
+  atliga och giftiga Svampar_, with coloured plates (1860); _Monographia
+  hymenomycetum Suecicae_ (1863), with the _Icones hymenomycetum_, vol.
+  i. (1867), and pt. i. vol. ii. (1877).
+
+
+
+
+FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH (1773-1843), German philosopher, was born at
+Barby, Saxony, on the 23rd of August 1773. Having studied theology in
+the academy of the Moravian brethren at Niesky, and philosophy at
+Leipzig and Jena, he travelled for some time, and in 1806 became
+professor of philosophy and elementary mathematics at Heidelberg. Though
+the progress of his psychological thought compelled him to abandon the
+positive theology of the Moravians, he always retained an appreciation
+of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philosophical position
+with regard to his contemporaries he had already made clear in the
+critical work _Reinhold, Fichte und Schelling_ (1803; reprinted in 1824
+as _Polemische Schriften_), and in the more systematic treatises _System
+der Philosophie als evidente Wissenschaft_ (1804), _Wissen, Glaube und
+Ahnung_ (1805, new ed. 1905). His most important treatise, the _Neue
+oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft_ (2nd ed., 1828-1831), was an
+attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis to the
+critical theory of Kant. In 1811 appeared his _System der Logik_ (ed.
+1819 and 1837), a very instructive work, and in 1814 _Julius und
+Evagoras_, a philosophical romance. In 1816 he was invited to Jena to
+fill the chair of theoretical philosophy (including mathematics and
+physics, and philosophy proper), and entered upon a crusade against the
+prevailing Romanticism. In politics he was a strong Liberal and
+Unionist, and did much to inspire the organization of the
+_Burschenschaft_. In 1816 he had published his views in a brochure, _Vom
+deutschen Bund und deutscher Staatsverfassung_, dedicated to "the youth
+of Germany," and his influence gave a powerful impetus to the agitation
+which led in 1819 to the issue of the Carlsbad Decrees by the
+representatives of the German governments. Karl Sand, the murderer of
+Kotzebue, was one of his pupils; and a letter of his, found on another
+student, warning the lad against participation in secret societies, was
+twisted by the suspicious authorities into evidence of his guilt. He was
+condemned by the Mainz Commission; the grand-duke of Weimar was
+compelled to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to
+lecture on philosophy. The grand-duke, however, continued to pay him his
+stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena as professor of mathematics
+and physics, receiving permission also to lecture on philosophy in his
+own rooms to a select number of students. Finally, in 1838, the
+unrestricted right of lecturing was restored to him. He died on the 10th
+of August 1843.
+
+  The most important of the many works written during his Jena
+  professorate are the _Handbuch der praktischen Philosophie_
+  (1817-1832), the _Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologie_ (1820-1821,
+  2nd ed. 1837-1839), _Die mathematische Naturphilosophie_ (1822),
+  _System der Metaphysik_ (1824), _Die Geschichte der Philosophie_
+  (1837-1840). Fries's point of view in philosophy may be described as a
+  modified Kantianism, an attempt to reconcile the criticism of Kant and
+  Jacobi's philosophy of belief. With Kant he regarded _Kritik_, or the
+  critical investigation of the faculty of knowledge, as the essential
+  preliminary to philosophy. But he differed from Kant both as regards
+  the foundation for this criticism and as regards the metaphysical
+  results yielded by it. Kant's analysis of knowledge had disclosed the
+  a priori element as the necessary complement of the isolated a
+  posteriori facts of experience. But it did not seem to Fries that Kant
+  had with sufficient accuracy examined the mode in which we arrive at
+  knowledge of this a priori element. According to him we only know
+  these a priori principles through inner or psychical experience; they
+  are not then to be regarded as transcendental factors of all
+  experience, but as the necessary, constant elements discovered by us
+  in our inner experience. Accordingly Fries, like the Scotch school,
+  places psychology or analysis of consciousness at the foundation of
+  philosophy, and called his criticism of knowledge an anthropological
+  critique. A second point in which Fries differed from Kant is the view
+  taken as to the relation between immediate and mediate cognitions.
+  According to Fries, the understanding is purely the faculty of proof;
+  it is in itself void; immediate certitude is the only source of
+  knowledge. Reason contains principles which we cannot demonstrate, but
+  which can be deduced, and are the proper objects of belief. In this
+  view of reason Fries approximates to Jacobi rather than to Kant. His
+  most original idea is the graduation of knowledge into knowing, belief
+  and presentiment. We know phenomena, how the existence of things
+  appears to us in nature; we believe in the true nature, the eternal
+  essence of things (the good, the true, the beautiful); by means of
+  presentiment (_Ahnung_) the intermediary between knowledge and belief,
+  we recognize the supra-sensible in the sensible, the being in the
+  phenomenon.
+
+  See E. L. Henke, _J. F. Fries_ (1867); C. Grapengiesser, _J. F. Fries,
+  ein Gedenkblatt_ and _Kant's "Kritik der Vernunft" und deren
+  Fortbildung durch J. F. Fries_ (1882); H. Strasosky, _J. F. Fries als
+  Kritiker der Kantischen Erkenntnistheorie_ (1891); articles in Ersch
+  and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_ and _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_; J. E. Erdmann, _Hist. of Philos._ (Eng. trans., London,
+  1890), vol. ii. S 305.
+
+
+
+
+FRIES, JOHN (c. 1764-1825), American insurgent leader, was born in
+Pennsylvania of "Dutch" (German) descent about 1764. As an itinerant
+auctioneer he became well acquainted with the Germans in the S.E. part
+of Pennsylvania. In July 1798, during the troubles between the United
+States and France, Congress levied a direct tax (on dwelling-houses,
+lands and slaves) of $2,000,000, of which Pennsylvania was called upon
+to contribute $237,000. There were very few slaves in the state, and the
+tax was accordingly assessed upon dwelling-houses and land, the value of
+the houses being determined by the number and size of the windows. The
+inquisitorial nature of the proceedings aroused strong opposition among
+the Germans, and many of them refused to pay. Fries, assuming
+leadership, organized an armed band of about sixty men, who marched
+about the country intimidating the assessors and encouraging the people
+to resist. At last the governor called out the militia (March 1799) and
+the leaders were arrested. Fries and two others were twice tried for
+treason (the second time before Samuel Chase) and were sentenced to be
+hanged, but they were pardoned by President Adams in April 1800, and a
+general amnesty was issued on 21st May. The affair is variously known as
+the "Fries Rebellion," the "Hot-Water Rebellion"--because hot water was
+used to drive assessors from houses--, and the "Home Tax Rebellion."
+Fries died in Philadelphia in 1825.
+
+  See T. Carpenter, _Two Trials of John Fries ... Taken in Shorthand_
+  (Philadelphia, 1800); the second volume of McMaster's _History of the
+  United States_ (New York, 1883); and W. W. H. Davis, _The Fries
+  Rebellion_ (Doylestown, Pa., 1899).
+
+
+
+
+FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND, a province of Holland, bounded S.W., W. and N.
+by the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, E. by Groningen and Drente, and
+S.E. by Overysel. It also includes the islands of Ameland and
+Schiermonnikoog (see FRISIAN ISLANDS). Area, 1281 sq. m.; pop. (1900)
+340,262. The soil of Friesland falls naturally into three divisions
+consisting of sea-clay in the north and north-west, of low-fen between
+the south-west and north-east, and of a comparatively small area of
+high-fen in the south-east. The clay and low-fen furnish a luxuriant
+meadow-land for the principal industries of the province--cattle-rearing
+and cheese- and butter-making. Horse-breeding has also been practised
+for centuries, and the breed of black Frisian horse is well known. On
+the clay lands agriculture is also extensively practised. In the
+high-fen district peat-digging is the chief occupation. The effect of
+this industry, however, is to lay bare a subsoil of diluvial sand which
+offers little inducement for subsequent cultivation. Despite the general
+productiveness of the soil, however, the social condition of Friesland
+has remained in a backward state and poverty is rife in many districts.
+The ownership of property being largely in the hands of absentee
+landlords, the peasantry have little interest in the land, the profits
+from which go to enrich other provinces. Moreover, the nature of the
+fertility of the meadow-lands is such as to require little manual
+labour, and other industrial means of subsistence have hardly yet come
+into existence. This state of affairs has given rise to a
+social-democratic outcry on account of which Friesland is sometimes
+regarded as the "Ireland of Holland." The water system of the province
+comprises a few small rivers (now largely canalized) in the high lands
+in the east, and the vast network of canals, waterways and lakes of the
+whole north and west. The principal lakes are Tjeuke Meer, Sloter Meer,
+De Fluessen and Sneeker Meer. The tides being lowest on the north coast
+of the province, the scheme of the Waterstaat, the government department
+(dating from 1879), provides for the largest removal of superfluous
+surface water into the Lauwerszee. But owing to the long distance which
+the water must travel from certain parts of the province, and the
+continual recession of the Lauwerszee, the drainage problem is a
+peculiarly difficult one, and floods are sometimes inevitable.
+
+The population of the province is evenly distributed in small villages.
+The principal market centres are Leeuwarden, the chief towns, Sneek,
+Bolsward, Franeker (qq.v.), Dokkum (4053) and Heerenveen (5011). With
+the exception of Franeker and Heerenveen all these towns originally
+arose on the inlet of the Middle Sea. The seaport towns are more or less
+decayed; they include Stavoren (820), Hindeloopen (1030), Workum (3428),
+Harlingen (q.v.) and Makkum (2456).
+
+  For history see FRISIANS.
+
+
+
+
+FRIEZE. 1. (Through the Fr. _frise_, and Ital. _fregio_, from the Lat.
+_Phrygium, sc. opus_, Phrygian or embroidered work), a term given in
+architecture to the central division of the entablature of an order (see
+ORDER), but also applied to any oblong horizontal feature, introduced
+for decorative purposes and enriched with carving. The Doric frieze had
+a structural origin as the triglyphs suggest vertical support. The Ionic
+frieze was purely decorative and probably did not exist in the earliest
+examples, if we may judge by the copies found in the Lycian tombs carved
+in the rock. There is no frieze in the Caryatide portico of the
+Erechtheum, but in the Ionic temples its introduction may have been
+necessitated in consequence of more height being required in the
+entablature to carry the beams supporting the lacunaria over the
+peristyle. In the frieze of the Erechtheum the figures (about 2 ft.
+high) were carved in white marble and affixed by clamps to a background
+of black Eleusinian marble. The frieze of the Choragic monument of
+Lysicrates (10 in. high) was carved with figures representing the story
+of Dionysus and the pirates. The most remarkable frieze ever sculptured
+was that on the outside of the wall of the cella of the Parthenon
+representing the procession of the celebrants of the Panathenaic
+Festival. It was 40 in. in height and 525 ft. long, being carried round
+the whole building under the peristyle. Nearly the whole of the western
+frieze exists _in situ_; of the remainder, about half is in the British
+Museum, and as much as remains is either in Athens or in other museums.
+In some of the Roman temples, as in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina
+and the temple of the Sun, the frieze is elaborately carved and in later
+work is made convex, to which the term "pulvinated" is given.
+
+2. (Probably connected with "frizz," to curl; there is no historical
+reason to connect the word with Friesland), a thick, rough woollen
+cloth, of very lasting quality, and with a heavy nap, forming small
+tufts or curls. It is largely manufactured in Ireland.
+
+
+
+
+FRIGATE (Fr. _fregate_, Span. and Port. _fragata_; the etymology of the
+word is obscure; it has been derived from the Late Lat. _fabricata_,
+and the use of the Fr. _batiment_, for a vessel as well as a building is
+compared; another suggestion derives the word from the Gr. [Greek:
+aphraktos], unfenced or unguarded), originally a small swift, undecked
+vessel, propelled by oars or sails, in use on the Mediterranean. The
+word is thus used of the large open boats, without guns, used for war
+purposes by the Portuguese in the East Indies during the 16th and 17th
+centuries. The French first applied the term to a particular type of
+ships of war during the second quarter of the 18th century. The Seven
+Years' War (1756-1763) marked the definite adoption of the "frigate" as
+a standard class of vessel, coming next to ships of the line, and used
+for cruising and scouting purposes. They were three-masted, fully
+rigged, fast vessels, with the main armament carried on a single deck,
+and additional guns on the poop and forecastle. The number of guns
+varied from 24 to 50, but between 30 and 40 guns was the usual amount
+carried. "Frigate" continued to be used as the name for this type of
+ship, even after the introduction of steam and of ironclad vessels, but
+the class is now represented by that known as "cruiser."
+
+
+
+
+FRIGATE-BIRD, the name commonly given by English sailors, on account of
+the swiftness of its flight, its habit of cruising about near other
+species and of daringly pursuing them, to a large sea-bird[1]--the
+_Fregata aquila_ of most ornithologists--the _Fregatte_ of French and
+the _Rabihorcado_ of Spanish mariners. It was placed by Linnaeus in the
+genus _Pelecanus_, and its assignment to the family _Pelecanidae_ had
+hardly ever been doubted till Professor St George Mivart declared
+(_Trans. Zool. Soc._ x. p. 364) that, as regards the postcranial part of
+its axial skeleton, he could not detect sufficiently good characters to
+unite it with that family in the group named by Professor J. F. Brandt
+_Steganopodes_. There seems to be no ground for disputing this decision
+so far as separating the genus _Fregata_ from the _Pelecanidae_ goes,
+but systematists will probably pause before they proceed to abolish the
+_Steganopodes_, and the result will most likely be that the
+frigate-birds will be considered to form a distinct family
+(_Fregatidae_) in that group. In one very remarkable way the osteology
+of _Fregata_ differs from that of all other birds known. The furcula
+coalesces firmly at its symphysis with the carina of the sternum, and
+also with the coracoids at the upper extremity of each of its rami, the
+anterior end of each coracoid coalescing also with the proximal end of
+the scapula. Thus the only articulations in the whole sternal apparatus
+are where the coracoids meet the sternum, and the consequence is a bony
+framework which would be perfectly rigid did not the flexibility of the
+rami of the furcula permit a limited amount of motion. That this
+mechanism is closely related to the faculty which the bird possesses of
+soaring for a considerable time in the air with scarcely a perceptible
+movement of the wings can hardly be doubted.
+
+Two species of _Fregata_ are considered to exist, though they differ in
+little but size and geographical distribution. The larger, _F. aquila_,
+has a wide range all round the world within the tropics and at times
+passes their limits. The smaller, _F. minor_, appears to be confined to
+the eastern seas, from Madagascar to the Moluccas, and southward to
+Australia, being particularly abundant in Torres Strait,--the other
+species, however, being found there as well. Having a spread of wing
+equal to a swan's and a very small body, the buoyancy of these birds is
+very great. It is a beautiful sight to watch one or more of them
+floating overhead against the deep blue sky, the long forked tail
+alternately opening and shutting like a pair of scissors, and the head,
+which is of course kept to windward, inclined from side to side, while
+the wings are to all appearance fixedly extended, though the breeze may
+be constantly varying in strength and direction. Equally fine is the
+contrast afforded by these birds when engaged in fishing, or, as seems
+more often to happen, in robbing other birds, especially boobies, as
+they are fishing. Then the speed of their flight is indeed seen to
+advantage, as well as the marvellous suddenness with which they can
+change their rapid course as their victim tries to escape from their
+attack. Before gales frigate-birds are said often to fly low, and their
+appearance near or over land, except at their breeding-time, is supposed
+to portend a hurricane.[2] Generally seen singly or in pairs, except
+when the prospect of prey induces them to congregate, they breed in
+large companies, and O. Salvin has graphically described (_Ibis_, 1864,
+p. 375) one of their settlements off the coast of British Honduras,
+which he visited in May 1862. Here they chose the highest
+mangrove-trees[3] on which to build their frail nests, and seemed to
+prefer the leeward side. The single egg laid in each nest has a white
+and chalky shell very like that of a cormorant's. The nestlings are
+clothed in pure white down, and so thickly as to resemble puff-balls.
+When fledged, the beak, head, neck and belly are white, the legs and
+feet bluish-white, but the body is dark above. The adult females retain
+the white beneath, but the adult males lose it, and in both sexes at
+maturity the upper plumage is of a very dark chocolate brown, nearly
+black, with a bright metallic gloss, while the feet in the females are
+pink, and black in the males--the last also acquiring a bright scarlet
+pouch, capable of inflation, and being perceptible when on the wing. The
+habits of _F. minor_ seem wholly to resemble those of _F. aquila_.
+According to J. M. Bechstein, an example of this last species was
+obtained at the mouth of the Weser in January 1792.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "Man-of-war-bird" is also sometimes applied to it, and is perhaps
+    the older name; but it is less distinctive, some of the larger
+    Albatrosses being so called, and, in books at least, has generally
+    passed out of use.
+
+  [2] Hence another of the names--"hurricane-bird"--by which this
+    species is occasionally known.
+
+  [3] Captain Taylor, however, found their nests as well on low bushes
+    of the same tree in the Bay of Fonseca (_Ibis_, 1859, pp. 150-152).
+
+
+
+
+FRIGG, the wife of the god Odin (Woden) in northern mythology. She was
+known also to other Teutonic peoples both on the continent (O. H. Ger.
+_Friia_, Langobardic _Frea_) and in England, where her name still
+survives in Friday (O. E. _Frigedaeg_). She is often wrongly identified
+with Freyia. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, _ad fin_.)
+
+
+
+
+FRIGIDARIUM, the Latin term (from _frigidus_, cold) applied to the open
+area of the Roman thermae, in which there was generally a cold swimming
+bath, and sometimes to the bath (see BATHS). From the description given
+by Aelius Spartianus (A.D. 297) it would seem that portions of the
+frigidarium were covered over by a ceiling formed of interlaced bars of
+gilt bronze, and this statement has been to a certain extent
+substantiated by the discovery of many tons of T-shaped iron found in
+the excavations under the paving of the frigidarium of the thermae of
+Caracalla. Dr J. H. Middleton in _The Remains of Ancient Rome_ (1892)
+points out that in the part of the enclosure walls are deep sinkings to
+receive the ends of the great girders. He suggests that the panels of
+the lattice-work ceiling were filled in with concrete made of light
+pumice stone.
+
+
+
+
+FRIIS, JOHAN (1494-1570), Danish statesman, was born in 1494, and was
+educated at Odense and at Copenhagen, completing his studies abroad. Few
+among the ancient Danish nobility occupy so prominent a place in Danish
+history as Johan Friis, who exercised a decisive influence in the
+government of the realm during the reign of three kings. He was one of
+the first of the magnates to adhere to the Reformation and its promoter
+King Frederick I. (1523-1533), his apostasy being so richly rewarded out
+of the spoils of the plundered Church that his heirs had to restore
+property of the value of 1,000,000 kroner. Friis succeeded Claus
+Gjoodsen as imperial chancellor in 1532, and held that dignity till his
+death. During the ensuing interregnum he powerfully contributed, at the
+head of the nobles of Funen and Jutland, to the election of Christian
+III. (1533-1559), but in the course of the "Count's War" he was taken
+prisoner by Count Christopher, the Catholic candidate for the throne,
+and forced to do him homage. Subsequently by judicious bribery he
+contrived to escape to Germany, and from thence rejoined Christian III.
+He was one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded peace with Lubeck at
+the congress of Hamburg, and subsequently took an active part in the
+great work of national reconstruction necessitated by the Reformation,
+acting as mediator between the Danish and the German parties who were
+contesting for supremacy during the earlier years of Christian III.
+This he was able to do, as a moderate Lutheran, whose calmness and
+common sense contrasted advantageously with the unbridled violence of
+his contemporaries. As the first chancellor of the reconstructed
+university of Copenhagen, Friis took the keenest interest in spiritual
+and scientific matters, and was the first donor of a legacy to the
+institution. He also enjoyed the society of learned men, especially of
+"those who could talk with him concerning ancient monuments and their
+history." He encouraged Hans Svaning to complete Saxo's history of
+Denmark, and Anders Vedel to translate Saxo into Danish. His generosity
+to poor students was well known; but he could afford to be liberal, as
+his share of spoliated Church property had made him one of the
+wealthiest men in Denmark. Under King Frederick II. (1559-1588), who
+understood but little of state affairs, Friis was well-nigh omnipotent.
+He was largely responsible for the Scandinavian Seven Years' War
+(1562-70), which did so much to exacerbate the relations between Denmark
+and Sweden. Friis died on the 5th of December 1570, a few days before
+the peace of Stettin, which put an end to the exhausting and unnecessary
+struggle.
+
+
+
+
+FRIMLEY, an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary division of
+Surrey, England, 33 m. W.S.W. from London by the London & South-Western
+railway, and 1 m. N. of Farnborough in Hampshire. Pop. (1901) 8409. Its
+healthy climate, its position in the sandy heath-district of the west of
+Surrey, and its proximity to Aldershot Camp have contributed to its
+growth as a residential township. To the east the moorland rises in the
+picturesque elevation of Chobham Ridges; and 3 m. N.E. is Bagshot,
+another village growing into a residential town, on the heath of the
+same name extending into Berkshire. Bisley Camp, to which in 1890 the
+meetings of the National Rifle Association were removed from Wimbledon,
+is 4 m. E. Coniferous trees and rhododendrons are characteristic
+products of the soil, and large nurseries are devoted to their
+cultivation.
+
+
+
+
+FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP, COUNT OF PALOTA, PRINCE OF ANTRODOCCO
+(1759-1831), Austrian general, entered the Austrian cavalry as a trooper
+in 1776, won his commission in the War of the Bavarian Succession, and
+took part in the Turkish wars and in the early campaigns against the
+French Revolutionary armies, in which he frequently earned distinction.
+At Frankenthal in 1796 he won the cross of Maria Theresa. In the
+campaign of 1800 he distinguished himself greatly as a cavalry leader at
+Marengo (14th of June), and in the next year became major-general. In
+the war of 1805 he was again employed in Italy and won further renown by
+his gallantry at the battle of Caldiero. In 1809 he again saw active
+service in Italy in the rank of lieutenant field marshal, and in 1812
+led the cavalry of Schwarzenberg's corps in the Russian campaign. He
+served in the campaigns of 1813-14 in high command, and rendered
+conspicuous service at Brienne-La Rothiere and at Arcis-sur-Aube. In
+1815 he was commander-in-chief of the Austrians in Italy, and his army
+penetrated France as far as Lyons, which was entered on the 11th of
+July. With the army of occupation he remained in France for some years,
+and in 1819 he commanded at Venice. In 1821 he led the Austrian army
+which was employed against the Neapolitan rebels, and by the 24th of
+March he had victoriously entered Naples. His reward from King Ferdinand
+of Naples was the title of prince of Antrodocco and a handsome sum of
+money, and from his own master the rank of general of cavalry. After
+this he commanded in North Italy, and was called upon to deal with many
+outbreaks of the Italian patriots. He became president of the Aulic
+council in 1831, but died a few months later.
+
+
+
+
+FRISCHES HAFF, a lagoon on the Baltic coast of Germany, within the
+provinces East and West Prussia, between Danzig and Konigsberg. It is 52
+m. in length, from 4 to 12 m. broad, 332 sq. m. in area, and is
+separated from the Baltic by a narrow spit or bank of land. This barrier
+was torn open by a storm in 1510, and the channel thus formed, now
+dredged out to a depth of 22 ft., affords a navigable passage for
+vessels. Into the Haff flow the Nogat, the Elbing, the Passarge, the
+Pregel and the Frisching, from the last of which the name Frisches Haff
+probably arose.
+
+
+
+
+FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS (1547-1590), German philologist and poet,
+was born on the 22nd of September 1547 at Balingen in Wurttemberg, where
+his father was parish minister. He was educated at the university of
+Tubingen, where in 1568 he was promoted to the chair of poetry and
+history. In 1575 for his comedy of _Rebecca_, which he read at
+Regensburg before the emperor Maximilian II., he was rewarded with the
+laureateship, and in 1577 he was made a count palatine (_comes
+palatinus_) or _Pfalzgraf_. In 1582 his unguarded language and reckless
+life made it necessary that he should leave Tubingen, and he accepted a
+mastership at Laibach in Carniola, which he held for about two years.
+Shortly after his return to the university in 1584, he was threatened
+with a criminal prosecution on a charge of immoral conduct, and the
+threat led to his withdrawal to Frankfort-on-Main in 1587. For eighteen
+months he taught in the Brunswick gymnasium, and he appears also to have
+resided occasionally at Strassburg, Marburg and Mainz. From the
+last-named city he wrote certain libellous letters, which led to his
+being arrested in March 1590. He was imprisoned in the fortress of
+Hohenurach, near Reutlingen, where, on the night of the 29th of November
+1590, he was killed by a fall in attempting to let himself down from the
+window of his cell.
+
+  Frischlin's prolific and versatile genius produced a great variety of
+  works, which entitle him to some rank both among poets and among
+  scholars. In his Latin verse he often successfully imitated the
+  classical models; his comedies are not without freshness and vivacity;
+  and some of his versions and commentaries, particularly those on the
+  _Georgics_ and _Bucolics_ of Virgil, though now well-nigh forgotten,
+  were important contributions to the scholarship of his time. There is
+  no collected edition of his works, but his _Opera poetica_ were
+  published twelve times between 1535 and 1636. Among those most widely
+  known may be mentioned the _Hebraeis_ (1590), a Latin epic based on
+  the Scripture history of the Jews; the _Elegiaca_ (1601), his
+  collected lyric poetry, in twenty-two books; the _Opera scenica_
+  (1604) consisting of six comedies and two tragedies (among the former,
+  _Julius Caesar redivivus_, completed 1584); the _Grammatica Latina_
+  (1585); the versions of Callimachus and Aristophanes; and the
+  commentaries on Persius and Virgil. See the monograph of D. F. Strauss
+  (_Leben und Schriften des Dichters und Philologen Frischlin_, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+FRISI, PAOLO (1728-1784), Italian mathematician and astronomer, was born
+at Milan on the 13th of April 1728. He was educated at the Barnabite
+monastery and afterwards at Padua. When twenty-one years of age he
+composed a treatise on the figure of the earth, and the reputation which
+he soon acquired led to his appointment by the king of Sardinia to the
+professorship of philosophy in the college of Casale. His friendship
+with Radicati, a man of liberal opinions, occasioned Frisi's removal by
+his clerical superiors to Novara, where he was compelled to do duty as a
+preacher. In 1753 he was elected a corresponding member of the Paris
+Academy of Sciences, and shortly afterwards he became professor of
+philosophy in the Barnabite College of St Alexander at Milan. An
+acrimonious attack by a young Jesuit, about this time, upon his
+dissertation on the figure of the earth laid the foundation of his
+animosity against the Jesuits, with whose enemies, including J.
+d'Alembert, J. A. N. Condorcet and other Encyclopedists, he later
+closely associated himself. In 1756 he was appointed by Leopold,
+grand-duke of Tuscany, to the professorship of mathematics in the
+university of Pisa, a post which he held for eight years. In 1757 he
+became an associate of the Imperial Academy of St Petersburg, and a
+foreign member of the Royal Society of London, and in 1758 a member of
+the Academy of Berlin, in 1766 of that of Stockholm, and in 1770 of the
+Academies of Copenhagen and of Bern. From several European crowned heads
+he received, at various times, marks of special distinction, and the
+empress Maria Theresa granted him a yearly pension of 100 sequins (L50).
+In 1764 he was created professor of mathematics in the palatine schools
+at Milan, and obtained from Pope Pius VI. release from ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction, and authority to become a secular priest. In 1766 he
+visited France and England, and in 1768 Vienna. In 1777 he became
+director of a school of architecture at Milan. His knowledge of
+hydraulics caused him to be frequently consulted with respect to the
+management of canals and other watercourses in various parts of Europe.
+It was through his means that lightning-conductors were first introduced
+into Italy for the protection of buildings. He died on the 22nd of
+November 1784.
+
+  His publications include:--_Disquisitio mathematica in causam physicam
+  figurae et magnitudinis terrae_ (Milan, 1751); _Saggio della morale
+  filosofia_ (Lugano, 1753); _Nova electricitatis theoria_ (Milan,
+  1755); _Dissertatio de motu diurno terrae_ (Pisa, 1758);
+  _Dissertationes variae_ (2 vols. 4to, Lucca, 1759, 1761); _Del modo di
+  regolare i fiumi e i torrenti_ (Lucca, 1762); _Cosmographia physica et
+  mathematica_ (Milan, 1774, 1775, 2 vols. 4to, his chief work); _Dell'
+  architettura, statica e idraulica_ (Milan, 1777); and other treatises.
+
+  See Verri, _Memorie ... del signor dom Paolo Frisi_ (Milan, 1787),
+  4to; Fabbroni, "Elogi d' illustri Italiani," _Atti di Milano_, vol.
+  ii.; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biograph. litterar. Handworterbuch_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+FRISIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands, lying from 3 to 20 m. from the
+mainland, and stretching from the Zuider Zee E. and N. as far as
+Jutland, along the coasts of Holland and Germany. They are divided into
+three groups:--(1) The West Frisian, (2) the East Frisian, and (3) the
+North Frisian.
+
+The chain of the Frisian Islands marks the outer fringe of the former
+continental coast-line, and is separated from the mainland by shallows,
+known as Wadden or Watten, answering to the _maria vadosa_ of the
+Romans. Notwithstanding the protection afforded by sand-dunes and
+earthen embankments backed by stones and timber, the Frisian Islands are
+slowly but surely crumbling away under the persistent attacks of storm
+and flood, and the old Frisian proverb "_de nich will diken mut wiken_"
+("who will not build dikes must go away") still holds good. Many of the
+Frisian legends and folk-songs deal with the submerged villages and
+hamlets, which lie buried beneath the treacherous waters of the Wadden.
+Heinrich Heine made use of these legends in his _Nordseebilder_,
+composed during a visit to Norderney in 1825. The Prussian and Dutch
+governments annually expend large sums for the protection of the
+islands, and in some cases the erosion on the seaward side is
+counterbalanced by the accretion of land on the inner side, fine sandy
+beaches being formed well suited for sea-bathing, which attract many
+visitors in summer. The inhabitants of these islands support themselves
+by seafaring, pilotage, grazing of cattle and sheep, fishing and a
+little agriculture, chiefly potato-growing.
+
+The islands, though well lighted, are dangerous to navigation, and a
+glance at a wreck chart will show the entire chain to be densely dotted.
+One of the most remarkable disasters was the loss of H.M.S. "La Lutine,"
+32 guns, which was wrecked off Vlieland in October 1799, only one hand
+being saved, who died before reaching England. "La Lutine," which had
+been captured from the French by Admiral Duncan, was carrying a large
+quantity of bullion and specie, which was underwritten at Lloyd's. The
+Dutch government claimed the wreck and granted one-third of the salvage
+to bullion-fishers. Occasional recoveries were made of small quantities
+which led to repeated disputes and discussions, until eventually the
+king of the Netherlands ceded to Great Britain, for Lloyd's, half the
+remainder of the wreck. A Dutch salvage company, which began operations
+in August 1857, recovered L99,893 in the course of two years, but it was
+estimated that some L1,175,000 are still unaccounted for. The ship's
+rudder, which was recovered in 1859, has been fashioned into a chair and
+a table, now in the possession of Lloyd's.
+
+
+  West Frisian.
+
+The West Frisian Islands belong to the kingdom of the Netherlands, and
+embrace Texel or Tessel (71 sq. m.), Vlieland (19 sq. m.), Terschelling
+(41 sq. m.), Ameland (23 sq. m.), Schiermonnikoog (19 sq. m.), as well
+as the much smaller islands of Boschplaat and Rottum, which are
+practically uninhabited. The northern end of Texel is called Eierland,
+or "island of eggs," in reference to the large number of sea-birds' eggs
+which are found there. It was joined to Texel by a sand-dike in
+1629-1630, and is now undistinguishable from the main island. Texel was
+already separated from the mainland in the 8th century, but remained a
+Frisian province and countship, which once extended as far as Alkmaar in
+North Holland, until it came into the possession of the counts of
+Holland. The island was occupied by British troops from August to
+December 1799. The village of Oude Schild has a harbour. The island of
+Terschelling once formed a separate lordship, but was sold to the states
+of Holland. The principal village of West-Terschelling has a harbour. As
+early as the beginning of the 9th century Ameland was a lordship of the
+influential family of Cammingha who held immediately of the emperor, and
+in recognition of their independence the Amelanders were in 1369
+declared to be neutral in the fighting between Holland and Friesland,
+while Cromwell made the same declaration in 1654 with respect to the war
+between England and the United Netherlands. The castle of the Camminghas
+in the village of Ballum remained standing till 1810, and finally
+disappeared in 1829 after four centuries. This island is joined to the
+mainland of Friesland by a stone dike constructed in 1873 for the
+purpose of promoting the deposit of mud. The island of Schiermonnikoog
+has a village and a lighthouse. Rottum was once the property of the
+ancient abbey at Rottum, 8 m. N. of Groningen, of which there are slight
+remains.
+
+
+  East Frisian.
+
+With the exception of Wangeroog, which belongs to the grand duchy of
+Oldenburg, the East Frisian Islands belong to Prussia. They comprise
+Borkum (12-1/2 sq. m.), with two lighthouses and connected by steamer
+with Emden and Leer; Memmert; Juist (2-1/4 sq. m.), with two lifeboat
+stations, and connected by steamer with Norddeich and Greetsiel;
+Norderney (5-1/2 sq. m.); Baltrum, with a lifeboat station; Langeoog (8
+sq. m.), connected by steamer with the adjacent islands, and with
+Bensersiel on the mainland; Spiekeroog (4 sq. m.), with a tramway for
+conveyance to the bathing beach, and connected by steamer with
+Carolinenziel; and Wangeroog (2 sq. m.), with a lighthouse and lifeboat
+station. All these islands are visited for sea-bathing. In the beginning
+of the 18th century Wangeroog comprised eight times its present area.
+Borkum and Juist are two surviving fragments of the original island of
+Borkum (computed at 380 sq. m.), known to Drusus as _Fabaria_, and to
+Pliny as _Burchana_, which was rent asunder by the sea in 1170. Neuwerk
+and Scharhorn, situated off the mouth of the Elbe, are islands belonging
+to the state of Hamburg. Neuwerk, containing some marshland protected by
+dikes, has two lighthouses and a lifeboat station. At low water it can
+be reached from Duhnen by carriage.
+
+
+  North Frisian.
+
+About the year 1250 the area of the North Frisian Islands was estimated
+at 1065 sq. m.; by 1850 this had diminished to only 105 sq. m. This
+group embraces the islands of Nordstrand (17-1/4 sq. m.), which up to
+1634 formed one larger island with the adjoining Pohnshallig and
+Nordstrandisch-Moor; Pellworm (16-1/4 sq. m.), protected by a circle of
+dikes and connected by steamer with Husum on the mainland; Amrum (10-1/2
+sq. m.); Fohr (32 sq. m.); Sylt (38 sq. m.); Rom (16 sq. m.), with
+several villages, the principal of which is Kirkeby; Fano (21 sq. m.);
+and Heligoland (1/4 sq. m.). With the exception of Fano, which is
+Danish, all these islands belong to Prussia. In the North Frisian group
+there are also several smaller islands called Halligen. These rise
+generally only a few feet above the level of the sea, and are crowned by
+a single house standing on an artificial mound and protected by a
+surrounding dike or embankment.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Staring, _De Bodem van Nederland_ (1856); Blink,
+  _Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (1892); P. H. Witkamp, _Aardrijkskundig
+  Woordenboek van Nederland_ (1895); P. W. J. Teding van Berkhout, _De
+  Landaanwinning op de Friesche Wadden_ (1869); J. de Vries and T.
+  Focken, _Ostfriesland_ (1881); Dr D. F. Buitenrust Hettema, _Fryske
+  Bybleteek_ (Utrecht, 1895); Dr Eugen Traeger, _Die Halligen der
+  Nordsee_ (Stuttgart, 1892); also _Globus_, vol. lxxviii. (1900), No.
+  15; P. Axelsen, in _Deut. Rundschau fur Geog. u. Statistik_ (1898);
+  Christian Jensen, _Vom Dunenstrand der Nordsee und vom Wattenmeer_
+  (Schleswig, 1901), which contains a bibliography; _Osterloh, Wangeroog
+  und sein Seebad_ (Emden, 1884); Zwickert, _Fuhrer durch das Nordseebad
+  Wangeroog_ (Oldenburg, 1894); Nellner, _Die Nordseeinsel Spickeroog_
+  (Emden, 1884); Tongers, _Die Nordseeinsel Langeoog_ (2nd ed., Norden,
+  1892); Meier, _Die Nordseeinsel Borkum_ (10th ed., Emden, 1894);
+  Herquet, _Die Insel Borkum_, &c. (Emden, 1886); Scherz, _Die
+  Nordseeinsel Juist_ (2nd ed., Norden, 1893); von Bertouch, _Vor 40
+  Jahren: Natur und Kultur auf der Insel Nordstrand_ (Weimar, 1891); W.
+  G. Black, _Heligoland and the Islands of the North Sea_ (Glasgow,
+  1888).
+
+
+
+
+FRISIANS (Lat. _Frisii_; in Med. Lat. _Frisones_, _Frisiones_,
+_Fresones_; in their own tongue _Fresa_, _Fresen_), a people of Teutonic
+(Low-German) stock, who in the first century of our era were found by
+the Romans in occupation of the coast lands stretching from the mouth of
+the Scheldt to that of the Ems. They were nearly related both by speech
+and blood to the Saxons and Angles, and other Low German tribes, who
+lived to the east of the Ems and in Holstein and Schleswig. The first
+historical notices of the Frisians are found in the _Annals_ of Tacitus.
+They were rendered (or a portion of them) tributary by Drusus, and
+became _socii_ of the Roman people. In A.D. 28 the exactions of a Roman
+official drove them to revolt, and their subjection was henceforth
+nominal. They submitted again to Cn. Domitius Corbulo in the year 47,
+but shortly afterwards the emperor Claudius ordered the withdrawal of
+all Roman troops to the left bank of the Rhine. In 58 they attempted
+unsuccessfully to appropriate certain districts between the Rhine and
+the Yssel, and in 70 they took part in the campaign of Claudius Civilis.
+From this time onwards their name practically disappears. As regards
+their geographical position Ptolemy states that they inhabited the coast
+above the Bructeri as far as the Ems, while Tacitus speaks of them as
+adjacent to the Rhine. But there is some reason for believing that the
+part of Holland which lies to the west of the Zuider Zee was at first
+inhabited by a different people, the Canninefates, a sister tribe to the
+Batavi. A trace of this people is perhaps preserved in the name
+Kennemerland or Kinnehem, formerly applied to the same district.
+Possibly, therefore, Tacitus's statement holds good only for the period
+subsequent to the revolt of Civilis, when we hear of the Canninefates
+for the last time.
+
+In connexion with the movements of the migration period the Frisians are
+hardly ever mentioned, though some of them are said to have surrendered
+to the Roman prince Constantius about the year 293. On the other hand we
+hear very frequently of Saxons in the coast regions of the Netherlands.
+Since the Saxons (Old Saxons) of later times were an inland people, one
+can hardly help suspecting either that the two nations have been
+confused or, what is more probable, that a considerable mixture of
+population, whether by conquest or otherwise, had taken place. Procopius
+(_Goth._ iv. 20) speaks of the Frisians as one of the nations which
+inhabited Britain in his day, but we have no evidence from other sources
+to bear out his statement. In Anglo-Saxon poetry mention is frequently
+made of a Frisian king named Finn, the son of Folcwalda, who came into
+conflict with a certain Hnaef, a vassal of the Danish king Healfdene,
+about the middle of the 5th century. Hnaef was killed, but his followers
+subsequently slew Finn in revenge. The incident is obscure in many
+respects, but it is perhaps worth noting that Hnaef's chief follower,
+Hengest, may quite possibly be identical with the founder of the Kentish
+dynasty. About the year 520 the Frisians are said to have joined the
+Frankish prince Theodberht in destroying a piratical expedition which
+had sailed up the Rhine under Chocilaicus (Hygelac), king of the Gotar.
+Towards the close of the century they begin to figure much more
+prominently in Frankish writings. There is no doubt that by this time
+their territories had been greatly extended in both directions. Probably
+some Frisians took part with the Angles and Saxons in their sea-roving
+expeditions, and assisted their neighbours in their invasions and
+subsequent conquest of England and the Scottish lowlands.
+
+The rise of the power of the Franks and the advance of their dominion
+northwards brought on a collision with the Frisians, who in the 7th
+century were still in possession of the whole of the seacoast, and
+apparently ruled over the greater part of modern Flanders. Under the
+protection of the Frankish king Dagobert (622-638), the Christian
+missionaries Amandus (St Amand) and Eligius (St Eloi) attempted the
+conversion of these Flemish Frisians, and their efforts were attended
+with a certain measure of success; but farther north the building of a
+church by Dagobert at Trajectum (Utrecht) at once aroused the fierce
+hostility of the heathen tribesmen of the Zuider Zee. The "free"
+Frisians could not endure this Frankish outpost on their borders.
+Utrecht was attacked and captured, and the church destroyed. The first
+missionary to meet with any success among the Frisians was the
+Englishman Wilfrid of York, who, being driven by a storm upon the coast,
+was hospitably received by the king, Adgild or Adgisl, and was allowed
+to preach Christianity in the land. Adgild appears to have admitted the
+overlordship of the Frankish king, Dagobert II. (675). Under his
+successor, however, Radbod (Frisian Redbad), an attempt was made to
+extirpate Christianity and to free the Frisians from the Frankish
+subjection. He was, however, beaten by Pippin of Heristal in the battle
+of Dorstadt (689), and was compelled to cede West Frisia (_Frisia
+citerior_) from the Scheldt to the Zuider Zee to the conqueror. On
+Pippin's death Radbod again attacked the Franks and advanced as far as
+Cologne, where he defeated Charles Martel, Pippin's natural son.
+Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and compelled the Frisians to
+submit. Radbod died in 719, but for some years his successors struggled
+against the Frankish power. A final defeat was, however, inflicted upon
+them by Charles Martel in 734, which secured the supremacy of the Franks
+in the north, though it was not until the days of Charles the Great
+(785) that the subjection of the Frisians was completed. Meanwhile
+Christianity had been making its conquests in the land, mainly through
+the lifelong labours and preaching of the Englishman Willibrord, who
+came to Frisia in 692 and made Utrecht his headquarters. He was
+consecrated (695) at Rome archbishop of the Frisians, and on his return
+founded a number of bishoprics in the northern Netherlands, and
+continued his labours unremittingly until his death in 739. It is an
+interesting fact that both Wilfrid and Willibrord appear to have found
+no difficulty from the first in preaching to the Frisians in their
+native dialect, which was so nearly allied to their own Anglo-Saxon
+tongue. The see of Utrecht founded by Willibrord has remained the chief
+see of the Northern Netherlands from his day to our own. Friesland was
+likewise the scene of a portion of the missionary labours of a greater
+than Willibrord, the famous Boniface, the Apostle of the Germans, also
+an Englishman. It was at Dokkum in Friesland that he met a martyr's
+death (754).
+
+Charles the Great granted the Frisians important privileges under a code
+known as the _Lex Frisionum_, based upon the ancient laws of the
+country. They received the title of freemen and were allowed to choose
+their own _podestat_ or imperial governor. In the _Lex Frisionum_ three
+districts are clearly distinguished: West Frisia from the Zwin to the
+Flie; Middle Frisia from the Flie to the Lauwers; East Frisia from the
+Lauwers to the Weser. At the partition treaty of Verdun (843) Frisia
+became part of Lotharingia or Lorraine; at the treaty of Mersen (870) it
+was divided between the kingdoms of the East Franks (Austrasia) and the
+West Franks (Westrasia); in 880 the whole country was united to
+Austrasia; in 911 it fell under the dominion of Charles the Simple, king
+of the West Franks, but the districts of East Frisia asserted their
+independence and for a long time governed themselves after a very simple
+democratic fashion. The history of West Frisia gradually loses itself in
+that of the countship of Holland and the see of Utrecht (see HOLLAND and
+UTRECHT).
+
+The influence of the Frisians during the interval between the invasion
+of Britain and the loss of their independence must have been greater
+than is generally recognized. They were a seafaring people and engaged
+largely in trade, especially perhaps the slave trade, their chief
+emporium being Wyk te Duurstede. During the period in question there is
+considerable archaeological evidence for intercourse between the west
+coast of Norway and the regions south of the North Sea, and it is worth
+noting that this seems to have come to an end early in the 9th century.
+Probably it is no mere accident that the first appearance, or rather
+reappearance, of Scandinavian pirates in the west took place shortly
+after the overthrow of the Frisians. Since Radbod's dominions extended
+from Duerstede to Heligoland his power must have been by no means
+inconsiderable.
+
+Besides the Frisians discussed above there is a people called North
+Frisians, who inhabit the west coast of Schleswig. At present a Frisian
+dialect is spoken only between Tondern and Husum, but formerly it
+extended farther both to the north and south. In historical times these
+North Frisians were subjects of the Danish kingdom and not connected in
+any way with the Frisians of the empire. They are first mentioned by
+Saxo Grammaticus in connexion with the exile of Knud V. Saxo recognized
+that they were of Frisian origin, but did not know when they had first
+settled in this region. Various opinions are still held with regard to
+the question; but it seems not unlikely that the original settlers were
+Frisians who had been expelled by the Franks in the 8th century. Whether
+the North Frisian language is entirely of Frisian origin is somewhat
+doubtful owing to the close relationship which Frisian bears to English.
+The inhabitants of the neighbouring islands, Sylt, Amrum and Fohr, who
+speak a kindred dialect, have apparently never regarded themselves as
+Frisians, and it is the view of many scholars that they are the direct
+descendants of the ancient Saxons.
+
+In 1248 William of Holland, having become emperor, restored to the
+Frisians in his countship their ancient liberties in reward for the
+assistance they had rendered him in the siege of Aachen; but in 1254
+they revolted, and William lost his life in the contest which ensued.
+After many struggles West Friesland became completely subdued, and was
+henceforth virtually absorbed in the county of Holland. But the
+Frieslanders east of the Zuider Zee obstinately resisted repeated
+attempts to bring them into subjection. In the course of the 14th
+century the country was in a state of anarchy; petty lordships sprang
+into existence, the interests of the common weal were forgotten or
+disregarded, and the people began to be split up into factions, and
+these were continually carrying on petty warfare with one another. Thus
+the Fetkoopers (Fatmongers) of Oostergoo had endless feuds with the
+Schieringers (Eelfishers) of Westergoo.
+
+This state of affairs favoured the attempts of the counts of Holland to
+push their conquests eastward, but the main body of the Frisians was
+still independent when the countship of Holland passed into the hands of
+Philip the Good of Burgundy. Philip laid claim to the whole country, but
+the people appealed to the protection of the empire, and Frederick III.,
+in August 1457, recognized their direct dependence on the empire and
+called on Philip to bring forward formal proof of his rights. Philip's
+successor, Charles the Bold, summoned an assembly of notables at
+Enkhuizen in 1469, in order to secure their homage; but the conference
+was without result, and the duke's attention was soon absorbed by other
+and more important affairs. The marriage of Maximilian of Austria with
+the heiress of Burgundy was to be productive of a change in the fortunes
+of that part of Frisia which lies between the Vlie and the Lauwers. In
+1498 Maximilian reversed the policy of his father Frederick III., and
+detached this territory, known afterwards as the province of Friesland,
+from the empire. He gave it as a fief to Albert of Saxony, who
+thoroughly crushed out all resistance. In 1523 it fell with all the rest
+of the provinces of the Netherlands under the strong rule of the emperor
+Charles, the grandson of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy.
+
+That part of Frisia which lies to the east of the Lauwers had a divided
+history. The portion which lies between the Lauwers and the Ems after
+some struggles for independence had, like the rest of the country, to
+submit itself to Charles. It became ultimately the province of the town
+and district of Groningen (Stadt en Landen) (see GRONINGEN). The
+easternmost part between the Ems and the Weser, which had since 1454
+been a county, was ruled by the descendants of Edzard Cirksena, and was
+attached to the empire. The last of the Cirksenas, Count Charles Edward,
+died in 1744 and in default of heirs male the king of Prussia took
+possession of the county.
+
+The province of Friesland was one of the seven provinces which by the
+treaty known as the Union of Utrecht bound themselves together to resist
+the tyranny of Spain. From 1579 to 1795 Friesland remained one of the
+constituent parts of the republic of the United Provinces, but it always
+jealously insisted on its sovereign rights, especially against the
+encroachments of the predominant province of Holland. It maintained
+throughout the whole of the republican period a certain distinctiveness
+of nationality, which was marked by the preservation of a different
+dialect and of a separate stadtholder. Count William Lewis of
+Nassau-Siegen, nephew and son-in-law of William the Silent, was chosen
+stadtholder, and through all the vicissitudes of the 17th and 18th
+centuries the stadtholdership was held by one of his descendants.
+Frederick Henry of Orange was stadtholder of six provinces, but not of
+Friesland, and even during the stadtholderless periods which followed
+the deaths of William II. and William III. of Orange the Frisians
+remained stanch to the family of Nassau-Siegen. Finally, by the
+revolution of 1748, William of Nassau-Siegen, stadtholder of Friesland
+(who, by default of heirs male of the elder line, had become William
+IV., prince of Orange), was made hereditary stadtholder of all the
+provinces. His grandson in 1815 took the title of William I., king of
+the Netherlands. The male line of the "Frisian" Nassaus came to an end
+with the death of King William III. in 1890.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY--See Tacitus, _Ann._ iv. 72 f., xi. 19 f., xiii. 54;
+  _Hist._ iv. 15 f.; _Germ._ 34; Ptolemy, _Geogr._ ii. 11, S 11; Dio
+  Cassius liv. 32; Eumenius, _Paneg._ iv. 9; the Anglo-Saxon poems,
+  Finn, Beowulf and Widsith; _Fredegarii Chronici continuatio_ and
+  various German Annals; _Gesta regum Francorum_; Eddius, _Vita
+  Wilfridi_, cap. 25 f.; Bede, _Hist. Eccles_, iv. 22, v. 9 f.; Alcuin,
+  _Vita Willebrordi_; I. Undset, _Aarbger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_
+  (1880), p. 89 ff. (cf. E. Mogk in Paul's _Grundriss d. germ.
+  Philologie_ ii. p. 623 ff.); Ubbo Emmius, _Rerum Frisicarum historia_
+  (Leiden, 1616); Pirius Winsemius, _Chronique van Vriesland_ (Franoker,
+  1822); C. Scotanus, _Beschryvinge end Chronyck van des Heerlickheydt
+  van Frieslandt_ (1655); _Groot Placaat en Charter-boek van Friesland_
+  (ed. Baron C. F. zu Schwarzenberg) (5 vols., Leeuwarden, 1768-1793);
+  T. D. Wiarda, _Ost-frieschische Gesch._ (vols. i.-ix., Aurich, 1791)
+  (vol. x., Bremen, 1817); J. Dirks, _Geschiedkundig onderzoek van den
+  Koophandel der Friezen_ (Utrecht, 1846); O. Klopp, _Gesch.
+  Ostfrieslands_ (3 vols., Hanover, 1854-1858); Hooft van Iddekinge,
+  _Friesland en de Friezen in de Middeleeuwen_ (Leiden, 1881); A.
+  Telting, _Het Oudfriesche Stadrecht_ (The Hague, 1882); P. J. Blok,
+  _Friesland im Mittelalter_ (Leer, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+FRITH (or FRYTH), JOHN (c. 1503-1533), English Reformer and Protestant
+martyr, was born at Westerham, Kent. He was educated at Eton and King's
+College, Cambridge, where Gardiner, afterwards bishop of Winchester, was
+his tutor. At the invitation of Cardinal Wolsey, after taking his degree
+he migrated (December 1525) to the newly founded college of St
+Frideswide or Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford. The
+sympathetic interest which he showed in the Reformation movement in
+Germany caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and led to his
+imprisonment for some months. Subsequently he appears to have resided
+chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university of Marburg, where he
+became acquainted with several scholars and reformers of note,
+especially Patrick Hamilton (q.v.). Frith's first publication was a
+translation of Hamilton's _Places_, made shortly after the martyrdom of
+its author; and soon afterwards the _Revelation of Antichrist_, a
+translation from the German, appeared, along with _A Pistle to the
+Christen Reader_, by "Richard Brightwell" (supposed to be Frith), and
+_An Antithesis wherein are compared togeder Christes Actes and our Holye
+Father the Popes_, dated "at Malborow in the lande of Hesse," 12th July
+1529. His _Disputacyon of Purgatorye_, a treatise in three books,
+against Rastell, Sir T. More and Fisher (bishop of Rochester)
+respectively, was published at the same place in 1531. While at Marburg,
+Frith also assisted Tyndale, whose acquaintance he had made at Oxford
+(or perhaps in London) in his literary labours. In 1532 he ventured back
+to England, apparently on some business in connexion with the prior of
+Reading. Warrants for his arrest were almost immediately issued at the
+instance of Sir T. More, then lord chancellor. Frith ultimately fell
+into the hands of the authorities at Milton Shore in Essex, as he was on
+the point of making his escape to Flanders. The rigour of his
+imprisonment in the Tower was somewhat abated when Sir T. Audley
+succeeded to the chancellorship, and it was understood that both
+Cromwell and Cranmer were disposed to show great leniency. But the
+treacherous circulation of a manuscript "lytle treatise" on the
+sacraments, which Frith had written for the information of a friend, and
+without any view to publication, served further to excite the hostility
+of his enemies. In consequence of a sermon preached before him against
+the "sacramentaries," the king ordered that Frith should be examined; he
+was afterwards tried and found guilty of having denied, with regard to
+the doctrines of purgatory and of transubstantiation, that they were
+necessary articles of faith. On the 23rd of June 1533 he was handed over
+to the secular arm, and at Smithfield on the 4th of July following he
+was burnt at the stake. During his captivity he wrote, besides several
+letters of interest, a reply to More's letter against Frith's "lytle
+treatise"; also two tracts entitled _A Mirror or Glass to know thyself_,
+and _A Mirror or Looking-glass wherein you may behold the Sacrament of
+Baptism_.
+
+Frith is an interesting and so far important figure in English
+ecclesiastical history as having been the first to maintain and defend
+that doctrine regarding the sacrament of Christ's body and blood, which
+ultimately came to be incorporated in the English communion office.
+Twenty-three years after Frith's death as a martyr to the doctrine of
+that office, that "Christ's natural body and blood are in Heaven, not
+here," Cranmer, who had been one of his judges, went to the stake for
+the same belief. Within three years more, it had become the publicly
+professed faith of the entire English nation.
+
+  See A. a Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (ed. P. Bliss, 1813), i. p. 74;
+  John Foxe, _Acts and Monuments_ (ed. G. Townshend, 1843-1849), v. pp.
+  1-16 (also Index); G. Burnet, _Hist. of the Reformation of the Church
+  of England_ (ed. N. Pocock, 1865), i. p. 273; L. Richmond, _The
+  Fathers of the English Church_, i. (1807); _Life and Martyrdom of John
+  Frith_ (London, 1824), published by the Church of England Tract
+  Society; Deborah Alcock, _Six Heroic Men_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (1819-1909), English painter, was born at
+Aldfield, in Yorkshire, on the 9th of January 1819. His parents moved in
+1826 to Harrogate, where his father became landlord of the Dragon Inn,
+and it was then that the boy began his general education at a school at
+Knaresborough. Later he went for about two years to a school at St
+Margaret's, near Dover, where he was placed specially under the
+direction of the drawing-master, as a step towards his preparation for
+the profession which his father had decided on as the one that he wished
+him to adopt. In 1835 he was entered as a student in the well-known art
+school kept by Henry Sass in Bloomsbury, from which he passed after two
+years to the Royal Academy schools. His first independent experience was
+gained in 1839, when he went about for some months in Lincolnshire
+executing several commissions for portraits; but he soon began to
+attempt compositions, and in 1840 his first picture, "Malvolio,
+cross-gartered before the Countess Olivia," appeared at the Royal
+Academy. During the next few years he produced several notable
+paintings, among them "Squire Thornhill relating his town adventures to
+the Vicar's family," and "The Village Pastor," which established his
+reputation as one of the most promising of the younger men of that time.
+This last work was exhibited in 1845, and in the autumn of that year he
+was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. His promotion to the rank
+of Academician followed in 1853, when he was chosen to fill the vacancy
+caused by Turner's death. The chief pictures painted by him during his
+tenure of Associateship were: "An English Merry-making in the Olden
+Time," "Old Woman accused of Witchcraft," "The Coming of Age," "Sancho
+and Don Quixote," "Hogarth before the Governor of Calais," and the
+"Scene from Goldsmith's 'Good-natured Man,'" which was commissioned in
+1850 by Mr Sheepshanks, and bequeathed by him to the South Kensington
+Museum. Then came a succession of large compositions which gained for
+the artist an extraordinary popularity. "Life at the Seaside," better
+known as "Ramsgate Sands," was exhibited in 1854, and was bought by
+Queen Victoria; "The Derby Day," in 1858; "Claude Duval," in 1860; "The
+Railway Station," in 1862; "The Marriage of the Prince of Wales,"
+painted for Queen Victoria, in 1865; "The Last Sunday of Charles II.,"
+in 1867; "The Salon d'Or," in 1871; "The Road to Ruin," a series, in
+1878; a similar series, "The Race for Wealth," shown at a gallery in
+King Street, St James's, in 1880; "The Private View," in 1883; and "John
+Knox at Holyrood," in 1886. Frith also painted a considerable number of
+portraits of well-known people. In 1889 he became an honorary retired
+academician. His "Derby Day" is in the National Gallery of British Art.
+In his youth, in common with the men by whom he was surrounded, he had
+leanings towards romance, and he scored many successes as a painter of
+imaginative subjects. In these he proved himself to be possessed of
+exceptional qualities as a colourist and manipulator, qualities that
+promised to earn for him a secure place among the best executants of the
+British School. But in his middle period he chose a fresh direction.
+Fascinated by the welcome which the public gave to his first attempts to
+illustrate the life of his own times, he undertook a considerable series
+of large canvases, in which he commented on the manners and morals of
+society as he found it. He became a pictorial preacher, a painter who
+moralized about the everyday incidents of modern existence; and he
+sacrificed some of his technical variety. There remained, however, a
+remarkable sense of characterization, and an acute appreciation of
+dramatic effect. Frith died on the 2nd of November 1909.
+
+  Frith published his _Autobiography and Reminiscences_ in 1887, and
+  _Further Reminiscences_ in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+FRITILLARY (_Fritillaria_: from Lat. _fritillus_, a chess-board, so
+called from the chequered markings on the petals), a genus of hardy
+bulbous plants of the natural order Liliaceae, containing about 50
+species widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. The genus is
+represented in Britain by the fritillary or snake's head, which occurs
+in moist meadows in the southern half of England, especially in
+Oxfordshire. A much larger plant is the crown imperial (_F.
+imperialis_), a native of western Asia and well known in gardens. This
+grows to a height of about 3 ft., the lower part of the stoutish stem
+being furnished with leaves, while near the top is developed a crown of
+large pendant flowers surmounted by a tuft of bright green leaves like
+those of the lower part of the stem, only smaller. The flowers are
+bell-shaped, yellow or red, and in some of the forms double. The plant
+grows freely in good garden soil, preferring a deep well-drained loam,
+and is all the better for a top-dressing of manure as it approaches the
+flowering stage. Strong clumps of five or six roots of one kind have a
+very fine effect. It is a very suitable subject for the back row in
+mixed flower borders, or for recesses in the front part of shrubbery
+borders. It flowers in April or early in May. There are a few named
+varieties, but the most generally grown are the single and double
+yellow, and the single and double red, the single red having also two
+variegated varieties, with the leaves striped respectively with white
+and yellow.
+
+"Fritillary" is also the name of a kind of butterfly.
+
+
+
+
+FRITZLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Cassel,
+on the left bank of the Eder, 16 m. S.W. from Cassel, on the railway
+Wabern-Wildungen. Pop. (1905) 3448. It is a prettily situated
+old-fashioned place, with an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic
+churches, one of the latter, that of St Peter, a striking medieval
+edifice. As early as 732 Boniface, the apostle of Germany, established
+the church of St Peter and a small Benedictine monastery at Frideslar,
+"the quiet home" or "abode of peace." Before long the school connected
+with the monastery became famous, and among its earlier scholars it
+numbered Sturm, abbot of Fulda, and Megingod, second bishop of Wurzburg.
+When Boniface found himself unable to continue the supervision of the
+society himself, he entrusted the office to Wigbert of Glastonbury, who
+thus became the first abbot of Fritzlar. In 774 the little settlement
+was taken and burnt by the Saxons; but it evidently soon recovered from
+the blow. For a short time after 786 it was the seat of the bishopric of
+Buraburg, which had been founded by Boniface in 741. At the diet of
+Fritzlar in 919 Henry I. was elected German king. In the beginning of
+the 13th century the village received municipal rights; in 1232 it was
+captured and burned by the landgrave Conrad of Thuringia and his allies;
+in 1631 it was taken by William of Hesse; in 1760 it was successfully
+defended by General Luckner against the French; and in 1761 it was
+occupied by the French and unsuccessfully bombarded by the Allies. As a
+principality Fritzlar continued subject to the archbishopric of Mainz
+till 1802, when it was incorporated with Hesse. From 1807 to 1814 it
+belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia; and in 1866 passed with Hesse
+Cassel to Prussia.
+
+
+
+
+FRIULI (in the local dialect, _Furlanei_), a district at the head of the
+Adriatic Sea, at present divided between Italy and Austria, the Italian
+portion being included in the province of Udine and the district of
+Portogruaro, and the Austrian comprising the province of Gorz and
+Gradiska, and the so-called Idrian district. In the north and east
+Friuli includes portions of the Julian and Carnic Alps, while the south
+is an alluvial plain richly watered by the Isonzo, the Tagliamento, and
+many lesser streams which, although of small volume during the dry
+season, come down in enormous floods after rain or thaw. The
+inhabitants, known as Furlanians, are mainly Italians, but they speak a
+dialect of their own which contains Celtic elements. The area of the
+country is about 3300 sq. m.; it contains about 700,000 inhabitants.
+
+Friuli derives its name from the Roman town of _Forum Julii_, or
+_Forojulium_, the modern Cividale, which is said by Paulus Diaconus to
+have been founded by Julius Caesar. In the 2nd century B.C. the district
+was subjugated by the Romans, and became part of Gallia Transpadana.
+During the Roman period, besides Forum Julii, its principal towns were
+Concordia, Aquileia and Vedinium. On the conquest of the country by the
+Lombards during the 6th century it was made one of their thirty-six
+duchies, the capital being Forum Julii or, as they called it, Civitas
+Austriae. It is needless to repeat the list of dukes of the Lombard
+line, from Gisulf (d. 611) to Hrothgaud, who fell a victim to his
+opposition to Charlemagne about 776; their names and exploits may be
+read in the _Historia Langobardorum_ of Paulus Diaconus, and they were
+mainly occupied in struggles with the Avars and other barbarian peoples,
+and in resisting the pretensions of the Lombard kings. The discovery,
+however, of Gisulf's grave at Cividale, in 1874, is an interesting proof
+of the historian's authenticity. Charlemagne filled Hrothgaud's place
+with one of his own followers, and the frontier position of Friuli gave
+the new line of counts, dukes or margraves (for they are variously
+designated) the opportunity of acquiring importance by exploits against
+the Bulgarians, Slovenians and other hostile peoples to the east. After
+the death of Charlemagne Friuli shared in general in the fortunes of
+northern Italy. In the 11th century the ducal rights over the greater
+part of Friuli were bestowed by the emperor Henry IV. on the patriarch
+of Aquileia; but towards the close of the 14th century the nobles called
+in the assistance of Venice, which, after defeating the archbishop,
+afforded a new illustration of Aesop's well-known fable, by securing
+possession of the country for itself. The eastern part of Friuli was
+held by the counts of Gorz till 1500, when on the failure of their line
+it was appropriated by the German king, Maximilian I., and remained in
+the possession of the house of Austria until the Napoleonic wars. By the
+peace of Campo Formio in 1797 the Venetian district also came to
+Austria, and on the formation of the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy in 1805
+the department of Passariano was made to include the whole of Venetian
+and part of Austrian Friuli, and in 1809 the rest was added to the
+Illyrian provinces. The title of duke of Friuli was borne by Marshal
+Duroc. In 1815 the whole country was recovered by the emperor of
+Austria, who himself assumed the ducal title and coat of arms; and it
+was not till 1866 that the Venetian portion was again ceded to Italy by
+the peace of Prague. The capital of the country is Udine, and its arms
+are a crowned eagle on a field azure.
+
+  See Manzano, _Annali del Friuli_ (Udine, 1858-1879); and _Compendio di
+  storia friulana_ (Udine, 1876); Antonini, _Il Friuli orientale_
+  (Milan, 1865); von Zahn, _Friaulische Studien_ (Vienna, 1878); Pirona,
+  _Vocabolario friulino_ (Venice, 1869); and L. Fracassetti, _La
+  Statistica etnografica del Friuli_ (Udine, 1903).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FROBEN [FROBENIUS], JOANNES (c. 1460-1527), German printer and scholar,
+was born at Hammelburg in Bavaria about the year 1460. After completing
+his university career at Basel, where he made the acquaintance of the
+famous printer Johannes Auerbach (1443-1513), he established a printing
+house in that city about 1491, and this soon attained a European
+reputation for accuracy and for taste. In 1500 he married the daughter
+of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into partnership with
+him. He was on terms of friendship with Erasmus (q.v.), who not only had
+his own works printed by him, but superintended Frobenius's editions of
+St Jerome, St Cyprian, Tertullian, Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose.
+His _Neues Testament_ in Greek (1516) was used by Luther for his
+translation. Frobenius employed Hans Holbein to illuminate his texts. It
+was part of his plan to print editions of the Greek Fathers. He did not,
+however, live to carry out this project, but it was very creditably
+executed by his son Jerome and his son-in-law Nikolaus Episcopius.
+Frobenius died in October 1527. His work in Basel made that city in the
+16th century the leading centre of the German book trade. An extant
+letter of Erasmus, written in the year of Frobenius's death, gives an
+epitome of his life and an estimate of his character; and in it Erasmus
+mentions that his grief for the death of his friend was far more
+poignant than that which he had felt for the loss of his own brother,
+adding that "all the apostles of science ought to wear mourning." The
+epistle concludes with an epitaph in Greek and Latin.
+
+
+
+
+FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN (c. 1535-1594), English navigator and explorer,
+fourth child of Bernard Frobisher of Altofts in the parish of Normanton,
+Yorkshire, was born some time between 1530 and 1540. The family came
+originally from North Wales. At an early age he was sent to a school in
+London and placed under the care of a kinsman, Sir John York, who in
+1544 placed him on board a ship belonging to a small fleet of
+merchantmen sailing to Guinea. By 1565 he is referred to as Captain
+Martin Frobisher, and in 1571-1572 as being in the public service at sea
+off the coast of Ireland. He married in 1559. As early as 1560 or 1561
+Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a voyage in search of a
+North-West Passage to Cathay and India. The discovery of such a route
+was the motive of most of the Arctic voyages undertaken at that period
+and for long after, but Frobisher's special merit was in being the first
+to give to this enterprise a national character. For fifteen years he
+solicited in vain the necessary means to carry his project into
+execution, but in 1576, mainly by help of the earl of Warwick, he was
+put in command of an expedition consisting of two tiny barks, the
+"Gabriel" and "Michael," of about 20 to 25 tons each, and a pinnace of
+10 tons, with an aggregate crew of 35.
+
+He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received a good word
+from Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich, set sail on the 7th of June, by way
+of the Shetland Islands. Stormy weather was encountered in which the
+pinnace was lost, and some time afterwards the "Michael" deserted; but
+stoutly continuing the voyage alone, on the 28th of July the "Gabriel"
+sighted the coast of Labrador in lat. 62 deg. 2' N. Some days later the
+mouth of Frobisher Bay was reached, and a farther advance northwards
+being prevented by ice and contrary winds, Frobisher determined to sail
+westward up this passage (which he conceived to be a strait) to see
+"whether he mighte carrie himself through the same into some open sea on
+the backe syde." Butcher's Island was reached on the 18th of August, and
+some natives being met with here, intercourse was carried on with them
+for some days, the result being that five of Frobisher's men were
+decoyed and captured, and never more seen. After vainly trying to get
+back his men, Frobisher turned homewards, and reached London on the 9th
+of October.
+
+Among the things which had been hastily brought away by the men was some
+"black earth," and just as it seemed as if nothing more was to come of
+this expedition, it was noised abroad that the apparently valueless
+"black earth" was really a lump of gold ore. It is difficult to say how
+this rumour arose, and whether there was any truth in it, or whether
+Frobisher was a party to a deception, in order to obtain means to carry
+out the great idea of his life. The story, at any rate, was so far
+successful; the greatest enthusiasm was manifested by the court and the
+commercial and speculating world of the time; and next year a much more
+important expedition than the former was fitted out, the queen lending
+the "Aid" from the royal navy and subscribing L1000 towards the expenses
+of the expedition. A Company of Cathay was established, with a charter
+from the crown, giving the company the sole right of sailing in every
+direction but the east; Frobisher was appointed high admiral of all
+lands and waters that might be discovered by him. On the 26th of May
+1577 the expedition, consisting, besides the "Aid," of the ships
+"Gabriel" and "Michael," with boats, pinnaces and an aggregate
+complement of 120 men, including miners, refiners, &c., left Blackwall,
+and sailing by the north of Scotland reached Hall's Island at the mouth
+of Frobisher Bay on the 17th of July. A few days later the country and
+the south side of the bay was solemnly taken possession of in the
+queen's name. Several weeks were now spent in collecting ore, but very
+little was done in the way of discovery, Frobisher being specially
+directed by his commission to "defer the further discovery of the
+passage until another time." There was much parleying and some
+skirmishing with the natives, and earnest but futile attempts made to
+recover the men captured the previous year. The return was begun on the
+23rd of August, and the "Aid" reached Milford Haven on the 23rd of
+September; the "Gabriel" and "Michael," having separated, arrived later
+at Bristol and Yarmouth.
+
+Frobisher was received and thanked by the queen at Windsor. Great
+preparations were made and considerable expense incurred for the
+assaying of the great quantity of "ore" (about 200 tons) brought home.
+This took up much time, and led to considerable dispute among the
+various parties interested. Meantime the faith of the queen and others
+remained strong in the productiveness of the newly discovered territory,
+which she herself named _Meta Incognita_, and it was resolved to send
+out a larger expedition than ever, with all necessaries for the
+establishment of a colony of 100 men. Frobisher was again received by
+the queen at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold
+around his neck. On the 31st of May 1578 the expedition, consisting in
+all of fifteen vessels, left Harwich, and sailing by the English Channel
+on the 20th of June reached the south of Greenland, where Frobisher and
+some of his men managed to land. On the 2nd of July the foreland of
+Frobisher Bay was sighted, but stormy weather and dangerous ice
+prevented the rendezvous from being gained, and, besides causing the
+wreck of the barque "Dennis" of 100 tons, drove the fleet unwittingly up
+a new (Hudson) strait. After proceeding about 60 m. up this "mistaken
+strait," Frobisher with apparent reluctance turned back, and after many
+bufferings and separations the fleet at last came to anchor in Frobisher
+Bay. Some attempt was made at founding a settlement, and a large
+quantity of ore was shipped; but, as might be expected, there was much
+dissension and not a little discontent among so heterogeneous a company,
+and on the last day of August the fleet set out on its return to
+England, which was reached in the beginning of October. Thus ended what
+was little better than a fiasco, though Frobisher himself cannot be held
+to blame for the result; the scheme was altogether chimerical, and the
+"ore" seems to have been not worth smelting.
+
+In 1580 Frobisher was employed as captain of one of the queen's ships in
+preventing the designs of Spain to assist the Irish insurgents, and in
+the same year obtained a grant of the reversionary title of clerk of the
+royal navy. In 1585 he commanded the "Primrose," as vice-admiral to Sir
+F. Drake in his expedition to the West Indies, and when soon afterwards
+the country was threatened with invasion by the Spanish Armada,
+Frobisher's name was one of four mentioned by the lord high admiral in a
+letter to the queen of "men of the greatest experience that this realm
+hath," and for his signal services in the "Triumph," in the dispersion
+of the Armada, he was knighted. He continued to cruise about in the
+Channel until 1590, when he was sent in command of a small fleet to the
+coast of Spain. In 1591 he visited his native Altofts, and there married
+his second wife, a daughter of Lord Wentworth, becoming at the same time
+a landed proprietor in Yorkshire and Notts. He found, however, little
+leisure for a country life, and the following year took charge of the
+fleet fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh to the Spanish coast, returning
+with a rich prize. In November 1594 he was engaged with a squadron in
+the siege and relief of Brest, when he received a wound at Fort Crozon
+from which he died at Plymouth on the 22nd of November. His body was
+taken to London and buried at St Giles', Cripplegate. Though he appears
+to have been somewhat rough in his bearing, and too strict a
+disciplinarian to be much loved, Frobisher was undoubtedly one of the
+most able seamen of his time and justly takes rank among England's great
+naval heroes.
+
+  See Hakluyt's _Voyages_; the Hakluyt Society's _Three Voyages of
+  Frobisher_; Rev. F. Jones's _Life of Frobisher_ (1878); Julian
+  Corbett, _Drake and the Tudor Navy_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FROCK, originally a long, loose gown with broad sleeves, more especially
+that worn by members of the religious orders. The word is derived from
+the O. Fr. _froc_, of somewhat obscure origin; in medieval Lat.
+_froccus_ appears also as _floccus_, which, if it is the original, as Du
+Cange suggests (_literula mutata_), would connect the word with "flock"
+(q.v.), properly a tuft of wool. Another suggestion refers the word to
+the German _Rock_, a coat (cf. "rochet"), which in some rare instances
+is found as _hrock_. The formal stripping off of the frock became part
+of the ceremony of degradation or deprivation in the case of a condemned
+monk; hence the expression "to unfrock" (med. Lat. _defrocare_, Fr.
+_defroquer_) used of the degradation of monks and of priests from holy
+orders. In the middle ages "frock" was also used of a long loose coat
+worn by men and of a coat of mail, the "frock of mail." In something of
+this sense the word survived into the 19th century for a coat with long
+skirts, now called the "frock coat." The word in now chiefly used in
+English for a child's or young girl's dress, of body and skirt, but is
+frequently used of a woman's dress. Du Cange (_Glossarium_, s.v.
+_flocus_) quotes an early use of the word for a woman's garment
+(_Miracula S. Udalrici_, ap. Mabillon, _Acta Sanctorum Benedict_, saec.
+v. p. 466). Here a woman, possessed of a devil, is cured, and sends her
+garments to the tomb of the saint, and a dalmatic is ordered to be made
+out of the flocus or _frocus_. "Frock" also appears in the "smock
+frock," once the typical outer garment of the English peasant. It
+consists of a loose shirt of linen or other material, worn over the
+other clothes and hanging to about the knee; its characteristic feature
+is the "smocking," a puckered honeycomb stitching round the neck and
+shoulders.
+
+
+
+
+FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1782-1852), German philosopher,
+philanthropist and educational reformer, was born at Oberweissbach, a
+village of the Thuringian forest, on the 21st of April 1782. Like
+Comenius, with whom he had much in common, he was neglected in his
+youth, and the remembrance of his own early sufferings made him in after
+life the more eager in promoting the happiness of children. His mother
+he lost in his infancy, and his father, the pastor of Oberweissbach and
+the surrounding district, attended to his parish but not to his family.
+Friedrich soon had a stepmother, and neglect was succeeded by
+stepmotherly attention; but a maternal uncle took pity on him, and gave
+him a home for some years at Stadt-Ilm. Here he went to the village
+school, but like many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce. Throughout
+life he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying unity
+in all things. Nothing of the kind was to be perceived in the piecemeal
+studies of the school, and Froebel's mind, busy as it was for itself,
+would not work for the masters. His half-brother was therefore thought
+more worthy of a university education, and Friedrich was apprenticed for
+two years to a forester (1797-1799).
+
+Left to himself in the Thuringian forest, Froebel began to study nature,
+and without scientific instruction he obtained a profound insight into
+the uniformity and essential unity of nature's laws. Years afterwards
+the celebrated Jahn (the "Father Jahn" of the German gymnasts) told a
+Berlin student of a queer fellow he had met, who made out all sorts of
+wonderful things from stones and cobwebs. This queer fellow was Froebel;
+and the habit of making out general truths from the observation of
+nature, especially from plants and trees, dated from the solitary
+rambles in the forest. No training could have been better suited to
+strengthen his inborn tendency to mysticism; and when he left the
+forest at the early age of seventeen, he seems to have been possessed by
+the main ideas which influenced him all his life. The conception which
+in him dominated all others was the unity of nature; and he longed to
+study natural sciences that he might find in them various applications
+of nature's universal laws. With great difficulty he got leave to join
+his elder brother at the university of Jena, and there for a year he
+went from lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that connexion of
+the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any particular
+science in itself. But Froebel's allowance of money was very small, and
+his skill in the management of money was never great, so his university
+career ended in an imprisonment of nine weeks for a debt of thirty
+shillings. He then returned home with very poor prospects, but much more
+intent on what he calls the course of "self-completion"
+(_Vervollkommnung meines selbst_) than on "getting on" in a worldly
+point of view. He was sent to learn farming, but was recalled in
+consequence of the failing health of his father. In 1802 the father
+died, and Froebel, now twenty years old, had to shift for himself. It
+was some time before he found his true vocation, and for the next three
+and a half years we find him at work now in one part of Germany now in
+another--sometimes land-surveying, sometimes acting as accountant,
+sometimes as private secretary; but in all this his "outer life was far
+removed from his inner life," and in spite of his outward circumstances
+he became more and more conscious that a great task lay before him for
+the good of humanity. The nature of the task, however, was not clear to
+him, and it seemed determined by accident. While studying architecture
+in Frankfort-on-Main, he became acquainted with the director of a model
+school, who had caught some of the enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. This friend
+saw that Froebel's true field was education, and he persuaded him to
+give up architecture and take a post in the model school. In this school
+Froebel worked for two years with remarkable success, but he then
+retired and undertook the education of three lads of one family. In this
+he could not satisfy himself, and he obtained the parents' consent to
+his taking the boys to Yverdon, near Neuchatel, and there forming with
+them a part of the celebrated institution of Pestalozzi. Thus from 1807
+till 1809 Froebel was drinking in Pestalozzianism at the fountain-head,
+and qualifying himself to carry on the work which Pestalozzi had begun.
+For the science of education had to deduce from Pestalozzi's experience
+principles which Pestalozzi himself could not deduce. And "Froebel, the
+pupil of Pestalozzi, and a genius like his master, completed the
+reformer's system; taking the results at which Pestalozzi had arrived
+through the necessities of his position, Froebel developed the ideas
+involved in them, not by further experience but by deduction from the
+nature of man, and thus he attained to the conception of true human
+development and to the requirements of true education" (Schmidt's
+_Geschichte der Padagogik_).
+
+Holding that man and nature, inasmuch as they proceed from the same
+source, must be governed by the same laws, Froebel longed for more
+knowledge of natural science. Even Pestalozzi seemed to him not to
+"honour science in her divinity." He therefore determined to continue
+the university course which had been so rudely interrupted eleven years
+before, and in 1811 he began studying at Gottingen, whence he proceeded
+to Berlin. But again his studies were interrupted, this time by the king
+of Prussia's celebrated call "to my people." Though not a Prussian,
+Froebel was heart and soul a German. He therefore responded to the call,
+enlisted in Lutzow's corps, and went through the campaign of 1813. But
+his military ardour did not take his mind off education. "Everywhere,"
+he writes, "as far as the fatigues I underwent allowed, I carried in my
+thoughts my future calling as educator; yes, even in the few engagements
+in which I had to take part. Even in these I could gather experience for
+the task I proposed to myself." Froebel's soldiering showed him the
+value of discipline and united action, how the individual belongs not to
+himself but to the whole body, and how the whole body supports the
+individual.
+
+Froebel was rewarded for his patriotism by the friendship of two men
+whose names will always be associated with his, Langethal and
+Middendorff. These young men, ten years younger than Froebel, became
+attached to him in the field, and were ever afterwards his devoted
+followers, sacrificing all their prospects in life for the sake of
+carrying out his ideas.
+
+At the peace of Fontainebleau (signed in May 1814) Froebel returned to
+Berlin, and became curator of the museum of mineralogy under Professor
+Weiss. In accepting this appointment from the government he seemed to
+turn aside from his work as educator; but if not teaching he was
+learning. More and more the thought possessed him that the one thing
+needful for man was unity of development, perfect evolution in
+accordance with the laws of his being, such evolution as science
+discovers in the other organisms of nature. He at first intended to
+become a teacher of natural science, but before long wider views dawned
+upon him. Langethal and Middendorff were in Berlin, engaged in tuition.
+Froebel gave them regular instruction in his theory, and at length,
+counting on their support, he resolved to set about realizing his own
+idea of "the new education." This was in 1816. Three years before one of
+his brothers, a clergyman, had died of fever caught from the French
+prisoners. His widow was still living in the parsonage at Griesheim, a
+village on the Ilm. Froebel gave up his post, and set out for Griesheim
+on foot, spending his very last groschen on the way for bread. Here he
+undertook the education of his orphan niece and nephews, and also of two
+more nephews sent him by another brother. With these he opened a school
+and wrote to Middendorff and Langethal to come and help in the
+experiment. Middendorff came at once, Langethal a year or two later,
+when the school had been moved to Keilhau, another of the Thuringian
+villages, which became the Mecca of the new faith. In Keilhau Froebel,
+Langethal, Middendorff and Barop, a relation of Middendorff's, all
+married and formed an educational community. Such zeal could not be
+fruitless, and the school gradually increased, though for many years its
+teachers, with Froebel at their head, were in the greatest straits for
+money and at times even for food. After fourteen years' experience he
+determined to start other institutions to work in connexion with the
+parent institution at Keilhau, and being offered by a private friend the
+use of a castle on the Wartensee, in the canton of Lucerne, he left
+Keilhau under the direction of Barop, and with Langethal he opened the
+Swiss institution. The ground, however, was very ill chosen. The
+Catholic clergy resisted what they considered as a Protestant invasion,
+and the experiment on the Wartensee and at Willisau in the same canton,
+to which the institution was moved in 1833, never had a fair chance. It
+was in vain that Middendorff at Froebel's call left his wife and family
+at Keilhau, and laboured for four years in Switzerland without once
+seeing them. The Swiss institution never flourished. But the Swiss
+government wished to turn to account the presence of the great educator;
+so young teachers were sent to Froebel for instruction, and finally
+Froebel moved to Burgdorf (a Bernese town of some importance, and famous
+from Pestalozzi's labours there thirty years earlier) to undertake the
+establishment of a public orphanage and also to superintend a course of
+teaching for schoolmasters. The elementary teachers of the canton were
+to spend three months every alternate year at Burgdorf, and there
+compare experiences, and learn of distinguished men such as Froebel and
+Bitzius. In his conferences with these teachers Froebel found that the
+schools suffered from the state of the raw material brought into them.
+Till the school age was reached the children were entirely neglected.
+Froebel's conception of harmonious development naturally led him to
+attach much importance to the earliest years, and his great work on _The
+Education of Man_, published as early as 1826, deals chiefly with the
+child up to the age of seven. At Burgdorf his thoughts were much
+occupied with the proper treatment of young children, and in scheming
+for them a graduated course of exercises, modelled on the games in which
+he observed them to be most interested. In his eagerness to carry out
+his new plans he grew impatient of official restraints; so he returned
+to Keilhau, and soon afterwards opened the first _Kindergarten_ or
+"Garden of Children," in the neighbouring village of Blankenburg (1837).
+Firmly convinced of the importance of the Kindergarten for the whole
+human race, Froebel described his system in a weekly paper (his
+_Sonntagsblatt_) which appeared from the middle of 1837 till 1840. He
+also lectured in great towns; and he gave a regular course of
+instruction to young teachers at Blankenburg. But although the
+principles of the Kindergarten were gradually making their way, the
+first Kindergarten was failing for want of funds. It had to be given up,
+and Froebel, now a widower (he had lost his wife in 1839), carried on
+his course for teachers first at Keilhau, and from 1848, for the last
+four years of his life, at or near Liebenstein, in the Thuringian
+forest, and in the duchy of Meiningen. It is in these last years that
+the man Froebel will be best known to posterity, for in 1849 he
+attracted within the circle of his influence a woman of great
+intellectual power, the baroness von Marenholtz-Bulow, who has given us
+in her _Recollections of Friedrich Froebel_ the only lifelike portrait
+we possess.
+
+These seemed likely to be Froebel's most peaceful days. He married again
+in 1851, and having now devoted himself to the training of women as
+educators, he spent his time in instructing his class of young female
+teachers. But trouble came upon him from a quarter whence he least
+expected it. In the great year of revolutions (1848) Froebel had hoped
+to turn to account the general eagerness for improvement, and
+Middendorff had presented an address on Kindergartens to the German
+parliament. Besides this, a nephew of Froebel's, Professor Karl Froebel
+of Zurich, published books which were supposed to teach socialism. True,
+the uncle and nephew differed so widely that the "new Froebelians" were
+the enemies of "the old," but the distinction was overlooked, and
+Friedrich and Karl Froebel were regarded as the united advocates of some
+new thing. In the reaction which soon set in, Froebel found himself
+suspected of socialism and irreligion, and in 1851 the "cultus-minister"
+Von Raumer issued an edict forbidding the establishment of schools
+"after Friedrich and Karl Froebel's principles" in Prussia. This was a
+heavy blow to the old man, who looked to the government of the
+"_Cultus-staat_" Prussia for support, and was met with denunciation.
+Whether from the worry of this new controversy, or from whatever cause,
+Froebel did not long survive the decree. His seventieth birthday was
+celebrated with great rejoicings in May 1852, but he died on the 21st of
+June, and was buried at Schweina, a village near his last abode,
+Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein.
+
+"All education not founded on religion is unproductive." This conviction
+followed naturally from Froebel's conception of the unity of all things,
+a unity due to the original Unity from whom all proceed and in whom all
+"live, move and have their being." As man and nature have one origin
+they must be subject to the same laws. Hence Froebel, like Comenius two
+centuries before him, looked to the course of nature for the principles
+of human education. This he declares to be his fundamental belief: "In
+the creation, in nature and the order of the material world, and in the
+progress of mankind, God has given us the true type (_Urbild_) of
+education." As the cultivator creates nothing in the trees and plants,
+so the educator creates nothing in the children,--he merely superintends
+the development of inborn faculties. So far Froebel agrees with
+Pestalozzi; but in one respect he went beyond him. Pestalozzi said that
+the faculties were developed by exercise. Froebel added that the
+function of education was to develop the faculties by arousing
+_voluntary activity_. Action proceeding from inner impulse
+(_Selbsttatigkeit_) was the one thing needful.
+
+The prominence which Froebel gave to action, his doctrine that man is
+primarily a doer and even a creator, and that he learns only through
+"self-activity," has its importance all through education. But it was to
+the first stage of life that Froebel paid the greatest attention. He
+held with Rousseau that each age has a completeness of its own, and that
+the perfection of the later stage can be attained only through the
+perfection of the earlier. If the infant is what he should be as an
+infant, and the child as a child, he will become what he should be as a
+boy, just as naturally as new shoots spring from the healthy plant.
+Every stage, then, must be cared for and tended in such a way that it
+may attain its own perfection. Impressed with the immense importance of
+the first stage, Froebel like Pestalozzi devoted himself to the
+instruction of mothers. But he would not, like Pestalozzi, leave the
+children entirely in the mother's hands. Pestalozzi held that the child
+belonged to the family; Fichte, on the other hand, claimed it for
+society and the state. Froebel, whose mind delighted in harmonizing
+apparent contradictions, and who taught that "all progress lay through
+opposites to their reconciliation," maintained that the child belonged
+both to the family and to society, and he would therefore have children
+spend some hours of the day in a common life and in well-organized
+common employments. These assemblies of children he would not call
+schools, for the children in them ought not to be old enough for
+schooling. So he invented the name _Kindergarten_, garden of children,
+and called the superintendents "children's gardeners." He laid great
+stress on every child cultivating its own plot of ground, but this was
+not his reason for the choice of the name. It was rather that he thought
+of these institutions as enclosures in which young human plants are
+nurtured. In the Kindergarten the children's employment should be
+_play_. But any occupation in which children delight is play to them;
+and Froebel invented a series of employments, which, while they are in
+this sense play to the children, have nevertheless, as seen from the
+adult point of view, a distinct educational object. This object, as
+Froebel himself describes it, is "to give the children employment in
+agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies, to
+exercise their senses, to engage their awakening mind, and through their
+senses to bring them acquainted with nature and their fellow creatures;
+it is especially to guide aright the heart and the affections, and to
+lead them to the original ground of all life, to unity with themselves."
+
+  Froebel's own works are: _Menschenerziehung_ ("Education of Man"),
+  (1826), which has been translated into French and English; _Padagogik
+  d. Kindergartens_; _Kleinere Schriften_ and _Mutter- und Koselieder_;
+  collected editions have been edited by Wichard Lange (1862) and
+  Friedrich Seidel (1883).
+
+  A. B. Hauschmann's _Friedrich Frobel_ is a lengthy and unsatisfactory
+  biography. An unpretentious but useful little book is _F. Froebel, a
+  Biographical Sketch_, by Matilda H. Kriege, New York (Steiger). A very
+  good account of Froebel's life and thoughts is given in Karl Schmidt's
+  _Geschichte d. Padagogik_, vol. iv.; also in Adalbert Weber's
+  _Geschichte d. Volksschulpad. u. d. Kleinkindererziehung_ (Weber
+  carefully gives authorities). For a less favourable account see K.
+  Strack's _Geschichte d. deutsch. Volksschulwesens_. Frau von
+  Marenholtz-Bulow published her _Erinnerungen an F. Frobel_ (translated
+  by Mrs. Horace Mann, 1877). This lady, the chief interpreter of
+  Froebel, has expounded his principles in _Das Kind u. sein Wesen_ and
+  _Die Arbeit u. die neue Erziehung_. H. Courthope Bowen has written a
+  memoir (1897) in the "Great Educators" series. In England Miss Emily
+  A. E. Shirreff has published _Principles of Froebel's System_, and a
+  short sketch of Froebel's life. See also Dr Henry Barnard's _Papers on
+  Froebel's Kindergarten_ (1881); R. H. Quick, _Educational Reformers_
+  (1890).     (R. H. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+FROG,[1] a name in zoology, of somewhat wide application, strictly for
+an animal belonging to the family _Ranidae_, but also used of some other
+families of the order _Ecaudata_ or the sub-class Batrachia (q.v.).
+
+Frogs proper are typified by the common British species, _Rana
+temporaria_, and its allies, such as the edible frog, _R. esculenta_,
+and the American bull-frog _R. catesbiana_. The genus _Rana_ may be
+defined as firmisternal Ecaudata with cylindrical transverse processes
+to the sacral vertebra, teeth in the upper jaw and on the vomer, a
+protrusible tongue which is free and forked behind, a horizontal pupil
+and more or less webbed toes. It includes about 200 species, distributed
+over the whole world with the exception of the greater part of South
+America and Australia. Some of the species are thoroughly aquatic and
+have fully webbed toes, others are terrestrial, except during the
+breeding season, others are adapted for burrowing, by means of the
+much-enlarged and sharp-edged tubercle at the base of the inner toe,
+whilst not a few have the tips of the digits dilated into disks by which
+they are able to climb on trees. In most of the older classifications
+great importance was attached to these physiological characters, and a
+number of genera were established which, owing to the numerous annectent
+forms which have since been discovered, must be abandoned. The arboreal
+species were thus associated with the true tree-frogs, regardless of
+their internal structure. We now know that such adaptations are of
+comparatively small importance, and cannot be utilized for establishing
+groups higher than genera in a natural or phylogenetic classification.
+The tree-frogs, _Hylidae_, with which the arboreal _Ranidae_ were
+formerly grouped, show in their anatomical structure a close resemblance
+to the toads, _Bufonidae_, and are therefore placed far away from the
+true frogs, however great the superficial resemblance between them.
+
+Some frogs grow to a large size. The bull-frog of the eastern United
+States and Canada, reaching a length of nearly 8 in. from snout to vent,
+long regarded as the giant of the genus, has been surpassed by the
+discovery of _Rana guppyi_ (8-1/2 in.) in the Solomon Islands, and of
+_Rana goliath_ (10 in.) in South Cameroon.
+
+The family _Ranidae_ embraces a large number of genera, some of which
+are very remarkable. Among these may be mentioned the hairy frog of West
+Africa, _Trichobatrachus robustus_, some specimens of which have the
+sides of the body and of the hind limbs covered with long villosities,
+the function of which is unknown, and its ally _Gampsosteonyx batesi_,
+in which the last phalanx of the fingers and toes is sharp, claw-like
+and perforates the skin. To this family also belong the _Rhacophorus_ of
+eastern Asia, arboreal frogs, some of which are remarkable for the
+extremely developed webs between the fingers and toes, which are
+believed to act as a parachute when the frog leaps from the branches of
+trees (flying-frog of A. R. Wallace), whilst others have been observed
+to make aerial nests between leaves overhanging water, a habit which is
+shared by their near allies the _Chiromantis_ of tropical Africa.
+_Dimorphognathus_, from West Africa, is the unique example of a sexual
+dimorphism in the dentition, the males being provided with a series of
+large sharp teeth in the lower jaw, which in the female, as in most
+other members of the family, is edentulous. The curious horned frog of
+the Solomon Islands, _Ceratobatrachus guentheri_, which can hardly be
+separated from the _Ranidae_, has teeth in the lower jaw in both sexes,
+whilst a few forms, such as _Dendrobates_ and _Cardioglossa_, which on
+this account have been placed in a distinct family, have no teeth at
+all, as in toads. These facts militate strongly against the importance
+which was once attached to the dentition in the classification of the
+tailless batrachians.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "frog" is in O.E. _frocga_ or _frox_, cf. Dutch
+    _vorsch_, Ger. _Frosch_; Skeat suggests a possible original source in
+    the root meaning "to jump," "to spring," cf. Ger. _froh_, glad,
+    joyful and "frolic." The term is also applied to the following
+    objects: the horny part in the center of a horse's hoof; an
+    attachment to a belt for suspending a sword, bayonet, &c.; a
+    fastening for the front of a coat, still used in military uniforms,
+    consisting of two buttons on opposite sides joined by ornamental
+    looped braids; and, in railway construction, the point where two
+    rails cross. These may be various transferred applications of the
+    name of the animal, but the "frog" of a horse was also called
+    "frush," probably a corruption of the French name _fourchette_, lit.
+    little fork. The ornamental braiding is also more probably due to
+    "frock," Lat. _floccus_.
+
+
+
+
+FROG-BIT, in botany, the English name for a small floating herb known
+botanically as _Hydrocharis Morsus-Ranae_, a member of the order
+Hydrocharideae, a family of Monocotyledons. The plant has rosettes of
+roundish floating leaves, and multiplies like the strawberry plant by
+means of runners, at the end of which new leaf-rosettes develop.
+Staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on different plants; they
+have three small green sepals and three broadly ovate white membranous
+petals. The fruit, which is fleshy, is not found in Britain. The plant
+occurs in ponds and ditches in England and is rare in Ireland.
+
+
+
+
+FROGMORE, a mansion within the royal demesne of Windsor, England, in the
+Home Park, 1 m. S.E. of Windsor Castle. It was occupied by George III.'s
+queen, Charlotte, and later by the duchess of Kent, mother of Queen
+Victoria, who died here in 1861. The mansion, a plain building facing a
+small lake, has in its grounds the mausoleum of the duchess of Kent and
+the royal mausoleum. The first is a circular building surrounded with
+Ionic columns and rising in a dome, a lower chamber within containing
+the tomb, while in the upper chamber is a statue of the duchess. There
+is also a bust of Princess Hohenlohe-Langenberg, half-sister of Queen
+Victoria; and before the entrance is a memorial erected by the queen to
+Lady Augusta Stanley (d. 1876), wife of Dean Stanley. The royal
+mausoleum, a cruciform building with a central octagonal lantern, richly
+adorned within with marbles and mosaics, was erected (1862-1870) by
+Queen Victoria over the tomb of Albert, prince consort, by whose side
+the queen herself was buried in 1901. There are also memorials to
+Princess Alice and Prince Leopold in the mausoleum. To the south of the
+mansion are the royal gardens and dairy.
+
+
+
+
+FROHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL (1796-1865), Swiss poet, was born on the 1st
+of February 1796 at Brugg in the canton of Aargau, where his father was
+a teacher. After studying theology at Zurich he became a pastor in 1817
+and returned as teacher to his native town, where he lived for ten
+years. He was then appointed professor of the German language and
+literature in the cantonal school at Aarau, which post he lost, however,
+in the political quarrels of 1830. He afterwards obtained the post of
+teacher and rector of the cantonal college, and was also appointed
+assistant minister at the parish church. He died at Baden in Aargau on
+the 1st of December 1865. His works are--_170 Fabeln_ (1825);
+_Schweizerlieder_ (1827); _Das Evangelium St Johannis, in Liedern_
+(1830); _Elegien an Wieg' und Sarg_ (1835); _Die Epopoen; Ulrich
+Zwingli_ (1840); _Ulrich von Hutten_ (1845); _Auserlesene Psalmen und
+geistliche Lieder fur die Evangelisch-reformirte Kirche des Cantons
+Aargau_ (1844); _Uber den Kirchengesang der Protestanten_ (1846);
+_Trostlieder_ (1852); _Der Junge Deutsch-Michel_ (1846); _Reimspruche
+aus Staat, Schule, und Kirche_ (1820). An edition of his collected
+works, in 5 vols., was published at Frauenfeld in 1853. Frohlich is best
+known for his two heroic poems, _Ulrich Zwingli_ and _Ulrich von
+Hutten_, and especially for his fables, which have been ranked with
+those of Hagedorn, Lessing and Gellert.
+
+  See the _Life_ by R. Fasi (Zurich, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB (1821-1893), German theologian and philosopher, was
+born at Illkofen, near Regensburg, on the 6th of January 1821. Destined
+by his parents for the Roman Catholic priesthood, he studied theology at
+Munich, but felt an ever-growing attraction to philosophy. Nevertheless,
+after much hesitation, he took what he himself calls the most mistaken
+step of his life, and in 1847 entered the priesthood. His keenly logical
+intellect, and his impatience of authority where it clashed with his own
+convictions, quite unfitted him for that unquestioning obedience which
+the Church demanded. It was only after open defiance of the bishop of
+Regensburg that he obtained permission to continue his studies at
+Munich. He at first devoted himself more especially to the study of the
+history of dogma, and in 1850 published his _Beitrage zur
+Kirchengeschichte_, which was placed on the Index Expurgatorius. But he
+felt that his real vocation was philosophy, and after holding for a
+short time an extraordinary professorship of theology, he became
+professor of philosophy in 1855. This appointment he owed chiefly to his
+work, _Uber den Ursprung der menschlichen Seelen_ (1854), in which he
+maintained that the human soul was not implanted by a special creative
+act in each case, but was the result of a secondary creative act on the
+part of the parents: that soul as well as body, therefore, was subject
+to the laws of heredity. This was supplemented in 1855 by the
+controversial _Menschenseele und Physiologie_. Undeterred by the offence
+which these works gave to his ecclesiastical superiors, he published in
+1858 the _Einleitung in die Philosophie und Grundriss der Metaphysik_,
+in which he assailed the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, that philosophy was
+the handmaid of theology. In 1861 appeared _Uber die Aufgabe der
+Naturphilosophie und ihr Verhaltnis zur Naturwissenschaft_, which was,
+he declared, directed against the purely mechanical conception of the
+universe, and affirmed the necessity of a creative Power. In the same
+year he published _Uber die Freiheit der Wissenschaft_, in which he
+maintained the independence of science, whose goal was truth, against
+authority, and reproached the excessive respect for the latter in the
+Roman Church with the insignificant part played by the German Catholics
+in literature and philosophy. He was denounced by the pope himself in an
+apostolic brief of the 11th of December 1862, and students of theology
+were forbidden to attend his lectures. Public opinion was now keenly
+excited; he received an ovation from the Munich students, and the king,
+to whom he owed his appointment, supported him warmly. A conference of
+Catholic _savants_, held in 1863 under the presidency of Dollinger,
+decided that authority must be supreme in the Church. When, however,
+Dollinger and his school in their turn started the Old Catholic
+movement, Frohschammer refused to associate himself with their cause,
+holding that they did not go far enough, and that their declaration of
+1863 had cut the ground from under their feet. Meanwhile he had, in
+1862, founded the _Athenaum_ as the organ of Liberal Catholicism. For
+this he wrote the first adequate account in German of the Darwinian
+theory of natural selection, which drew a warm letter of appreciation
+from Darwin himself. Excommunicated in 1871, he replied with three
+articles, which were reproduced in thousands as pamphlets in the chief
+European languages: _Der Fels Petri in Rom_ (1873), _Der Primat Petri
+und des Papstes_ (1875), and _Das Christenthum Christi und das
+Christenthum des Papstes_ (1876). In _Das neue Wissen und der neue
+Glaube_ (1873) he showed himself as vigorous an opponent of the
+materialism of Strauss as of the doctrine of papal infallibility. His
+later years were occupied with a series of philosophical works, of which
+the most important were: _Die Phantasie als Grundprincip des
+Weltprocesses_ (1877), _Uber die Genesis der Menschheit und deren
+geistige Entwicklung in Religion, Sittlichkeit und Sprache_ (1883), and
+_Uber die Organisation und Cultur der menschlichen Gesellschaft_ (1885).
+His system is based on the unifying principle of imagination
+(_Phantasie_), which he extends to the objective creative force of
+Nature, as well as to the subjective mental phenomena to which the term
+is usually confined. He died at Bad Kreuth in the Bavarian Highlands on
+the 14th of June 1893.
+
+  In addition to other treatises on theological subjects, Frohschammer
+  was also the author of _Monaden und Weltphantasie_ and _Uber die
+  Bedeutung der Einbildungskraft in der Philosophie Kants und Spinozas_
+  (1879); _Uber die Principien der Aristotelischen Philosophie und die
+  Bedeutung der Phantasie in derselben_ (1881); _Die Philosophie als
+  Idealwissenschaft und System_ (1884); _Die Philosophie des Thomas von
+  Aquino kritisch gewurdigt_ (1889); _Uber das Mysterium Magnum des
+  Daseins_ (1891); _System der Philosophie im Umriss_, pt. i. (1892).
+  His autobiography was published in A. Hinrichsen's _Deutsche Denker_
+  (1888). See also F. Kirchner, _Uber das Grundprincip des
+  Weltprocesses_ (1882), with special reference to F.; E. Reich,
+  _Weltanschauung und Menschenleben; Betrachtungen uber die Philosophie
+  J. Frohschammers_ (1894); B. Munz, _J. Frohschammer, der Philosoph der
+  Weltphantasie_ (1894) and _Briefe von und uber J. Frohschammer_
+  (1897); J. Friedrich, _Jakob Frohschammer_ (1896) and _Systematische
+  und kritische Darstellung der Psychologie J. Frohschammers_ (1899); A.
+  Attensperger, _J. Frohschammers philosophisches System im Grundriss_
+  (1899).
+
+
+
+
+FROISSART, JEAN (1338-1410?), French chronicler and raconteur, historian
+of his own times. The personal history of Froissart, the circumstances
+of his birth and education, the incidents of his life, must all be
+sought in his own verses and chronicles. He possessed in his own
+lifetime no such fame as that which attended the steps of Petrarch; when
+he died it did not occur to his successors that a chapter might well be
+added to his _Chronicle_ setting forth what manner of man he was who
+wrote it. The village of Lestines, where he was cure, has long forgotten
+that a great writer ever lived there. They cannot point to any house in
+Valenciennes as the lodging in which he put together his notes and made
+history out of personal reminiscences. It is not certain when or where
+he died, or where he was buried. One church, it is true, doubtfully
+claims the honour of holding his bones. It is that of St Monegunda of
+Chimay.
+
+  "Gallorum sublimis honos et fama tuorum,
+   Hic Froissarde, jaces, _si modo forte jaces_."
+
+It is fortunate, therefore, that the scattered statements in his
+writings may be so pieced together as to afford a tolerably connected
+history of his life year after year. The personality of the man,
+independently of his adventures, may be arrived at by the same process.
+It will be found that Froissart, without meaning it, has portrayed
+himself in clear and well-defined outline. His forefathers were _jures_
+(aldermen) of the little town of Beaumont, lying near the river Sambre,
+to the west of the forest of Ardennes. Early in the 14th century the
+castle and seigneurie of Beaumont fell into the hands of Jean, younger
+son of the count of Hainaut. With this Jean, sire de Beaumont, lived a
+certain canon of Liege called Jean le Bel, who fortunately was not
+content simply to enjoy life. Instigated by his seigneur he set himself
+to write contemporary history, to tell "la pure veriteit de tout li fait
+entierement al manire de chroniques." With this view, he compiled two
+books of chronicles. And the chronicles of Jean le Bel were not the only
+literary monuments belonging to the castle of Beaumont. A hundred years
+before him Baldwin d'Avernes, the then seigneur, had caused to be
+written a book of chronicles or rather genealogies. It must therefore be
+remembered that when Froissart undertook his own chronicles he was not
+conceiving a new idea, but only following along familiar lines.
+
+Some 20 m. from Beaumont stood the prosperous city of Valenciennes,
+possessed in the 14th century of important privileges and a flourishing
+trade, second only to places like Bruges or Ghent in influence,
+population and wealth. Beaumont, once her rival, now regarded
+Valenciennes as a place where the ambitious might seek for wealth or
+advancement, and among those who migrated thither was the father of
+Foissart. He appears from a single passage in his son's verses to have
+been a painter of armorial bearings. There was, it may be noted, already
+what may be called a school of painters at Valenciennes. Among them were
+Jean and Colin de Valenciennes and Andre Beau-Neveu, of whom Froissart
+says that he had not his equal in any country.
+
+The date generally adopted for his birth is 1338. In after years
+Froissart pleased himself by recalling in verse the scenes and pursuits
+of his childhood. These are presented in vague generalities. There is
+nothing to show that he was unlike any other boys, and, unfortunately,
+it did not occur to him that a photograph of a schoolboy's life amid
+bourgeois surroundings would be to posterity quite as interesting as
+that faithful portraiture of courts and knights which he has drawn up in
+his _Chronicle_. As it is, we learn that he loved games of dexterity and
+skill rather than the sedentary amusements of chess and draughts, that
+he was beaten when he did not know his lessons, that with his companions
+he played at tournaments, and that he was always conscious--a statement
+which must be accepted with suspicion--that he was born
+
+  "Loer Dieu et servir le monde."
+
+In any case he was born in a place, as well as at a time, singularly
+adapted to fill the brain of an imaginative boy. Valenciennes was then a
+city extremely rich in romantic associations. Not far from its walls was
+the western fringe of the great forest of Ardennes, sacred to the memory
+of Pepin, Charlemagne, Roland and Ogier. Along the banks of the Scheldt
+stood, one after the other, not then in ruins, but bright with banners,
+the gleam of armour, and the liveries of the men at arms, castles whose
+seigneurs, now forgotten, were famous in their day for many a gallant
+feat of arms. The castle of Valenciennes itself was illustrious in the
+romance of _Perceforest_. There was born that most glorious and most
+luckless hero, Baldwin, first emperor of Constantinople. All the
+splendour of medieval life was to be seen in Froissart's native city: on
+the walls of the Salle le Comte glittered--perhaps painted by his
+father--the arms and scutcheons beneath the banners and helmets of
+Luxembourg, Hainaut and Avesnes; the streets were crowded with knights
+and soldiers, priests, artisans and merchants; the churches were rich
+with stained glass, delicate tracery and precious carving; there were
+libraries full of richly illuminated manuscripts on which the boy could
+gaze with delight; every year there was the _fete_ of the _puy d'Amour
+de Valenciennes_, at which he would hear the verses of the competing
+poets; there were festivals, masques, mummeries and moralities. And,
+whatever there might be elsewhere, in this happy city there was only the
+pomp, and not the misery, of war; the fields without were tilled, and
+the harvests reaped, in security; the workman within plied his craft
+unmolested for good wage. But the eyes of the boy were turned upon the
+castle and not upon the town; it was the splendour of the knights which
+dazzled him, insomuch that he regarded and continued ever afterwards to
+regard a prince gallant in the field, glittering of apparel, lavish of
+largesse, as almost a god.
+
+The moon, he says, rules the first four years of life; Mercury the next
+ten; Venus follows. He was fourteen when the last goddess appeared to him
+in person, as he tells us, after the manner of his time, and informed him
+that he was to love a lady, "belle, jone, et gente." Awaiting this happy
+event, he began to consider how best to earn his livelihood. They first
+placed him in some commercial position--impossible now to say of what
+kind--which he simply calls "la marchandise." This undoubtedly means some
+kind of buying and selling, not a handicraft at all. He very soon
+abandoned merchandise--"car vaut mieux science qu'argens"--and resolved
+on becoming a learned clerk. He then naturally began to make verses, like
+every other learned clerk. Quite as naturally, and still in the character
+of a learned clerk, he fulfilled the prophecy of Venus and fell in love.
+He found one day a demoiselle reading a book of romances. He did not know
+who she was, but stealing gently towards her, he asked her what book she
+was reading. It was the romance of _Cleomades_. He remarks the singular
+beauty of her blue eyes and fair hair, while she reads a page or two, and
+then--one would almost suspect a reminiscence of Dante--
+
+  "Adont laissames nous le lire."
+
+He was thus provided with that essential for soldier, knight or poet, a
+mistress--one for whom he could write verses. She was rich and he was
+poor; she was nobly born and he obscure; it was long before she would
+accept the devotion, even of the conventional kind which Froissart
+offered her, and which would in no way interfere with the practical
+business of her life. And in this hopeless way, the passion of the young
+poet remaining the same, and the coldness of the lady being unaltered,
+the course of this passion ran on for some time. Nor was it until the
+day of Froissart's departure from his native town that she gave him an
+interview and spoke kindly to him, even promising, with tears in her
+eyes, that "Doulce Pensee" would assure him that she would have no
+joyous day until she should see him again.
+
+He was eighteen years of age; he had learned all that he wanted to
+learn; he possessed the mechanical art of verse; he had read the slender
+stock of classical literature accessible; he longed to see the world. He
+must already have acquired some distinction, because, on setting out for
+the court of England, he was able to take with him letters of
+recommendation from the king of Bohemia and the count of Hainaut to
+Queen Philippa, niece of the latter. He was well received by the queen,
+always ready to welcome her own countrymen; he wrote ballades and
+virelays for her and her ladies. But after a year he began to pine for
+another sight of "la tres douce, simple, et quoie," whom he loved
+loyally. Good Queen Philippa, perceiving his altered looks and guessing
+the cause, made him confess that he was in love and longed to see his
+mistress. She gave him his _conge_ on the condition that he was to
+return. It is clear that the young clerk had already learned to
+ingratiate himself with princes.
+
+The conclusion of his single love adventure is simply and unaffectedly
+told in his _Trettie de l'espinette amoureuse_. It was a passion
+conducted on the well-known lines of conventional love; the pair
+exchanged violets and roses, the lady accepted ballads; Froissart became
+either openly or in secret her recognized lover, a mere title of honour,
+which conferred distinction on her who bestowed it, as well as upon him
+who received it. But the progress of the amour was rudely interrupted by
+the arts of "Malebouche," or Calumny. The story, whatever it was, that
+Malebouche whispered in the ear of the lady led to a complete rupture.
+The _damoiselle_ not only scornfully refused to speak to her lover or
+acknowledge him, but even seized him by the hair and pulled out a
+handful. Nor would she ever be reconciled to him again. Years
+afterwards, when Froissart writes the story of his one love passage, he
+shows that he still takes delight in the remembrance of her, loves to
+draw her portrait, and lingers with fondness over the thought of what
+she once was to him.
+
+Perhaps to get healed of his sorrow, Froissart began those wanderings
+in which the best part of his life was to be consumed. He first visited
+Avignon, perhaps to ask for a benefice, perhaps as the bearer of a
+message from the bishop of Cambray to pope or cardinal. It was in the
+year 1360, and in the pontificate of Innocent VI. From the papal city he
+seems to have gone to Paris, perhaps charged with a diplomatic mission.
+In 1361 he returned to England after an absence of five years. He
+certainly interpreted his leave of absence in a liberal spirit, and it
+may have been with a view of averting the displeasure of his
+kind-hearted protector that he brought with him as a present a book of
+rhymed chronicles written by himself. He says that notwithstanding his
+youth, he took upon himself the task "a rimer et a dicter"--which can
+only mean to "turn into verse"--an account of the wars of his own time,
+which he carried over to England in a book "tout compile,"--complete to
+date,--and presented to his noble mistress Philippa of Hainaut, who
+joyfully and gently received it of him. Such a rhymed chronicle was no
+new thing. One Colin had already turned the battle of Crecy into verse.
+The queen made young Froissart one of her secretaries, and he began to
+serve her with "beaux ditties et traites amoureux."
+
+Froissart would probably have been content to go on living at ease in
+this congenial atmosphere of flattery, praise and caresses, pouring out
+his virelays and chansons according to demand with facile monotony, but
+for the instigation of Queen Philippa, who seems to have suggested to
+him the propriety of travelling in order to get information for more
+rhymed chronicles. It was at her charges that Froissart made his first
+serious journey. He seems to have travelled a great part of the way
+alone, or accompanied only by his servants, for he was fain to beguile
+the journey by composing an imaginary conversation in verse between his
+horse and his hound. This may be found among his published poems, but it
+does not repay perusal. In Scotland he met with a favourable reception,
+not only from King David but from William of Douglas, and from the earls
+of Fife, Mar, March and others. The souvenirs of this journey are found
+scattered about in the chronicles. He was evidently much impressed with
+the Scots; he speaks of the valour of the Douglas, the Campbell, the
+Ramsay and the Graham; he describes the hospitality and rude life of the
+Highlanders; he admires the great castles of Stirling and Roxburgh and
+the famous abbey of Melrose. His travels in Scotland lasted for six
+months. Returning southwards he rode along the whole course of the Roman
+wall, a thing alone sufficient to show that he possessed the true spirit
+of an archaeologist; he thought that Carlisle was Carlyon, and
+congratulated himself on having found King Arthur's capital; he calls
+Westmorland, where the common people still spoke the ancient British
+tongue, North Wales; he rode down the banks of the Severn, and returned
+to London by way of Oxford--"l'escole d'Asque-Suffort."
+
+In London Froissart entered into the service of King John of France as
+secretary, and grew daily more courtly, more in favour with princes and
+great ladies. He probably acquired at this period that art, in which he
+has probably never been surpassed, of making people tell him all they
+knew. No newspaper correspondent, no American interviewer, has ever
+equalled this medieval collector of intelligence. From Queen Philippa,
+who confided to him the tender story of her youthful and lasting love
+for her great husband, down to the simplest knight--Froissart conversed
+with none beneath the rank of gentlemen--all united in telling this man
+what he wanted to know. He wanted to know everything: he liked the story
+of a battle from both sides and from many points of view; he wanted the
+details of every little cavalry skirmish, every capture of a castle,
+every gallant action and brave deed. And what was more remarkable, he
+forgot nothing. "I had," he says, "thanks to God, sense, memory, good
+remembrance of everything, and an intellect clear and keen to seize upon
+the acts which I could learn." But as yet he had not begun to write in
+prose.
+
+At the age of twenty-nine, in 1366, Froissart once more left England.
+This time he repaired first to Brussels, whither were gathered together
+a great concourse of minstrels from all parts, from the courts of the
+kings of Denmark, Navarre and Aragon, from those of the dukes of
+Lancaster, Bavaria and Brunswick. Hither came all who could "rimer et
+dicter." What distinction Froissart gained is not stated; but he
+received a gift of money, as appears from the accounts: "uni Fritsardo,
+dictori, qui est cum regina Angliae, dicto die, VI. mottones."
+
+After this congress of versifiers, he made his way to Brittany, where he
+heard from eye-witnesses and knights who had actually fought there
+details of the battles of Cocherel and Auray, the Great Day of the
+Thirty and the heroism of Jeanne de Montfort. Windsor Herald told him
+something about Auray, and a French knight, one Antoine de Beaujeu, gave
+him the details of Cocherel. From Brittany he went southwards to Nantes,
+La Rochelle and Bordeaux, where he arrived a few days before the visit
+of Richard, afterwards second of that name. He accompanied the Black
+Prince to Dax, and hoped to go on with him into Spain, but was
+despatched to England on a mission. He next formed part of the
+expedition which escorted Lionel duke of Clarence to Milan, to marry the
+daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. Chaucer was also one of the prince's
+suite. At the wedding banquet Petrarch was a guest sitting among the
+princes.
+
+From Milan Froissart, accepting gratefully a _cotte hardie_ with 20
+florins of gold, set out upon his travels in Italy. At Bologna, then in
+decadence, he met Peter king of Cyprus, from whose follower and
+minister, Eustache de Conflans, he learned many interesting particulars
+of the king's exploits. He accompanied Peter as far as Venice, where he
+left him after receiving a gift of 40 ducats. With them and his _cotte
+hardie_, still lined we may hope with the 20 florins, Froissart betook
+himself to Rome. The city was then at its lowest point: the churches
+were roofless; there was no pope; there were no pilgrims; there was no
+splendour; and yet, says Froissart sadly,
+
+      "Ce furent jadis en Rome
+  Li plus preu et li plus sage homme,
+  Car par sens tons les arts passerent."
+
+It was at Rome that he learned of the death of his friend King Peter of
+Cyprus, and, worse still, an irreparable loss to him, that of the good
+Queen Philippa, of whom he writes, in grateful remembrance--
+
+  "Propices li soit Diex a l'ame!
+   J'en suis bien tenus de pryer
+   Et ses larghesces escuyer,
+   Car elle me fist et crea."
+
+Philippa dead, Froissart looked around for a new patron. Then he
+hastened back to his own country and presented himself, with a new book
+in French, to the duchess of Brabant, from whom he received the sum of
+16 francs, given in the accounts as paid _uni Frissardo dictatori_. The
+use of the word _uni_ does not imply any meanness of position, but is
+simply an equivalent to the modern French _sieur_. Froissart may also
+have found a patron in Yolande de Bar, grandmother of King Rene of
+Anjou. In any case he received a substantial gift from some one in the
+shape of the benefice of Lestines, a village some three or four miles
+from the town of Binche. Also, in addition to his cure, he got placed
+upon the duke of Brabant's pension list, and was entitled to a yearly
+grant of grain and wine, with some small sum in money.
+
+It is clear, from Froissart's own account of himself, that he was by no
+means a man who would at the age of four or five and thirty be contented
+to sit down at ease to discharge the duties of parish priest, to say
+mass, to bury the dead, to marry the villagers and to baptize the young.
+In those days, and in that country, it does not seem that other duties
+were expected. Preaching was not required, godliness of life, piety,
+good works, and the graces of a modern ecclesiastic were not looked for.
+Therefore, when Froissart complains to himself that the taverns of
+Lestines got 500 francs of his money, we need not at once set him down
+as either a bad priest or exceptionally given to drink. The people of
+the place were greatly addicted to wine; the _taverniers de Lestines_
+proverbially sold good wine; the Flemings were proverbially of a joyous
+disposition--
+
+  "Ceux de Hainaut chantent a pleines gorges."
+
+Froissart, the parish priest of courtly manners, no doubt drank with
+the rest, and listened if they sang his own, not the coarse country
+songs. Mostly he preferred the society of Gerard d'Obies, provost of
+Binche, and the little circle of knights within that town. Or--for it
+was not incumbent on him to be always in residence--he repaired to the
+court of Coudenberg, and became "moult frere et accointe" with the duke
+of Brabant. And then came Gui de Blois, one of King John's hostages in
+London in the old days. He had been fighting in Prussia with the
+Teutonic knights, and now, a little tired of war, proposed to settle
+down for a time in his castle of Beaumont. This prince was a member of
+the great house of Chatillon. He was count of Blois, of Soissons and of
+Chimay. He had now, about the year 1374, an excellent reputation as a
+good captain. In him Froissart, who hastened to resume acquaintance,
+found a new patron. More than that, it was this sire de Beaumont, in
+emulation of his grandfather, the patron of Jean le Bel, who advised
+Froissart seriously to take in hand the history of his own time.
+Froissart was then in his thirty-sixth year. For twenty years he had
+been rhyming, for eighteen he had been making verses for queens and
+ladies. Yet during all this time he had been accumulating in his
+retentive brain the materials for his future work.
+
+He began by editing, so to speak, that is, by rewriting with additions,
+the work of Jean le Bel; Gui de Blois, among others, supplied him with
+additional information. His own notes, taken from information obtained
+in his travels, gave him more details, and when in 1374 Gui married
+Marie de Namur, Froissart found in the bride's father, Robert de Namur,
+one who had himself largely shared in the events which he had to relate.
+He, for instance, is the authority for the story of the siege of Calais
+and the six burgesses. Provided with these materials, Froissart remained
+at Lestines, or at Beaumont, arranging and writing his chronicles.
+During this period, too, he composed his _Espinette amoureuse_, and the
+_Joli Buisson de jonesce_, and his romance of _Meliador_. He also became
+chaplain to the count of Blois, and obtained a canonry of Chimay. After
+this appointment we hear nothing more of Lestines, which he probably
+resigned.
+
+In these quiet pursuits he passed twelve years, years of which we hear
+nothing, probably because there was nothing to tell. In 1386 his travels
+began again, when he accompanied Gui to his castle at Blois, in order to
+celebrate the marriage of his son Louis de Dunois with Marie de Berry.
+He wrote a _pastourelle_ in honour of the event. Then he attached
+himself for a few days to the duke of Berry, from whom he learned
+certain particulars of current events, and then, becoming aware of what
+promised to be the most mighty feat of arms of his time, he hastened to
+Sluys in order to be on the spot. At this port the French were
+collecting an enormous fleet, and making preparations of the greatest
+magnitude in order to repeat the invasion of William the Conqueror. They
+were tired of being invaded by the English and wished to turn the
+tables. The talk was all of conquering the country and dividing it among
+the knights, as had been done by the Normans. It is not clear whether
+Froissart intended to go over with the invaders; but as his sympathies
+are ever with the side where he happens to be, he exhausts himself in
+admiration of this grand gathering of ships and men. "Any one," he says,
+"who had a fever would have been cured of his malady merely by going to
+look at the fleet." But the delays of the duke of Berry, and the arrival
+of bad weather, spoiled everything. There was no invasion of England. In
+Flanders Froissart met many knights who had fought at Rosebeque, and
+could tell him of the troubles which in a few years desolated that
+country, once so prosperous. He set himself to ascertain the history
+with as much accuracy as the comparison of various accounts by
+eye-witnesses and actors would allow. He stayed at Ghent, among those
+ruined merchants and mechanics, for whom, as one of the same class, he
+felt a sympathy never extended to English or French, perhaps quite as
+unfortunate, and he devotes no fewer than 300 chapters to the Flemish
+troubles, an amount out of all proportion to the comparative importance
+of the events. This portion of the chronicle was written at
+Valenciennes. During this residence in his birthplace his verses were
+crowned at the "puys d'amour" of Valenciennes and Tournay.
+
+This part of his work finished, he considered what to do next. There was
+small chance of anything important happening in Picardy or Hainault, and
+he determined on making a journey to the south of France in order to
+learn something new. He was then fifty-one years of age, and being
+still, as he tells us, in his prime, "of an age, strength, and limbs
+able to bear fatigue," he set out as eager to see new places as when, 33
+years before, he rode through Scotland and marvelled at the bravery of
+the Douglas. What he had, in addition to strength, good memory and good
+spirits, was a manner singularly pleasing and great personal force of
+character. This he does not tell us, but it comes out abundantly in his
+writings; and, which he does tell us, he took a singular delight in his
+book. "The more I work at it," he says, "the better am I pleased with
+it."
+
+On this occasion he rode first to Blois; on the way he fell in with two
+knights who told him of the disasters of the English army in Spain; one
+of them also informed him of the splendid hospitalities and generosity
+of Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix, on hearing of which Froissart resolved
+to seek him out. He avoided the English provinces of Poitou and Guienne,
+and rode southwards through Berry, Auvergne and Languedoc. Arrived at
+Foix he discovered that the count was at Orthez, whither he proceeded in
+company with a knight named Espaing de Lyon, who, Froissart found, had
+not only fought, but could describe.
+
+The account of those few days' ride with Espaing de Lyon is the most
+charming, the most graphic, and the most vivid chapter in the whole of
+Froissart. Every turn of the road brings with it the sight of a ruined
+castle, about which this knight of many memories has a tale or a
+reminiscence. The whole country teems with fighting stories. Froissart
+never tires of listening nor the good knight of telling. "Sainte Marie!"
+cries Froissart in mere rapture. "How pleasant are your tales, and how
+much do they profit me while you relate them! And you shall not lose
+your trouble, for they shall all be set down in memory and remembrance
+in the history which I am writing." Arrived at length at Orthez,
+Froissart lost no time in presenting his credentials to the count of
+Foix. Gaston Phoebus was at this time fifty-nine years of age. His wife,
+from whom he was separated, was that princess, sister of Charles of
+Navarre, with whom Guillaume de Machault carried on his innocent and
+poetical amour. The story of the miserable death of his son is well
+known, and may be read in Froissart. But that was already a tale of the
+past, and the state which the count kept up was that of a monarch. To
+such a prince such a visitor as Froissart would be in every way welcome.
+Mindful no doubt of those paid clerks who were always writing verses,
+Froissart introduced himself as a chronicler. He could, of course,
+rhyme, and in proof he brought with him his romance of _Meliador_; but
+he did not present himself as a wandering poet. The count received him
+graciously, speedily discovered the good qualities of his guest, and
+often invited him to read his _Meliador_ aloud in the evening, during
+which time, says Froissart, "nobody dared to say a word, because he
+wished me to be heard, such great delight did he take in listening."
+Very soon Froissart, from reader of a romance, became raconteur of the
+things he had seen and heard; the next step was that the count himself
+began to talk of affairs, so that the notebook was again in requisition.
+There was a good deal, too, to be learned of people about the court. One
+knight recently returned from the East told about the Genoese occupation
+of Famagosta; two more had been in the fray of Otterbourne; others had
+been in the Spanish wars.
+
+Leaving Gaston at length, Froissart assisted at the wedding of the old
+duke of Berry with the youthful Jeanne de Bourbon, and was present at
+the grand reception given to Isabeau of Bavaria by the Parisians. He
+then returned to Valenciennes, and sat down to write his fourth book. A
+journey undertaken at this time is characteristic of the thorough and
+conscientious spirit in which he composed his work; it illustrates also
+his restless and curious spirit. While engaged in the events of the year
+1385 he became aware that his notes taken at Orthez and elsewhere on the
+affairs of Castile and Portugal were wanting in completeness. He left
+Valenciennes and hastened to Bruges, where, he felt certain, he should
+find some one who would help him. There was, in fact, at this great
+commercial centre, a colony of Portuguese. From them he learned that a
+certain Portuguese knight, Dom Juan Fernand Pacheco, was at the moment
+in Middelburg on the point of starting for Prussia. He instantly
+embarked at Sluys, reached Middelburg in time to catch this knight,
+introduced himself, and conversed with him uninterruptedly for the space
+of six days, getting his information on the promise of due
+acknowledgment. During the next two years we learn little of his
+movements. He seems, however, to have had trouble with his seigneur Gui
+de Blois, and even to have resigned his chaplaincy. Froissart is tender
+with Gui's reputation, mindful of past favours and remembering how great
+a lord he is. Yet the truth is clear that in his declining years the
+once gallant Gui de Blois became a glutton and a drunkard, and allowed
+his affairs to fall into the greatest disorder. So much was he crippled
+with debt that he was obliged to sell his castle and county of Blois to
+the king of France. Froissart lays all the blame on evil counsellors.
+"He was my lord and master," he says simply, "an honourable lord and of
+great reputation; but he trusted too easily in those who looked for
+neither his welfare nor his honour." Although canon of Chimay and
+perhaps cure of Lestines as well, it would seem as if Froissart was not
+able to live without a patron. He next calls Robert de Namur his
+seigneur, and dedicates to him, in a general introduction, the whole of
+his chronicles. We then find him at Abbeville, trying to learn all about
+the negotiations pending between Charles VI. and the English. He was
+unsuccessful, either because he could not get at those who knew what was
+going on, or because the secret was too well kept. He next made his last
+visit to England, where, after forty years' absence, he naturally found
+no one who remembered him. Here he gave King Richard a copy of his
+"traites amoureux," and got favour at court. He stayed in England some
+months, seeking information on all points from his friends Henry
+Chrystead and Richard Stury, from the dukes of York and Gloucester, and
+from Robert the Hermit.
+
+On his return to France, he found preparations going on for that unlucky
+crusade, the end of which he describes in his _Chronicle_. It was headed
+by the count of Nevers. After him floated many a banner of knights,
+descendants of the crusaders, who bore the proud titles of duke of
+Athens, duke of Thebes, sire de Sidon, sire de Jericho. They were going
+to invade the sultan's empire by way of Hungary; they were going to
+march south; they would reconquer the holy places. And presently we read
+how it all came to nothing, and how the slaughtered knights lay dead
+outside the city of Nikopoli. In almost the concluding words of the
+_Chronicle_ the murder of Richard II. of England is described. His death
+ends the long and crowded _Chronicle_, though the pen of the writer
+struggles through a few more unfinished sentences.
+
+The rest is vague tradition. He is said to have died at Chimay; it is
+further said that he died in poverty so great that his relations could
+not even afford to carve his name upon the headstone of his tomb; not
+one of his friends, not even Eustache Deschamps, writes a line of regret
+in remembrance; the greatest historian of his age had a reputation so
+limited that his death was no more regarded than that of any common monk
+or obscure priest. We would willingly place the date of his death, where
+his _Chronicle_ stops, in the year 1400; but tradition assigns the date
+of 1410. What date more fitting than the close of the century for one
+who has made that century illustrious for ever?
+
+Among his friends were Guillaume de Machault, Eustache Deschamps, the
+most vigorous poet of this age of decadence, and Cuvelier, a follower of
+Bertrand du Guesclin. These alliances are certain. It is probable that
+he knew Chaucer, with whom Deschamps maintained a poetical
+correspondence; there is nothing to show that he ever made the
+acquaintance of Christine de Pisan. Froissart was more proud of his
+poetry than his prose. Posterity has reversed this opinion, and though a
+selection of his verse has been published, it would be difficult to find
+an admirer, or even a reader, of his poems. The selection published by
+Buchon in 1829 consists of the _Dit dou florin_, half of which is a
+description of the power of money; the _Debat dou cheval et dou
+levrier_, written during his journey in Scotland; the _Dittie de la
+flour de la Margherite_; a _Dittie d'amour_ called _L'Orlose amoureus_,
+in which he compares himself, the imaginary lover, with a clock; the
+_Espinette amoureuse_, which contains a sketch of his early life, freely
+and pleasantly drawn, accompanied by rondeaux and virelays; the _Buisson
+de jonesce_, in which he returns to the recollections of his own youth;
+and various smaller pieces. The verses are monotonous; the thoughts are
+not without poetical grace, but they are expressed at tedious length. It
+would be, however, absurd to expect in Froissart the vigour and verve
+possessed by none of his predecessors. The time was gone when Marie de
+France, Ruteboeuf and Thibaut de Champagne made the 13th-century
+language a medium for verse of which any literature might be proud.
+Briefly, Froissart's poetry, unless the unpublished portion be better
+than that before us, is monotonous and mechanical. The chief merit it
+possesses is in simplicity of diction. This not infrequently produces a
+pleasing effect.
+
+As for the character of his _Chronicle_, little need be said. There has
+never been any difference of opinion on the distinctive merits of this
+great work. It presents a vivid and faithful drawing of the things done
+in the 14th century. No more graphic account exists of any age. No
+historian has drawn so many and such faithful portraits. They are, it is
+true, portraits of men as they seemed to the writer, not of men as they
+were. Froissart was uncritical; he accepted princes by their appearance.
+Who, for instance, would recognize in his portrait of Gaston Phoebus de
+Foix the cruel voluptuary, stained with the blood of his own son, which
+we know him to have been? Froissart, again, had no sense of historical
+responsibility; he was no judge to inquire into motives and condemn
+actions; he was simply a chronicler. He has been accused by French
+authors of lacking patriotism. Yet it must be remembered that he was
+neither a Frenchman nor an Englishman, but a Fleming. He has been
+accused of insensibility to suffering. Indignation against oppression
+was not, however, common in the 14th century; why demand of Froissart a
+quality which is rare enough even in our own time? Yet there are moments
+when, as in describing the massacre of Limoges, he speaks with tears in
+his voice.
+
+Let him be judged by his own aims. "Before I commence this book," he
+says, "I pray the Saviour of all the world, who created every thing out
+of nothing, that He will also create and put in me sense and
+understanding of so much worth, that this book, which I have begun, I
+may continue and persevere in, so that all those who shall read, see,
+and hear it may find in it delight and pleasance." To give delight and
+pleasure, then, was his sole design.
+
+As regards his personal character, Froissart depicts it himself for us.
+Such as he was in youth, he tells us, so he remained in more advanced
+life; rejoicing mightily in dances and carols, in hearing minstrels and
+poems; inclined to love all those who love dogs and hawks; pricking up
+his ears at the uncorking of bottles,--"Car au voire prens grand
+plaisir"; pleased with good cheer, gorgeous apparel and joyous society,
+but no commonplace reveller or greedy voluptuary,--everything in
+Froissart was ruled by the good manners which he set before all else;
+and always eager to listen to tales of war and battle. As we have said
+above, he shows, not only by his success at courts, but also by the
+whole tone of his writings, that he possessed a singularly winning
+manner and strong personal character. He lived wholly in the present,
+and had no thought of the coming changes. Born when chivalrous ideas
+were most widely spread, but the spirit of chivalry itself, as
+inculcated by the best writers, in its decadence, he is penetrated with
+the sense of knightly honour, and ascribes to all his heroes alike those
+qualities which only the ideal knight possessed.
+
+  The first edition of Froissart's Chronicles was published in Paris. It
+  bears no date; the next editions are those of the years 1505, 1514,
+  1518 and 1520. The edition of Buchon, 1824, was a continuation of one
+  commenced by Dacier. The best modern editions are those of Kervyn de
+  Lettenhove (Brussels, 1863-1877) and Simeon Luce (Paris, 1869-1888);
+  for bibliography see Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. medii aevi_, i.
+  (Berlin, 1896). An abridgment was made in Latin by Belleforest, and
+  published in 1672. An English translation was made by Bouchier, Lord
+  Berners, and published in London, 1525. See the "Tudor Translations"
+  edition of Berners (Nutt, 1901), with introduction by W. P. Ker; and
+  the "Globe" edition, with introduction by G. C. Macaulay. The
+  translation by Thomas Johnes was originally published in 1802-1805.
+  For Froissart's poems see Scheler's text in K. de Lettenhove's
+  complete edition; _Meliador_ has been edited by Longnon for the
+  Societe des Anciens Textes (1895-1899). See also Madame Darmesteter
+  (Duclaux), _Froissart_ (1894).     (W. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+FROME, a market town in the Frome parliamentary division of
+Somersetshire, England, 107 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,057. It is unevenly built on
+high ground above the river Frome, which is here crossed by a stone
+bridge of five arches. It was formerly called Frome or Froome Selwood,
+after the neighbouring forest of Selwood; and the country round is still
+richly wooded and picturesque. The parish church of St John the Baptist,
+with its fine tower and spire, was built about the close of the 14th
+century, and, though largely restored, has a beautiful chancel, Lady
+chapel and baptistery. Fragments of Norman work are left; the interior
+is elaborately adorned with sculptures and stained glass. The
+market-hall, museum, school of art, and a free grammar school, founded
+under Edward VI., may be noted among buildings and institutions. The
+chief industries are brewing and art metal-working, also printing,
+metal-founding, and the manufacture of cloth, silk, tools and cards for
+wool-dressing. Dairy farming is largely practised in the neighbourhood.
+Selwood forest was long a favourite haunt of brigands, and even in the
+18th century gave shelter to a gang of coiners and highwaymen.
+
+The Saxon occupation of Frome (From) is the earliest of which there is
+evidence, the settlement being due to the foundation of a monastery by
+Aldhelm in 705. A witenagemot was held there in 934, so that Frome must
+already have been a place of some size. At the time of the Domesday
+Survey the manor was owned by King William. Local tradition asserts that
+Frome was a medieval borough, and the reeve of Frome is occasionally
+mentioned in documents after the reign of Edward I., but there is no
+direct evidence that Frome was a borough and no trace of any charter
+granted to it. It was not represented in parliament until given one
+member by the Reform Act of 1832. Separate representation ceased in
+1885. Frome was never incorporated. A charter of Henry VII. to Edmund
+Leversedge, then lord of the manor, granted the right to have fairs on
+the 22nd of July and the 21st of September. In the 18th century two
+other fairs on the 24th of February and the 25th of November were held.
+Cattle fairs are now held on the last Wednesday in February and
+November, and a cheese fair on the last Wednesday in September. The
+Wednesday market is held under the charter of Henry VII. There is also a
+Saturday cattle market. The manufacture of woollen cloth has been
+established since the 15th century, Frome being the only Somerset town
+in which this staple industry has flourished continuously.
+
+
+
+
+FROMENTIN, EUGENE (1820-1876), French painter, was born at La Rochelle
+in December 1820. After leaving school he studied for some years under
+Louis Cabat, the landscape painter. Fromentin was one of the earliest
+pictorial interpreters of Algeria, having been able, while quite young,
+to visit the land and people that suggested the subjects of most of his
+works, and to store his memory as well as his portfolio with the
+picturesque and characteristic details of North African life. In 1849 he
+obtained a medal of the second class. In 1852 he paid a second visit to
+Algeria, accompanying an archaeological mission, and then completed that
+minute study of the scenery of the country and of the habits of its
+people which enabled him to give to his after-work the realistic
+accuracy that comes from intimate knowledge. In a certain sense his
+works are not more artistic results than contributions to ethnological
+science. His first great success was produced at the Salon of 1847, by
+the "Gorges de la Chiffa." Among his more important works are--"La Place
+de la breche a Constantine" (1849); "Enterrement Maure" (1853);
+"Bateleurs negres" and "Audience chez un chalife" (1859); "Berger
+kabyle" and "Courriers arabes" (1861); "Bivouac arabe," "Chasse au
+faucon," "Fauconnier arabe" (now at Luxembourg) (1863); "Chasse au
+heron" (1865); "Voleurs de nuit" (1867); "Centaurs et arabes attaques
+par une lionne" (1868); "Halte de muletiers" (1869); "Le Nil" and "Un
+Souvenir d'Esneh" (1875). Fromentin was much influenced in style by
+Eugene Delacroix. His works are distinguished by striking composition,
+great dexterity of handling and brilliancy of colour. In them is given
+with great truth and refinement the unconscious grandeur of barbarian
+and animal attitudes and gestures. His later works, however, show signs
+of an exhausted vein and of an exhausted spirit, accompanied or caused
+by physical enfeeblement. But it must be observed that Fromentin's
+paintings show only one side of a genius that was perhaps even more
+felicitously expressed in literature, though of course with less
+profusion. "Dominique," first published in the _Revue des deux mondes_
+in 1862, and dedicated to George Sand, is remarkable among the fiction
+of the century for delicate and imaginative observation and for
+emotional earnestness. Fromentin's other literary works are--_Visites
+artistiques_ (1852); _Simples Pelerinages_ (1856); _Un Ete dans le
+Sahara_ (1857); _Une Annee dans le Sahel_ (1858); and _Les Maitres
+d'autrefois_ (1876). In 1876 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the
+Academy. He died suddenly at La Rochelle on the 27th of August 1876.
+
+
+
+
+FROMMEL, GASTON (1862-1906), Swiss theologian, professor of theology in
+the university of Geneva from 1894 to 1906. An Alsatian by birth, he
+belonged mainly to French Switzerland, where he spent most of his life.
+He may best be described as continuing the spirit of Vinet (q.v.) amid
+the mental conditions marking the end of the 19th century. Like Vinet,
+he derived his philosophy of religion from a peculiarly deep experience
+of the Gospel of Christ as meeting the demands of the moral
+consciousness; but he developed even further than Vinet the
+psychological analysis of conscience and the method of verifying every
+doctrine by direct reference to spiritual experience. Both made much of
+moral individuality or personality as the crown and criterion of
+reality, believing that its correlation with Christianity, both
+historically and philosophically, was most intimate. But while Vinet
+laid most stress on the liberty from human authority essential to the
+moral consciousness, the changed needs of the age caused Frommel to
+develop rather the aspect of man's dependence as a moral being upon
+God's spiritual initiative, "the conditional nature of his liberty."
+"Liberty is not the primary, but the secondary characteristic" of
+conscience; "before being free, it is the subject of obligation." On
+this depends its objectivity as a real revelation of the Divine Will.
+Thus he claimed that a deeper analysis carried one beyond the human
+subjectivity of even Kant's categorical imperative, since consciousness
+of obligation was "une experience imposee sous le mode de l'absolu." By
+his use of _imposee_ Frommel emphasized the priority of man's sense of
+obligation to his consciousness either of self or of God. Here he
+appealed to the current psychology of the subconscious for confirmation
+of his analysis, by which he claimed to transcend mere intellectualism.
+In his language on this fundamental point he was perhaps too jealous of
+admitting an ideal element as implicit in the feeling of obligation.
+Still he did well in insisting on priority to self-conscious thought as
+a mark of metaphysical objectivity in the case of moral, no less than of
+physical experience. Further, he found in the Christian revelation the
+same characteristics as belonged to the universal revelation involved in
+conscience, viz. God's sovereign initiative and his living action in
+history. From this standpoint he argued against a purely psychological
+type of religion (_agnosticisme religieux_, as he termed it)--a tendency
+to which he saw even in A. Sabatier and the _symbolo-fideisme_ of the
+Paris School--as giving up a real and unifying faith. His influence on
+men, especially the student class, was greatly enhanced by the religious
+force and charm of his personality. Finally, like Vinet, he was a man of
+letters and a penetrating critic of men and systems.
+
+  LITERATURE.--G. Godet, _Gaston Frommel_ (Neuchatel, 1906), a compact
+  sketch, with full citation of sources; cf. H. Bois, in _Sainte-Croix_
+  for 1906, for "L'Etudiant et le professeur." A complete edition of his
+  writings was begun in 1907.     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FRONDE, THE, the name given to a civil war in France which lasted from
+1648 to 1652, and to its sequel, the war with Spain in 1653-59. The word
+means a sling, and was applied to this contest from the circumstance
+that the windows of Cardinal Mazarin's adherents were pelted with stones
+by the Paris mob. Its original object was the redress of grievances, but
+the movement soon degenerated into a factional contest among the nobles,
+who sought to reverse the results of Richelieu's work and to overthrow
+his successor Mazarin. In May 1648 a tax levied on judicial officers of
+the parlement of Paris was met by that body, not merely with a refusal
+to pay, but with a condemnation of earlier financial edicts, and even
+with a demand for the acceptance of a scheme of constitutional reforms
+framed by a committee of the parlement. This charter was somewhat
+influenced by contemporary events in England. But there is no real
+likeness between the two revolutions, the French parlement being no more
+representative of the people than the Inns of Court were in England. The
+political history of the time is dealt with in the article FRANCE:
+_History_, the present article being concerned chiefly with the military
+operations of what was perhaps the most costly and least necessary civil
+war in history.
+
+The military record of the first or "parliamentary" Fronde is almost
+blank. In August 1648, strengthened by the news of Conde's victory at
+Lens, Mazarin suddenly arrested the leaders of the parlement, whereupon
+Paris broke into insurrection and barricaded the streets. The court,
+having no army at its immediate disposal, had to release the prisoners
+and to promise reforms, and fled from Paris on the night of the 22nd of
+October. But the signing of the peace of Westphalia set free Conde's
+army, and by January 1649 it was besieging Paris. The peace of Rueil was
+signed in March, after little blood had been shed. The Parisians, though
+still and always anti-cardinalist, refused to ask for Spanish aid, as
+proposed by their princely and noble adherents, and having no prospect
+of military success without such aid, submitted and received
+concessions. Thenceforward the Fronde becomes a story of sordid
+intrigues and half-hearted warfare, losing all trace of its first
+constitutional phase. The leaders were discontented princes and
+nobles--Monsieur (Gaston of Orleans, the king's uncle), the great Conde
+and his brother Conti, the duc de Bouillon and his brother Turenne. To
+these must be added Gaston's daughter, Mademoiselle de Montpensier (La
+grande Mademoiselle), Conde's sister, Madame de Longueville, Madame de
+Chevreuse, and the astute intriguer Paul de Gondi, later Cardinal de
+Retz. The military operations fell into the hands of war-experienced
+mercenaries, led by two great, and many second-rate, generals, and of
+nobles to whom war was a polite pastime. The feelings of the people at
+large were enlisted on neither side.
+
+This peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649. The princes, received
+at court once more, renewed their intrigues against Mazarin, who, having
+come to an understanding with Monsieur, Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse,
+suddenly arrested Conde, Conti and Longueville (January 14, 1650). The
+war which followed this _coup_ is called the "Princes' Fronde." This
+time it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier of his
+day, who headed the armed rebellion. Listening to the promptings of his
+Egeria, Madame de Longueville, he resolved to rescue her brother, his
+old comrade of Freiburg and Nordlingen. It was with Spanish assistance
+that he hoped to do so; and a powerful army of that nation assembled in
+Artois under the archduke Leopold, governor-general of the Spanish
+Netherlands. But the peasants of the country-side rose against the
+invaders, the royal army in Champagne was in the capable hands of Cesar
+de Choiseul, comte du Plessis-Praslin, who counted fifty-two years of
+age and thirty-six of war experience, and the little fortress of Guise
+successfully resisted the archduke's attack. Thereupon, however, Mazarin
+drew upon Plessis-Praslin's army for reinforcements to be sent to
+subdue the rebellion in the south, and the royal general had to retire.
+Then, happily for France, the archduke decided that he had spent
+sufficient of the king of Spain's money and men in the French quarrel.
+The magnificent regular army withdrew into winter quarters, and left
+Turenne to deliver the princes with a motley host of Frondeurs and
+Lorrainers. Plessis-Praslin by force and bribery secured the surrender
+of Rethel on the 13th of December 1650, and Turenne, who had advanced to
+relieve the place, fell back hurriedly. But he was a terrible opponent,
+and Plessis-Praslin and Mazarin himself, who accompanied the army, had
+many misgivings as to the result of a lost battle. The marshal chose
+nevertheless to force Turenne to a decision, and the battle of
+Blanc-Champ (near Somme-Py) or Rethel was the consequence. Both sides
+were at a standstill in strong positions, Plessis-Praslin doubtful of
+the trustworthiness of his cavalry, Turenne too weak to attack, when a
+dispute for precedence arose between the _Gardes francaises_ and the
+_Picardie_ regiment. The royal infantry had to be rearranged in order of
+regimental seniority, and Turenne, seeing and desiring to profit by the
+attendant disorder, came out of his stronghold and attacked with the
+greatest vigour. The battle (December 15, 1650) was severe and for a
+time doubtful, but Turenne's Frondeurs gave way in the end, and his
+army, as an army, ceased to exist. Turenne himself, undeceived as to the
+part he was playing in the drama, asked and received the young king's
+pardon, and meantime the court, with the _maison du roi_ and other loyal
+troops, had subdued the minor risings without difficulty (March-April
+1651). Conde, Conti and Longueville were released, and by April 1651 the
+rebellion had everywhere collapsed. Then followed a few months of hollow
+peace and the court returned to Paris. Mazarin, an object of hatred to
+all the princes, had already retired into exile. "Le temps est un galant
+homme," he remarked, "laissons le faire!" and so it proved. His absence
+left the field free for mutual jealousies, and for the remainder of the
+year anarchy reigned in France. In December 1651 Mazarin returned with a
+small army. The war began again, and this time Turenne and Conde were
+pitted against one another. After the first campaign, as we shall see,
+the civil war ceased, but for several other campaigns the two great
+soldiers were opposed to one another, Turenne as the defender of France,
+Conde as a Spanish invader. Their personalities alone give threads of
+continuity to these seven years of wearisome manoeuvres, sieges and
+combats, though for a right understanding of the causes which were to
+produce the standing armies of the age of Louis XIV. and Frederick the
+Great the military student should search deeply into the material and
+moral factors that here decided the issue.
+
+The debut of the new Frondeurs took place in Guyenne (February-March
+1652), while their Spanish ally, the archduke Leopold William, captured
+various northern fortresses. On the Loire, whither the centre of gravity
+was soon transferred, the Frondeurs were commanded by intriguers and
+quarrelsome lords, until Conde's arrival from Guyenne. His bold
+trenchant leadership made itself felt in the action of Bleneau (7th
+April 1652), in which a portion of the royal army was destroyed, but
+fresh troops came up to oppose him, and from the skilful dispositions
+made by his opponents Conde felt the presence of Turenne and broke off
+the action. The royal army did likewise. Conde invited the commander of
+Turenne's rearguard to supper, chaffed him unmercifully for allowing the
+prince's men to surprise him in the morning, and by way of farewell
+remarked to his guest, "Quel dommage que des braves gens comme nous se
+coupent la gorge pour un faquin"--an incident and a remark that
+thoroughly justify the iron-handed absolutism of Louis XIV. There was no
+hope for France while tournaments on a large scale and at the public's
+expense were fashionable amongst the _grands seigneurs_. After Bleneau
+both armies marched to Paris to negotiate with the parlement, de Retz
+and Mlle de Montpensier, while the archduke took more fortresses in
+Flanders, and Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, with an army of plundering
+mercenaries, marched through Champagne to join Conde. As to the latter,
+Turenne manoeuvred past Conde and planted himself in front of the
+mercenaries, and their leader, not wishing to expend his men against the
+old French regiments, consented to depart with a money payment and the
+promise of two tiny Lorraine fortresses. A few more manoeuvres, and the
+royal army was able to hem in the Frondeurs in the Faubourg St Antoine
+(2nd July 1652) with their backs to the closed gates of Paris. The
+royalists attacked all along the line and won a signal victory in spite
+of the knightly prowess of the prince and his great lords, but at the
+critical moment Gaston's daughter persuaded the Parisians to open the
+gates and to admit Conde's army. She herself turned the guns of the
+Bastille on the pursuers. An insurrectional government was organized in
+the capital and proclaimed Monsieur lieutenant-general of the realm.
+Mazarin, feeling that public opinion was solidly against him, left
+France again, and the bourgeois of Paris, quarrelling with the princes,
+permitted the king to enter the city on the 21st of October 1652.
+Mazarin returned unopposed in February 1653.
+
+The Fronde as a civil war was now over. The whole country, wearied of
+anarchy and disgusted with the princes, came to look to the king's party
+as the party of order and settled government, and thus the Fronde
+prepared the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV. The general war
+continued in Flanders, Catalonia and Italy wherever a Spanish and a
+French garrison were face to face, and Conde with the wreck of his army
+openly and definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. The
+"Spanish Fronde" was almost purely a military affair and, except for a
+few outstanding incidents, a dull affair to boot. In 1653 France was so
+exhausted that neither invaders nor defenders were able to gather
+supplies to enable them to take the field till July. At one moment, near
+Peronne, Conde had Turenne at a serious disadvantage, but he could not
+galvanize the Spanish general Count Fuensaldana, who was more solicitous
+to preserve his master's soldiers than to establish Conde as mayor of
+the palace to the king of France, and the armies drew apart again
+without fighting. In 1654 the principal incident was the siege and
+relief of Arras. On the night of the 24th-25th August the lines of
+circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were brilliantly
+stormed by Turenne's army, and Conde won equal credit for his safe
+withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover of a series of bold
+cavalry charges led by himself as usual, sword in hand. In 1655 Turenne
+captured the fortresses of Landrecies, Conde and St Ghislain. In 1656
+the prince of Conde revenged himself for the defeat of Arras by storming
+Turenne's circumvallation around Valenciennes (16th July), but Turenne
+drew off his forces in good order. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful,
+and is only to be remembered because a body of 6000 British infantry,
+sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance with Mazarin,
+took part in it. The presence of the English contingent and its very
+definite purpose of making Dunkirk a new Calais, to be held by England
+for ever, gave the next campaign a character of certainty and decision
+which is entirely wanting in the rest of the war. Dunkirk was besieged
+promptly and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Conde
+appeared with the relieving army from Furnes, Turenne advanced boldly to
+meet him. The battle of the Dunes, fought on the 14th of June 1658, was
+the first real trial of strength since the battle of the Faubourg St
+Antoine. Successes on one wing were compromised by failure on the other,
+but in the end Conde drew off with heavy losses, the success of his own
+cavalry charges having entirely failed to make good the defeat of the
+Spanish right wing amongst the Dunes. Here the "red-coats" made their
+first appearance on a continental battlefield, under the leadership of
+Sir W. Lockhart, Cromwell's ambassador at Paris, and astonished both
+armies by the stubborn fierceness of their assaults, for they were the
+products of a war where passions ran higher and the determination to win
+rested on deeper foundations than in the _degringolade_ of the feudal
+spirit in which they now figured. Dunkirk fell, as a result of the
+victory, and flew the St George's cross till Charles II. sold it to the
+king of France. A last desultory campaign followed in 1659--the
+twenty-fifth year of the Franco-Spanish War--and the peace of the
+Pyrenees was signed on the 5th of November. On the 27th of January 1660
+the prince asked and obtained at Aix the forgiveness of Louis XIV. The
+later careers of Turenne and Conde as the great generals--and obedient
+subjects--of their sovereign are described in the article DUTCH WARS.
+
+  For the many memoirs and letters of the time see the list in G.
+  Monod's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1888). The
+  _Lettres du cardinal Mazarin_ have been collected in nine volumes
+  (Paris, 1878-1906). See P. Adolphe Cheruel, _Histoire de France
+  pendant la minorite de Louis XIV_ (4 vols., 1879-1880), and his
+  _Histoire de France sous le ministere de Mazarin_ (3 vols., 1883); L.
+  C. de Beaupoil de Sainte-Aulaire, _Histoire de la Fronde_ (2nd ed., 2
+  vols., 1860); "Arvede Barine" (Mme Charles Vincens), _La Jeunesse de
+  la grande mademoiselle_ (Paris, 1902); Duc d'Aumale, _Histoire des
+  princes de Conde_ (Paris, 1889-1896, 7 vols.). The most interesting
+  account of the military operations is in General Hardy de Perini's
+  _Turenne et Conde_ (_Batailles francaises_, vol. iv.).
+
+
+
+
+FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, LOUIS DE BUADE, COMTE DE (1620-1698),
+French-Canadian statesman, governor and lieutenant-general for the
+French king in _La Nouvelle France_ (Canada), son of Henri de Buade,
+colonel in the regiment of Navarre, was born in the year 1620. The
+details of his early life are meagre, as no trace of the Frontenac
+papers has been discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of
+distinction in the principality of Bearn. Antoine de Buade, seigneur de
+Frontenac, grandfather of the future governor of Canada, attained
+eminence as a councillor of state under Henri IV.; and his children were
+brought up with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. Louis de Buade
+entered the army at an early age. In the year 1635 he served under the
+prince of Orange in Holland, and fought with credit and received many
+wounds during engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was
+promoted to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in 1643, and
+three years later, after distinguishing himself at the siege of
+Orbitello, where he had an arm broken, he was made _marechal de camp_.
+His service seems to have been continuous until the conclusion of the
+peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he returned to his father's house in
+Paris and married, without the consent of her parents, Anne de la
+Grange-Trianon, a girl of great beauty, who later became the friend and
+confidante of Madame de Montpensier. The marriage was not a happy one,
+and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper led to a
+separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indre, where by an
+extravagant course of living he became hopelessly involved in debt.
+Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years beyond the fact
+that he held a high position at court; but in the year 1669, when France
+sent a contingent to assist the Venetians in the defence of Crete
+against the Turks, Frontenac was placed in command of the troops on the
+recommendation of Turenne. In this expedition he won military glory; but
+his fortune was not improved thereby.
+
+At this period the affairs of New France claimed the attention of the
+French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been successfully
+administered by three remarkable men--Daniel de Remy de Courcelle, the
+governor, Jean Talon, the intendant, and the marquis de Tracy, who had
+been appointed lieutenant-general for the French king in America; but a
+difference of opinion had arisen between the governor and the intendant,
+and each had demanded the other's recall in the public interest. At this
+crisis in the administration of New France, Frontenac was appointed to
+succeed de Courcelle. The new governor arrived in Quebec on the 12th of
+September 1672. From the commencement it was evident that he was
+prepared to give effect to a policy of colonial expansion, and to
+exercise an independence of action that did not coincide with the views
+of the monarch or of his minister Colbert. One of the first acts of the
+governor, by which he sought to establish in Canada the three
+estates--nobles, clergy and people--met with the disapproval of the
+French court, and measures were adopted to curb his ambition by
+increasing the power of the sovereign council and by reviving the office
+of intendant. Frontenac, however, was a man of dominant spirit, jealous
+of authority, prepared to exact obedience from all and to yield to none.
+In the course of events he soon became involved in quarrels with the
+intendant touching questions of precedence, and with the ecclesiastics,
+one or two of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in
+Canada had been administered for many years by the religious orders; for
+the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet been erected. But
+three years after the arrival of Frontenac a former vicar apostolic,
+Francois Xavier de Laval de Montmorenci, returned to Quebec as bishop,
+with a jurisdiction over the whole of Canada. In this redoubtable
+churchman the governor found a vigorous opponent who was determined to
+render the state subordinate to the church. Frontenac, following in this
+respect in the footsteps of his predecessors, had issued trading
+licences which permitted the sale of intoxicants. The bishop, supported
+by the intendant, endeavoured to suppress this trade and sent an
+ambassador to France to obtain remedial action. The views of the bishop
+were upheld and henceforth authority was divided. Troubles ensued
+between the governor and the sovereign council, most of the members of
+which sided with the one permanent power in the colony--the bishop;
+while the suspicions and intrigues of the intendant, Duchesneau, were a
+constant source of vexation and strife. As the king and his minister had
+to listen to and adjudicate upon the appeals from the contending parties
+their patience was at last worn out, and both governor and intendant
+were recalled to France in the year 1682. During Frontenac's first
+administration many improvements had been made in the country. The
+defences had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui (now
+Kingston), Ontario, bearing the governor's name, and conditions of peace
+had been fairly maintained between the Iroquois on the one hand and the
+French and their allies, the Ottawas and the Hurons, on the other. The
+progress of events during the next few years proved that the recall of
+the governor had been ill-timed. The Iroquois were assuming a
+threatening attitude towards the inhabitants, and Frontenac's successor,
+La Barre, was quite incapable of leading an army against such cunning
+foes. At the end of a year La Barre was replaced by the marquis de
+Denonville, a man of ability and courage, who, though he showed some
+vigour in marching against the western Iroquois tribes, angered rather
+than intimidated them, and the massacre of Lachine (5th of August 1689)
+must be regarded as one of the unhappy results of his administration.
+
+The affairs of the colony were now in a critical condition; a man of
+experience and decision was needed to cope with the difficulties, and
+Louis XIV., who was not wanting in sagacity, wisely made choice of the
+choleric count to represent and uphold the power of France. When,
+therefore, on the 15th of October 1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as
+governor for the second time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and
+confidence was at once restored in the public mind. Quebec was not long
+to enjoy the blessing of peace. On the 16th of October 1690 several New
+England ships under the command of Sir William Phipps appeared off the
+Island of Orleans, and an officer was sent ashore to demand the
+surrender of the fort. Frontenac, bold and fearless, sent a defiant
+answer to the hostile admiral, and handled so vigorously the forces he
+had collected as completely to repulse the enemy, who in their hasty
+retreat left behind a few pieces of artillery on the Beauport shore. The
+prestige of the governor was greatly increased by this event, and he was
+prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on Boston from the sea,
+but his resources were inadequate for the undertaking. New France now
+rejoiced in a brief respite from her enemies, and during the interval
+Frontenac encouraged the revival of the drama at the Chateau St-Louis
+and paid some attention to the social life of the colony. The Indians,
+however, were not yet subdued, and for two years a petty warfare was
+maintained. In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against the
+Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy-six years of age. On the
+6th of July he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force for the
+village of the Onondagas, where he arrived a month later. In the
+meantime the Iroquois had abandoned their villages, and as pursuit was
+impracticable the army commenced its return march on the 10th of August.
+The old warrior endured the fatigue of the march as well as the youngest
+soldier, and for his courage and prowess he received the cross of St
+Louis. Frontenac died on the 28th of November 1698 at the Chateau
+St-Louis after a brief illness, deeply mourned by the Canadian people.
+The faults of the governor were those of temperament, which had been
+fostered by early environment. His nature was turbulent, and from his
+youth he had been used to command; but underlying a rough exterior there
+was evidence of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and
+decisive, and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties
+and dangers of a most critical position.
+
+  See _Count Frontenac_, by W. D. Le Sueur (Toronto, 1906); _Count
+  Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV_, by Francis Parkman (Boston,
+  1878); _Le Comte de Frontenac_, by Henri Lorin (Paris, 1895);
+  _Frontenac et ses amis_, by Ernest Myrand (Quebec, 1902).
+       (A. G. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS (c. A.D. 40-103), Roman soldier and author. In
+70 he was city praetor, and five years later was sent into Britain to
+succeed Petilius Cerealis as governor of that island. He subdued the
+Silures, and held the other native tribes in check till he was
+superseded by Agricola (78). In 97 he was appointed superintendant of
+the aqueducts (_curator aquarum_) at Rome, an office only conferred upon
+persons of very high standing. He was also a member of the college of
+augurs. His chief work is _De aquis urbis Romae_, in two books,
+containing a history and description of the water-supply of Rome,
+including the laws relating to its use and maintenance, and other
+matters of importance in the history of architecture. Frontinus also
+wrote a theoretical treatise on military science (_De re militari_)
+which is lost. His _Strategematicon libri iii._ is a collection of
+examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the
+use of officers; a fourth book, the plan and style of which is different
+from the rest (more stress is laid on the moral aspects of war, e.g.
+discipline), is the work of another writer (best edition by G.
+Gundermann, 1888). Extracts from a treatise on land-surveying ascribed
+to Frontinus are preserved in Lachmann's _Gromatici veteres_ (1848).
+
+  A valuable edition of the _De aquis_ (text and translation) has been
+  published by C. Herschel (Boston, Mass., 1899). It contains numerous
+  illustrations; maps of the routes of the ancient aqueducts and the
+  city of Rome in the time of Frontinus; a photographic reproduction of
+  the only MS. (the Monte Cassino); several explanatory chapters, and a
+  concise bibliography, in which special reference is made to P. d
+  Tissot, _Etude sur la condition des agrimensores_ (1879). There is a
+  complete edition of the works by A. Dederich (1855), and an English
+  translation of the _Strategematica_ by R. Scott (1816).
+
+
+
+
+FRONTISPIECE (through the French, from Med. Lat. _frontispicium_, a
+front view, _frons_, _frontis_, forehead or front, and _specere_, to
+look at; the English spelling is a mistaken adaptation to "piece"), an
+architectural term for the principal front of a building, but more
+generally applied to a richly decorated entrance doorway, if projecting
+slightly only in front of the main wall, otherwise portal or porch would
+be a more correct term. The word, however, is more used for a decorative
+design or the representation of some subject connected with the
+substance of a book and placed as the first illustrated page. A design
+at the end of the chapter of a book is called a tail-piece.
+
+
+
+
+FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS (c. A.D. 100-170), Roman grammarian,
+rhetorician and advocate, was born of an Italian family at Cirta in
+Numidia. He came to Rome in the reign of Hadrian, and soon gained such
+renown as an advocate and orator as to be reckoned inferior only to
+Cicero. He amassed a large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and
+purchased the famous gardens of Maecenas. Antoninus Pius, hearing of his
+fame, appointed him tutor to his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius
+Verus. In 143 he was consul for two months, but declined the
+proconsulship of Asia on the ground of ill-health. His latter years were
+embittered by the loss of all his children except one daughter. His
+talents as an orator and rhetorician were greatly admired by his
+contemporaries, a number of whom formed themselves into a school called
+after him Frontoniani, whose avowed object it was to restore the ancient
+purity and simplicity of the Latin language in place of the
+exaggerations of the Greek sophistical school. However praiseworthy the
+intention may have been, the list of authors specially recommended does
+not speak well for Fronto's literary taste. The authors of the Augustan
+age are unduly depreciated, while Ennius, Plautus, Laberius, Sallust are
+held up as models of imitation. Till 1815 the only extant works ascribed
+(erroneously) to Fronto were two grammatical treatises, _De nominum
+verborumque differentiis_ and _Exempla elocutionum_ (the last being
+really by Arusianus Messius). In that year, however, Angelo Mai
+discovered in the Ambrosian library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript
+(and, later, some additional sheets of it in the Vatican), on which had
+been originally written some of Fronto's letters to his royal pupils and
+their replies. These palimpsests had originally belonged to the famous
+convent of St Columba at Bobbio, and had been written over by the monks
+with the acts of the first council of Chalcedon. The letters, together
+with the other fragments in the palimpsest, were published at Rome in
+1823. Their contents falls far short of the writer's great reputation.
+The letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius, Marcus
+Aurelius and Lucius Verus, in which the character of Fronto's pupils
+appears in a very favourable light, especially in the affection they
+both seem to have retained for their old master; and letters to friends,
+chiefly letters of recommendation. The collection also contains
+treatises on eloquence, some historical fragments, and literary trifles
+on such subjects as the praise of smoke and dust, of negligence, and a
+dissertation on Arion. "His style is a laborious mixture of archaisms, a
+motley cento, with the aid of which he conceals the poverty of his
+knowledge and ideas." His chief merit consists in having preserved
+extracts from ancient writers which would otherwise have been lost.
+
+  The best edition of his works is by S. A. Naber (1867), with an
+  account of the palimpsest; see also G. Boissier, "Marc-Aurele et les
+  lettres de F.," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (April 1868); R. Ellis, in
+  _Journal of Philology_ (1868) and _Correspondence of Fronto and M.
+  Aurelius_ (1904); and the full bibliography in the article by Brzoska
+  in the new edition of Pauly's _Realencyclopadie der classischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. pt. i. (1900).
+
+
+
+
+FROSINONE (anc. _Frusino_), a town of Italy in the province of Rome,
+from which it is 53 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 9530; commune,
+11,029. The place is picturesquely situated on a hill of 955 ft. above
+sea-level, but contains no buildings of interest. Of the ancient city
+walls a small fragment alone is preserved, and no other traces of
+antiquity are visible, not even of the amphitheatre which it once
+possessed, for which a ticket (_tessera_) has been found (Th. Mommsen in
+_Ber. d. Sachsischen Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften_, 1849, 286). It was
+a Volscian, not a Hernican, town; a part of its territory was taken from
+it about 306-303 B.C. by the Romans and sold. The town then became a
+_praefectura_, probably with the _civitas sine suffragio_, and later a
+colony, but we hear nothing important of it. It was situated just above
+the Via Latina.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTE (1807-1875), French general, was born on the
+26th of April 1807, and entered the army from the Ecole Polytechnique in
+1827, being posted to the engineers. He took part in the siege of Rome
+in 1849 and in that of Sebastopol in 1855, after which he was promoted
+general of brigade. Four years later as general of division, and chief
+of engineers in the Italian campaign, he attracted the particular notice
+of the emperor Napoleon III., who made him in 1867 chief of his military
+household and governor to the prince imperial. He was one of the
+superior military authorities who in this period 1866-1870 foresaw and
+endeavoured to prepare for the inevitable war with Germany, and at the
+outbreak of war he was given by Napoleon the choice between a corps
+command and the post of chief engineer at headquarters. He chose the
+command of the II. corps. On the 6th of August 1870 he held the position
+of Spicheren against the Germans until the arrival of reinforcements for
+the latter, and the non-appearance of the other French corps compelled
+him to retire. After this he took part in the battles around Metz, and
+was involved with his corps in the surrender of Bazaine's army. General
+Frossard published in 1872 a _Rapport sur les operations du 2^e corps_.
+He died at Chateau-Villain (Haute-Marne) on the 25th of August 1875.
+
+
+
+
+FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810-1877), English painter, was born at
+Wandsworth, near London, in September 1810. About 1825, through William
+Etty, R.A., he was sent to a drawing school in Bloomsbury, and after
+several years' study there, and in the sculpture rooms at the British
+Museum, Frost was in 1829 admitted as a student in the schools of the
+Royal Academy. He won medals in all the schools, except the antique, in
+which he was beaten by Maclise. During those years he maintained himself
+by portrait-painting. He is said to have painted about this time over
+300 portraits. In 1839 he obtained the gold medal of the Royal Academy
+for his picture of "Prometheus bound by Force and Strength." At the
+cartoon exhibition at Westminster Hall in 1843 he was awarded a
+third-class prize of L100 for his cartoon of "Una alarmed by Fauns and
+Satyrs." He exhibited at the Academy "Christ crowned with Thorns"
+(1843), "Nymphs dancing" (1844), "Sabrina" (1845), "Diana and Actaeon"
+(1846). In 1846 he was elected Associate of the Royal Academy. His
+"Nymph disarming Cupid" was exhibited in 1847; "Una and the Wood-Nymphs"
+of the same year was bought by the queen. This was the time of Frost's
+highest popularity, which considerably declined after 1850. His later
+pictures are simply repetitions of earlier motives. Among them may be
+named "Euphrosyne" (1848), "Wood-Nymphs" (1851), "Chastity" (1854), "Il
+Penseroso" (1855), "The Graces" (1856), "Narcissus" (1857), "Zephyr with
+Aurora playing" (1858), "The Graces and Loves" (1863), "Hylas and the
+Nymphs" (1867). Frost was elected to full membership of the Royal
+Academy in December 1871. This dignity, however, he soon resigned. Frost
+had no high power of design, though some of his smaller and apparently
+less important works are not without grace and charm. Technically, his
+paintings are, in a sense, very highly finished, but they are entirely
+without mastery. He died on the 4th of June 1877.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
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